DOCSLIB.ORG

Racial Criminalization and the Origins of the Los Angeles Drug Wars

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Racial Criminalization and the Origins of the Los Angeles Drug Wars RACIAL CRIMINALIZATION AND THE ORIGINS OF THE LOS ANGELES DRUG WARS Thesis submitted to the faculty of 45 San Francisco State University 36 In partial fulfillment of ten the requirements for the Degree ,tf66 Master of Arts In Ethnics Studies by Roberto Antonio Monico San Francisco, California May 2018 Copyright by Roberto Antonio Monico 2018 CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL I certify that I have read Racial Criminalization and the Origins of the Los Angeles Drug Wars by Roberto Antonio Monico, and that in my opinion this work meets the criteria for approving a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree (Example) Master of Arts in Ethnic Studies at San Francisco State University. Melissa Guzman-Garcia, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Ethnic Studies Cesar “che” Rockrgue^tjh D. Assistant Professor, Crimmal Justice Studies RACIAL CRIMINALIZATION AND THE ORIGINS OF THE LOS ANGELES DRUG WAR Roberto Antonio Monico San Francisco, California 2018 This thesis examines how the Los Angeles Police Department increased their narcotics drug arrests in neighborhoods of color in 1956-1957. Drawing from historical and social scientific accounts of racialized criminalization and federal drug policies of the 1950s, I examine how LAPD’s narcotics arrests were used as a tool of racial segregation and disproportionately affected African and Mexican American neighborhoods. Specifically, I discuss how Police Chief William H. Parker had a significant impact on the racial and class boundaries that were enforced by the newly restructured LAPD. I argue that the racially neutral process of gathering statistical data of arrests enabled the LAPD to book more people of color for illegal narcotics. Finally, I examine how academic publications further justified racialized constructions of Black and Latino criminality in Los Angeles. I certify that the Abstract is a correct representation of the content of this Choose an item 7 L6 is Committee Date PREFACE AND/OR ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge and express my appreciation to the incoming Ethnic Studies cohort of 2016. Without them I would not have felt motivated to persevere through one of the most difficult periods in my life. It is with the upmost sincerity that I dedicate this thesis to a group of individuals who showed me how remove all obstacles that lay in front of me. For that, I thank you for showing me the true meaning of integrity. Additionally, Professors Melissa Guzman, Cesar “che” Rodriguez, and Tomas Almaguer for their support. Your experiences have set the bar high and that I now understand what it takes to be an astute scholar. I hope to one day follow in your footsteps and become the educators that you all are. Thank you for your unwavering support and always pushing me to challenge myself. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................1 War on Poverty and War on Drugs.........................................................................4 Racialized History of Drug Laws and Maintaining Racial Segregation................. 7 Chapter 2: Literature Review............................................................................................ 14 Racialized Criminalization.................................................................................... 15 Race and Class Boundaries in Los Angeles..........................................................21 Drug Policy and Law Enforcement.......................................................................27 Chapter 3: Methodology.................................................................................................... 34 Reviewing Police Legitimacy throughthe Academy.............................................37 Strengths and Limitations...................................................................................... 39 Chapter 4: Findings........................................................................................................... 42 Crime Data as a Enforcement Tool.......................................................................44 Chief William H. Parker........................................................................................46 Parker: The Cold War Warrior.............................................................................. 52 Drug Policy: The Boggs Act of 1951 & Narcotics Control Act of 1956.............. 54 Racial Enforcement............................................................................................... 56 Data Analysis 1957 ............................................................................................... 57 Media as an Enforcement tool...............................................................................74 Chapter 5: Conclusion....................................................................................................... 78 Suggestions for Future Research........................................................................... 82 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. LAPD Salaries, 1950-59.........................................................................................50 2. Population and Density.......................................................................................... 58 3. Arrests by Descent/Sex 1956.................................................................................. 61 4. Adult Arrests by Division 1957...............................................................................64 5. 1956 Divi si on Arrests............................................................................................64 6. Juvenile Arrests 1956............................................................................................ 68 7. Division Arrests 1956............................................................................................ 73 1 Chapter 1 Introduction: Critical criminologists, legal scholars, and prisoner advocacy organizations have documented that the prison boom’s origins can be found in the 1980s under Ronald Reagan’s War on Drugs (Alexander, 2010, Western, 2006, & The Sentencing Project, 2017). President Reagan employed racialized rhetoric on drug crime to gain political support from working-class whites who felt threatened by the political gains made by people of color during the Civil Rights Movement (Alexander, 2010). Policies such as the federal Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986,1 were created to criminalized individuals who were caught in the participation of illicit drug markets. They would endure increasingly punitive measures through mandatory and lengthy prison sentences. However, some of the first mandatory minimum sentencings policies were first introduced in the 1950s, to construct racial boundaries between with the notion of dangerous people of color and innocent white youth (Lassiter, 2015). In this thesis, I examine drug arrests in Los Angeles in the 1950s and the emerging leadership of William H Parker with the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) who enforced racial segregation in a drug war context. I will try to show the enactment of federal drug laws in the 1950s that the LAPD used to record more narcotics arrests in Black and 1 The Anti-Drug Abuse Act was passed in a bi-partisan effort. Democratic leaders, such as Joe Biden and Charles Rangel were instrumental in enacting the law, which stipulated the inequities of 100-to-l crack to powder cocaine disparity; 500 grams of cocaine to 5 grams of crack. 2 Brown neighborhoods. The LAPD was organized by the conservative leadership of William H. Parker who viewed illicit drugs as perilous condition in Los Angeles. I reviewed demographic data collected by the LAPD, in order to illustrate how these narcotics arrests disproportionately impacted communities of color in L.A. Moreover, the communities that felt the impact of these drug arrests were mostly made up of the poor and working-class communities (Davis, 1990). During and World War II, jobs were made available in the defense industry in cities like Los Angeles for African Americans escaping the Jim Crow South. Los Angeles provided a beacon of hope to breakout of generations of domestic terrorism in the South (Hernandez, 2017). In this context, the LAPD selectively enforced drug laws in the urban regions of Los Angeles were many African Americans and Mexicans resided and where most of these drug arrests were concentrated. At the same time, federal drug policies such as the Boggs Act of 1951 and the Narcotics Control Act of 1956 were utilized by the Los Angeles Police Department as a method to arrest people of color. Historian Matthew Lassiter provides us with the systematic methods that were introduced by the federal government to stop drug addiction and peddling: Congress unanimously doubled the mandatory-minimum sentences for selling heroin and marijuana, providing five to ten years for the first offense and ten to forty years without the opportunity for parole for the second, and a maximum of life in prison or the death penalty for providing narcotics to a minor (Lassiter, 2015; 797). 3 While the criminalization of drugs has been a proxy to apply repressive methods by state and local actors against racialized communities in the mid-nineteenth century, this thesis argues that Parker’s policing on illegal drugs in the 1950s, resulted in higher arrest rates in communities of color. Eventually, the Parker and the LAPD produced the model of policing that expanded across the United States in methods of arresting people of color in relation to
Load more

Recommended publications
  • CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE Police Brutality And
    CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE Police Brutality and Communities of Color A graduate project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Master of Public Administration in Public Sector Management and Leadership By Edith Jacqueline Gonzalez August 2019 i The thesis of Edith Jacqueline Gonzalez is approved: _________________________________________ ______________ Dr. Sarmistha Majumdar Date _________________________________________ ______________ Dr. Boris Ricks Date _________________________________________ ______________ Dr. Henrik Minassians, Chair Date California State University, Northridge ii Dedication Above all I would like to thank God almighty for giving me the strength and determination to complete this Master’s program. I am grateful to everyone who believed in me and encouraged my journey to higher education. I would like to dedicate this research project to my mother, who crossed borders so that that I could be here. Mom, thank you for making the biggest sacrifice—leaving your family, leaving your country, leaving everything you knew to provide me with the opportunities you never had. I am the product of your sacrifices, hard work, and love. Thank you for being the shining example of what I wanted to be, for every hug, every prayer, word of encouragement, and act of love. All that I am or hope to be, I owe to you. To my younger siblings, Stephanie and Genesis, whom without knowing it inspired me to pursue higher education. If I can do it, you can do it too. For every first generation student
    [Show full text]
  • Cultural Resources Assessment for the Lincoln Heights Jail Los Angeles, California
    CULTURAL RESOURCES ASSESSMENT FOR THE LINCOLN HEIGHTS JAIL LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA Prepared for: City of Los Angeles Bureau of Engineering Environmental Management Group 1149 S. Broadway, Suite 600 Los Angeles, California 90015-2213 Prepared by: AECOM 401 West A Street, Suite 1200 San Diego, California 92101 Authors: Jeremy Hollins, M.A. Monica Mello, M.A. Linda Kry, B.A. September 2016 TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1 Report Organization ............................................................................................................ 1 Project Description.............................................................................................................. 1 Project Location .................................................................................................................. 2 Regulatory Setting .............................................................................................................. 2 State Regulations ....................................................................................................... 2 Local Regulations ...................................................................................................... 7 CHAPTER 2 PROJECT SETTING..........................................................................................11
    [Show full text]
  • William H. Parker and the Thin Blue Line: Politics, Public
    WILLIAM H. PARKER AND THE THIN BLUE LINE: POLITICS, PUBLIC RELATIONS AND POLICING IN POSTWAR LOS ANGELES By Alisa Sarah Kramer Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In History Chair: Michael Kazin, Kimberly Sims1 Dean o f the College of Arts and Sciences 3 ^ Date 2007 American University Washington, D.C. 20016 AMERICAN UNIVERSITY UBRARY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3286654 Copyright 2007 by Kramer, Alisa Sarah All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3286654 Copyright 2008 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. © COPYRIGHT by Alisa Sarah Kramer 2007 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I dedicate this dissertation in memory of my sister Debby.
    [Show full text]
  • UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara El Barrio Lindo: Chicana/O
    UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara El Barrio Lindo: Chicana/o and Latinx Social Space in Postindustrial Los Angeles A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology by Jonathan Daniel Gomez Committee in charge: Professor George Lipsitz, Chair Professor Jon Cruz Professor Gaye Theresa Johnson January 2018 ! This dissertation of Jonathan Daniel Gomez is approved. ____________________________________________ Jon Cruz ____________________________________________ Gaye Theresa Johnson ____________________________________________ George Lipsitz, Committee Chair September 2017 El Barrio Lindo: Chicana/o and Latinx Social Space in Postindustrial Los Angeles Copyright © 2018 by Jonathan D. Gomez ! iii! Dedication This project is dedicated to every social justice seeker that has carved out spaces for us to congregate, organize, and mobilize for freedom. This is for my first teachers. For my Big Dad, David R. Carrillo, who began working full days as a farmworker after the third grade, who proudly worked the ten-inch mill at Bethlehem Steel in Los Angeles, California for thirty years, who sat me on his lap to tell me stories about what it was like to be a pachuco in East Los Angeles in the early 1940s, who always did so much to ensure that we never had to miss a meal. For my Big Mom, Lydia Carrillo, who was pushed out of school after the fourth grade because she did not have shoes, who smiled whenever she reminisced about being a pachuca in East Los Angeles, who invited neighbors less fortunate than us into our home to share a meal, who showered me with love, and who made sure that we always stood together.
    [Show full text]
  • "Just the Facts Ma'am: a Case Study of the Reversal of Corruption in the Los Angeles Police Department"
    1 "Just the Facts Ma'am: A Case Study of the Reversal of Corruption in the Los Angeles Police Department" R. Mark Isaac* and Douglas A. Norton** *Isaac (corresponding author) is at Florida State University, [email protected] **Norton is at Florida State University, [email protected] 2 Los Angeles “appears, in the light of recent developments, [to be] one of the most vice infested” cities in the nation ---- Los Angeles civic reformer Clifford Clinton, 1938. * * * * * Philip Marlowe: “They say there’s a gambling house up the line.” [Los Angeles] Policeman: “They say.” Philip Marlowe: “You don’t believe them?” Policeman: “I don’t even try buddy,” he said, and spat past my shoulder.---- Raymond Chandler, The Little Sister, 1949 * * * * * Sgt. Joe Friday, LAPD Badge 714: “I live in this town. I work here, and I like it. There are 4,000 other men in the city who feel the same way…men who are trying to prove that the law is here to protect people, not cut ‘em down.” ---- “Dragnet”, 1954 * * * * * The Los Angeles Police Department “has become a model for police administrators throughout the world….”----O.W. Wilson, Dean of the School of Criminology, University of California Berkeley, 1957. I. Introduction Development economics research on corruption has surged in recent years, in part, because there is a growing consensus that the efficacy of foreign aid hinges on the honest management of funds. 1 The overall theme of the literature is the corrosive effect corruption has on enterprise and the political process. 2 We present here a case study of successful institutional change in the 1950s Los Angeles Police Department in which Police Chief William H.
    [Show full text]
  • Ed 393 622 Author Title Report No Pub Date Note
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 393 622 RC 020 496 AUTHOR Moore, Joan W. TITLE Going Down to the Barrio: Homeboys and Homegirls in Change. REPORT NO ISBN-0-87722-855-8 PUB DATE 91 NOTE 187p. AVAILABLE FROM Temple University Press, Broad & Oxford Streets, Philadelphia, PA 19122 (cloth: ISBN-0-87722-854-X, $39.95; paperback: ISBN-0-87722-855-8, $18.95). PUB TYPE Books (010) Reports Research/Technical (143) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC08 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Adolescent Development; Adolescents; Delinquency; Economic Factors; Family Life; *Juvenile Gangs; Life Style; Mexican Americans; Neighborhoods; Participatory Research; *Social Change; *Socialization; *Subcultures; Substance Abuse; Urban Youth; Violence; Young Adults; *Youth Problems IDENTIFIERS Barrios; *California (East Los Angeles); *Chicanos ABSTRACT This book traces the histories of two Chicano gangs in East Los Angeles since the early 1940s, when common gang stereotypes were created by the media and law enforcement agencies. In an unusual collaborative effort, researchers worked with former gang members to make contact with and interview members of various "cliques" (cohorts) of the White Fence and El Hoyo Maravilla gangs (male gangs), as well as female gangs in the same neighborhoods. Interviews were conducted with 156 adult men and women; about 40 percent had joined the gangs in the 1940s and early 1950s, while the rest had been'active in recent years. Data are set in the context of economic and social chaages in the barrios between the 1950s and the 1970s-80s. Data reveal that in the later era, gangs had become more institutionalized, were more influential in members' lives, and had become more deviant.
    [Show full text]
  • Student Activism and American Democracy in Cold War Los Angeles. Kurt Edward Kemper Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College
    Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 2000 Reformers in the Marketplace of Ideas: Student Activism and American Democracy in Cold War Los Angeles. Kurt Edward Kemper Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses Recommended Citation Kemper, Kurt Edward, "Reformers in the Marketplace of Ideas: Student Activism and American Democracy in Cold War Los Angeles." (2000). LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses. 7273. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_disstheses/7273 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of LSU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy subm itted. Broken or indistinct print colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps.
    [Show full text]
  • Screening the LAPD
    1 Screening the L.A.P.D.: Cinematic Representations of Policing and Discourses of Law Enforcement in Los Angeles, 1948-2003. by Robert Bevan University College London Ph.D. Thesis 2 Declaration I, Robert Bevan, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 3 Thesis Abstract This thesis examines cinematic representations of the L.A.P.D. within the context of discourses of law enforcement in Los Angeles and contends that these feature films constitute a significant strand within such discourse. This contention, which is based upon the various identifiable ways in which the films engage with contemporary issues, acknowledges that the nature of such engagement is constrained by the need to produce a commercially viable fictional entertainment. In four main chronological segments, I argue that it is also influenced by the increasing ethnic and gendered diversity of film-makers, by their growing freedom to screen even the most sensitive issues and by the changing racial and spatial politics of Los Angeles. In the 1940s and 1950s, the major studios were prepared to illustrate some disputed matters, such as wire-tapping, but represented L.A.P.D. officers as white paragons of virtue and ignored their fractious relationships with minority communities. In the aftermath of the Watts riot of 1965, racial tensions were more difficult to ignore and, under a more liberal censorship regime, film-makers―led by two independent African American directors―began to depict instances of police racism and brutality.
    [Show full text]
  • The Portrayal of Anti Mexican-American Sentiment In
    ADLN – PERPUSTAKAAN UNIVERSITAS AIRLANGGA 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background of the Study History is a story that captures the events in the past. Today, people are helped by history books as source to know what happened long-ago, yet history books are usually boring and hard to understand. As an alternative way, many people consume history in interesting ways, such as historical novels, cartoons or movies. History is packed into these entertaining works to wipe off the stereotype that history is boring and useless. However, sometimes novels or movies adapt the historical events in creating a controversy when it changes the characters, the places, the plot and the places from the official history. One example comes from James Ellroy‘s The Black Dahlia, a fiction novel that dramatizes The Black Dahlia murder in late 1940s. Black Dahlia was the popular name of Elizabeth Short, who was an ordinary American woman. She was never famous when she was alive yet her murder could attract attention and curiosity of people until this day. According to FBI record, around 60 years ago, she was found sliced clean in half at the waist by a mother walking her child on January 15, 1947, in Leimert Park, Los Angeles, California. Although there were extensive mutilation and cuts of the body, there was not any drop of blood at SKRIPSI THE PORTRAYAL OF ... DITIA PARAMITA ARISTIYANTI ADLN – PERPUSTAKAAN UNIVERSITAS AIRLANGGA 2 thatplace, indicating that Short had been killed elsewhere (U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation). The novel follows Dwight "Bucky" Bleichert, a LAPD officer who was known more for his prowess in the boxing ring than his ability to uphold the law.
    [Show full text]
  • ¡Murales Rebeldes! L.A
    ¡Murales Rebeldes! L.A. Chicana/o Murals under Siege Selected Exhibition Texts From Catalog Perspectives Erin M. Curtis, Jessica Hough, Guisela Latorre Contested Histories Erin M. Curtis If These Walls Could Talk Jessica Hough Inclusion/Exclusion Guisela Latorre Recapturing the Lost, Reigniting the Present, Remembering the Future Gustavo Arellano La Historia de Adentro/La Historia de Afuera, The History from Within/The History from Without Yreina Cervántez Perspectives Erin M. Curtis, Jessica Hough, Guisela Latorre We began developing ¡Murales Rebeldes! as an exhibition about Chicana/o murals that had been censored, perhaps as a result of their content and/or their reception by the public. We wanted to find out why so many Chicana/o murals had ceased to exist over the past few decades. Given these wall paintings’ inherently contested nature, we assumed that most had been censored and eventually destroyed as a result. What we encountered in the course of our research, however, was far more complex. While many murals had been deliberately destroyed or whitewashed due to their supposedly subversive or threatening content, many had been made to disappear in less conspicuous ways. A narrative of overt censorship did not tell the full story of these murals, nor did it give us full insight into the life and work of muralists who had to contend with the destruction, ill treatment, and rejection of their work. Expanding our thinking about murals involved examining them from multiple viewpoints, including those of the artists who created them, the communities for which they were intended, and the organizations that commissioned, regulated, championed, and/or challenged them.
    [Show full text]
  • Herman Gallegos
    Herman Gallegos TAPE 70, CR 93, SR 45, TC 12:00:00 12:00:09 Herman, we’re going to focus on the period in the late ‘40’ and early ‘50’s, set the scene? 12:00:21 Yes, uh, I’d like to say that I started the movement in 1952 when I became involved in organizing in a community in East San Jose, called Sal Si Puedes, which means “get out if you can.” But I think a lot of us who got involved in the movement, uh, whether in ‘52, or ‘62, or whatever, really have to say that we’ve been part of a continuing struggle. Uh a struggle that was involved, uh, involving our parents, our ancestors, our people in this country, to overcome the devastating impact of economic poverty. Even though we were very rich in culture and values, and family support, nonetheless, discrimination, racism, has taken it’s toll on many generations. So, it wasn’t that we started in any particular period, but it was really a continuation of where our family ended and we picked up... 12:01:13 ...Now, I was working in a gasoline station in East San Jose, and right near, in, Sal Si Puedes, and I was also going to school at San Jose State University, which was previously called San Jose State College. A brilliant young organizer by the name of Fred W. Ross, who had been organizing in East San Jo- East L.A., talked about the Zoot Suit Riots, the Bloody Christmas incidents, how the CSO, the Community Service Organization, was organized to fight racism and discrimination as well as to develop political empowerment.
    [Show full text]
  • NACOLE Case Studies on Civilian Oversight: Office of the Inspector
    NACOLE Case Studies on Civilian Oversight Office of the Inspector General Los Angeles, California Auditor/Monitor-Focused Model by Michael Vitoroulis NACOLE Case Studies on Civilian Oversight | Offce of the Inspector General (Los Angeles, California) 2 This project was supported, in whole or in part, by grant number 2016-CK-WX-K017 awarded to the National Association for Civil- ian Oversight of Law Enforcement (NACOLE) by the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. The opinions contained herein are those of the author(s) or contributor(s) and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. References to specific individuals, agencies, companies, products, or services should not be considered an endorsement by the author(s), the contributor(s), or the U.S. Department of Justice. Rather, the references are illustrations to supplement discussion of the issues. The internet references cited in this publication were valid as of the date of publication. Given that URLs and websites are in constant flux, neither the author(s), the contributor(s), nor the COPS Office can vouch for their current validity. This resource was developed under a federal award and may be subject to copyright. The U.S. Department of Justice reserves a royalty-free, nonexclusive, and irrevocable license to reproduce, publish, or otherwise use and to authorize others to use this resource for Federal Government purposes. This resource may be freely distributed and used for noncommercial and educa- tional purposes only. Recommended citation: NACOLE (National Association for Civilian Oversight of Law Enforcement).
    [Show full text]