HOW TO DECIP HER AND STUDY OLD

D M E OCU NTS.

TH E KE Y TO TH E FA M IL Y D EED CH E S T

HOW TO DECIPHER

AN D

STUDY O LD DO CUMENTS

B EING A G UIDE TO TH E READING OF

ANCIENT M AN USCRIP TS

T T . H Y S E . E O

M R H A TENVI LLE ( S. J OHN U COPE)

WITH AN INTROD UCTION

B Y R E M ART IN C . T I C

A Sb ISTA NT K EEP ER O F H M . RE CO R DS

SECOND EDITION

LONDON

I T 6 2 PATERN STER R OW ELL OT S OCK, , O l 9 0 3

P REFAC E TO T H E S ECO ND E D IT I N O .

UST ten years ago this little volume made its

bo o ks J first appearance . Although many on similar subjects have been written in that time , none have exactly given the same informa tion , and this sec ond edition has been decided

n upon . Additions and corrections to bri g the book up to date have been made , but much still

an d remains , must remain , imperfect in so small a work on so large a subject, and the present pages only profess to help beginners over some of f the initial di ficulties they will meet with . It has been urged that handwriting and its characteristics have nothing to do with old deeds, but careful study of every line and letter is useful , especially with regard to private letters , or when any question arises as to whether the manuscripts are genuine or forgeries . That is why the second chapter, on handwriting and descriptions of old ink, paper, and paper marks and seals , was written ,

are for all such items of great importance . [ V ] ’ ’ ‘ e z Me S econ E dz lz on P refac o d .

A recent celebrated trial (the Shipway case , in which an old register was altered) shows that care ful attention to minute details is necessary . Parish registers have not , and are not , at the present moment protected against frauds of this kind , which are far less common than might be sup p osed . Old deeds are now bought and sold ; it is a trade quite as much as that in old books . Some

Edin bur h a years ago , in g , number of clever for

eri es g were sold as genuine , which if they had been so would have cleared up a historical question of great importance . Many friends who helped me when I first wrote & the book are, alas dead ; only their letters remain , and from these I have used extracts in revising this edition .

Mr . Trice Martin has most kindly read it through

t en and criticised it , as he did years ago , and if I mistakes still remain , trust my readers will be

b a I lenient . It must , however, be remem ered th t am writing on ly about the class of deeds which are usually met with in old houses , and not attempting to describe every description of charter or deed .

& EMMA ELI ABETH COPE .

1 0 H YDE PARK A NS O NS W . 3 , M I , Se tember 1 p , 903 . A UT HO R ’S P REFAC E TO T H E

R E IT I N FI ST D O .

N the following pages I have tried to describe

I the things which puzzled me when , as a beginner , I first essayed to read and understand the old records of bygone times . Written in a

w n o language I kne not , relating to customs longer existing, all was strange and unfamiliar . I toiled on ; by degrees light dawned and the difficulties melted away . The knowledge thus gained I have endeavoured , in all humility , to write down as a possible guide an d help to others who may , like myself, prefer to follow antiquarian research by means of old deeds and other manuscripts, as being the original source

n- and most trustworthy fountai head of knowledge , and by this means to avoid as much as possible repeating the assertions and mistakes of previous writers . ’ e A ” M or s P reface .

In the chapter on Paleography I have named w m the books hich were y guides , and in these pages I have tried to supply information supple w mentary to hat is already printed on the subject , rather than repeat what h as previously been

n o f explai n ed . The growing fashion for all ki ds antiquarianism creates a desire for books treating

n upon such subjects , and this has i duced me to write this book . TH Y T . O S . E E .

S UL H A M ST EA D ,

1 893 . C O N T E N T S

C H AP T E R P A G E INTRODU CTION

I . HINTS TO THE BEGINNER

A B Y A W II . CH RACTER H ND RITING

& - AND LAW A III . SA ON , NORMAN FRENCH L TIN

IV . OLD DEEDS

LAW V . TECHNICALITIES

AND U VI . MANOR CO RT ROLLS

VII . MONASTIC CHARTERS

VIII . PARISH REGISTERS

A AN D A U K I & . P RISH OFFICERS THEIR CCO NT BOO S

K N Y & . BOO S O PALEOGRAPH

LD & I . O LETTERS

& I I . . ABBREVIATIONS , ETC LIST OF I LLUSTRATION S .

P A G E SIGNATURE

E& TRACT FROM DOMESDA Y

NORMAN - FRENCH DEED FORM OF FINE

’ SHERIFF S ROLL (NEVILLE M SS . ) COU RT ROLL ARABIC N u M ER ALs R EADING ABBEY CHARTER READING ABBEY CHARTU LARY

’ PAPER - MAKERS INITIALS

SOME Q UAINT LETTERS FRO M OLD PARISH REGISTERS I 37 INT RO D UCT IO N .

OOKS written to teach any branch of

n i n huma knowledge are , most cases , written by persons who have long known and used the knowledge which they impart , and , perhaps for that reason , have more or less for gotten the steps o f the ladder up which they have climbed ; but in this case the process has been so recent that the difficulties and dangers of each step have been remembered , and the reader accordingly warned against them . The meaning of the various kinds of documents which are likely to be found among the title - deeds

o r of an estate, or among the archives of a parish a corporation , are described without needless tech n ic aliti es t o , in a practical way , which will appeal those who begin to work among such material with out previous knowledge .

o f . The first step, course , is to learn to read [ xi ] x ii I n trodu ction .

This wants perseverance and a quick eye , but regular practice will soon enable the student to read any ordinary documents , which at first seemed utterly unintelligible , and gradually the power of understanding really difficult and o b scure M SS . will be acquired . But this first step must be thoroughly mastered , for to attempt to get information from old writings without thoroughly knowing the forms of the letters , and the different systems of abbreviations and con tractions , would be like trying to keep accounts without knowing how to add up a column of

figures . And indeed paleography i s the foundation of all history . There may be historians , like the late M r . Freeman , who have but little knowledge

o f h i s i n of the science (he , I believe , boasted ability to read a manuscript), but then such writers rely o n the paleographic knowledge of others , who have edited the manuscripts which

u s e they desire to , and they have , or ought to have , sufficient scholarship to j udge which are the best editions, and even occasionally to detect

’ editors mistakes . But an acquaintance with this bran ch of know ledge i s often o f the greatest use to biographers and historians . It is much better, for instance , to be able to j udge whether a certain doc u ment i s of the age which it professes , or in whose hand xiii

a draft of a treaty is , than to have to accept the opinion of someone else . The mistakes made through want o f this know ledge are common , and sometimes very amusing . Familiar enough is the old story o f the parish

i n priest in the time of King H enry VI I I . , who the canon of the Mass , in the prayer after taking

‘ ’ ’ s am s z mas m u m the wine , read the word p as p

' s z nz n s - , because he had a thirteenth century missal

3 m u i n which and are much alike , and ref sed to alter his mistake when it was pointed out to him .

was hi s It referred to by King Henry VI I I . in

1 speech to the Parliament in 5 45 , and , in fact , this

‘ ignorant priest h as made himself an everlasting

fo r name conservative stupidity .

o n e o f I n more recent times , the historian of our beautiful north - country abbeys talks of a gift of a silver chest by th e founder in the eleventh century . The reader wonders what this chest — could have been was it a native work or i m ported ? was it some ecclesiastical ornament o r merely a strong box ? But on turning to the w document on hich the account is based , the

i s meaning clear . It was not a chest of silver ,

but an ordinary coin known as a mark of silver .

' m ar n z an a arca e l . The M S . reads g The writer of the book had not noticed the contraction over the

a first , divided the words wrongly , and read it n n am arcane a n a m m arcanz , instead of . u ct n I n trod io .

I n another similar book the story is narrated of the ill -treatment by a forester of an abbot whose house was near a royal forest . The abbot was no doubt like the monk who made the celebrated pil grimage to Canterbury

n r d r t o v d v n r A o ut y e e hat l e e e e ye . i t H e yaf n at o f that text a pull e d h en ’ n n That seith that hun te rs be e n at ho ly m e . And perhaps the forester had good reason to com

o f . plain him But in the account of the quarrel ,

’ the forester is said to have gone i nto the abbot s kitchen and taken away his cabbages— not very likely things for a forester to take, as he probably would have found something far better worth carrying off. However, on looking at the M S . it appears almost certain that what was read as

' en n /z z en s enons e s c . is really , that is , In fact , they were the

G reh o un des h e b e swifte fo wel i fl i t add as as n gh , ’ Fo r riki n fo r ti n fo r th e re p g and hun g ha , who were perhaps lying before the fire asleep after

’ a long afternoon s coursing .

’ I n the same case it i s said that the forester s treatment of the tenants on one of the abbey farms is so bad that no one dare die there ; it is suggested , because the forester would not allow anyone to come to administer the last consolations

' o f . de n z n rz r religion But the words , on which the xv I n trodu ction .

’ observation is based , are merely a careless scribe s

demeu rer writing of . In another book farmers are represented as using stones for fuel , which are suggested to have been coal ; but this results from mis - reading petarmn

a el ram (peat), as if it were p , a contracted form of

a m petr r n (stones). The spreading desire to know something of pale o ra h g p y is very remarkable , and is much to be commended . For all persons who interest them selves i n the documents to which they may have

i n access the possession of private persons , or in

i n repositories not generally known , are helping t h e grand work of making clear the laws and customs and mode of living of our ancestors , and

n n thus co sta tly come across information , not to be found in our more public collections of records , which ofte n throws light on many dark passages of history .

C . T . MARTIN .

2 n t e n n er Hi ts o B gi s.

- o ld of letters taken , hap hazard , out of an desk or secré taire ; it is quite easy to sort them into bundles in sequence of dates , and also guess accurately the age and position of the writers .

The flowing Italian hand , used by educated

n women early in the last century, cha ged with fashion into the freer style of the succeeding generation ; this in the third generation had

u f rther developed into the bold , decisive , almost masculine writing adopted by the more strong minded females of the latter end of the nineteenth century .

- Of course , school teaching is responsible to a certain extent for handwriting . Our Univer sit - y men of to day all , with few exceptions, use a neat scholarly form of writing, free from

an d flourishes , and with simple capital letters

n - the small broke backed Greek letter 6 . Corn

’ ’ pared with the scholar s, the soldier s writing

’ is bolder and rounder, while the clerk s is still more distinct in type in its open lettering , inter spersed with curls and twists . So with most professions it will be found that each has special characteristics ; but these are liable to change according to circumstances ; thus, the clerk will form his letters less distinctly after the need of great legibility no longer compels him to careful

- ness . Self education will often alter a vulgar,

- ill formed writing to a better, more studied style ; in t to Be i n n er H s g s . 3 and writing is the clearest proof of both bodily and mental condition , for in cases of paralysis or mental aberration the doctor takes it as a certain

- guide . The writing of feeble minded persons is

- like that of a scarcely educated child . Looking back to the days when writing was a profession of itself, it can easily be understood how it is that we find less variety among old writings . For in those days , before printing was

as discovered , or at le t but imperfectly executed and understood , all books had to be produced by hand , and were the work either of paid scribes , whose duty it was to reproduce copies of well

& known authors ; or else copied out by clerks or private secretaries at the dictation of the authors themselves, who could seldom spare the time to commit their ideas to paper, or, even if they did so, it was customary to have addi tio n al C n opies made by professed scribes . U acquainted with the subjects of the books, and

e copying mer ly from verbal dictation , it is no wonder that mistakes and misunderstan dings often occurred , especially in the spelling of place and personal names ; fo r one man reading aloud to several scribes , each would write down the names and words as they sounded to his indi vidual sense of hearing, for the constant interrup tion necessary to ensure complete accuracy would cause the process to be tedious and very lengthy. 1 —2 t e n n r 4 Hin s to B gi e s .

Private correspondence, even , was carried on as a profession writing shops existed up to a com

arati vel - o f- p y late period ; at present, in out the way streets in London , one reads the notice

’ Letters written here, though this generally means that letters may be sent to that address . Authors who indited or dictated their own books had them afterwards transcribed neatly fo r preservation , and probably destroyed the original

n . otes , for of these comparatively few, if any, exist All the earliest scri bes had a special educatio n

n for their profession , bei g sent to some monastery for that purpose ; hence they were either foreigners , or educated under foreign monks , either French or f Italian , and the ef ect of this teaching is clearly demonstrated by the Similitude which exists all over Europe between manuscripts of the early

M iddle Ages . I n England the Norman Con quest overruled most of the previous customs and styles . Vast crowds of Normans emigrated continuously to our shores . This went on more or less for at least three or four centuries , and then prejudice against foreigners asserted itself, and the Saxon element , which still remained among the lower classes of the people , gained the ascendant . In the reign

of Henry V . alien priories were suppressed , and foreign monks and priests no longer travelled backwards an d forwards from the Norman abbeys in t to Be in n er H s g s. 5

to the junior houses or cells in England . The rich merchants , who resorted here from the Low

Countries and Germany , brought with them their own customs and fashions ; and at this time will

first be noticed the use of a written character , like the modern German , which steadily came more and more into use until the end of the

n seventeenth century , whe it died out and the style altered to a rounder, freer hand . So long as education was almost entirely monastic , or at least conducted by teachers trained in monastic institutions , we find (as we should naturally expect to do) a regularity , care fulness and formality in the handwriting of the period ; but so soon as England had shaken o ff the authority of Rome and the educated com m u n iti es had been scattered and disbanded , a marked change took place in the quantity and quality of all kinds of writing . The monks and nuns, rendered homeless by the Reformation , returned to their native villages, thus spreading education among all classes and creating a desire after learning . But the primary cause of the alteration in handwriting , so very marked in the sixteenth century, was perhaps attributable to the introduction of the art of printing, which naturally was fatal to handwriting as a profession . The scribe was no longer required to multiply the

’ author s productions ; so that lawyers and public n t t Be in n er 4 Hi s o g s .

Private correspondence, even , was carried on as a profession writing shops existed up to a com

arativel - o f- p y late period ; at present, in out the way streets in London , one reads the notice

’ Letters written here, though this generally means that letters may be sent to that address . Authors who indited or dictated their own books had them afterwards transcribed neatly fo r preservation , and probably destroyed the original n otes , for of these comparatively few, if any, exist. All the earliest scribes had a special educatio n

n for their profession , bei g sent to some monastery

n for that purpose ; he ce they were either foreigners , or educated under foreign monks , either French or f Italian , and the ef ect of this teaching is clearly demonstrated by the Similitude which exists all over Europe between manuscripts of the early

M iddle Ages . In England the Norman Con quest overruled most of the previous customs and styles . Vast c rowds of Normans emigrated continuously to our shores . This went on more or less for at least three or four centuries , and then prejudice against foreigners asserted itself, and the Saxon element , which still remained among the lower classes of the people , gained the ascendant . In the reign

. of Henry V alien priories were suppressed , and foreign mon ks and priests no longer travelled backwards an d forwards from the Norman abbeys in t to Be in n er H s g s. 5

to the junior houses or cells in England . The rich merchants , who resorted here from the Low

Countries and Germany , brought with them their own customs and fashions ; and at this time will

first be noticed the use of a written character, like the modern German , which steadily came more and more into use until the end of the seventeenth century , when it died out and the

n style altered to a rou der, freer hand . SO long as education was almost entirely monastic , or at least conducted by teachers trained in monastic institutions , we find (as we should naturally expect to do) a regularity , care fulness and formality in the hand writing of the period ; but so soon as England had shaken o ff the authority of Rome and the educated com m u n iti es had been scattered and disbanded , a marked change took place in the quantity and quality of all kinds of writing . The monks and nuns, rendered homeless by the Reformation , returned to their native villages, thus spreading education among all classes and creating a desire f a ter learning . But the primary cause of the alteration in handwriting , so very marked in the sixteenth century, was perhaps attributable to the introduction of the art of printing, which naturally was fatal to handwriting as a profession . The scribe was no longer required to multiply the

’ author s productions ; so that lawyers and public 6 n t to Be n n er Hi s gi s . office clerks only remained out of the large class who had formerly earned their living as p ro fe s

u . s io al writers In the actual writing , also, a

n cha ge took place . The old elaborate letters were supplanted by the simple capitals copied from the

’ printer s blocks . Some day , maybe , writing will die out altogether ; every year fresh improvements and inventions are increasing ; n o w type - writers and multiplying machines are used in place of f handwriting in many o fices , while sooner or later typing by machine will be universal .

fe w A hundred years ago , very if any of the

i n labourers could either read or write even now,

- o f- - out the way country places , there exist people ignorant of these (to us) necessary arts . The marriage registers of the eighteenth century prove to us the ignorance of the country folk frequently neither the contracting parties nor their witnesses could write their names , using instead either some eccentric monogram bearing a faint resemblance — to initials a memory perhaps of a bygone and — very slight amount of teaching o r oftener still we find in lieu of name the old Christian cross, which has been in use by the illiterate from Saxon d times as a ple ge of good faith and consent .

Previous to the nineteenth century , education in country places was either altogether absent or provided out of the bounty of the squire or parson , the teacher being some old ignorant perso n pre

8 n t to Be n n er Hi s gi s . suffered at the hands of a transcriber unacquainted with the localities , and who merely wrote down the words as they sounded to him . The actual spelling of words remained fairly constant . Cer tai n l fo r y to us they look very curious , English orthography has undergone innumerable changes

n in course of time new words are bei g coined ,

n o t and old words alter only in spelling , but also in meani n g and significance . If we wish for an example of Old English phraseology , we have our

o f — present version the Bible which , being trans

n n o w lated into English in the seventee th century ,

O f sounds quaint , and in many parts the sense the words is a matter of dispute . If it be compared with the Revised Version the changes which have taken place in our language in the two past centuries

i n become very evident . All this must be borne mind when the task of transcribing and translating old writing is undertaken , and allowance m ust be m ade for all such alterations both in style and spelling . It has been said that a knowledge of Latin is indispensable to the would - be transcriber of old deeds ; this is not really the case for ordinary antiquarian research , for the meaning can be discovered easily with only very slight knowledge . Legal Latin consists so entirely of set forms that when o n ce these forms are familiar to the reader , f they are without any di ficulty recognised , an d in t to Be i n n er H s g s . 9 are so little liable to any variations that they are easily rendered into English . The most important points being a correct and accurate attention to

desc ri the names of people and places , with the p tions of the localities referred to . As the use of Latin for legal transactions almost entirely super s ede d the Norman - French language after the reign of Edward I I I . (although it is an open question whether deeds were not duplicated into the two w languages), very few old deeds are met ith in the latter language , and those few are usually so well written and legible that they can easily be under stood with the help o f a slight knowledge of modern French .

’ Indeed , a transcriber s work properly consists chiefly in correctly putting into modern hand writing the deeds which are only illegible to those unfamiliar with the handwriting ; in consequence an actual acquaintance with the Latin grammar is less important than a correct eye , quick to note

' difl ere n c e every minute in letters . Every stroke of the pen means something ; bars or curves are the representatives of absent words or syllabl es , and are never dashed down hap - hazard or by accident . Therefore it is possible to understand the meaning of the abbreviated portions correctly , although extension with absolute grammatical cor rec tn e ss can never be ensured without study of the language and a knowledge of its grammar . 0 n t to Be n n er I Hi s gi s.

One of the best methods of learning to read c o u rth an d is first to devote a short time to the study of shorthand ; any system will do , it being merely a means of training the eye and brain into f speedily noticing small shades of dif erence , unde t ec ted except by comparison . For in all kinds of shorthand the least stroke or dot, or even a change in the position of a line , will entirely alter the spelling or meaning of a word .

an Next, I would advise the careful study of old deed , one of those written late in the seven te en th or early in the eighteenth century , because these deeds give the phraseology or form of sentences , and are Often written in English in a fairly clear hand , freer from contractions than m earlier manuscripts , and the beginner has so any new things to discover and learn that it is well to commence by not attempting too much at the first w start . An acquaintance with the style of ords used in legal language is a good groundwork to commence with . Spread out the parchment before you ; never mind the fact that only a word or two, or even only a chance letter here and there catches your eye . Then set to work to compare the letters of the words you do know with the letters in other words which at the commenceme n t looked so strange to you . It was in this way that Egyptian hieroglyphics were first successfully studied . n t to Be n n er Hi s gi s . I I

Remember that three consonants seldom come together ; no word is formed without the hel p of one or more vowels ; the final letter or letters more Often supply a clue than the capital letter

so - or beginning syllable , especially in the called

c o urth ands .

Beware of too imaginative guesses . Although this fault is easily remedied , still , it is better to spell a word out letter by letter , however unin t elligible and depressing the result at first may be .

It is so easy to take a name or word for granted , and an idea once seized upon is not quickly eradicated , and may bring about absurd results and deduction s. Do not ponder too long over a word which

z z u pu les yo , but go on , leaving gaps in your copy with a stroke underneath corresponding with or leaving sufficient space for the missing word .

These spaces can then be filled in afterwards , whe n the general sense of the document has been mastered , and the aspect of the particular style of writing has become familiar. Then it will be found that words hitherto seemingly unintelligible resolve themselves into readable form , and although apparently impossible to decipher at the first read f ing, later on they present no di ficulty . A little practice and patience soon overcome the difli c u lti e s

e . of the first start , and after that the progr ss is rapid To begin by learning a variety of old alphabets 1 2 n t to Be in n r Hi s g e s .

seems to me so much waste of time , although it would be a valuable groundwork to commence with . The true alphabet for beginners lies in the contracted words , whose missing portions must be supplied by the reader from the few letters given , which are often not even one connected syllable, but instead merely one or two letters out of the missing syllable clustered together . The reason for this style of writing was to save time and material . With use , it grew into a com

lete p system , a language of its own . At the time

was it penned , these contractions were no doubt perfectly familiar to all , j ust as our modern abbreviations are . Of these last there are more contractions in use nowadays than would at first be realized—our daily correspondence is full of them ; these may have originated from the older system of contractions , relics of it , still left linger ing on . A few examples of modern abbreviations will not be out of place here , as showing that a con tracted form of writing is not SO very diffi cult or f extraordinary a ter all .

et and , derived from the Latin ; the second example , which is still in use, can be traced in

et very old documents from , till gradually it assumed its modern shape . M ” S r , mister or master ; for sir was formerly in com mon use . n n r Hin ts to Begi e s . I 3

° i e C C co m a n i e . , company ; , p g (French)

f he tc . t e , derived rom the first three letters of

etcetera Latin word . ’ The words with , which , whereof, where, etc . ,

e f r fo r e wer ormerly abbreviated ; also y your, y

and the, many others now obsolete.

n Pou ds , shillings and pence we still designate by

h n 5 . t e Lati . d

‘ ’ The lon g word affection ate is seldom writte n

to o e in full ; so , , with many other words ther are

n f n and recog ised orms of contractio , when this is born e i n mi n d the abbreviations of old deeds

’ a i n difle re n t appe r quite a light , and we attack f their di ficulties with less dread of failure . C H A P T E R I I .

W HA ND RITI N G .

ANY books have been recently published

‘ on the subject of Character by Han d

’ r writing , but they are not ve y descriptive in detail , although the theories and rules for character describing by this means are both clear and decided . It is n o w no lon ger the rule to teach children to write entirely by the aid of set copies, as was the case with our forefathers , who wrote after one approved pattern , which children copied as nearly as possible from the original set for them ; there fore characteristic peculiarities were longer in asserting themselves , and what is now considered a ‘ formed hand writing was not developed till late in life .

There were , and still are , two divisions or classes — of handwriting the professional and the personal ; with the first the action was mechanical , and [ I 4 ]

6 n writ n I Ha d i g.

character is carefully studied it will be found that im mediate circumstances greatly influence

it anxiety or great excitement of any kind , illness

n or any violent emotion , will for the mome t greatly

n affect the writing . From handwriti g the doctor c an haz ard an Opinion as to the me n tal state of his

patient . In all cases of paralysis the writing is

ff n temporarily a ected, and the patie t is usually at first deprived of the power of writing ; when the mind recovers its consciousness and the muscles

their strength, the power returns, but with a feeble

n n ess not formerly observed . Writing depends upo

— a so many things firm grasp of the pen , a pliability

- of the muscles , clearness of vision and brain power

even the writing materials, pens , ink and paper , f all make a di ference . It is not strange, then , that

with so many causes upon which it depends , writing should be an excelle n t test of temperament and

bodily health .

- Any school teacher or head of a college , through whose hands a large correspondence passes, usually contracts a habit of form ing conclusions as to the mental and moral calibre of the writers, their social status and natural bias of disposition . A round, childish handwriting is said to show conceit and

- self satisfaction . Ignorance and conceit are often closely linked together . The uneducated ge n erally have a very good opinion of their own personal

qualifications . The most youthful form of writing n wr t n Ha d i i g. I 7

is not , therefore , indicative of talent or general capacity , and seldom shows any originality . All needless flourishes and ornamentation are

re the result of egotism and vanity . But be it membered that any virtue exaggerated at once becomes a fault ; that whereas a little conceit is necessary to stimulate ambition , the same in too great excess becomes egotistic vanity . Genius is apt to overestimate its own depth and originality , ye t without any self- appreciation there is danger of a lack of effort ; despair prevents perseverance , an d is a bar to any success .

Excitability , hastiness , and impatience are all seen in the handwriting at a glance . A q uick brain suggests words and sentences so fast, one upon another, that though the pen races along the page it cannot write down the ideas quickly enough to satisfy the author . With a calm , calculating disposition this frantic haste is neither known nor understood — such persons do not rush to conclusions , but ponder over every subject. Intuitive perception in the excitable person becomes judgment in a tranquil mind . Temper depends upon temperam ent . The crosses of the ‘ ’ d letter t are the in ex whereby to j udge of it . If these strokes are regular through a whole page

O f writing , the writer may be assumed to have an even - placed temper ; if dashed o ff at random

n quick short strokes, somewhat higher tha the 2 8 n w r t n I Ha d i i g. letter itself— quick outbursts of anger may be expected , but of short duration , unless the stroke is firm and black , in which case great violence may safely be predicted . Uncertainty of character and temper is Shown

‘ ’ by the variation of these strokes to the letter t .

Sometimes the cross is firm and black , then next time it is light ; sometimes it is omitted altogether, varying with each repetition of the letter like the opinions and sentiments of an undecided person . The up and down strokes of the letters tell of strength or weakness of will ; gradations of light and shade , too , may be observed in these strokes . The Sloping Italian handwriting of our grand mothers is j ust what might be expected from women refined and sensitive, grounded in several branches of study , well educated as a whole , but not especially so in any one particular line . The absence of any self- assertion is very strongly marked . The independence of their grand daughters can be traced in every line and stroke of

o r their pens . Little no distinction is observable between the writing of young men and women nowadays . Even the graphologist dare scarcely

o f hazard an opinion as to the sex the writer, but

u ind lges in vague wording , avoiding any direct u s e of personal pronouns .

Capital letters tell us many points of interest .

By them originality, talent , and mental capacity r t n Han dw i i g. I 9

are displayed , as well as any latent vulgarity or want of education . There are two styles of

use - capital letters at present in . The high class style employed by persons of education is plain and often eccentric , but without much orna mentation . The other may be called the middle

i s class, for it used by servants and tradespeople having a fair amount of education , mingled with a good deal of conceited ignorance and false pride . With these last the capital letters are much adorned by loops, hooks , and curves , noticeable principally in the heads of the letters or at their commencement . Perhaps , for purposes of char acter delineation , it will be better to give the characteristics , pointing out the style and form of the letters peculiar to each .

a - w an Pl in , neatly formed hand riting shows orderly mind , the result of education . The whole tendency of education is to regulate the mind and restrain the impulses . Education checks conceit , r for the more anyone knows , the mo e aware does he become of the wide amount there is to be

i s learnt, and how little the knowledge possessed by the cleverest scholars in the world . It will generally be found that with writing having much resemblance , a characteristic simi lari t y also exists ; therefore , to become proficient as a graphologist , a careful study must be made of the writings of those whose whole life and 2 —2 n wr t n 2 0 Ha d i i g.

character , together with personal peculiarities , are intimately known and understood , and from this conclusions may be drawn and rules arrived at fo r future use . Affection is marked by open loops and a general slant or slope of the writing . A hard nature , unsympathetic and unimpressionable , has very little artistic feeling or love of the fine arts ; therefore the same things which indicate a soft , affectionate disposition will also indicate poetry ,

& e music, and painting , or one or oth r kindred

o f subjects . The first these accompanies a loving, impulsive nature ; with music the impulse is replaced by perseverance ; for natural genius cannot expand without patient study . I n painting three things are absolutely necessary to produce — an artist . Form , colour, light and shade all these three will influence the writing ; but art

i s of any kind very complex . Success implies a certain degree of ambition , and consequent

’ upon it is vanity and egotism ; hen ce the artist s signature is generally peculiar and often unread

i ts able , from originality , egotism , and exuberance

of creative power . I magination and impulse do not tend t o i m

n . prove ha dwriting The strokes are too erratic , and the capital letters never follow the copybook

- i n pattern . Over haste is visible every line . A

- warm hearted , impulsive person feels deeply and an dwri tz n 2 H g . I

passionately at the moment of writing , and dashes o ff the words without regard to the effect they

i s will produce upon the reader . What generally lacking is j udgment and the power o f analytical thought . These important qualities may be de t e c ted in disjoined words , which here and there may be see n even with a handwriting in which impulse and sequence of ideas are leading charac

ris i s t e t c . The writer has evidently paused to

e think , although unaware of it himself. Th se breaks give a power of criticism , combined with clearness of intellect . Without breaks no common

i s sense found , but if they appear too often it shows a wearying and needless worry over trivial details ,

- as and self torment to the opinions of other people . Truth an d straightforwardness give even lines running across the page and regular distances m fro one word to another . Tact is very essential . This quality requires ofte n slight deceptions to

o r be allowed practised , white lies , or delusive silence ; hence an unevenness in the writing is m observed . It is a deviation , although slight, fro the path of truth , and here and there the letters rise or fall below the lines . Untruthfulness gives greater unevenness still ; but do not rush to con c lusi o n s on this point , for an unformed hand f writing shows this peculiarity very o ten , being merely due, not to evil qualities , but to an unsteady hand employed in work to which it is unused . 2 2 Ha n dw ri ting

Very round even writing in which the vowels

are not closed , denotes candour and openness of

disposition , with an aptitude for giving advice ,

whether asked or unasked , not always of a com

lim e n tar p y kind . Blunt , crabbed writing suggests

obstinacy and a selfish love of power, without

s elfish thought for the feelings of others . True

ness gives every curve an inward bend , very m arked in the com mencement of words or capital

letters .

Perseverance and patience are closely allied .

‘ ’ In the former the letter t is hooked at the top ,

and also its stroke has a dark curved end , showing that when once an idea has been entertained no earthly persuasion will alter or eradicate it .

- de fin ed Such writers have strongly prejudices , and are apt to take very strong dislikes without much cause . Calmness and patience also are frequently — linked together more often in later life , when

o r adversity has blunted the faculties , the dull routine of uneventful existence has destroyed all

u - romance . Then the writing has short p and down strokes , the curves are round , the bars short and straight ; there are no loops or flourishes ; the whole writing exhibits great neatness and

u regularity . Economy of living , curiously eno gh , is marked by a spare use of ink . The terminals

O ff . are abrupt and blunt , leaving short Where

2 n wr t n 4 Ha d i i g.

W vation . hen the dots are placed at random , neither above nor in proximity to the letter to

re which they belong , impressionability, want of

fl ec ti o n , and impulsiveness may be anticipated . Ambition and gratified happiness give to the whole writing an upward tendency . Hopefulness lacks the firmness of ambition , and appears only i n the signature which curves upwards , while the rest of the writing is impulsive , without much

firmness . Sorrow gives every line o f the writing a down ward inclination . Temporary affliction will at

& once show in the writing a preoccupied mind , full of trouble, cares little whether the letter then written is legible or neat ; hence the writing is

o f erratic, uncertain , and the confusion mind is clearly exhibited in every line . Irritable and touchy persons slope the flourishes only, such as the cross of the letter t ’ and the upper parts of the capital letters . When the capital letters stand alone in front of the words , and the final letters also are isolated , it betokens great creative power and ideality, such as would form an author and clever writer . The most personal part of a letter or docume n t is, of course, the signature, but alone it is not a f w sa e guide to character . The lines placed belo or after it tell a great deal more than the actual name . n writ n 2 Ha d i g. 5

A curved bending line , ending in a hook , indi f cates coquetry , love of ef ect , and ideality .

- An exaggerated , comma like form of line means caprice , tempered by gravity of thought , and versatility of ideas .

—fie r An unyielding will y, and at the same time determined—draws a firm hooked line after the name . A wavy line shows great variety in mental w po er , with originality. Resolution is shown by a plain line ; and ex f treme caution , with full power to calculate ef ect and reason a subject from every point of view , is shown by two lines and dots , thus

s u m To up the matter briefly, it will be observed that a clever person cares very little about the form — o f his writing it is the matter alone which con

t - cerns him ; whereas , wi h a limited brain power ,

as great care to appearance is taken . But human nature is never a simple combination of elements , it is dependable upon a complexity of changes and chances . It is said that with everyone a complete change takes place every seven years . Motives and cir c u mstan c es all leave decided marks upon the character and mind of an individual . Not per haps for years will innate virtues or vices become apparent , which have lain dormant , awaiting cir c u ms tan c es to develop them . 2 6 n wr tin Ha d i g.

’ A collection of any person s old letters i s very curious. Written from earliest childhood to ex

’ treme old age, a veritable life s history lies in the faded ink ; and to study character from hand writing fairly i t can only be done from such authenticated examples . Old letters written two o r three hundred years ago are of great value for the purpose , because , so far as they are concerned , all party spirit and prejudice is dead , buried , and forgotten . Their biographers no longer fear the consequence of a too candid and personal account , and are there fore more likely to give a j ust and calm criticism of character, weighing evenly in the balance both W virtues and vices . ith historical characters it is curious to contrast the contemporary biographies with the graphologist ’s opinion of their hand writing , given without knowing whose the writing was .

o f Any collection old M SS . is interesting , as showing the various styles of writing in vogue at different periods . Fashion or circumstances had some influence on this point . Royal marriages with foreign princesses brought England into con f tact with dif erent nations . Wars in strange lands introduced alien words into our vocabulary , some of which speedily became naturalized , while others , voted slang, remained only for a short while and then disappeared . New words are constantly being n 2 Ha n dw riti g. 7

coined , and take the place of others . This may

seem a trivial matter, and irrelevant to the subj ect

of old writing , but any points bearing on the subject must throw new light upon it and help to

elucidate it . The personality Of a writer can never be wholly

separated from his works . And in any question of date or authenticity o f a document being called in

question , the value of graphology and its theories will be found of the utmost importance ; for the

o f various changes in the style handwriting , or in

u the spelling of words , although perhaps so min te

and gradual as seldom to be remarked , are , never

th ele ss , links in a chain which it would be extremely hard to forge successfully s o as to deceive those acquainted with the matter and well versed in its peculiarities . Marked characteristics are noticeable in the old f Black Letter M S S . of the early days be ore print

ing, and the authenticity of a deed , etc . , may be decided by some slight peculiarity in its lettering . C HAPTER I I I .

N G L - S & N - N H L L A O A ON , NORMA FRE C , ATIN , AND O D G L SH EN I .

LTH O UG H w e are always told that our present English language is directly derived from that of our Saxon forefathers , this information gives us very little, if any , help towards deciphering

- the old Anglo Saxon documents . The Saxons , we are told , were not one nation , but rather com posed o f an aggregate of tribes of G ermanic and

Scandinavian origin , whose piratical instincts led them to seek adventure by sea and land and form n e w at colonies, just as the present day Englishmen go forth in search of fame and fortune in the utter most parts of the earth .

Thus the Saxon language, although derived from one identical base , was a collection of dialects

u banded together, which , in its ed cated and a scholastic form , greatly resembled Germ n in its con struction . - 2 - S x on N o rm an Fren c etc. A nglo a , h 9

‘ -m dnno M M AW W mmmo oTyummr M fu ter qq E rm O & ' 3 w uo m W N nom u 1&? q { y p ) W MQ htz i t an” ann owul memM W mils—t pW r ? y ‘ 1 a l. - m wenzv W n r e uo us o a nuem bom mm am o y g M try/ Alt rq q é g (

N u t lit ers

ml Be as

M e M y.

04 c g ’ K‘ ON u 11 Qi dlem éi; be E . ”

* E& T RACT FROM DOM ES DAY .

rr o o f e e . i t b M r. . H i Fro m ph o to s k ndly l en y A a s n , Th al 0 A n /o - S xon N o rin an - Fren cé 3 g a , ,

The language of the Anglo - Saxo n (so far as Great Britain is concerned) has been classified u n der three distinct headings , the first being pure

- i e Anglo Saxon , . . , the language as spoken by the

first settlers , with an admixture of Celtic or

British ; secondly , this same combination with the addition of Danish ; and thirdly , the three

- above named languages combined , with the further

- addition of Norman French , having in all a

Saxon dialect for the basis , to which were after wards added new words brought into it by foreign invaders or emigrants from over the seas . Since the invention o f printing great changes have taken place in our language, and to go back prior to that epoch reveals greater changes still . The writings o f early chroniclers and poets are so full of words and phrases now obsolete that many books and dictionaries have been compiled to explain their meanings .

’ The Lord s Prayer , as given in the Durham Book (this is a copy of the Gospels of the Anglo

i n Saxon period . It was formerly the Cottonian

i n Library, now the Manuscript D epartment of

’ the British Museum . It is known as Nero D . iv . Old Sir Robert Cotton had busts of the Roman

- and Emperors over his book shelves , the names

s — survive), look to us hopelessly foreign only a fe w words are familiar . The personal pronouns

’ ’ ’ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ an d ‘ us , we , he, him , the preposition to, as

2 A n lo - S xon N orm n —Fren c 3 g a , a h previously neglected except among a few professed scholars . A learned King would naturally set the fashion to his subj ects , and Alfred must have possessed immense energy . It was an extraordinary thing for a middle - aged man to be able to educate himself sufficiently to master the difficulties o f a foreign language so opposed in construction to his own

as native tongue Latin , which in nowise resembles

Saxon . He must have toiled hard to have com plet e d the many translations from Latin into

Saxon which are accredited to him .

Alfred was a popular hero , and , like all heroes , was invested by tradition with the credit of every improvement in literature or art which took place within his era . Be this as it may , there is no doubt that he did stimulate his fellow - countryme n

- to make efforts towards self improvement , by l setting them a practical examp e in himself. Such examples are unfortunately rare ; they must — ‘ always be productive of good results an ounce

’ u o f of practice is worth a po nd precept .

’ From the t ime o f King Alfred s re - introduction of Latin into this country it gradually gained ground as the language of scholars . Learned ecclesiastics coming to England found it c o n v en ie n t as the medium for exchange of thoughts

It was and ideas . g for many centuries the accepted

‘ ’ Volapuk , understood by all who professed any learning . t n an d Old E n h La i , glis 3 3

Rome was the light of the Western world , the centre from whence religion and learning was disseminated to the less enlightened parts of

n ec essi Europe . Careful study of the old authors t ated an acquaintance with both Greek and

Latin . The emissaries of the Pope , either as

legates or missionaries , spread all over civilized

O f Europe, and carried with them the learning

their age. Intercourse between England and France was som ewhat checked by dissensions and wars both

at home and abroad , but with the Conquest came

a large body of monks . The chief wealth of

Normandy was invested in its rich abbeys , from whence Duke William had borrowed large sums of money to fit out his expedition upon the security of his future possession of Engl a nd These loans he honestly and amply repaid by large grants of land out of his n e w kingdom ;

hence new abbeys sprang up in England , filled

with foreign monks , who brought over their

n e language, arts and sciences , to teach in the w country they had adopted as their own . The language of the court was of necessity Norman

n French , which differs as much from the Fre ch of

- t to day as ancien from modern English . But a knowledge of French makes these early deeds easy to understand . The lower orders of the people clung per

/t t n an d Old E n li s . La i , g 3 5 s isten tl to y , their own old Saxon tongue , a fact clearly demonstrated by the way the old Saxon

field- n names are to the present day retai ed , and

flowers , animals , and matters of everyday country life bear names of evident Saxon origin . The

Saxons were a conquered race , and as such became f the servants o their conquerors . The animals which in life they tended were eaten by the

Norman nobles , who called them , when used as

o f . food , by names French derivation Thus the

‘ ’ ‘ ’ Saxon sheep when dead became mutton ;

’ ’ pig turned into pork calf into veal , etc . W ith the names of many wildflowers French

origin is traceable , especially with cultivated sorts . We know the monks of the Middle Ages were

clever gardeners , and probably by them the wild

flowers were named . In Berkshire the village

‘ ’ fie ld- children call daisies margs , abbreviated ,

m ar ueri te without doubt , from the French g .

Among garden flowers there are pansies , French ’ ‘ en se ill flo we r i ro el p ; g y , g fl , and many others ; but as a whole there are fe w words of distinctly Latin origi n to be found in the English dialects relating

f - to everyday af airs . Norman French did not come into immediate use in legal documents after

the Conquest . The earliest deeds of the Norman

kings were written in Latin , but after a while h Frenc , the everyday language of the upper — classes , superseded it for law work possibly there — 3 2 6 A n lo - S xon N orm n - Fren c/z 3 g a , a , were duplicate copies of the deeds in both languages—but only for a comparatively short

- period , a statute being passed in the thirty sixth

as year of King Edward I I I . deciding upon Latin m the law language of the realm , and fro this date

se o f - o ut the u Norman French died , and the

English language may be said to have commenced. The growing dislike o f the English to foreign

o f prelates led to a steady resistance their claims ,

o f culminating in the Statutes Mortmain , Provisors

ae and Pr munire , and finally in the suppression of all alien priories and foreign cells . This stopped the influx of French and Italian monks to our t shores so it was tha , after nearly four centuries , the Norman - French language died o u t and was forgotten . During the Middle Ages , and until the time of the Reformation , the monasteries still continued to be the principal seats of learning throughout the country , and Latin held its ground among scholars and lawyers .

The introduction of printing, and , finally, the changes wrought by the Reformation , disturbed

- o f the pre existing course things . The English language was gradually settling down into i t s

o f f present form , and about the end the fi teenth century it began more and more to be used for law business transactions .

- i n The law Latin , as used England , degenerated greatly ; it became interspersed with words of at n n d n i a Old E li sn. L , g 3 7

native origin , Latinized by the lawyer. Old court rolls especially are full of obsolete words so, too ,

n o w are the public rolls , but there are many dictionaries explaining their meanings . Although

m a of course , here and there an unknown word y h occur , yet the context will usually explain or elp towards its Significance .

The legal Latin became , finally , merely a series of mechanical form s ; these at last were translated

o f into English . For this reason a careful study the wording of a deed of the eighteenth century in English will Show that it is the counterpart of the same class of document in i ts older Lati n form .

n - Lati , like Norman French , had had its day

’ I I I s and was dying out . Finally , by George . Act of Parliament the native language was ordered to be used for law work , and now Latin has become obsolete , so far as practical work is con — cerned . Understanding old legal Latin once a necessity for a lawyer—has now become an anti

i n - q u ar a profession . One relic of Anglo Saxon remained on in our language for many centuries . ‘ th ’ The double letter , will be found in the written copies of monkish chartularies for place ‘ th ’ names begi nning with . Even so late as the fifteenth century we find it freely employed in

English documents . I possess a copy of the criminal charges m ade against De la Pole, Duke 8 A n lo - S xon N orrn an - Fren clz 3 g a , ,

f 1 0 of Su folk , for high treason , 45 . Throughout the manuscript the Saxon 1) appears in such words

‘ ’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ as other, that , the , etc which look curious

‘ ’ ‘ ’ t e written oper , p , p .

‘ ’ y c o n The p in some words was printed , which

n tin ed in use until the last century . I am not aware of any place - names having been altered by

but this change of lettering , it is quite possible that some changes may have occurred through it . It would be easy for a person unaccustomed to the

‘ ’ n th Saxo p to mistake it for other letters , as ,

’ p , or y must be followed either by a vowel or

‘ ’ ‘ ’ h i n the consonant r, p old documents being

’ usually replaced by an f. Of late years many absurd mistakes have been made by the Ordnance Surveyors in their maps ,

re c o n who , mistaking the local dialect , or from p c ei ved ideas as to what the names ought to be , have set down many incorrectly . On this subj ect I wrote formerly in a paper in the B erks/t i re

A rcnwolo i cal M a az i n e g g . A man from the South of England fails to comprehend the Northern or

- Western dialects . Country folk from the North cannot understand a word spoken by Southerners this also would account for errors . Spelling , of course, has so much altered that it is no safe guide towards derivation ; phonetic pronunciation of a word is more likely to give a clue to the origin . Field - names have been han ded down orally from

A n - S n N rm n -Fren /z t 0 o xo o c e c . 4 gl a , a ,

Le Lea Leaz e La L e y, , or y, y , meadow or grass

land .

N eoln es N wl es eo n . , more properly spelt , an abyss

On - wl , a burning . R i i p , harvest .

S al S tret S tre t , a plough ; , or , a street or public w high ay .

Won Welz We leas t g , a meadow ; g, a willow ; g , a

Wer going out of the way , an encl osure .

As a whole the English language has changed more during the past century than at any time of the preceding ages . Railway and telegraph have brought all parts of the kingdom into closer

n co tact , and intercourse with foreign countries & accounts for constant alterations in language and

Ne w n customs . words are introduced and old o es

i n die out ; it is the same every language . C HAPTER IV

L S O D DEED .

M ONG old family papers it is rare to meet with many dating further back than the

Reformation ; first of all , this may be accounted for by the enormous amount of land possessed by the monks , who , instead of having to search f through deeds , entered these grants and gi ts of

- property into their charter book . The monastic estates , after the Dissolution , were managed through the Augmentation Office ; many of the original deeds were destroyed or lost in the general confusion , and a new distribution of the lan ds took place by the King irrespective of the former owners , whose claims were totally ignored , although in such grants or deeds of gift the name of the monastery formerly owning the property is usually named . The King must have realized large sums of money by these transactions , which were carried [ 4 1 ] 2 Old D ee 4 ds .

out through , and in the names of, his com mis si o n e rs or agents , and not usually granted direct from the Crown very little of the land confiscated from the abbeys was retained as royal property, but appears to have been almost im mediately sold or granted away . But to begi n from the oldest reliable period at which deeds may refer to , is to go back to the

Norman Conquest , or , rather, to the time when the lands had been distributed among the

Norman noblemen , as described in the famous

Domesday Book , compiled , it is said , between

1 080 1 8 and 0 5 . Reference is therein made to previous Saxon possessors ; bu t only in very fe w instances can any certain information be obtained of private property prior to the eleventh century . Private deeds do exist between the ti me of I ’ William I . and Richard . ; from this latter King s

A D 1 1 ? & reign , about . . 79 , legal memory date but

th e I . usually earliest family deeds are of Edward , because then it was that the legal era was fixed to commence . This King has been , so far as regards manorial rights and customs , rightly called the

’ English Solon . He passed innumerable Acts of Parliament on the subject of legal matters ; he revised the whole of the national laws , retaining but improving existing arrangements . A most interesting account of early English law and manorial customs is published by the Selden

e e x S e App ndi . l O d D eeds . 43

n Society . It is very rare i deed to discover private deeds earlier than this ; but , of course, every rule has its exception . To prove a title to property it is now only

’ requisite to show a twenty years possession of it . Papers forming the title deeds to farms or small holdings are seldom of any great age . The custom of depositing es tate records in the care of the family lawyer has tended to preserve a few deeds ; but , on the other hand , has resulted in m uch wholesale destruction of useless but curious documentary evidence . Vast numbers of deeds have been and are being w ’ sold when a la yer s offi ce has been broken up .

These papers , having lain for years unclaimed until the ownership was lost or forgotten , finally were sold to some antiquarian bookseller or antiquary , or else the skin was cleansed and used again , parch ment being a valuable substance . It is employed in many trades . From it size is prepared . Gold beaters employ it largely , and also to the book

’ binder s trade it is essential , besides having many other and varied uses . Even now lawyers find great difficulty in pre serving and storing the deeds entrusted to their charge . The dangers of fire and damp are con

fl ic ti n g , and to avoid the one may bring about greater risk from the other cause . Parchment being an animal substance (usually Old D 44 eeds .

n made from the ski of sheep), if kept in a damp

an d f place, soon begins to decay become of ensive , mites readily attack it , dirt and dust accumulate rapidly on its external woolly surface— all these make a search among hoards of old deeds any thing but a pleasant or a cleanly occupation . The usual storehouse for such collections was

- some unused garret or stable loft , where rats and mice ran riot and birds flew in and out as they

fo r liked . Forgotten , perhaps , several generations , the old papers lay untouched till death or removal brought changes, and the deeds were either placed — & in safer keeping, or else alas the most usual course

were consigned to the flames as useless rubbish .

The quality of parchment varies much . That upon which early deeds— those about the thirteenth

— i n century are written , is small pieces , woolly in

Si x texture and of a dark brown shade . I n the t e en th century the sheets are larger , smoother , and yellow, becoming whiter in colour and more even as its preparation was better understood and practised . Vellum was a finer sort of parchment prepared

- from the skins of very young or still born animals .

Of it the old manuscript books were made , adorned with illuminations and miniature paint ings , which required a fine, smooth surface , and vellum was free from the flaws which frequently occur in the skins of mature animals . Old De eds. 45

With the history of paper - making we have nothing to do . Paper was known as early as the

law i n thirteenth century, but for work England it was seldom , if ever, employed before the four te en th century . The earliest known examples are described as being made of silk manufactured i t abroad . On the Continent was used for i llu mi m —at ated work in the place of vellum least , so

Prou states , but does not tell us of any notable examples .

The history of English - made paper is somewhat

- obscure . Ordinary lesson books , published for the enlightenment of the young, state that the first

- English paper mill was erected at Dartford , in 1 88 Kent , by Speilman , a German , in 5 . This , however , must be wrong, for in that popular

S atu rda educator of the past generation , the y

M a az i n e g , a short account is given of early paper

- and its water marks , and J ohn Tate is named as having a mill at Hertford , his device being a star of five points enclosed within a double circle . John Tate the younger is here stated to have made the paper for the first book printed on

- 1 6 English made paper about the year 49 . It was

‘ n written in Latin , and e titled Bartholomeus de

’ r ri tati u s P o p e b Rerum . H is mark upon it was a

- fiv e wheel . This mill existed for thirty years

1 6 1 6 4 0 to 49 . This same account goes on to say that the paper used by the early printers bore ld D 46 O eeds.

o f & r great variety marks a bull , fifteenth centu y the oxhead , with the star between the horns, late fifteenth century ; the black letter 38 ; the shears ; an open hand , surmounted by a star ; a collared

’ an dog s head , with a trefoil above it ; a crown , orb , a shield charged with a bend , and many other

’ devices . Hone, in his Everyday Book , also gives a few other marks . He mentions the orb as a

- 1 0 1 foreign paper mark existing as early as 3 , and

’ i s says it the oldest known mark .

Hand - paper is the kind usually found used for early documents . It was a convenient Size for

- o r court rolls legal writings . The name arose from

- its water mark , that of an open hand with a star above the middle finger . This is found both in

England and Germany . Its date of manufacture

1 0 was certainly older than 4 5 . The actual device varied . Sometimes the fingers were raised in blessing , sometimes it was a hand encased in a glove or gauntlet . The star had sometimes five and at others six points . On the wrist are the

’ maker s initials .

On some coarse whitish - brown paper of 1 46 5 a garter was used ; about the same date a bull or

’ i s o n bull s head appears . This found some of

’ Faust s earliest printed books . These were detached sheets & there was no distinction then between book or letter paper . A careful study of paper - marks would be interest

8 4.

n o f tai ed. The Dutch paper bore the arms the

r country the lion rampant , holding the sab e P in one paw and the arrows ( ) in the other. The history o f old paper - marks sadly n eeds a

Chaffers o r a Cripps to investigate the matter . No

h as such collection ever been attempted , nor has the subject hitherto met with the attention it

demands and deserves . Perhaps , now that anti

u arian i s m i s s o q becoming fashionable, this , like

other kindred sciences , will find some followers . In the A n ti q u ary magazine fo r November and

1 8 D ecember , 95 , may be seen two articles I wrote

- on old water marks of paper. The marks were chiefly collected from the old family papers belong

l s n o f m r l ing to the P u e to s E a . These papers

o f were , I fear, burnt after the death my uncle ,

P ules t n t h e o . late Sir Gresley , Bart

- As regards paper and paper making , Mr . S . L .

Sotheby published a costly work . There is also

a small book written by Mr. Richard Herring in

1 86 3 . Another important part o f a deed is the ink

with which it was written . Each scribe had his

o wn fo r particular receipt making it , the principal

i o ak- o f ngredients being galls and sulphate iron . Many chemicals are recommended as restoratives

fo r faded ink , but these should be avoided as far

as di sfi ure possible , as they are liable to stain and g

h e n t . parchme t, and in the end make matters worse l D e d O d e s . 49

Familiarity with particular handwritings after some practice will enable the reader to make out other wise unintelligible words without any other assistant than a powerful magnifying glass . If the ink is very faint the simplest and m ost harmless restorative is sulphate o f ammonia ; but i ts loathsome smell once endured i s not easily for gotten ; the experiment i n consequence is very

i s seldom repeated , for the result scarcely good

o f s o enough to risk a repetition horrible a smell ,

i s f and it liable to af ect the M SS .

Coloured inks or pigments were seldom , if ever ,

n employed for legal docume ts . The use of these was restricted to the Cloister , req uiring manipula

o f tion by an illuminator instead a mere scribe .

n us e Red , blue , and gree were in ; these were

was m ineral colours . The red composed either of

- red lead or oxide of iron , the green from copper, and the blue from lapis lazuli finely powdered , or

to o e w as else it , , like the gre n , prepared from an oxide of copper . Illuminating was a separate profession apart

f r from that o writing . The charter o missal was

finished by the scribe, and then handed over to the artist t o be adorned with fanciful capital

e - l tters and elaborate scroll works . Such orna

was mentation unnecessary for legal documents ,

h ad yet sometimes these fancy headings , which , like the illuminations , were put in after the 4 5 0 Old D eeds .

was as i s writing fi nished , proved by the occa

u o f i s sio al omission them , although Space left where they ought to have been filled in .

- Seals and sealing wax deserve a few words . These came into use gradually The earliest

r i n deeds are ve y small , and have very small significant seals . There are some very fine seals in the Record Offi ce M useu m (formerly the Rolls

Chapel). It i s said that neither the Saxon nor Norma n noblemen could sign their own names , but instead employed t he Christian sign of the cross (still in u se among the illiterate) as their pledge o f good

n faith , and to wit ess their consent and approval . The u s e o f seals as appendices t o deeds w as a further proof that the deed itself was approved

’ o r was and executed . A man s seal Signet al ways It w regarded as h i s most sacred possession . as destroyed after death to avoid i ts being used for fraudulent purposes .

u se o f - n i s The Signet ri gs very ancient . Many o ld Roman and Saxon Signet - rings have been dug

o f up from time to time in various parts England . Small private seals beari n g devices app ear to have been attached to deeds o f the fourteenth and

fifteenth centuries .

o f Many the large wax seals are very beautiful ,

fe w & but , alas in private collections of deeds exist

o f Th e in any state perfection . wax used for Old D eeds . 5 1 them w as either i ts natural colour o r else a sealing

o r wax of a very dark green , also black , red ;

w as n o w white, also , used , discoloured by age into a dingy yellow . Besides the royal seals , each

it s abbey had own particular seal , bearing either a

o f i ts o r view the abbey , a portrait of patron saint , i ts o r badge shield . M any of these are described

‘ ’ M o n asti c o n was by Dugdale in the , but he unable to discover the devices pertaining to the

o r lesser houses cells . The fashion for large seals d ied out , till at last only royal grants or similar docum e nts o f the sixteenth century h ave them attached . I n the Georgian period we find small

m o f private seals placed on the argins deeds . These were not always the arms and crest o f the person against whose signature they appear— perhaps belon ged to the lawyer or one o f the contracting

i s parties . H ere it that a knowledge of heraldry i s extremely useful . The size and shape o f a deed at first glance goes far with the experienced reader to determine

h as i ts age , even before a single word of it been read likewise the general aspect will give a slight

hin t as to the possible co n tents without decipher f ing any o it . The deeds relative to the earliest grants o f land

are very small in size , a marked contrast to the voluminous sheets o f parchment considered n e c e s

o r sary to a modern conveyance deed . The writing 4—2 2 ld D ee 5 O ds .

was w as o ften minute , but each letter carefully formed . Many early deeds are in far better preservation than some o f those writt e n several

n e w was ce turies lat r , hen less attention paid to

o n d the materials which they were indite , or the ink used . C HAPTER V .

L AW H N L S TEC ICA ITIE .

H E two chief divisions into wh ich all law deeds may be roughly classified are the

- e i s deed pol and the indenture . The former a

o f o n e square piece parchment , made by person ,

o r such as a will a bond , the indenture being

o f the work several parties . Of this latter kind are deeds of trusteeship , marriage settlements ,

o r mortgages , and sales transfers of land . The indenture was s o called from the fact that

was — a its upper edge vandyked , or indented very secure but primitive method of testing au th e n ti c i t y; each party had a copy . These duplicates were written on a single strip of parchment merely cut asunder afterwards , through a word

‘ written between the two copies , such as chiro

’ ra h u m g p , so that when required to be produced as evidence the two divided portions and words would fit each other exactly— indisputable evi [ 5 3 ] 5 4 L aw Tecnn i cali ti es .

i n dence of their originality , both simple and

e n i o u s g .

A very com mon form of deed , met with among

‘ ’ - s o - title deeds , is the Fine , technically called from

‘ its opening sentence & H ic e st fin ali s concordia

’ ’ facta in curia Domini Regis ; the Sovereign s name follows with the year of accession , after which are the names of the buyer and seller of the property , a full description of the amount of acreage , tenements , etc . After warranting the

i ts whole for life to purchaser , the deed concludes with the s u m o f money paid for the property ; this is written in words , not figures . These deeds are more puzzling to amateurs than any other .

‘ ’ The Fines are narrow strips of parchment , two in number ; they are closely covered with f black lettering , making them at first di ficult to decipher . This transfer of land by ‘ fine ’ originated at first from an actual suit at law commenced to

o f recover possession the lands , and by this means to establish a clear indisputable title to it ; in

was course of time the suit discontinued , but the

was form of wording retained by custom .

‘ ‘ s o A says Blackstone , is called because it puts an end to the suit (from the Latin

n i s word fi , an end), which , when once decided , puts an end not only to that suit , but also to all other controversies concerning the same matter ,

L w Te nn li t a c i ca i es . 5 7

was cerned in any way in it , brought forward to warrant the title of the real owner , who then came forward bringing a witness proving owner ship to his property ; thus an u ndisputable title to the land was established . A deed of recovery was then issued rehearsing the whole transaction ,

o f agreeing that a certain sum money , equivalent to the value of the land , should be paid by the

a was purchaser ; and here the barg in concluded , and the curtain fell on the legal farce . Some of these recovery deeds are q uite works

c o u rth an d of art . They are written in on large squares of parchment , smooth and white . The heading and capital letter are ornamented with

- e n scroll work in pen and ink . Generally an graved portrait of the reigning Sovereign was

w as added . Part of this ornamentation done by

h . and , and the rest completed with steel engraving The most elaborate deeds are those of the Stuart monarchs , especially towards the end of the seventeenth century , but after the time of the second George these well - executed deeds dis appear . The oldest statute relating to Recoveries of which I find any me n tion is of the commence ment of the reign of H enry VI I . , but I have not met with any as early in date as this . A beginner finds much difficulty in deciding between deeds of sale or appointment of trustees 8 L aw Tecnn i cali ti es 5 . for the safe custody of land to secure marriage portions and deeds of mortgage . All these three

i n an d deeds are , point of size general outline , nearly identical ; the experienced lawyer can detect them at once ; he needs only to study what is called the Operative part of the document , avoiding any waste of time which wading through the technical phrases involves . One of the commonest forms of deeds met with relative to the sale of land is that known as

’ Lease and Release , a method invented by

Serjeant Moore in the reign of Henry VI I I . , which , from its simplicity , speedily became very popular, and superseded the other forms o f sale . The principal deeds referring to a Lease and

Release are two in number . The smaller of these is generally found wrapped up within the larger parchment , as the two had to be kept together, f being in reality part and parcel o each other . The smaller parchment was the lease drawn up between the parties ; by it a formal lease for a year of the premises o r land was granted by the owner to the purchaser, but no mention of any rent or sum of money is made in it , and herein is the difference between the sale - lease and an ordinary lease , for in this latter both the term of years and the yearly rental are expressly named .

’ The Release , or larger parchment, is dated a L w n li t e a Tecn i ca i s . 5 9

w day following the lease hich it cancels , hereby

‘ gaining its name of release . It is in reality the

fo r actual deed of sale , for the price paid the land

u will be found in it , and a f ll and complete warranty securing it for ever to the purchaser. An ordinary lease of premises is worded simi larl f y to the above , but dif ers from it in several ways ; usually it is a larger sh e et of parchment .

The term of years varies from three , five, seven ,

- o n e to twenty , at a fixed rent paid either half yearly or quarterly at the four principal feasts ,

Lady Day , or the Feast of the Annunciation , the

Feast of St . John , or Midsummer , St . Michael and

All Angels , better known as Michaelmas , and the

Feast of the Nativity, popularly called Christmas

Day . These deeds commence with the date of the day , month and year, followed by the names of the persons contracting the agreement , with

c o - those of their trustees , or witnesses , usually selected from amo n g relatives or con n e ctions by

A n marriage , or else immediate neighbours .

i s i ts exact terrier of the land given , locality ,

field- names , and acreage . Three parts of the way down the sheet o f parchment will be found the rent and term of years for which the land is

as to granted , together with stipulations repairs , rights of ingress and egress ; any services , customs

w o r or heriots, hether due in kind by payment ; w last of all comes the arrant against intruders . 6 0 L aw Tecnn i cali ti es .

Of course , with deeds of sale there are other legal documentary forms , with variations of wording , but the two last above described are those generally met with .

’ Th e o i s f oldest f rm of sale called a feo fment, or l f grant . External y i t d if ers little in appearance

’ as i ts from a fine , at least regards earliest form ,

- both being very small , closely written deeds ; the

se t first was in the lawyer type of handwriting ,

was c o u rth an d while a fine indited in .

‘ ’ was l A feoffment , or grant , the o dest and simplest form o f document ; but in later times it

‘ ’ w as d o f s followed by a eed Use , which required many other deeds to follow in i ts wake before a f permanent and satisfactory sale was ef ected . It i s all these legal formalities which make the reading of old deeds s o unnecessarily con fusing ; their intricacies can only be mastered by

o f careful study books on legal matters , and a comparison o f the several kin ds of deeds above f enumerated . A mortgage deed dif ers from the

& sales or leases in several particulars firstly, the term of years granted i s usually absurdly long nine hundred or a thousand years , perhaps ; while in lieu of money the nominal rent of one peppercorn yearly, or some equally insignificant

e was d e equival nt , emanded . In plac of the rent in an ordinary lease the real reason o f the m i s ortgage given in full , with the date and i t 6 L aw Tecnn i cal i es . I

appointed place where and when the borrowed

n money is to be repaid . Ofte the Vicarage , or ’ — the parson s house , was chosen perhaps con

s ide red as an additional guard against fraud ,

as and that the clergyman a witness , being a dis

o n interested party , would see j ustice done both

e Sides . No mortgage deeds are old ; the old r d ones , if they existe , were probably destroyed as

soon as t he transaction was finished . Most O f those found among family papers are of the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , and refer to

small pieces of land or cottages , showing that even then the small owners became involved in debts f and di ficulties , being obliged to raise money upon

their holdings , until finally the land itself had to be

sold to satisfy the demands of the creditors , the purchaser usually being the nearest large landed

proprietor, who paid a better price for what would j oin on to and complete the area of his estate . These small holdings had probably been ac c u m u

lated bit by bit out of the waste . First , perhaps,

the settler rigged up a primitive dwelling , or hut , the old tradition being that if a roofed dwelling with a chimney could be erected in one night

a was claim to the land thereby established . I f

undisturbed , the squatter would gradually extend h i s boundaries ; but a small rent was generally demanded by the lord o f the manor as an acknow ledgment of the encroachment ; these little holdings l i es 6 2 L aw Tecnn i ca i c .

‘ ’ - are called key holdings , and are to be found in

a all p rts of England . At present there i s a growing desire to increase

‘ ’ o f the number small proprietors ; fashion , it is

‘ ’ a said , repe ts itself periodically . Former ex p eri e n c e showed the result Of small holders to be a

n o failure ; land , however small in acreage, can be worked without capital a succession of bad seasons causes immediate loss and continuous outlay with out a compensati n g return ; debts o n ce begun are apt to accumulate ; all trades are worked cheaper

w . as on a holesale scale Bit by bit , failure comes, the small pi e ces o f land will roll up into large

n o f properties agai , like balls quicksilver separated on ly for awhile . Many of the deeds of mortgage are s ad and silent witnesses o f the gradual decay and down f l fall o o d families . The squire raised money to

o ff . pay trusts , legacies , and dowers H e pledged h i s mansion and in the inventory of h i s household ff e ects we can study many queer facts . Our

’ ancestors homes were scantily furnished ; such

u s fo r lists surprise , they show what a very small amount o f furniture w as formerly considered n ec e s sary to render a house habitable . Among family papers there i s often another class of deeds altogether o n e is a small square piece of parchment , with a huge seal attached ; this is

bo x often enclosed in a rough tin case or . These

T nn i t 6 4 L aw ec cali ies .

w as fo r knowledge of Latin essential a priest , and education was almost entirely confined to the

. a monks or their pupils Thomas Beckett , as

h i s Archbishop , issued mandate on the subject of parochial presentations as a means of retaining

n t s o such i sti utions in episcopal hands , and avoid ing any appeals to the Pope which might be made

h is r by legates o the abbots . With the monas te ri e s the chantries also passed away , soon being forgotten ; numberless small u n be n e fic ed chapels l were then al owed to fall into ruins , the sites even

n o w of these having been lost . Deeds recounting the appointment of chantry priests are rare , and always possess some points of interest ; often chantry priests were appointed by bequest , an d su ms of money left for their w maintenance . These appear , ho ever , to have

been entirely distinct from the parish priest , although perhaps the office may eventually have merged into one and the same . There seems from earliest times to have existed a j ealousy between Cathedral bodies and the monks ; but as the monastic orders waxed more and more wealthy and influential , we lose sight of the contention , and on all questions of early Church history there ye t needs an impartial writer to decide many matters which at present are f still uncertain , and are viewed by dif erent writers according to their own particular religious bias , ’ S H ERI FF S ROLL (N EV I LLE (See p ag e 6 6 L w T nn i a ec cali ti es . whether Anglican or Roman ; hence as history they are t o o prejudiced to be entirely relied upon . A sheriff formerly was the most important

hi s o r personage in county , being the ambassador representative of the Sovereign . He was ap pointed directly by the Cro wn even at the present day th e n ames of three county gentlemen are written down and supposed to be presented to

wh o n the King , pricks the ame of the man chosen to be sheriff ; but really the names follow

o u t - n in sequence , each going Sheriff addi g a fresh name to the list previous to h i s o wn being erased

h i s as having served turn . The formal deed o f appointment as sheriff was a narrow parchment strip , with a fine seal attached to it ; hi s discharge from office was a very unim

- portant looking document .

’ The sheriff s roll was the yearly bill o f expenses

’ incurred in the King s name by h i s sheriff o r representative ; as a rule they are n o t very

m O f interesting , although here and there the na es

to ffi men appointed local o ces may appear, facts which might interest the local historian ; but he would have to wade through the contents of many rolls before he extracted any information

worth his attention , and m uch time would have

to be expended over such a search . These rolls are long broad strips of parchment stitched n l 6 L aw Tec n i ca i tz es . 7

i s e together ; the upper edge sometim s cut square ,

o ut n and at others i to a point or peak . The wording runs as follows

I n Magn o R o tulo de an n o in Co mitatu

o f o f A list the Sheriffs England (Henry I . to

i s fourth year o f Edward I I I . ) to be found in the

- first 2 6 2 o f thirty report , page , the Deputy Keeper

R o f ff i of the P ublic ecords . A list sheri s s pub li sh e d f & (Public Record O fice Lists and Indices ,

f- No . I n some counties sherif lists with additional genealogies an d n otes have been com

o f piled , giving a very good county history the oldest families of the Shire .

A royal pardon was a deed - poll with a

to beautiful seal attached it . It commenced

’ with the Sovereign s name . The writing was

was exact and well executed . The deed divided

o f into clauses or sections , the commencing word each being written in very clear black letters .

‘ ’ After the word S c iat i s comes the royal license

o f i ts i s and the name recipient , who forgiven all rebellion and insurrection against the Crown , all

o r homicide , felony , robbery participation with

’ i s such , and the pardoned subj ect permitted to

‘ ’ retain h i s possessions & the word P e rdo n am u s

o f n f coming about the centre the document . U o r t u n at ely n o information i s given in the charter in any way as to the particular cause for pardon 5 —2 L aw Tecnn i cali ti es 6 8 .

h being granted or the offence committed . T is can

o f n only be guessed at by the help E glish history , and a probable reason be assigned from among

n the many disputed accessio s , civil wars , religious controversies of bygone centuries, all probable

o f sources high treason against the Crown . Few o ld families were exempt from charges of treason if they chanced to take any part in public affairs or were known to have been stanch adherents to prohibited religion . — A bond is a smal l paper o r parchment o u o n e

n side writte in English , on the other in Latin the promise to repay or pay m oney due ; generally i the bond is in Latin , and the conditions of t written in English . Bonds were made out on the sale of property , or for mortgages or legacies they occur in numbers among family papers . I f the deed does not begin with the King ’s name

n in whose reign it was made , the year of the reig will be found at the end . It must be remembered that Henry VI . and Charles I I . are both puzzling , owing to civil wars , and both reckoned from the date of the death of the previous Sovereign .

1 2 2 H enry VI . is reckoned from 4 , and includes — the whole period till his death forty - nine and a — half years o f which only thirty - eight and a

was i s half years he actually King . Charles I I .

1 6 reckoned from the year 49 . These are the principal kinds of deeds met L aw Te nn aliti e 6 c i c s . 9

with among family papers , being the commonest

o f legal forms . I f others are found an unusual character they should be put aside for closer investigation when practice has given greater ex

e ri e n c e p , or be submitted to an expert for ex amination . C HAPTER VI .

A N D LLS MANOR CO URT RO .

H E oldest account of an estate is to be

n o t obtained , from deeds of purchase and

a i ts l mortg ge , but from own private records , cal ed

o f n court rolls , a most curious class docume ts , puzzling to the antiquary because they co n tain local words obsolete and not recognisable through derivation . Manor rolls are a study in themselves ,

u s a subject hitherto overlooked . They give an insight into the most pri mitive form o f local govern ment , Showing the manner in which lawlessness and disregard o f laws were kept under before a regular magisterial j urisdiction came into existence . The local manor court occupied the position and did the work now undertaken by the magistrates ,

County Court j udges , and County Councils . When complaints are raised as to an excessive impositio n of fines for trivial misdemeanours by any of these m odern means of j ustice , I would advise the com [ 70 ]

2 R 7 M a n or an d Co u rt o lls .

to holdings , of which they had every year give account to the lord of the manor . Upon the death of a tenant , or the expiration of the lease , new presentments were made to the landlord fo r

o r ad mission to the premises , a fresh life added

o to the lease from time to time . In these r lls we fi nd notices of heriots and other o ld services due

o f from the tenants certain lands ; indeed , these o ld w customs are not yet holly extinct , though they have frequently fallen into abeyance . On

as a some estates heriots are still due , but , rule , have for many generations been compoun ded fo r

w a by a money payment , j ust in the same y that feudal service passed into small sums o f mo n ey

o u t and fi nally died , or eventually took the form of money rent . On many farms it was part o f the rent to give

l o r the land ord yearly , geese cheese . I n a small farm o f ours in Cheshire the tenant had to give

do a cheese yearly, cart coals , keep a g and a

fi hti n - hi s g g cock for landlord . The manorial history of England would carry us back very far did we attempt to trace it to its

e earliest b ginnings . Perhaps the very first step towards it was the settlement of the Saxon tribes , who , in appropriating and distributing the land , laid the foundation of hereditary ownership . There is no rule or limit as to how many manors there might be in each parish . Clearly the parish was M n r n d C u rt R a o a o olls . 73 the older division of the two ; n o r can the creation of a manor be dated in any way, for m any of the old manors were subsequently split up into two o r

o r more lesser ones . The affixes manorial names are known to have , in some instances , varied with the family who held the land . Almost without exception these manorial nam es were directly derived from the possessors . Few are older than the Norman period , perhaps having supplanted those in existence previously . Where double paro chial names are used , the first is usually Saxon , the f a fix being a Norman addition , showing the fusion of the two races , which , though living in close proximity, were yet totally distinct from each other . During the M iddle Ages manors were further

fo r subdivided , easily to be accounted in this way & The owner of a manor w as at first start the

Of w f tenant some ealthy and power ul nobleman ,

who , owning vast tracts of land , sublet it out in

manors , which were after some generations bought

outright , or looked upon almost as freehold . The tenant was the resident squire of the place , living

on the land , and farming it with the assistance of his children and dependents . After a time the family grew up, the sons married and needed

wn homes of their O . I n those days no one m oved

far away from the birthplace . What was more natural than that the squire shou ld provide homes

- for his children close around the old manor house , 74 M a n or an d Cou rt R olls .

o ff and , dividing the property by the manorial

- boundaries , give to each a portion for self main

t e n an c e P o ld- This accounts for the large , fashioned

farmhouses to be found in most country parishes .

o f The history each farm , if investigated , will furnish a curious proof o f the conservatism with w hich certain boundaries were preserved , and the manors regarded as sections seldom subdivided

except into recognised lesser manors . Society was very primitive two or three hundred

was to years ago . It then possible live comfort

ably and make a living o u t of the land . No foreign grain was imported to affect the prices

of corn in country places. Competition was

unknown , and the people led a quiet , uneventful

existence , following in the footsteps of their fore

fathers . Gradually changes have come about . The o ld race o f yeomen has died out ; the few that are left make us forcibly regret that this

should be the case . The yeoman was a man o f good education and long pedigree he belonged to the largest section

‘ ’ A ri c ul of English society, called middle class . g

ture was his profession ; he seldom left home , consequently had few opportunities of spending money ; the character and personal history of every human being on the place was intimately

known to him , for the villagers lived and died in their native villages . The roads were bad , there M an o r an d Cou rt R olls. 7 5 fore traffic from place to place was restricted to

was what absolutely necessary. Posts and pas senger coaches were rarities , and when first started met with little patronage from the maj ority of the people .

To return to the manorial courts . These were

w as held but once during the year. It the annual

‘ o f audit the freemen on the estate , the Visus

’ fran c i le ii as p g , the opening words of the court roll states . Quarter sessions were held four times in the

’ year, while the sheriff s tourn took place half

o f yearly . These inquired into matters public m interest and public expense , whereas the anor court dealt with trivial matters pertaining to the

’ an d manor itsel f. The sheriff s tourn the manorial court were almos t identical in object ; the first was the representative of the Crown dispe n sing j ustice

’ to the King s subjects ; in a lesser radius and degree the lord of the manor had a Similar office to fulfil .

Manors were ruled by custom , and customs ff varied in di erent places . The general aspect of a court roll will always be found to be identical .

The older rolls are in Latin , but , like the deeds , the later ones are written in English . The earliest ones are literally ‘ rolls ’ closely written on parch ment in the handwriting called by the French

’ minuscule .

n r n d u M a o a Co rt R olls . 7 7

Every court roll has at its commencement the name of the manor written either above o r on the

‘ margin . The opening words read thus & Visus i l ii ’ fran c p eg cum curia . After this is the name of

the lord of the manor , the date of the day and

’ month , followed by the King s name and the

number of years since he ascended the throne .

Esson . , on the margin , is the abbreviation for — esson i u i n wh o , an excuse namely , the j urymen

pleaded absence from the court . Following this are the names of the twelve j urymen present , and then the work begins . In the older rol ls the presentment of offences are the principal items ; latterly o n ly the tenants and their leases employed the attention of the

i ts u court at ann al sitting . The first thing to consider was usually the assize

— s o licensing , to Speak , of bread and ale . By this

means fraud and adulteration were held in check . The right of brewing ale was a privilege not to be infringed without penalty ; the fine imposed was

1 d at the rate of . for each illegal brewing ; the

f n of enders are ge erally women .

Any damage to crops or fences, highways need

ing repair , quarrels ending in bloodshed, neglect by which animals were permitted to stray and become seized by the hayward or pinder—all such offences

are found chronicled in the court roll . Last of all

is the sum total received in fines , signed by the 8 M n or an d Cou rt R 7 a olls . names of the two officers appointed to superintend the assize . A court roll i s always written throughout in one

w o r hand riting , without any private marks Signa tures . From the writing , they are generally the work o f a professional scribe o r clerk wh o must have

— first as had a regular education a Latin scholar,

as secondly an accountant , and thirdly probably

t r learnt o write before he learnt Latin . Mistakes o erasures are seldom t o be detected therefore the rolls m ust have been carefully copied at leisure from rough notes made at the time moreover , the

i s spelling of the surnames fairly constant , which

n o t would be if written from dictation . Up to the Reformation period the court rolls

as were cherished being valuable records , providing

fo r standards future reference ; hence we find , until then , a fairly perfect sequence of these yearly rolls , after which a break occurs , and only a casual roll here and there is preserved . No guide t o court rolls would be complete unless the oldest form o f the Arabic numerals is given and explained . The Roman numerals are the oldest method o f

s o writing figures in Europe, but gradually the called Arabic figures (really o f Indian origin) were

To introduced , superseding the former style .

Ge rbe rt . , otherwise known as Pope Silvester I I (he died in is attributed their introduction

8 M n r an d u r 0 a o Co t R olls .

h as figure 5 passed through most variation , while

6 8 . , and 9 have scarcely altered at all It must be remembered that before 1 7 5 2 the Old

w as Style still used in England . The year there

o n 2 th o f as fore commenced March 5 instead , it does

o n I s t w as at present , J anuary . When the calendar

1 2 corrected in 7 5 eleven days were omitted , and

2 n d 1 September was followed by September 4th .

The people bewailed it , and contemporary skits

‘ are numerous , echoing the popular cry of Give

’ u s back our lost eleven days . On the Continent

n the alteration had taken place lo g before . I n some English parish church registers we find con fusion as to the actual year date to be used for the w months bet een Christmas and Lady Day . This

e 1 0 uncertainty may be observed b fore 7 5 . I n many country places the o ld style was maintained

1 2 long after the year 7 5 . I have a very curious old calendar of 1 483 in ’ - it the saints days are veritable red letter days . M any of the saints named are unknown to u s either by name or legend , but in court rolls only the principal Saints ’ days are mentioned as those on

s at which the court . Some months seem to have been more favoured

’ a with saints days th n others . The following list, though by no means complete , gives the chief English saints M n r an d u r a o Co t R olls . 8 1

an u ar j y .

1 Ci rc u mc i si . o Domini .

1 3 . St . Veronica .

1 3 . St . Hilary

2 O f 5 . Conversion St . Paul .

Februar y .

St. Bride , or Bridget .

Purification of the Virgin , Candle

mas Day .

St . Matthias the Apostle .

St . David .

St . Chad .

A D 2 St . Lucius , Pope and Martyr, . . 5 3.

St . Benet , or Benedict .

St . Edward .

’ St . Joseph , the Virgin s husband .

St . Cuthbert .

a - Annunciation of the Virgin . L dy Day .

2 3 . St . George .

2 . 5 . St . Mark the Evangelist 8 2 M a n o r an d Cou rt R olls .

1 . St . Philip and St . James the Less ,

Apostles .

St . Athanasius . Invention (or discovery) of the Holy

Cross .

St . Hilary , Bishop of Arles . The two

saints of this name are confusing , but

this St . H ilary is rarely mentioned in

English documents .

St . Augustine .

St . Barnabas , Apostle .

St . Anthony of Padua .

St . Alban .

Nativity of St . John the Baptist .

summer Day .

Sts . Peter and Paul , Apostles .

t . . S Paul , Apostle

Visitation of the Blessed Virgin .

St . Swithin .

St . Mary Magdalen . A St . James the Great , postle .

St . Christopher. Lam mastide .

n u rt R o 8 4 M a n or a d Co lls .

rVove/i i tfier

’ All Saints Day .

’ All Souls Day .

n St . Martin . Marti mas .

St . Ed mund .

Presentation of the Blessed Virgin .

St . Cecilia .

St . Catherine .

St . Andrew , Apostle .

Decei n lz er

St . Nicholas .

The Conception of the Blessed Virgin .

St . Lucy .

St . Thomas, Apostle .

The Nativity of our Blessed Lord .

Christmas .

St . Stephen .

St . John , Evangelist and Apostle .

The H oly Innocents . a St . Thomas Beckett .

The saints ’ days were brought before the people

— i n in many ways the village feasts , or the dedica tion of churches , in the mural paintings which covered the church walls , and in the Christian names given at baptism . I n the old rolls the date M n o r an d Cou rt R o 8 a lls . 5

i s of the month never mentioned , the principal

- feast day nearest to it being used instead . ’ w Saints days , as holidays , ere probably the most convenient d ays fo r assembling togeth er fo r business . C HAPTER VI I .

S H S MONA TIC C ARTER .

VE RY abbey o f any importance kept a char

t u lar — i n o f its y other words , a catalogue possessions in the copies o f grants o f land all — c ollected within o n e or more volumes a carefully compiled work , giving all the benefactions and privi

o r leges of the foundation , entered by the scribe secretary of the establishment , who must have

o f h i s fo r spent many hours life over the work , these books are rarely found to be the work o f more than

o r tw o — o n e on e , at m ost , men handwriting con tin n ing on until replaced by another . Great care and neatness was used in the formation o f each black letter—even and perfect as the most exact printing ever done by machinery . Each charter

z an was emphasi ed with elaborate capital letter, and the index o r headings to them were filled i n after the writing was finished , as is proved by the [ 86 ]

a c li a rt rs 8 8 M on sti C e .

o f s the nature large training college , where learn

i n o n g was carried .

The missio n o f St . Augustine extended the

t o monastic system , and spread Christianity a

wider extent . It also encouraged the resort

o f hither foreign monks . Great rivalry existed between the English bi s hops and these foreign

missionary priests , a feud which never seems

n to e tirely have died out . The largest n umber of English abbeys sprang up after the Norman Con

u q est . The invaders manifested their religion by bestowing large grants o f lands as votive offer

ings and in token of gratitude , while Duke

’ W illiam s honest repayment o f the loans give n him fo r the equipment of h is armada brought over hundreds of priests and monks to take

possession o f their new territories . Church build ing was a religious work often undertaken fo r the

i s expiation of sins . Voluntary work always the

To o f best of its kind . this day the remains the old Norman abbeys surprise u s with their

solidity o f structure and elegance of design .

They must , indeed , have been beautiful when the interiors were fitted up with corresponding

magnificence . At first the monks were poor

o f n they were given land , not always the best , ofte i n wild and unfrequented regions ; but by frugality, skill and industry , they soon brought it into a

e fertile state , and liv d on its produce and the gifts t k rt r M on as ic C a e s. 89

of their patrons . The Cistercians were great

- wool dealers , and we know how much English cloth was prized at home and abroad for its

o f goodness o f quality . I n course time the monks , by their labours , became rich . The need for toil being over, they sank into indolent

f - a fluence ; instead of hard working communities , they became wealthy landowners . The abbots were miniature kings , ruling over their vassals

s ur and dependents , living in almost royal state , f rounded by their court . The history o monastic

y England extends over very man centuries , even if its commencement i s only placed at the arrival

A D . of St . Augustine in 5 97 , or later still , with the

Norman invasion . Changes of all kinds took place in those long centuries . Large abbeys had sunk into poverty , and others arisen in their places . The monks had been subdivided into orders , each having its own

o f was peculiar rules . The oldest these the Bene dic ti n e wh o , or Black Monks, held most of the

— 1 6 largest monasteries as many as 5 in number.

From this Order arose the Cistercians , even more — severe in their regulations popular in England , probably from having had an Englishman as their founder , Stephen H arding , head of the Monastery

i ste rc i u m 1 1 2 of Citeaux (C )about the year 5 . This order had been approved by the Pope twenty - five 86 years previously . Gasquet gives the names of M n t c li r r 9 0 o as i C a te s .

s 2 6 Cistercian hou es in England , the Cluniac as ,

as and Carthusian 9 . These lesser orders had

as each its own distinctive rules, but , the above w figures Sho , were less popular than the older

o f w as orders of monks . The number nunneries also very large (Gasquet gives These were principally of the Benedictine Order . I have s een it stated that there was only one house o f

White Nuns in England , that of Grace Dieu , in i s . Leicestershire , but this not correct

A s o ld the Benedictine Order relaxed in severity , the Cistercians came forward , and when these

n o fo r were longer conspicuous piety and austerity , there arose the wandering missionaries known as

wh o Friars , were also eloquent preachers , a marked

- contrast to the half educated clergy . These friars

to were mendicants , bound by oath neither possess

n o r n o r . land money , to enjoy luxury They went about preaching throughout the country ; it was

‘ the o ld story o f the house divided against itself being unable to stand The friars preached

‘ against the monks , and the monks Opposed the

o f clergy, ending in the downfall the three rivals under Henry VI I I .

o f The first order friars was of Spanish origin ,

AD 1 2 0 founded by Dominic . 4 , and confirmed in

1 2 1 o f 5 . They wore a brown habit coarse hair

fe w cloth . A years later St . Francis of Assisi founded the Grey Friars , called after him Fran i c sc an s . n A D . 1 2 2 These came to Engla d . 4, where

n r M on astic C a ters . 9 3

I n it are written the grants of lands from the ’ * s Abbey s second foundation by Henry I . Va t possessions given bit by bit— generally by those families whose ancestors lay buried i n the abbey church , for whose souls prayers were desired .

The inventories of relics are very curious, and the

e vestments also are describ d . There is a long list of the books in the a bbey libraries of Reading and Leominster . All the books in this long list disappeared , no one knows where or how. Two volumes , a missal and a book of hours , said once to have been part of the abbey library , were sold

1 8 8 by auction in 9 . Nor was Reading the only instance of the total disappearance of valuable monastic manuscripts. Gasquet speaks of the t d wanton des ruction of manuscripts at this perio , and says that they were sold for all kinds of uses .

‘ M o n u me n tae Ritu li a E l Mr. Maskell , a c c esim

’ A n lic an ae g , reckons there must have been more than volumes of Church service books in

n use , and that they must have bee destroyed to prevent men from following the worship of th e ir forefathers . A most interesting article on Ancient

’ P r m e rs - y , the service books of the people , appeared

A n ti u a 1 8 2 i n the q ry of March , 9 , written by Mr .

i h ales Henry L ttle . The original deeds or grants of land to abbeys

are seldom met with among private documents .

f the rt r a A co mpl ete c o py o Cha ula y w s made by me thro ugh r o f i n all th e kindness o f th e Ea l F g .

6 M on t c Cna rters 9 as i .

m e o f ee o er N m S . e Na M d n a . Ebro i c e n s i s Bishopric . Evreux .

ado m e n si s C . Caen .

l an ten si s n li z v ec e . Sy . S

B ello vac e n si s . Beauvais .

At rebate n s i s . Arras .

Co n stan ti e n si s . Coutances . i i e n s s e . Sag . S ez A mbi an e n si s or

am aro bri ven si s S . Amiens .

A s likely to be a help towards affixing the date of undated charters I append a list of the arch bishops and Chancellors of England from the Conquest to the fourteenth century also a few of the bishops of the same period .

A rc/z bi sbo s o a n ter u r p f C b y . Stigand Lan franc Ansel m Ralph of Escures William of Corbeil Theobald Thomas aBeckett Richard Baldwin Reginald Fitz Joscelin Hubert Walter Stephen Langton M o n as tic Cba rters . 9 7

Richard le Edmund Rich Boniface of Savoy Robert Kilw ardby John Peckham Robert W i n c h e lsey

Next to Canterbury came the important bishop

was ric of London . The latter a very large

D o r and powerful diocese , originating first at A D 6 chester . . 34 , dividing into two sees , Win A D 0 chester and Sherborne , . . 7 5 , which were

& further subdivided , the latter into Sherborne and W ells , and the Winchester see into Selsey and Ramsbury (Co rv i n e n si s); all reuniting in 1 07 5 into the powerful bishopric of Old Sarum , eventually

1 2 1 8 removed to Salisbury , . Thus it will be seen that Winchester and Sherborne were the chief ff bishoprics , the others being o shoots of later creation .

The Bishops of Salisbury commenced under Herman (d ied previously known as Bishop

i rbu rn i e n sis of Sherborne (Sc ).

1 0 . Osmund , died Dec . 3 , 99

1 1 02 1 1 0 Roger , elected , consecrated 7 , died

1 1 39 .

Jocelin de Bailul , died a Cistercian Monk at

W b 1 1 8 . averley A bey , 4 98 M on astic Cba rters .

W 1 1 8 e H ubert alter , 9 , translated to Cant rbury ,

1 1 9 3 .

1 1 H erbert Poore , 94 .

1 2 1 . s e e n Richard Poore , 7 The the transferred

a to New S rum or Salisbury .

1 2 2 8 Robert Bingham , .

W 1 2 6 illiam of York , 4 .

1 2 6 Giles de Bridport , 5 . 6 W 1 2 . alter de La Wyle , 3

k h m to n 1 2 1 W e a . Robert de y p , 7

1 2 8 . Walter Scammel , 4

B rau n de s to n 1 2 8 . H enry de , 7

1 W 2 8 . illiam de La Corner , 9

L o n e s é e 1 2 Nicolas g p , 93 .

1 2 0 . Simon of Ghent , 7

M o rtiv al 1 1 Roger de , 3 5 .

B i s/t ops of Wi n ches ter wh o w ere Chan cellors of

f d William Gif ard , intro uced the Cis

t e rcian Monks i n ta n glan d Nicholas Ely John Sandall Adam O rlto n

m Ed n do n Willia y g , first Prelate of the Order of the Garter ; the Bishops o f Winchester have ever since re

tai n ed this honour 1 345 - 1 367

o o M on t c na rte r I as i C s .

William de W arren and Richard Fitz Gilbert

o f Lanfranc, Archbishop Canterbury ,

Geoffrey , Bishop of Coutances , and

Robert , Count of Mortain

o f Odo , Bishop Bayeux

. Carile h William de St p , Bishop of Durham

R an u l h o f a p Flambard , Bishop Durh m

B lo ett Robert , Bishop of Lincol n

o f Roger Le Poor , Bishop Salis bury

o f Robert de Beau mont , Earl Leicester Richard de Luci R an ulph Glanville

o f H ugh , Bishop Durham , and William , Earl o f Essex

o f D u rh am an d H ugh , Bishop , William

o f Longchamp , Bishop Ely William Longchamp alone

o f Walter Coutances , Archbishop of

Rouen 1 1 9 1 - 1 1 93

Hubert Walter , Archbishop of Canter bury

o f Geoffrey Fitz Peter , Earl Essex

Peter des Roches , Bishop of Win

n chester, ative of Poitiers H ubert de Burgh Stephen Segrave I O I M on astic Cba rters .

Hugh Bigot Hugh Le Despenser Philip Basset Ralph de H e n gham Gilbert de Thornton Roger Brabazon

Cban cellors o E n la n d f g .

H e rfast , afterwards Bishop of Elmham

O sbe rn o f , afterwards Bishop Exeter

o f Osmund , afterwards Bishop Salis bury

Maurice , afterwards Bishop of London

B e au fo e William de , afterwards Bishop of Thetford William Giffard Robert B lo ett

W alde ri c William Giffard Roger Le Poor William Giffard

W alde ric

R an ulph Geoffrey Rufus Roger Le Poor Philip Thomas aBeckett Ralph de W arn eville 1 O 2 M on st c Cbarter a i s .

f ’ Geof rey , the King s son

William Longchamp , Bishop of

Eustace , Bishop of Ely Hubert Walter Walter Grey Peter des Roches Walter Grey Richard de Marisco Ralph Neville Walter de Merton Nicolas de Ely Thomas Cantelupe W alter Giffard Godfrey Giffard Richard Middleton W alter de Merton Robert Burnell John Langton William Greenfield William of Hamilton Ralph Baldock

’ The witnesses were chose n from the King s chief

f fe w . o ficers, with a local magnates This will sometimes be a valuable guide to locality when the county is not named . But as a rule the name of the county is written on the margin , and also the name of the place, together with a brief index of the contents of the charter.

1 O P r s/i Re t r 4 a i gis e s .

Every n o w and then an outcry arises as to the condition and care of parish registers , and desire is expressed that they should be deposited in a large public office similar to the Public Record Office ; but anyone who has wished to make or obtain extracts from the registers at the diocesan registries is well aware of the trouble and expense involved .

Search fees soon mount up . As regards expense f R and di ficulty of searching, the egisters of Ire land are far worse than England . Many are the known instances where the precious volumes have f been purposely mutilated , or by neglect su fered to

as fall into decay and illegibility ; but, a whole , it is wonderful to s e e the excellent condition and

n preservatio of these old records , which , if once removed out of their own parishes into a large public collection , would lose all individ uality , and become merged in the mass of manuscripts which are more or less buried in every large library . It is a pity that some arrangement cannot be made to ensure preservation by a few Copies being printed of each register . Transcribing is gradually being undertaken privately , but ought to be worked on a more systematic plan with uniformity throughout England . The Parish

Register Society prints volumes , but there is no special library or collection of transcripts , M S. printed or , and the British Museum refuses

‘ ’ to buy any because they are not original , ter 1 0 P ari sb R egis s . 5

which , by the way, could not legally be bought or possessed by anyone . The printing of a few copies would not in any way affect the fees accruing to the clergy from t e searches , but rather tend to increase them , for at present much information i s lost because i ts where abouts is unknown . It is this question of search fees which causes such a steady resistance on the

o f part the resident clergy to any such proj ect . But in spite of this the work has bee n begun f already , and some day will be a public af air, and not left to private enterprise . The registers of many parishes are printed , or have MS . transcripts all ready for the press nor i s the expense as great as might be imagined . A few copies unbound m ay be produced at a cost of from £ 3 to

1 0 . £ , and can easily be covered by subscription

It is not unusual , when applying by letter for

e extracts from an old regist r , to receive a reply of apology from the clergyman recommending a personal search on the part of the inquirer, as the information could not be sent owi n g to inability to read the unfamiliar old handwriting . This would be avoided if a typed or printed copy properly indexed were at hand for reference , while on any important m atter, where an attested copy

o b from the original was necessary, it could be tai n e d k as heretofore , for legal wor the original must be consulted , and a certificate obtained from

n the clergyma . 1 O 6 P a ri sb R e t r gis e s .

The history of English parish registers com m e n c e s 1 6 from the Reformation year of 5 3 , copied W from the Spanish idea . hether any previous system

n had existed we are unable to say, for i formation on the subject is lacking . Here and there frag ments of registers are known earlier than the

- above quoted date , but these are the exception , n o t the rule . Deaths noted down by the chantry priests or monks are found on the margins of old w monastic breviaries , hen prayers for the souls of the departed had been desired .

The subj ect is one of vast importance , for without proper registration it is impossible to decide the legality of a marriage or prove legiti m f law acy of of spring , both necessary points of

i s where inheritance of landed property concerned .

The scheme of parochial registration , as devised

’ I I s V I . by H enry shrewd m inister Cromwell , was o n ly copied from a like plan long in us e abroad .

The idea at first , being new to the English people , met with much opposition , being mistaken for a new species of taxation . Nevertheless , Parliament ordered it to be carried o u t under penalty of fines , and , being found a valuable

was institution , submitted to , until custom fully established it . Thus our parish registers cannot

1 6 be older than 5 3 . Though in a few instances earlier M SS . exist they are the exception , for the order did not become general till two years later,

t r 1 0 8 P ari s/z R egis e s.

Another more stringent Act , to ensure yearly

’ u copies being mad e , was passed pon James I . s l ’ accession to the throne , and the c ergyman s name was to be affixed to each page as witness that the copy was faithfully exact . Had these wise regula

o u t tions been carried to the letter , and in the spirit

was i n that intended , we should now possess an valuable corroboration o f the accuracy of the parish registers ; but alas the transcripts to be found in d the iocesan registries are meagre and imperfect .

s n Year and series of years are missi g, and the entrie s are so lackin g in detail as to be practically useless . In some dioceses no transcripts remain

Rochester, for instance .

Personal search can , of course , be made among

e on the diocesan r gisters, and this is str gly to be t recommended , for any m istakes in a ranscript render it not only valueless , but mischievous . Extracts from re gisters are the most dangerous material a genealogist has to deal with . Unless further auth enticated by wills and old deeds to

eas o b confirm the relationship , it will be found no yj to piece together these broken l inks in the chain of evidence, and without wilful misrepresentation being intended , mistakes may and will occur .

e Tak , for instance, any name, and try to trace out the pedigree with the help of t he parish At w register only . first it is easy enough , hether w worked backwards or for ards , but after the first P ari sb R e ter 1 gis s . 09 three or four generations have been worked out

o all certainty of relationship is l st , and becomes confused . The handwriting of the parish registers is a com bination of the O ld set law - hand and the personal handwritings mentioned in the second chapter . Original entries entries made at the time of performing the religious ceremony) are seldom

’ o f am e s met with before the middle J I . s reign , by which time the Latin language had fallen i nto disuse . The Commonwealth Government passed an Act of Parliament appointing paid registrars to every v illage These were often illiterate men , whose only accomplishments consisted of being able to read and write, and whose zeal and dis cretio n alone regulated the keeping of the register

was - books . This duty often but ill performed , especially when age and infirmity overtook the f registrar , who continued in o fice until death f relieved him o his duties . No second registrar seemed in any case to have been appointed , nor did the Act of Parliament provide for such a c o n ti n e n c g y, and the work of keeping the registers devolved again upon the clergyman and hi s assistant clerk . For several years after the Restoration of 1 660 the registers were irregularly kept , and very erratic . The old race of educated clerks was 1 [ 0 P a ri sb R egisters .

gone . Formerly, when the registers first began , clerkships may have been filled by men educated in the monasteries , who , when turned adrift, were glad to employ themselves as priests ’ chaplains or

as private tutors a means of livelihood . Until the last century very few small schools of

fo r any kind existed the poorer classes , except those provi ded by charitable bequests . These were few and far between , and could be of little benefit to

o f the masses the people . No wonder , then , that the ill - paid clergy were obliged to be content with very uneducated men to serve in the capacity of clerk . The registers of the latter part of the seventeenth century are indited in every variety of w illegibly bad riting . The chief difficulty of reading the old registers lies in the immense variety of forms a name was capable of passing through , owing to the laxity of

English spelling and pronunciation . The people only knew their own surnames by oral tradition , and were entirely dependent upon the parish clerk, who wrote down the name as it sounded to d f f him , and as sounds have a i ferent ef ect on f f dif erent persons, the com monest names o ten appeared in very strange and unrecognisable dis guises before they finally crystallized into their

Ee le s Y e e les m odern forms . , , became Wells . It is not unusual to find items of miscellaneous in formation jotted down at random by the clergy

I& C HAPTER .

PA SH S N H KS RI OFFICER A D T EIR BOO .

M ON G the contents of the parish deed - chest wherein registers are supposed to be safely kept are often found other books and papers , seemingly of little interest or importance , but in reality very likely to yield curious and original scraps of information , with glimpses into the life

s of the poorer classes during the past centurie .

- Some day these old account books , now flung aside as worthless, will be of great importance in

’ an antiquary s eyes , for they give lists of all the residents in the parish , from the squire to the lowest and poorest , showing the social status of each ; and further, are of value when compared

as with the parish registers , giving a clue to the length of residence of inhabitants who , if of the middle class , sooner or later served their turn as f parish o ficers ; and if paupers , were entered as recipients of parochial charity . [ 1 1 2 ] P r b 1 a i s/t Ofi cers an d t/z ei r Boo s . I 3

Previous to this century the churchwardens ,

overseers , road surveyors and parish constables f held o fice for one year only , being elected at the annual Easter vestry ; now re - election is s upposed

to take place , but the post is usually carried on

from year to year without opposition . Appare n tly some rule of yearly income or rental

governed the election , or else certain tenements

were represented in rotation by their tenants , for

widows were liable to serve , in which case a son or some near neighbour was deputed to act in the

’ woman s name .

Now the custom of yearly change has died out , and a churchwarden once elected goes on from

year to year , until sickness , old age, or death renders some fresh arrangement absolutely n ec es

r sary . This statement was caught up by the e

o f viewers this book , but , nevertheless , it is perfectly w true . Surely , if in those old days , hen education

was so sparsely distributed , and even reading and writing looked upon as sciences— i f then it was possible to find men able and capable of directing f local af airs , it Seems strange that now so few are

considered fit for the post , when every day

’ labourer s so n is taught drawing and essay - writing

n h i s in additio to elementary studies .

The office of churchwarden is very old . Now

it has lost most of its prestige , and the church warden is almost forgotten except o n the Sundays 8 r an d tbei r oob I I 4 P ari s/c Ofi ce s B s . when collections are made formerly each villager

' took a personal interest in afl ai rs which some day he himself would probably be called upon to manage . The two churchwardens of a parish represented the rival interests o f it s inhabitants & the parson vers us the squire and his tenants . Each officer

’ had his clients interests to uphold and consider . The most onerous duty before the present system of Poor Law , however , fell upon the overseer of the poor, in whose hands rested the responsibility of the proper distribution of the public funds in the shape of bequests and legacies to him came appli

a d w cations for relief, n with him also ere mooted all questions relating to the disposal of paupers , both dead and alive . Edward I I I . forbade the

- giving of alms to able bodied men , but no regular

Poor Laws were invented till Henry VI I I . was

King . The first Acts of Parliament relating to Poor Laws were passed towards the conclusion of Queen

’ n ec es Elizabeth s long reign . It was absolutely sary to make some fresh statutes applicable to the new state of affairs consequent upon the Reforma tion . Previously most of the charity had been dis tributed or directed by the monks , and after these were dispersed and their l ands seized by the Crown and sold , their unfortunate dependents were rendered still more dependent, and all the severe

ri s/t cer an d tbei r oob 1 1 6 P a Offi s B s . were left very much to the discretion and honesty

o of the verseer, whose accounts were yearly scrutinized at the Easter vestry , when the parochial

i s accounts were discussed . Sometimes these d c ussi o ns were considered of sufficient importance to be entered in the parish books . Questions as to the ownership and distribution of pews in the

e church , repairs to the edifice, by whom they w re to be done , boundaries , and whose business it was to keep in order certain roads lying between rival parishes— all such matters came forward for con f sideration , and , finally , the o ficers for the ensuing year were elected , and the books handed over to the new churchwardens . Perhaps a further check upon miscellaneous entries being made in the books was that all the accounts had ‘ to be passed ’ at the nearest

Sessions and signed by the presiding magistrate , who was some neighbouring squire . The parish constable i s now replaced by the policeman supplied by the county , as visible representative of the law in rural places . One entry often found among the old accounts

fre was of repairs done to the village stocks , quently used to punish petty offences , especially drunkenness . The pound , too , often needed mending ; fines for allowing animals to stray and become e mpo u n ded are among the most frequent entries in old manor court rolls . In many places t i P a ris/i Ofi cers an d be r Boobs . 1 1 7 a hayward was a regularly appointed officer fo r this purpose, whose duty it was to capture the animals and attend to them until they were reclaimed by their owner or sold to defray expenses . In Berkshire the hayward , or pinder , gave a tally to th e person who brought the beast found on his land , and he did not deliver the beast until its owner produced the tally , proving that compensation for damage had been properly

its paid , as well as expenses for keep during d etention . The offices of overseer of the poor and of road surveyor, the latter called waywarden , are not of any great antiquity ; nor are they of consequence so far as regards the old account books, in which their elections are often not even mentioned . As

o f to the constable, we only get a casual glimpse his duties when we read a list of his expenses incurred in conveying some delinquent parishioner to the county gaol , or of journeys taken to distant places to enquire into the antecedents of paupers , a or in taking them b ck to their own villages . It is the overseers ’ accounts which are really curious—those l ong lists of garments bought to clothe the paupers and their children , the old apprentice forms by which the children were placed out in service so soon as they were capable of earning a stray Sixpence towards their own keep . Cruel as it seemed to be to send out such I 1 8 P a ri sb O cers an d tbei r B fi oobs.

w young children to ork , it was , in reality, the kindest thing that could be done for them , for it gave them a chance of thoroughly learning a trade and so becoming independent and working for themselves . With all our modern Poor Law organization and schemes of education , I believe in the end we shall eventually return to the old — system of j uvenile apprenticeships a far more practical method of teaching than any mere class instruction . Maybe a bundle of old papers are rolled together among the account books . These may be the orders for the removal of paupers back to the

‘ ’ village they called home , a custom first originated by some Acts of Parliament passed by Charles I I . At the same time the parish officers were com m an de d and forced by penalties to provide for paupers removed back into their parish , and , to prevent fraud, written proofs as to the proper home or residence of the paupers had to be obtained and prod uced ; these papers are called

‘ ’ n o w settlements . Paupers are removed back to the workhouse of their own district if they can prove a certain length of residence . The parish officers did their best for the welfare of their charges & they provided the old women

- with spinning wheels , so that they could earn a trifle for themselves , while the men were set to work on the road ; when failing in health they

1 2 0 P ari s/c O cers an d tbe i r Bo b fi o s .

war. Upon the churchwardens devolved the duty

of providing burial for soldiers slain in battle .

Such burials were not often in the churchyard ,

but on the boundaries of parishes , the expenses being defrayed equally by both parishes this was w probably an old custom in arfare , but it was

as carried out late as the Commonwealth . A

n battle was a public calamity , and the respo sibility of providing interment for the slain was therefore a public duty .

After the Restoration of Charles I I . the churches were repaired and the royal arms restored . Later on we find some parsons resigning their work from

at nonconforming scruples ; this time , too , are notices of excommunicated persons . The Puritan

’ I I s z eal was aroused by J ames . inj udicious attempt to restore Catholicism and attendance at church ,

w as first commanded by Queen Elizabeth , further enforced by an order that taking of the Sacrament should be regarded as a test of conformity ; for disobedience the punishment of excommunication

’ was inflicted upon the churchwardens application to the bishop . The Recusants, as papists were

i n called , were treated with great severity and j ustice , and heavily fined for their religious beliefs . Any fresh Act of Parliament with reference to fees or taxes was soon noted in the parish books . ff Fees varied in di erent places , according to custom . Prior to the eighteenth century fees for P ari sb O cers an d tbei r Boob 1 fi s. 2 1

burial within the church were payable to the

’ churchwardens, but afterwards became the parson s

’ perquisite . These entries in the churchwardens books may lead to the identification o f Vaults and

interments not noted in the parish register, and

consequently forgotten . The burial of strangers was always charged for at a higher rate ; for

paupers the parish paid the expenses , and the tax d of 3 . on each burial , as levied by Act of Parlia

ment , was not enforced . Taxes were levied on

many things under the Georges , but none were

more obnoxious to the people than the birth ,

marriage , and death taxes, of which the clergyman

- was made to act as a most unwilling tax gatherer. The window- tax fell heavily on old manor houses pierced with innumerable windows and

Skylights . I t was then that many windows were

blocked up to avoid payment . In the last century are many entries of payment for the release of men seized for service in the army or navy ; when the father of a family went away , his wife and children were left to be pro v ided for by charity , and the first payment by the churchwardens for his release was in the end the cheapest . A list of rails (spelt usually rayles surround ing the churchyard reminds one of another almost obsolete custom , that of each person repairing the rail in the fence next to his property or for which 1 2 2 P a ri sb O cers a n d tbei r Boob ffi s.

he was liable . The liability was attached to the land , though custom decided whether the owner or the occupier was the person to do such repairs . h Last , not least , in the paris chest were bundles

‘ ’ o f old papers , technically know as briefs . In the accoun t books all church collections were duly entered . Originally collections were more of the nature of voluntary rates , for the name of each

s u m donor is given and the he gave , varying in accordance with his social position and means .

The origin of church collections is obscure ; no doubt the offerings given at the Sacrament were always devoted to the relief of poverty and distress . To regulate and restrict the right of levying

o f collections Acts Parliament were passed , and no collection was allo wed to be made without a

’ proper license called a brief ; but the issuing o f these grew to an alarming extent . Briefs were

fo r Of issued all sorts emergencies and disasters , principally for damage by fire, there being then f n o insurance o fices ; and the old buildings , once s et alight, were seldom rescued from total demo li i n t o . A complete list of early briefs would be

s o curious, but would be extensive as to fill a large

h as volume . The subject not met with the interest

n o w it deserves, but I believe it is beginning to be studied .

The churchwardens probably kept few , if any ,

1 2 P ari sb O cers an d tbe i r Boob 4 fi s .

To inhabitants of Sulhamstead village this may have had a keener interest in that Samuel Morland , afterwards made a baronet , the son of a former rector , Rev . Thomas M orland , was sent out by Gover n ment in 1 6 5 5 to inquire into the condition of the Waldenses , and he wrote thereon a book

n descriptive of the country and its inhabita ts .

n so n Marti Morland , another of the rector, had — returned to h i s old home at the Restoration he — re signed his living in I 6 6 5 for here two of his

n so s were born .

1 68 7 . Brief for loss by fire in Aylesford .

1 6 8 . 9 . Loss by fire at Bishops Lavington , Wilts

1 6 0 mithfie ld . S 9 Ditto , East . ff Town of Sta ord . ff Town of Bungay , Su olk . 6 ’ 1 0 . i n 9 In the parish of St . George s , the

borough of Southwark .

n I n the Town of St . Ives , H u tingdon

shire . Five collections fo r fires in different counties made in one small parish within a year &

1 0 In 7 3 , brief for refugees in the Principality of

Orange .

’ After 1 703 the givers names are no longer entered . The parish doctor was regularly engaged by 1 the churchwardens . In 774 the agreement for

Sulhamstead was made and signe d by the doctor, P ri sb O cers n d tbei r ob 1 2 a fii a Bo s. 5 and witnessed that he ‘ should do the business of surgery and apothecary, .broken bones excepted , for the yearly sum ' o f five guineas No wonder

- that these hard worked physicians lacked skill , and relied more upon practice than education for what talent they did possess . The perambulation of parish bounds was another vestry question , upon which rested disputed tithes .

fie ld- I n entries of tithe old names , now for m gotten , may often be recovered . The com uta tion of tithe also was discussed , and in some places the parson made agreements with his parishioners on the subj ect . Visitation fees came before the C vestry , and sending opies of the register to the

Diocesan Registry was , or ought to have been , an annual occurrence . Any dispute seems to

’ have come within the vestry s j urisdiction , and all dry subj ects were washed down with plenty of ale, an item regularly entered among the expenses . Perhaps it was ‘ at the vestry that the village urchins came up to claim rewards offered for the

o f extermination vermin , their instinctive love of sport being further developed by their love of gain . Foxes are among the animals named o n w the list , together ith stoats , sparrows , etc . , and the prices paid for this wholesale destruction s eem very high . The spelling o f many of the old account books 2 6 P ri sb O i cers an d tbei r Bo b 1 a fl o s .

is decidedly phonetic and original , but as a whole th ey are legible and neatly kept . They need nothin g to explain their meanings as to what class of information their pages will yield , except a guide such as I have endeavoured to give , for the books of one parish closely resemble all others . The history of a parish can never properly be written if the parish books are missing . The value of these books is not fully appreciated , and they are too often thrown aside as useless rubbish .

1 2 8 Boobs o n P aleog rapby an d published in Paris between the years 1 8 39 and ‘ 1 886 0 , will fetch as much as £3 ; Album de la

’ P ale o ra hi e 6 g p (Quantin , £ ; Elements de

’ c N atalis la Paleographi , par de Wailly , two

‘ 1 8 8 s é volumes , 3 , £ 3 3 . ; Mus e des Archives

’ 1 8 2 1 1 05 Nationales , 7 , £ .

A very useful book, less expensive than the above , was written by Prou , published in Paris by

é 8 2 Alphonse Picard , diteur, , Rue Bonaparte ; and cheaper still than this is the Paleographic

e t du & I . au & des Chartes des Manuscrits VII . e ’ Si cles , par Alphonse Chassant, published by

1 6 . Auguste Aubry , Rue Dauphine , Paris The

- n best know cheap book on the subj ect , however,

- is a small paper bound volume , Dictionnaire des

’ e et Franc ais es Abbr viations Latines , par Alphonse

1 Chassant , published by Jules Martin , 9, Boule 2 vard Haussmann , Paris , at the low price of francs 5 0 centimes ; it has already reached a fifth edition . There are also books on paleography written i n

German , Spanish and Italian , but these are seldom met with in England . Now let us see what our own countrymen have

u done towards el cidating our national manuscripts .

The list will not be a long one . It must be borne in mind that first of all four separate languages are required , namely , Anglo

- Saxon , Norman French , Latin and Old English . r 2 K in d ed Su bjects . I 9

B o s For the first of these , the standard work is ’ worth s Anglo- Saxon dictionary ; a second - hand

85 6d copy may be bought for . . It contains the alphabet and grammatical peculiarities of the Anglo

Saxon language , besides the dictionary of words .

- For Norman French , all that is required at first start is a familiarity with the modern

- language . Any good , old fashioned dictionary

’ will be of assistance , and later on Roquefort s

’ dictionary , Lacombe s Burguy , and the glossary i n D uc an e the Supplement to g , may be resorted f to , to solve di ficulties .

Latin and English may be studied together, the one being translated verbatim from the other. The standard English work upon handwriting as a whole is called The Origin and Progress of

’ Handwriting , by Astle it was published in the beginning of this century . A good copy is now h worth two or three sovereigns , t ough I have seen

fo r 1 2 5 6d it advertised . . This book deals with every kind of known writing from its earliest exist w ence . There are facsimiles of Hebre , Sanscrit ,

Greek , Latin , and other languages , besides speci mens of English charters of each century .

1 8 The Paleographic Society was started in 7 3 , and their yearly volumes contain exact repre sen tati o n s of the old documents , but these cost

1 I S £ . each . They are valuable as having the facsimile and its transcript side by side , but as 9 1 30 Boobs on P aleog rapby an d

yet they have only selected very old charters , not considering medi aeval English deeds worthy of c o n

’ w - sideration . Bos orth s Anglo Saxon dictionary is the standard work on this subject .

Some A n glo - Saxon man u scripts we re published

1 8 8 in 7 by command of the Queen , u pon the

o f recom mendation of the Master the Rolls , the w e ork being undertaken by Gen ral Cameron ,

o f d irector the Ordnance Survey , with trans lati o n s B as ev i - added by W . Saunders . The charters selected were those among the archives of

e Canterbury Cathedral , as they give three c nturies

- A D 2 A D . 1 0 . of Anglo Saxon history , . . 74 to . 49

2 2 s This work now fetches £ .

o f - A collection early Anglo Saxon charters ,

o f h as i n those Abingdon Abbey , been issued the

‘ ’ * Rolls Series in two volumes . Other Anglo Saxon documents h ave been printed and translated at various times . Domesday Su rvey h as been reproduced by a

i s l photographic process, and extreme y clear and well executed it is also published in four vol umes l i n a more readable type , but stil abbreviated . Each county can be obtained in a separate volume The translations are n o t given ; this fo r

i s the student rather an advantage than otherwise . No subj ect h as been more studied than Domes day Book . Translations , explanations and dic

U ti o n ari e s have been written pon it . These are

i o o t i a o o o ar o f o - S xo w o r Th s als c n a ns g d gl ss y Angl a n ds .

1 3 2 Boobs on P aleog rapby an d

in all styles , facsimiles of all classes of English writing , with translations , a glossary of obsolete

- words and place names , supplying a valuable text book to paleography, giving the reader all the information necessary for studying old deeds .

1 2 Since then ( 89 ) Mr . Martin has compiled a

‘ fuller and more elaborate glossary, called The ’ 6d 1 03 . Record Interpreter, . The amateur will need no other books if he is provided with these two volumes . A list of abbreviations taken from the Pipe Rolls was issued among the yearly

1 2 5 6d volumes of the Pipe Rolls Society , price . .

‘ The fo urth volu me of The R egi stru m Palatinum

’ D u n e lm en se f , edited by the late Sir Thomas Duf us

‘ o f Hardy , in the Rolls Series Chronicles and

’ o f M emorials , also contains a list contracted words

i s 1 05 6d and their explanations . Its price . . The study of old deeds brings in its train a multi pli c ity of other subjects bearing upon old customs f ae o . and legal formul , some which were complicated All the writers upon the law explain these for

‘ m alitie s ; though now antiquated so far as the

’ actual law work and procedure is concerned , they

’ give the ancient methods ; of these Blackstone s

Commentaries is the best known . ’ ‘ Law Dictionary ’ is another similar ‘ Jacobs ‘ ’ book ; also A New Law Dictionary , by J . e Nicholson . But thes books are now out of date ; they may by chance be met with at sales or on K i e S u b t 1 n dr d jec s. 3 3

bookstalls, where they may be bought for a few

Excban e shillings . Perhaps an advertisement in the g and M art might be successful in obtaining replies . Of guides to various branches of arche ology there are plenty lately issued since the subject became

fashionable .

’ Record Searching , by W . Rye , gives a glimpse into the vario u s public collections of books and

n M SS . , and the class of informatio likely to be

derived from manuscripts .

’ H o w to write the History of a Family , by

Philli m re u o . , is a similar work , usef l to genealogists

‘ ’ How to write the History of a Parish , by

J . C . Cox , LL . D . The information contained in all these three last books might be with advantage remodelled and

extended . They are in reality indices to help the archae ologist and put him in the way of obtaining

information .

A charming little book , full of information , has

been written by Mr . Chester Waters , upon Parish

5 d Registers , price 3 . 9 . Every clergyman should & O n possess a copy of it . Church History there are

1 5 recently published two very good . volumes , called Illustrated Notes on English Church His

’ tory , by Rev . Arthur Lane ; small engravings of all the English cathedrals and many handsome and

n celebrated churches are give , but no descriptions A of them . very good series of Diocesan Histories

- Only p ro cu rable seco nd hand . Boob on P aleo ra fib etc . I 34 s g j y, has been brought out by the Society for Promoting

Christian Knowledge . These may now be bought

- second hand at I s . per volume . For derivation of words and place-names there is no better guide than Taylor ’s Words and

’ ’ ‘ - Places , and Edmunds Place names both these are trustworthy , and have become recognised

’ authorities ; and also Bosworth s Anglo - Saxon d ictionary . Quality rather than quantity should be the

’ antiquary s motto in his choice of a library , but antiquarianism and arch ae ology require many books of reference , and it is well to know those books most likely to be of permanent use instead of wasting room upon vol umes not required after the

first reading . Upon Manor Rolls there is a very clever work lately issued by the Selden Society (volume It gives much n e w information on

Manorial Customs . All the volumes issued by this society are very interesting . They are edited by

are F . W. Maitland . Upon Monastic H istory there many very interesting books , mostly published by

Burns and Oates , London . A list of useful books might be extended i n i f definitely , especially brought up to date . Arch aeology is a cumulative science gleaned from varied sources . The antiquary usually is possessed of more brains than money , but if he is fortunate enough to possess both , a large library will be to

- him a never ending source of amusement .

6 Old ett r I 3 L e s .

elaborate in some examples . I t came principally

Lo w from abroad , either the Countries or Germany ; each separate factory very likely adopted a distinct

’ shape ; the makers initials are to be found upon

o t f the band across the p , but are di ficult to read , nor so far as I know is anything known about the

manufacturers or their names .

The three above marks are taken from some old letters , and are good types of their kind ; a more careful study of water - marks would Show the dates of undated papers , and be a safeguard against forgery. The writing of old letters I have placed after the chapter on registers , because the latter forms a link between the clerical and personal handwritings . TE SOM E Q UAI NT LETTERS FROM OLD P ARISH R EG IS RS .

1 Old tter 40 L e s. posts and messengers were not safe from i n spec tion Spies were employed freely on all sides , and f men , not afraid to suf er for their Opinions, never th eless did not care to risk their necks by needless imprudence . The earliest newspapers had a blank column left to be filled by the sender with the latest i n te lli fitl gence or local news . These were y called

’ News letters . The phraseology of a seventeenth century letter seems to us strange on account of

o f u s e the conj ugation the verbs , the of hath in

’ place of has , and the absence of all unnecessary adverbs ; the sentences , too , are longer . The com mencing words and the final winding up of letters have both changed in the past two hundred years . With the eighteenth century we s e e these changes gradually settling down and altering into

6 ’ the modern forms . The old English y for the,

‘ ’ 81 8 and the abbreviated for and , and the (d) written in its antiquated shape , still remain , but the German letters by degrees are given up . The writing of each generation is most distinctly m arked the dates from it may be approximately f fixed without any di ficulty , as well as the age and character of the writer . It has been said that the introduction of cheap

o f postage , and the im mense increase everyday

h as correspondence , ruined handwriting , while the typewriter is quickly becoming universal , and tt r 1 Old L e e s . 4 I

banished for ever the art of composition . True , the short letters of to - day will not bear comparison

- with the neat , voluminous diary letters , full of graphic scenic descriptions , which our grand parents were wont to compile for the benefit of relations left at home ; now when similar corre

n e n c e Is s po d is undertaken , it copied out by the

o r typewriter printed , for few people will take the trouble to read manuscript compositions . Looking beyond the opening years of the nineteenth century , we see a marked paucity of ideas and carelessness of calligraphy in the correspondence . In the seven te e nth century men were the chief correspondents on matters of business ; few letters are preserved except on such topics , which is a pity , for a letter must always be a unique production , the best evidence procurable of the writer and his times . There is little to be said on the subject of old letters . Practice in reading them makes the letter ing familiar, and gives facility which no guide book could explain ; letters , both ancient and modern , will assume a new interest when the little trifling, characteristic peculiarities of the writer are examined by their aid . Old receipts, expense books , and farm accounts are found in plenty among old papers . These are valuable as giving long - lost field- names and other details of parochial history ; but what we should prize n o w would be descriptions of people an d places as they existed s ome hundreds of years ago . I C HAPTER & I .

V S . ABBRE IATION , ETC

o f most books treating ancient handwriting , the abbreviations and contractions are put forward as the most important part certainly it i s

was necessary to study them carefully , but it never intended by the o ld scribes that they should be regarded as a language in themselves . At first they were used to save time and space, then , by

as as degrees , they increased in multiplicity well

i n complexity, till banished altogether by the v e n ti o n o f of printing , upon the advance which the professional scribe disappeared . The contracted word s most frequently used are

to n not always necessary the sense of the sente ce , which may be arrived at without them . It is a waste o f time to puzzle over a word after i ts meaning h as been arrived at . M any persons who

u require M S . extracts from public offices take ro gh notes with the letters o f the contracted word ; these I 42

1 A bbr vi ti n etc 44 e a o s, .

n meanings, always taki g the place of special

syllables . Thus a bold apostrophe above the line f ’ ’ ’ ’ will be ound to indicate er , ir , or , re .

- u r. = et . et i s 7 . g , us In Domesday written

ri s R ram , ras , . = & is . 9 — us o us . , , os A small letter over a word shows that a syllable

i s left out of which this letter formed part .

The letter p had a system of its own , frequently used in old deeds and also in old letters

p per , par, por .

= re fi p . = p pro . I n old court rolls ‘ and ’ is written and

est appears as especially in court - hand law

deeds . A line drawn through the head of the letter ‘ 1 ’

i s e means also the addition of other letters, as , , etc . This contraction in names is apt to be confused t ’ with double t . It is said that our alphabet did n o t formerly

contain as many letters as at present . The letters ‘ i ’ and ‘ j ’ were identical until a recent

v n period . W is said to ha e bee derived from w t o and is always so written in old deeds ,

‘ ’ ‘ ’ joined together , while u and v were used

In n indiscriminately . old ma uscripts the short A bbrevi t o n etc . 1 a i s, 45

‘ ’ ‘ stroke letters were formed alike ; thus n , u ,

’ ‘ ’ w , i, are merely strokes or minims , difficult to

distinguish, more particularly where any of these letters occur side by side in the formation of words ;

s i s to count the trokes the only guide . Practice and a knowledge of likely words to be employed

solve the k n otty point . The chief difficulty o f all lies in the correct

o f rendering names , for these have perpetually

changed in their spelling . In a single deed several f dif erent forms may be observed , the result of

clerical copying . Even with names the system of

was o n abbreviation carried , especially among court rolls ; this will be noticed in such surnames as

’ ’ ’ ’ Couper written Coup , Shepherd as Shep . In certain styles o f medie val writing the ter mi n als o f words are carried upwards with a long sweep , and are confusing in their resemblance to abbreviation marks . H ere , again , practice alone accustoms the eye to decide whether a word i s complete or not . Dots and other kinds of stops in writing have only come gradually into u se in their present

u se significance , and the of these is now less

Observed than early in the last century.

- In the Anglo Saxon manuscripts , as in Roman

i s to inscriptions, the dot freely used denote con tractions as well as to divide the words from each

e i s bu t oth r . I n Domesday this also noticed ; I O 6 A bbreo i ati ons etc I 4 , .

as i s with later manuscripts the dot , or point , such used in Norman times , fell into disuse in favour of lines or curves for the abbreviated syllables . Upon the introduction of printing our various kinds of

Elz e vi rs stops are first observed . It is said that the invented some of them . The reversed semicolon is commonly observed in some manuscripts .

n Soo er or later, in any antiquarian search , the

n pri ted sources of information will be exhausted , and are not unfrequently fou n d to be untrust worthy, especially existing county histories , which , being compiled by men unacquainted with every minor detail of the locality , are naturally liable to confuse places of similar names . Nor is it possible in so large a subject as a county history to e nter minutely into the separate parish histories of places and people . Thus after awhile the untrust worthiness and insufficiency of book - kn owledge will be discovered , and some more original source o f information become desired . Manuscripts exist in plenty, but are of little value unless studied personally ; for professional readers , although able to read quickly and correctly , only give the information desired ; whereas in a personal search one subject opens out fresh clues to others of equal

n importa ce , and new light is continually being h t rown upon hitherto unnoticed points ; moreover, only by a personal investigation can the antiquary be certain that he h as obtained exactly what h e

A P P EN D I& .

L E G A L M E M O R Y .

See a e ( . p g

W U R Y HITCH RCH ECTOR , ‘ REA D N I G ,

October 1 2 1 8 2 . , 9 ‘ SS TH OYTS DEAR M I , I must even se n d yo u an instant reply to

n to . your ote , in order satisfy your perplexity I was many years searching fo r the reason why

legal memory began with Richard I . I once asked

C . n an eminent Q . the questio , and though he had was been a Law Lecturer , and shortly afterwards n o t put upon the Bench , he could tell me why n he only k ew the fact . ‘ o n e o r o f It is of th e signs, good bad , the s ex n o t present times , that your will , like their

mothers and grandmothers , be satisfied with being t w h . old the fact , but will be told y No w the why o f this is j ust as follows The Norman Conquest upset a great many Saxon titles o n o f to estates , but not all . And the voidance a wh o h is Norman had no title but own right hand , to the Saxon would try recover , and , I suppose , not I 1 48 l Afifi en dix I 49

o f unfrequently succeeded , by reason being on the spot and putting on the Norman ’s shoes while they were warm . Hence endless litigations , because the more distant Norman kin inherited at least — fo r n this much contempt a Saxo . A D 1 1 to By . . 79 things began settle down and an d was Norman and Saxon to be am algamated , it

o r a reed then , perhaps rather later , g , in the H igh o f o u o Courts , that in questions title y should not g behind the above date . No w this i s n o t i n consistent with what yo u may v o l have read in Selden , . ii . I have not read it , ff but I o er this solution that it Selden , v o l n o t to o f . ii . ) does m ean speak manorial law in respect o f the H igh Court o f J u s tice of the o f - o f Realm , but the intra manorial regulations court leets and court barons .

Yours sincerely,

‘ ’ J O H N SLAT ER .

TH E END .

E lli o t S teeb 62 P a t r no r , , e s te R ow L o n don