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Home , European microstates, Federated state

1 ’s Smallest States and Anomalous Geographical Areas

Introduction and political geography. It is concerned with how the manifests in the ordinary lives of people To state the obvious, the world is comprised of and places, with a particular emphasis on tourism. many places, yet every place is different. The This book is foremost about tourism and term ‘place’ entails everything from large conti- its multidimensional relationships with some nents down to microscale localities of individual aspects of state as manifested on the ground in mini and other anoma- importance and personal spheres of influence lous in Europe. What they all have in (e.g. home, garden, and workspace). Between common is their geographical and geopolitical these two scalar extremes, the land surface of marginality and separateness, their small physi- the earth has evolved through human history cal sizes, and their relatively small populations. into various governed entities, including supra- These characteristics differentiate them from the national , individual sovereign states, normative perspective of sovereign states, which and subnational administrative units such as receive almost all research and policy attention , states, cantons, , , throughout the world. This introductory chap- , parishes, , , and ter provides an initial conceptual grounding for neighborhoods. Each has its own way of studying irregular territories and microstates delegating power and authority to subnational and establishes definitions and terms that will be polities and ascribing certain administrative and used all through the book, including sovereign- service responsibilities to them. The degree to ty, state , state sizes, and the idea that which nations or local political units are empow- many have geographical outliers that ered depends somewhat on whether a country is do not fit the standard definition of state, , a or a federated state, or a democ- or even tourist destination. racy or an absolute . Thus, the nature of the state matters in international affairs and power relations in domestic governance. , the State and Although volumes could be written about International Borders the geopolitics of tourism at any of these levels— supranational, national, or subnational, this book According to international , sovereignty is focuses on the level of governance the absolute right of an acknowledged entity to

© Dallen J. Timothy 2021. Tourism in European Microstates and Dependencies: Geopolitics, Scale and Resource Limitations (D.J. Timothy) 1 2 Chapter 1

govern over itself and its affairs without impedi- of the Kingdom of the . Similarly, ments from outside sources or external bodies. It England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland usually refers to ultimate authority over a physi- are the four ‘countries’ that make up the United cal territory or polity, in most cases a state and Kingdom (UK), which is a sovereign state, but its possessions. A sovereign state possesses the the four constituent parts of the UK are not sov- legal right to legislate and regulate in all areas of ereign states. The same situation is true of the social, political, economic, legal and ecological Kingdom of , which comprises the con- matters within, and extending up to, its national stituent countries of Denmark, Greenland and borders (Dahlman, 2009a; Glassner and Fahrer, the . The eleven countries men- 2004; Timothy, 2001c). tioned here do not possess sovereignty, but they Size has never truly been a criterion for do have a high level of within the statehood, although as shown later, it has been states to which they belong. an impediment. Instead, to be a sovereign state, A nation is not a state or country but a peo- a country must possess four characteristics ple who share a common culture, mutual values, (Connell, 1991; Glassner and Fahrer, 2004). history, and a homeland. For example, Native First, it must have physical territory. To be legal- American tribes are often referred to as na- ly recognized in accordance with Westphalian tions. Albanians, in Albania and Kosovo, are the sovereignty (the basis of current international Albanian nation. Nationalism, or a sense of be- law), a state must be comprised of physical longing to a specific nation, does not always cor- land. There is today only one sovereign entity respond with the present boundaries of a state. (organization) that is not a sovereign state: the The notion of a broader nation beyond state bor- Sovereign Military Order of , which will ders often gives way to the growth of , be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 9. or efforts by State A to incorporate certain areas Historically, in exile, such as those of States B or C that are populated by the same of the Netherlands and during the nations and which might have been part of State Second World War, were considered sovereign A at some point in history (Dahlman, 2009b). entities while their territories were occupied by The idea of a nation without its own state also . Second, a sovereign state must have can result in other situations such as - a permanent population. There is no stipula- ism—the desire of a ‘nation’ to break away from tion about population size requirements for the state where it is currently located in an effort sovereignty. Presently, demographic sizes of sov- to establish its own state or country, or join an- ereign states vary from 1.4 billion to less than other one. Prominent current situations of this 1000. Third, a functioning system in Europe include Catalonia’s fervent efforts to is required. A government, in any form, must secede from and Scotland’s efforts to leave administer over the people and territory of the the UK. Nationalism, irredentism and secession state, providing protection and public services are key concepts in understanding some of the (e.g. postal services, utilities, transportation anomalous territories that will be highlighted networks, water and utilities), and overseeing a later in the book. functioning economy. Finally, a country can be A nation-­state is a state that is also a nation regarded as sovereign only if it has the capacity (Gilmartin, 2009). It is a nation with its own to negotiate directly with other sovereign states. state, where ‘there is not a significant group This typically means the power to enter into that is not part of the nation. This does not treaties with other countries or supranational mean simply a minority ethnic group, but a na- organizations, sign trade agreements, and estab- tionalistic group that either wants its own State lish diplomatic relationships. This also includes or wants to be part of another State’ (Glassner categorical recognition by a significant majority and Fahrer, 2004, p. 34). Examples of nation-­ of existing states (Glassner and Fahrer, 2004). states include Armenia, Mongolia and San All sovereign states are independent coun- Marino, each of which is populated at least 95% tries, but not all countries are sovereign states. by a single nation. The terms ‘sovereign state’, For example, Aruba, Curaçao, Sint Maarten, ‘independent country’ (or state and country), and the Netherlands are the four ‘constituent and ‘nation’ are used throughout this book in countries’ that comprise the sovereign state their appropriate contexts, although state and Europe’s Smallest States and Anomalous Geographical Areas 3

country will be used interchangeably in certain many different contexts (Klemenčić and Gosar, places. 2000; Thao, 2000; Yoon, 2014). According to Borders, or boundaries (also sometimes re- Jones (1945, see also Donaldson and Williams, ferred to as frontiers, although this has a differ- 2008), the ideal process of boundary forma- ent historical connotation), are the physical or tion takes place in four phases. First, borders symbolic membranes that enclose the state and are ‘defined’, meaning that they are described its rights of sovereignty. They have no width or in detail vis-à-vis the geography and topography depth, for they are simply the vertical planes they traverse. This usually entails using natural where sovereign polities meet. Borders are the or cultural features, such as streams, mountain limits up to which a state can exercise control summits, large boulders, or roads and fences, to over its own dealings. Beyond its borders, a state describe the boundary line as precisely as possi- has no authority. ble. Second, borders are ‘delimited’, or plotted on Political scholars have identified several dif- maps, aerial photographs, and satellite images. ferent types of borders, depending on their his- This enables the frontier to be charted precisely. tory and their composition (Hartshorn, 1936; The third step is ‘demarcation’, which involves Jones, 1959). First, are ‘antecedent’ (or pioneer) teams working in the field with survey equip- boundaries, which are formed in areas prior to ment and means or tools for physically marking human settlement and land use. In this case, the . These might include concrete ob- settlement patterns, land tenure, and physi- elisks or pillars, cut stones, metal posts, or fiber- cal development are shaped, constrained, and glass signs. This is the stage in which the precise maneuvered by the international boundary. borderline is physically laid out on the ground, Architectural styles, languages, religions and indicating the exact vertical plane to which each agricultural patterns frequently differ on op- country’s sovereignty extends. Some boundary posite sides of antecedent borders. The second stones have become important historical mark- type is ‘subsequent’, or ‘consequent’, borders, ers and tourist attractions in their own right. which are drawn based upon emerging pat- Finally, in most cases, border demarcation is pe- terns of human settlement, as different groups riodically checked and monitored to ensure that (perhaps nations) become identifiable. In this natural processes or intentional human actions case, clear human boundaries emerge, which have not altered the location of the boundary. then become political boundaries. Many borders Along the French-Spanish­ border in are formulated after a region has already been the Cerdanya Valley, the Spanish Civil Guard settled and developed (Gelbman and Timothy, (Guardia Civil) trek the course of the border each 2019; Newman, 2006). In this case, borders year to check the condition of boundary demar- may be ‘superimposed’ or drawn regardless of cation stones (erected in 1868) and how natural what already exists in their paths. Superimposed processes (i.e. plant growth or erosion) might borders frequently divide ethnic groups and have obstructed the view of the borderline. This nations, as well as , , farm fields, has become somewhat of a leisure pursuit for buildings, and even people’s individual homes. local residents and tourists on the Spanish side Finally, ‘relict’ boundaries have been decom- of the border who sometimes accompany the of- missioned. They no longer function as political ficials on their mountain treks. It is important to borders, but they are still somehow visible in note that this four-­stage process is an ideal and the cultural landscape (Paasi, 2013; Timothy, under ‘normal’ circumstances; not all borders 2001c). A common example of this in the realm were created in such a legal and systematic way. of heritage and tourism is the former Wall Many were formed through acts of aggression or and entire East-­West Germany divide, which as remains of feudal property ownership during are still marked by an embedded trail in Berlin medieval times, and in other ways. along the former course of the wall and along Besides indicating the precise limits of a the former Iron Curtain with several border mu- country’s sovereign rule, borders have other seums, and wall pieces still standing (Gelbman functions as well. In many instances, they serve and Timothy, 2010). as lines of military and security defense. Many The normative process of border creation contemporary borders were the locations of for- has been examined throughout the world in mer battlefronts and ceasefire lines. Some are 4 Chapter 1

still frontlines in active combat zones. Others because services are much cheaper (e.g. medi- are frontlines in ‘wars’ on drugs and terrorism. cal tourism) or because lower taxes render cer- Secondly, boundaries are filters. They prevent tain consumer items much less expensive than the importation of illegal substances, potentially at home (e.g. pharmaceuticals and utilitarian contaminated food items, laundered money, or shopping) (Timothy et al., 2016). endangered species. Relatedly, the third role is The second relationship is borders as bar- a means of protecting domestic industries and riers to tourism (Gelbman, 2010; Timothy, economic development by levying import du- 2001c). As noted previously, state boundaries ties and tariffs, and setting limits on the num- frequently hinder individual travel. Borders may bers of certain items that can be imported by be physical barriers that are meant to prevent individuals or companies. Fourth, they are a tool people from crossing or psychological barriers for monitoring or hindering human mobilities. when people are fearful of crossing because of They are legal impediments for people wishing cultural, political and economic differences on to enter a country illegally. They may manifest as the other side or when currency exchange rates strong physical barriers with fences, walls and are unfavorable (Timothy, 2001c). minefields, or administrative barriers that are Third, tourism landscapes and border- difficult to cross without adequate documenta- scapes work together to create unique border tion. Passports and visas are checked at border tourismscapes that determine urban morphol- crossings for people’s identities and eligibility to ogy in most border communities. Borderland enter. tourism also creates distinct servicescapes (e.g. State boundaries have been recognized for a certain border-related­ business and public ser- long time as important tourism venues. Borders vices) that do not exist in non-frontier­ areas. This function as tourist attractions in several different has important implications for urban planning ways (Timothy, 1995, 2000, 2001c; Timothy and tourism planning in borderlands (Prokkola, et al., 2016; Więckowski, 2010). First, they at- 2008) and often calls for increased transfron- tract curiosity seekers when they manifest in tier cooperation (Jakola and Prokkola, 2018). unique and anomalous ways in the cultural Finally, and perhaps the most routine relation- landscape (e.g. ornate gateways and famous ship of all is borders as transit spaces. Although walls). Second, borderlines often divide ideologi- this relationship has important consequences cal regimes. Opposing political systems meeting for border tourismscapes as certain transit ser- at a specific line have drawn tourists’ attention vices are needed, most of the time, boundaries for decades, and observation platforms are often are crossed as quickly and effortlessly as possi- built so onlookers can see what lies in the ‘for- ble, as travelers hasten to someplace more ap- bidden other’. Third, many national frontiers di- pealing (Timothy, 2001c). vide specific attractions, such as buildings, golf courses, or waterfalls. Fourth, borders routinely divide beaches, mountain peaks, or even ar- chaeological sites, which can add a certain level Sizes of States of fascination to an already interesting place. Fifth, border-themed­ attractions have been built Beginning in earnest in the 1950s and 1960s in many localities to commemorate the border (Robinson, 1960), there is now a protracted heritage of a region. These include border mu- and robust discussion in the fields of geo- seums, peace parks, and camping/picnic areas. and law about the size of states, how Finally, borders and their demarcations are often size is defined, and how it affects governance treated as historic markers that are interpreted (Baldacchino and Wivel, 2020; Dumieński, with signage and linked together as heritage 2014). Early perspectives on size referred pri- trails for hikers, cyclists or car-­based travelers. marily to a country’s physical dimensions. Beyond the line itself, frontier areas in some Later discussions introduced other variables countries are popular destinations because their that also contribute to understanding a state’s border locations enable them to establish certain absolute and relative size. Geographical area, activities that might not be permitted on the population, level of development and GNP, opposite side (e.g. gambling and prostitution), degree of autonomy, power relations vis-à-vis Europe’s Smallest States and Anomalous Geographical Areas 5

larger states and supranational alliances, Table 1.1. The world’s smallest states by physical small military capacities, the number of dip- size lomatic missions, and how a state perceives Total size in itself and how other states perceive it have Position Sovereign state area (km²) all been used as proxy measures for state size 1 Vatican 0.44 (Baldacchino, 2018; Baldacchino and Wivel, 2 2 2020; Dommen and Hein, 1987; Dumieński, 2014; Goetschel, 1998; Hoffmann, 2016; Liu 3 Nauru 21 and Jenkins, 1996; Steinmetz and Wivel, 2010; 4 Tuvalu 26 Thorhallsson, 2018, 2019; Vital, 2006). 5 61 The physical size of a country has long been 6 160 seen as either an advantage or a disadvantage to socio-­economic development and good govern- 7 Marshall Islands 181 ance. The idea that small states are at a develop- 8 St Kitts and 261 ment disadvantage compared to physically larger 9 Maldives 298 states has been forwarded since the mid-1900s­ 10 Malta 316 (Robinson, 1960), but there is no universally accepted definition of what constitutes a small 11 Grenada 344 state or a , despite many efforts to de- 12 St Vincent & the 389 termine this. Glassner and Fahrer (2004, p. 64) Grenadines suggest that very large states exceed 2.5 million 13 Barbados 430 km², whereas those under 25,000 km² are very 14 Antigua and Barbuda 443 small states, with a range of medium-large­ and medium-­small countries in between. Glassner 15 Seychelles 455 and Fahrer (2004) propose that countries with 16 Palau 459 areas of 5000 km² to 10,000 km² (e.g. , 17 468 The Gambia, Brunei) are mini states (Table 1.1), 18 St Lucia 616 while the very smallest countries (e.g. Monaco, Liechtenstein, San Marino) are microstates. In 19 Federated States of 702 the past, terms such as ‘ministates’, ‘Lilliputian Micronesia states’ and ‘very small states’ have been used 20 Singapore 719 in official descriptions of the smallest micro- 21 Tonga 747 states (Dumieński, 2014; Stringer, 2013). 22 Dominica 751 Researchers have at times even defined , 23 Bahrain 760 Singapore, , and as small states or microstates (Dumieński, 2014; Guo 24 Kiribati 811 and Wu, 2016; Ingebritsen et al., 2006; Kelman 25 São Tomé and Príncipe 964 and Shreve, 2015) based on economic growth, 26 Mauritius 2040 international relationships and population or 27 2235 a mix of variables, yet they are physically and demographically much larger than the smallest 28 Luxembourg 2586 microstates of Europe. 29 Samoa 2831 From a demographic viewpoint, smallness 30 Cape Verde 4033 is also relative, although most scholars con- cede that a standard demographic measure of Source: Central Intelligence Agency (2020) microstatehood should be a population of less than a million (Baldacchino, 1993; Connell, by de Albuquerque and McElroy (1992) as those 1991; Harrison, 2001; Rich, 2014). By this having populations of fewer than 500,000. standard, there are 38 member Thus, demographic size might be geographically states with populations of less than a million relative. (Wettenhall, 2018) (Table 1.2). In the context of Despite the lack of consensus on how small Caribbean islands, microstates are defined microstates should be defined, Baldacchino 6 Chapter 1

Table 1.2. The world’s smallest sovereign states by population, 2020 Estimated Country Capital population Location

Vatican City n/a 800 Enclaved within , Nauru Yaren 10,800 South Pacific Ocean Tuvalu Funafuti 11,342 South Pacific Ocean Palau Ngerulmud 21,685 North Pacific Ocean San Marino San Marino City 34,232 Enclaved within northern Italy Monaco Monaco-­Ville 39,000 Mediterranean coast Liechtenstein 39,137 Alps, between and Switzerland St Kitts and Nevis Basseterre 53,821 Caribbean Sea Dominica Roseau 74,243 Caribbean Sea Andorra 77,000 , between and Spain Marshall Islands Majuro 77,917 North Pacific Ocean Seychelles 95,981 Indian Ocean Antigua and Barbuda Saint John’s 98,179 Caribbean Sea St Vincent & the Grenadines Kingstown 101,390 Caribbean Sea Federated States of Micronesia Palikir 102,436 North Pacific Ocean Tonga Nuku’alofa 106,095 South Pacific Ocean Kiribati Tarawa 111,796 North & South Pacific Ocean Grenada Saint George’s 113,094 Caribbean Sea St Lucia Castries 166,487 Caribbean Sea Samoa Apia 203,774 South Pacific Ocean São Tomé and Príncipe São Tomé 211,122 Gulf of Guinea, off the west coast of Africa Barbados Bridgetown 294,560 Caribbean Sea Vanuatu Port-­Vila 298,333 South Pacific Ocean Bahamas Nassau 337,721 North Atlantic Ocean & Caribbean Sea Iceland Reykjavik 350,734 North Atlantic Ocean Maldives Malé 391,904 Indian Ocean Belize Belmopan 399,598 Central America Malta 457,267 Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan 464,478 Southeast Asia Cape Verde Praia 583,255 Atlantic Ocean, off the west coast of Africa

Source: Central Intelligence Agency (2020); Stato della Città del Vaticano (2020) and Wivel (2020) emphasize the importance territories and microstates has been done in of these miniature countries in the geopo- the context of small islands (Connell, 1988), litical landscape of the world. Veenendaal there are many other non-­island contexts that (2013a, p. 440), argues that ‘When it comes are worthy of investigation. to…comparative political analysis…the group Dumieński (2014, p. 22) defines micro- of microstates is too numerous to be neglect- states as small ‘sovereign states that have been ed’. Although most published work on small able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of Europe’s Smallest States and Anomalous Geographical Areas 7

sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for Non-State Polities benign protection of their political and eco- nomic viability against their geographic or de- Although the discussion so far in this intro- mographic constraints’. Likewise, Thorhallsson duction has focused on sovereign states, there (2019) suggests that they are small in area and are types of territories beyond the normative population, have a small administrative capac- structure of the state but which are important ity, and need some level of external protection. to understand in political geography and over This is the general view of microstates adopted which certain states exercise sovereign author- in this book, but as Rich (2014) suggested, ity. For the purpose of this book, these include physical size arguably plays a more salient role autonomous regions, dependencies, overseas in microstate behavior. This, together with territories, exclaves, extraterritorial areas, de population size are the main criteria used here facto states, and micronations (Fig. 1.1). Not to define microstates; for the purposes of this only is each of these categories legally and po- analysis, Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San litically remarkable, tourism has a significant Marino and are included. Three role to play in how they are ruled and how their of these are , which has implica- smallness or unique geopolitical status is framed tions for governance and stability (Veenendaal, and maintained. 2016b), and Europe’s smallest states are rela- Autonomous regions are integral parts of tively affluent compared to small countries in sovereign states that have been granted a high other parts of the world (Wivel, 2020). In all of degree of self-­rule or self-­determination (e.g. them, tourism is a major industry and a critical Åland and Mount Athos). Certain rules and player in their rapid socio-­economic develop- that apply within other parts of the state ment since the Second World War (Bartmann, do not apply in autonomous areas, and the au- 2012; Eccardt, 2005; Gelbman and Timothy, 2010). In all of these cases, their status as tonomy they possess allows them to legislate small, sovereign microstates and the broader many of their own laws and socio-­political and implications of their international borders economic policies and practices. Dependencies enables them to thrive as tourist destinations are also autonomous areas, but in the three (Timothy, 2001c). cases in Europe (, , and While knowingly oversimplifying the no- ), they have an even higher level of tion of state size, this book is concerned with independence and are not an integral part of the smallest sovereign states and territories in the state, even though they belong to the crown Europe as defined both by geographical area and fall within its general domain. The two and population. The discussion on microstates overseas territories in Europe— and is limited to the five smallest sovereign states— the British Sovereign Bases in Cyprus—are not Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, an integral part of the UK, but they are its legal and Vatican City. They all have populations of sovereign possessions, and the UK legislates on less than 100,000 and physical dimensions of their behalf. Some of Europe’s overseas terri- less than 500 km². As well, they are not mem- tories and dependences have had opportunities bers of the . Although Malta to choose independence and self-sovereignty,­ and Luxembourg fit some definitions of micro- but many of them have elected not to do so, states, they are not qualified for this book be- largely because the financial incentives for cause they have larger populations or physical staying outweigh the benefits of national iden- sizes than the parameters set here, they are full tity. A successful declaration of independence EU members, and they are not dependent upon would mean losing aid and subsidies from the a patron or caretaker state to the extent the metropolitan motherland (Grydehøj, 2018). other five countries are. This book is concerned Exclaves are small parts of one country with the most atypical sovereign states and that are surrounded by the territory of another other territories (which also incidentally tend country, or are physically connected but can to be comparatively small) in Europe, which only be accessed by traversing foreign soil. There have received only scant attention in the tour- are a few dozen of these in Eastern and Western ism literature. Europe, but this book focuses on those that are 8 Chapter 1

Fig. 1.1. Microstates and Anomalous Political Geographical Polities in Europe the most tourism-oriented­ in . In addition to the current 27 EU member Extraterritorial zones are fully a part of a state states, there are 22 territories belonging to mem- but that state’s laws do not pertain to the area ber states that have special statuses or provisions in question. This enables foreign entities to oper- in their relationships to their European metro- ate freely without interference by the host state. poles and to the EU as a whole (Table 1.3). There Embassies are the best example of this phenome- are three primary categories: Outermost Regions non but there are others. De facto states, or unrec- (OMRs), Overseas Countries and Territories ognized states, are ‘countries’ that have declared (OCTs), and special cases (Kochenov, 2011). independence from the state to which they legally OMRs (nine at present) are part of the European belong and function as though they were sepa- Union by virtue of being part of an EU state and rate countries entirely in most matters of daily through mutual decisions made by the state and life and government administration. The Turkish the EU. Although part of the Union, they have of Northern Cyprus and Abkhazia are been granted certain exemptions given their two prominent examples in Europe. Finally, mi- extreme distance from Europe. The six French cronations—not microstates—are unofficial and OMRs (see Table 1.3) are part of the EU, as illegal areas that claim to be sovereign entities but noted above, but they are outside the Schengen have no legal basis for such a claim. European ex- Area and the VAT area. Spain’s Canary Islands amples include Sealand and Seborga. In most cas- are party to Schengen, but they are outside the es, these originate as tongue-­in-cheek­ endeavors, EU’s VAT area. ’s OMRs, the Azores and enterprises that aim to satisfy a hobby interest or Madeira, are part of the VAT area, but they have political maneuver to draw attention to a personal a lower VAT than mainland Portugal (European or group cause. They have no legal recognition Parliament, 2020). whatsoever but are a geographical curiosity with The 13 OCTs are not themselves part of the tourism interests. European Union even though their metropolitan Europe’s Smallest States and Anomalous Geographical Areas 9

Table 1.3. European overseas territories/regions Sovereign state Region/Territory National classification EU classification France French Guiana Overseas Department & Outermost Region Region French Polynesia Overseas Collectivity Overseas Country/Territory French Southern & Overseas Territory Overseas Country/Territory Antarctic Lands Guadeloupe Overseas Department & Outermost Region Region Martinique Overseas Department & Outermost Region Region Mayotte Overseas Department & Outermost Region Region New Caledonia Special Collectivity Overseas Country/Territory Réunion Overseas Department & Outermost Region Region Saint Barthélemy Overseas Collectivity Overseas Country/Territory Saint-­Pierre et Miquelon Overseas Collectivity Overseas Country/Territory Saint Martin Overseas Collectivity Outermost Region Wallis et Futuna Overseas Collectivity Overseas Country/Territory Kingdom of Faroe Islands Autonomous Country Other/special category Denmark Greenland Autonomous Country Overseas Country/Territory Kingdom of the Aruba Constituent Country Overseas Country/Territory Netherlands Bonaire Integral part of European Overseas Country/Territory Netherlands Curaçao Constituent Country Overseas Country/Territory Saba Integral part of European Overseas Country/Territory Netherlands Sint Eustatius Integral part of European Overseas Country/Territory Netherlands Sint Maarten Constituent Country Overseas Country/Territory Portugal Azores Autonomous Region Outermost Region Madeira Autonomous Region Outermost Region Spain Canary Islands Autonomous Community Outermost Region Plazas de Soberanía Autonomous /other Other/special category UK Akotiri & Dhekelia British Overseas Territory n/a Anguilla British Overseas Territory n/a Bermuda British Overseas Territory n/a British Indian Ocean British Overseas Territory Territory British Virgin Islands British Overseas Territory n/a Cayman Islands British Overseas Territory n/a Continued 10 Chapter 1

Table 1.3. Continued Sovereign state Region/Territory National classification EU classification Falkland Islands British Overseas Territory n/a Gibraltar British Overseas Territory n/a Guernsey Crown Dependency n/a Isle of Man Crown Dependency n/a Jersey Crown Dependency n/a Montserrat British Overseas Territory n/a Pitcairn British Overseas Territory n/a South & South British Overseas Territory n/a Sandwich Islands St Helena, Ascension & British Overseas Territory n/a Tristan de Cunha Turks & Caicos British Overseas Territory n/a states are. They are not directly subject to EU include the substantial cities of Ceuta and law, but they benefit from their ‘associate’ status Melilla, as well as several small coastal islands as directed in the 2007 Lisbon Treaty (Murray, and a tiny peninsula (Gold, 2000). 2012). Benefits include the following: their na- tionals are EU citizens, they are eligible to receive EU development funding, and they cooperate with the EU in many areas of concern, such Supranationalism as climate change, sustainable energy, science and education, and disaster recovery (European When sovereign states unify for a common eco- Commission, 2020a). nomic and/or political cause, in the process giv- Prior to the UK’s January 2020 Brexit, its ing up some of their sovereignty or autonomy to overseas territories were also eligible for these a central governing body, this is known as supra- benefits. There is a great deal of concern in nationalism. There are dozens of supranational the British overseas territories over their lack alliances around the world, but of most concern of a voice in the 2016 Brexit vote and that the in this book are the alliances in Europe, primar- 2020 departure means they will lose funding ily the European Union. This will be addressed in and support from the EU, as well as EU citizen- greater depth in the next chapter, but it merits ship. Few have confidence that the UK will take mentioning here in the context of the state, bor- action to support its territories at the same ders, special territories and tourism. level the EU did. Brexit and the unknowns it The original premise behind supranational- inspires have even spurred some independ- ism is to grow member countries’ economies by ence movements inside the British Caribbean establishing a single market with a common ex- (Staudenmaier, 2018). ternal trade boundary and to facilitate free trade There are other special cases that are not within the alliance. This would entail the free OMRs or OCTs but are /territories or flow of goods, services, money and people in a exclaves of EU states, and EU laws and poli- way that no longer has to deal with tariffs and cies are applied on an ad hoc basis (Murray, duties, quotas, other import regulations, or pass- 2012). These include the Faroe Islands, which ports and visas between member states. belong to the Kingdom of Denmark and will be In addition to economic growth and fis- discussed in a later chapter, and the Spanish cal standardization, many supranational alli- exclaves along the northern coast of Morocco ances today also deal with freedom of human (Robinson, 1958). These areas, known in mobility for travel, work and residence, as well Spanish judicial speak as Plazas de Soberanía, as defense and security. In addition to trade in Europe’s Smallest States and Anomalous Geographical Areas 11

goods and services, the and other non-traditional­ tourisms. People travel the European Union are concerned with pro- for a wide range of motivations and purposes, tecting human rights, democracy, environmen- not just relaxation and amusement. Thus, types tal sustainability, education and health care. of tourism, or niche tourisms, have developed Supranationalism will be covered in greater through time and are identified from demand depth in the next chapter, but in relation to bor- and supply perspectives based upon travelers’ ders and the anomalous territories that lie at the motives, expectations and desires, as well as the center of this work, it should be noted here that places they visit and the activities they under- such alliances and transfer of some elements of take. Prominent contemporary types include, state autonomy have significant implications among others, heritage tourism, sport tourism, for the growth and development of tourism coastal and beach tourism, agritourism, eco- (Timothy, 2018b, 2019). tourism and adventure tourism. Europe’s supranationalist goals are ulti- Since the mid-­1900s, international and mately to eliminate the majority of state border domestic travel has grown quickly and relatively functions as described above. The goals also in- consistently, with the effects of most political cri- clude growing a collective ‘super-­state’ that can ses, economic downturns, natural disasters, and more effectively address economic, social, politi- setbacks not having long-term­ and permanent cal, and environmental issues at a much larger impacts on the growth of tourism. However, scale than each country acting on its own, and it remains to be seen how the current (2020) create a pan-European­ identity that extends far COVID-19 pandemic will continue to affect in- beyond individual national loyalty and cultural ternational travel after it subsides. Travel has affiliation (Muñoz, 2017; Troitiño et al., 2018). become a status symbol and desirable pastime The European Union utilizes tourism as a tool for millions of people throughout the world. to achieve many of its economic, social and cul- Increased affluence and mobility freedom, espe- tural goals. cially in large markets such as China and , better transportation networks, and increased information and communications technology have brought the world much closer to the trave- Tourism ling public than ever before. The World Tourism Organization (2020c) estimates that 1.5 billion Tourism is a worldwide phenomenon and per- international trips were taken in 2019, the high- haps the most globalized economic sector of all. est number ever recorded. It involves people traveling away from home and Although unmitigated mass tourism, includes the attractions, activities and services which tends to epitomize customary leisure- and (e.g. transportation, lodging, culinary establish- pleasure-­oriented journeying, has been named ments) that meet the needs of travelers in their the main perpetrator of tourism’s negative social, home areas before and after the journey, in tran- cultural, environmental and economic impacts, sit to and from the destination, and while at the tourism of every sort usually results in both destination. Traditional views of tourism tended positive and negative consequences. Regardless to lean towards holiday-making­ or pleasure and of type and impact, places throughout the world leisure, but as a maturing field of study and an see tourism in all its forms as a significant tool evolving system of services, tourism is rightfully for economic and social development. As such, being re-­conceptualized to be more inclusive of almost every country, , , city, vil- other human mobilities (Hall, 2015; Lew et al., lage and wants to cultivate tourism 2015; Timothy and Michalkó, 2016). Scholars for its economic and social potential. now realize that not all tourism is founded upon The small and anomalous entities described pleasure-­seeking behaviors and leisure-­oriented earlier are no exception. In fact, in most cases, it goals. For instance, now accepted into the fold of is their smallness, quaint character, special sta- tourism are pilgrimage, international medical tus, or geopolitically charged environment that mobility, solidarity visits and volunteering, busi- underlies much of their tourism appeal. Most ness and educational travel, shopping and com- of them gladly capitalize on these distinctions merce, and dark heritage experiences, among and their inherent competitive advantages for 12 Chapter 1

tourism purposes. Even the most contested de is the character of place that entices people to facto states and divided territories have an inter- visit, and it is the fiber of place that is so often est in tourism as an avenue for employment and altered through tourism. Geography is the study economic growth (Butler and Mao, 1996; Sideri, of place and the fundamental essence of tourism 2012; Toal and O'Loughlin, 2013). Tourism (Timothy, 2018a). This book focuses on political is either the most important industrial sector geographical perspectives on place: perspectives in Europe’s smallest microstates or among the that make certain European localities unique top few. As well, tourism provides the primary and worthy of additional analysis. or secondary economic mainstay of most of the continent’s exclaves, autonomous regions, overseas territories, and even in several de facto states and extraterritorial zones. Research Challenges A great deal of tourism research has been undertaken in Europe over the past five dec- Several theoretical and practical challenges ex- ades. However, this work has focused on tourism ist in researching microstates, small polities, and hospitality issues and implications almost and anomalous territories. First among these is exclusively in the context of the larger and a general lack of consensus about what consti- better-­known European countries. This is un- tutes a microstate, an enclave, a de facto state, derstandable given that there is more data avail- an overseas territory, an autonomous region able, a richer academic literature to draw from, and an extraterritorial possession (Caspersen, more funding sources, more political latitude 2012; Dumieński, 2014; Souleimanov, 2020; for carrying out empirical studies, and gener- Vinokurov, 2007). The multitudes of territo- ally a wider audience to consume the research. rial types, histories, geopolitical relationships, Whereas the larger and more popular countries recognition or lack thereof by the community have received most attention, it is the smallest of states, and exceptions to every standard, microstates and other small or unusual polities raise conceptual barriers to understanding that rely on tourism the most and present the sovereignty, autonomy, and power relations most unique case studies of political geography, more holistically and uniformly. In the words of particularly as it manifests in tourism. Dumieński (2014, p. 4), ‘the current definitions Although historically largely overlooked in of microstates are hampered by serious prob- tourism studies, the crossover between tourism lems of inconsistency, arbitrariness, vagueness and geopolitics has started to receive increased and inability to meaningfully isolate qualitatively attention in the literature (e.g. Hall, 2017; Hall, distinct political units’. Thus, each type of polity 2017a; Hannam, 2013; Mostafanezhad and and territory must be studied individually to un- Norum, 2016; Timothy, 2001c, 2017f, 2018a, derstand the power of the state or the powerless- 2020; Timothy et al., 2014). Such a focus is ness of the non-­state. particularly relevant and timely, owing to the Secondly, there is a major data shortage extremely contested and dissonant nature of for studying tourism and other social and eco- tourism, the ability of tourism to empower or nomic indices in small and irregular territo- disempower certain populations, the salient ries. This challenge is typically place specific, as power relations involved in tourism development some microstates, for instance, collect copious and decision making, and the fact that space and amounts of tourism and economic data, whereas place are highly contested concepts in Europe others have almost nothing. Even the available and elsewhere. data is sometimes of questionable utility. Where Geopolitics is the study of how geography open borders dominate, as in the case of Europe’s influences international affairs and power rela- microstates and exclaves (and among Schengen tions between polities, places and peoples. This states), tourist numbers are usually enumerated book is concerned with certain elements of po- based on hotel stays. Yet, many entities do not litical geography—the area of geopolitics that even keep track of these numbers. Thus, hotel deals with the state, territory, borders, sover- data precludes many market segments, includ- eignty, conflict, and peace. As noted at the out- ing those who stay with friends and relatives, set of this chapter, tourism is all about place. It overnight in Airbnb or utilize CouchSurfing Europe’s Smallest States and Anomalous Geographical Areas 13

services, as well as day visitors. Although the which means that domestic tourism, if consid- World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) only ered at all, must be conceptualized differently counts overnight stays as ‘tourists’ in the strict- in small states and territories (Canavan, 2012; est sense, tourism in most microstates, exclaves Timothy, 2020). and other unusual polities is defined over- whelmingly by same-­day visits. Although large countries have similar data deficits, this situa- tion is especially impactful in small territories Concluding Comments where day-trips­ and transit stopovers comprise the largest components of tourism. Some mini Many of the geographical phenomena under- states do their best to estimate day-trippers.­ scored in this book can also be found in parts Others count only cruise passengers (Monaco), of Asia, Africa, and the Americas. This book, while some (e.g. Liechtenstein) do not even at- however, focuses on European cases for several tempt to enumerate day visitors, even though it reasons. First, the information about Europe’s is their largest tourism market. Thus, the incon- microstates, exclaves, de facto states, autono- sistencies between data collection methods and mous regions, extraterritorial areas, and ter- the data itself create barriers to understanding ritories is plentiful. Second, nearly all of these tourism’s impact and growth or decline, or un- special places are either dependent on tour- dertaking meaningful comparisons. ism for their fiscal fitness, or tourism is one of The UNWTO counts outbound tourism the most salient parts of the local economy. (people leaving their own country to travel Although the focus here is Europe, anomalous abroad) by arrivals in other countries. These territories everywhere can learn from the expe- figures are collected by individual countries, riences highlighted in this volume. The island then reported to the UNWTO, which enumer- microstates and small territories of the Pacific ates them as outbound travel. As inconsistent as and Caribbean are particularly drawn to tourism that system is, it is even more problematic from as an economic redeemer, yet they are prone to the perspective of microstates. Often, microstate some of the same vagaries of external forces and citizens are incorrectly logged as citizens of their geopolitics that occur in Europe. Nevertheless, larger neighbors. For instance, counts they also have many concerns and obstacles to Sammarinese and Vatican citizens as Italians. development that the European microstates and Other countries fail to distinguish between territories do not have. Monégasque and French citizens or between The smallest microstates of Europe all de- Liechtensteiners and Swiss. pend a great deal on tourism, and so do most of Data from exclaves is nearly impossible to the other anomalous territories described here. acquire for the same reasons, and data from de The key political geographical concepts outlined facto states is hard to get because these polities in this chapter—sovereignty, borders, states, lack recognition and are not included in global state sizes, countries, nations, nation-states,­ tourism totals. Artsakh, South Ossetia and secessionism, irredentism, and supranational- Transnistria, for example, are not recognized by ism—all play a significant part in understanding the UN or the UNWTO, and their arrival or stay the polities examined in the pages that follow. numbers go unreported, if they are kept at all. These and many other political geographical Data are often available from dependencies and concepts have a crucial bearing on Europe’s cu- overseas territories because many of them have rious polities. their own border controls and are enthusiastic The next chapter deconstructs the notion about their tourism sectors. of transboundary relationships in Europe to The third research barrier is, conceptually, provide an understanding of how supranation- certain tourism forms or measures make little alism, especially the European Union, influences sense in the context of microstates and other the everyday lives of residence in Europe’s anom- non-­sovereign territories. The dominance of day alous areas. It also provides a foundation for trips already noted is a case in point. Likewise, understanding border issues, economic develop- domestic tourism is negligible in the European ment and tourism at the national and suprana- microstates except for recreational activities, tional levels. Chapters 3–7 look specifically at the 14 Chapter 1

five mini states (mini microstates) in Europe from understanding geopolitics, globalization, eco- a historical, geographical and socio-­economics nomic development and socio-cultural­ trans- perspective. In particular, these chapters exam- formations. Despite a growing interest in the ine the role of tourism in each of these small political geography of tourism in Europe (e.g. countries and the opportunities and challenges Hall, 2017b; Singleton, 2016; Zhang, 2019), they face from a largely geopolitical perspec- few scholars have examined the relationships tive. Chapters 8 through 10 examine some of the manifestations of the political geographi- between tourism and anomalous territories, cal characteristic of other, non-­standard state such as mini microstates, exclaves, overseas ter- outliers and unrecognized states in Europe and ritories and dependencies, unrecognized states, the role that tourism plays in each one, as well autonomous regions, extraterritorial places, and as how their geopolitics influences tourism. micronations. To address this lacuna, this book Chapter 11 consolidates what was learned from aims to highlight the plight of the smallest sov- the empirical chapters (3–10), emphasizing the ereign states and other ‘non-­standard’ territo- problems and prospects of tourism and ordinary ries in Europe in relation to tourism. All of them life in these unique European polities. Finally, the are heavily involved in tourism, even if they concluding chapter highlights some of the main would prefer not to be. Their unique spaces and concepts elucidated throughout the pages of the book and suggestion future research needs in the geopolitical relationships make them extraordi- area of tourism and political geography. nary cases for examining the political geography Europe continues to be one of the of tourism in one of the most dynamic regions most studied and insightful laboratories for on earth.