CEU eTD Collection Competition Between MinorityCompetition Ethnicin Between Parties Post-conflictCountries: Performance ofin MinorityParties andMacedonia In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of degree requirementsthe of for the fulfillment In partial Submitted to Central European UniversitySubmitted Central to Department of Political Science ofDepartment Political DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Supervisor: András Bozóki September 2014 September Dane Taleski Budapest, by 1 CEU eTD Collection from rebels, and contribute to literature about minority ethnic parties in competition. parties ethnic about minority literature and contribute to from rebels, findings parties These of performance support. particular in electoral and their politics, party improve post-conflict about to understanding the or improve win to able were degree, lesser electoral a sub-national to on or their patronage. albeit level model, this explains extend copy to patronage able parties to Other with period. post-conflict possibilities the conjunction in dominance them in legacies gave conflict's which of inclusion Institutionalization minority for instruments over control political gained and process reconstruction post-conflict the channeled They appeal. electoral their of part as it used and it preserve to practices social initiated transferred conflict, the also from capital They symbolic mobilization. electoral and voters with communication for units social micro institutionalized they because parties minority as networks. networks time these utilized on war Theyconflict. were built from the parties legacies The successful most became DUI and SDSS that find I sub- and national from post-conflict entire period. in the national elections data electoral of analysis quantitative with corroborated were findings The sources. archival and media content, party interviews, 78 from data analyzed similar I tracing other. process the the Using for of control country one Because in country. finding the that each consider I in conditions, varying parties under outcomes, minority between competition the is analysis of level My . and Croatia different in very were politics minority for environments institutional and conditions post-conflict the conflicts, inter-ethnic , the in history common the Despite between dominates minority parties. to them other second Icompared and functioningand DUI and formation their of process Croatia the at look first I in so, is this why Toanswer Macedonia. parties in parties Albanian Serb between competition the dominates SDSS post-conflict the in Macedonia. and dominate Croatia post-conflict in parties often ethnic minority at look I rebels puzzle this To period. address from parties that find to puzzling is it however, parties; cross-cutting forge to proposed is engineering Institutional democratization. for consequences negative have can it that argue some but parties, political into combatants former of inclusion the justifies This peacebuilding. sustainable for needed is approach inclusive an that argue studies policy and Academic ABSTRACT 2 CEU eTD Collection in the world. in the muchThis as ismine. ishers dissertation it gift best the me gave and breakthroughs, and struggles my shared She patience. and understanding her for and love unconditional her for Ljupka wife my thank to want I all of Most insurmountable. seemed challenges when me supporting and me in father,believing for my Filip, brother, to and Violeta,mother, thankful Dimitrija, am I moments. crucial in inspiration me gave family my of love and support The support. your had have to privileged feel and friendship our cherish doctoral I Bojana, and Andreea Dato, any in present Jana, Sanja, David, vividly Elene, Elena, CEU. at frustrations, colleagues and friends my and of support the without program, challenges the through going imagine cannot I and understanding. tolerance promote to helps work my hope I and experience their by humbled am I me. with accounts personal their shared that communities and Albanian Serb the within persons all thank I And all. them thank I Bakiu. Bashkim and Dimovski Viktor Daskalovski, Zhidas Leaković, Karolina Čular, Goran from support indispensable the without complete be not would Macedonia and Croatia in research My full retain but work, my commented that scholars and mistakes.responsibility forthe peers my thank also I scientist. political a as grow to me helped which environment academic vibrant and extraordinary overall an the creating for and staff, CEU, at professors the thank to want I reasoning. scientific my on impact profound deeply a had also and work am my of I quality the raise guidance. to essential were academic comments Woodward.Her and Susan to grateful intellectual me gave and work my They clarify members. to panel me supervisory helped my Jenne, Erin and Enyedi Zsolt about same the feel I way. my end. the tolose steady Withoutwould certainly I suggestions andcomments support, understanding, his Andr supervisor my to obliged feel I challenges, personal Iwant support.Firstto and foremost thank oftheir forall mypeople gratitudeexpress to utmost several and professional with filled journey, long this of end the At ás Bozóki, for giving me enough freedom to pursue my ideas, and yet guiding me guiding yet and ideas, my pursue to freedom enough me giving for Bozóki, ás ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 3 CEU eTD Collection except where appropriate acknowledgment is made in the form of bibliographical reference. form inofbibliographical the ismade whereappropriateacknowledgment except person, another by published and/or written previously materials other no any contains in thesis This degrees institutions. other any for accepted been have thesis this of parts no that declare hereby I DECLARATION 17 September 2014 17 September Dane Taleski 4 CEU eTD Collection IV. ALBANIAN PARTIES IN MACEDONIA III. SERB PARTIES IN CROATIA II. LITERATURE REVIEW I. THEORY THE PUZZLE IV.4. between Competition post-conflict Macedonia Albanian in parties IV.3. Transformation ofNLA to DUI IV.2. functioningofNLA and Formation IV.1. Macedonia forminority politics in post-conflict environment conflict and The Croatia in post-conflict Serbparties between III.4. Competition ofSDSSIII.3. Formation radicalization ofSDS and III.2. Formation III.1. politicsin Croatia environment forminority conflict and post-conflict The explanations II.4. Competing in competition parties ethnic II.3. Minority transformation II.2. Guerrilla-to-party II.1. Terrorism violence and political and gathering methods I.5. Data design I.4. Research and operationalization I.3. Definitions I.2. argumentThe I.1. approach The I.1.2. Legacies of the conflict ofthe I.1.2. Legacies I.1.1. Patronage IV.4.2. Why other didn't win? parties Albanian IV.4.1. lose elections? Can DUI IV.3.3. and clientelism Patronage IV.3.2. gains Symboliccapital forelectoral Legacies: Symbolic IV.3.1 DUI onNLA built StructuralLegacies: III.4.2. win?Why didn't other Serbparties III.4.1. Why did SDSS lose elections? and clientelism III.3.3. Patronage gains forelectoral III.3.2. SymbolicLegacies:capital Symbolic SDSS onSDS built III.3.1. StructuralLegacies: ...... Tableof Contents ...... 207 198 179 171 166 133 125 101 92 84 19 16 188 159 153 145 113 76 69 61 54 52 50 47 40 34 30 24 16 145 61 44 16 11 5 CEU eTD Collection APPENDIX. LIST OF INTERVIEWS REFERENCES VI. CONCLUSION V. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS VI.2. Policy implications Policy VI.2. VI.1. implications Theoretical V.4. explanations Competing V.3. Differences, and limits similarities V.2. Macedonia from evidence and Croatia Empirical V.1. conjunction with ofconflictpatronage in Legacies ...... 256 251 239 233 224 219 301 295 260 246 218 6 CEU eTD Collection Table V.4. in minority Macedonia parties ethnic conflict and The Table V.3. in minority Croatia parties ethnic conflict and The Table V.2. settings in minority post-conflict parties ethnic between Factors ofcompetition Table V.1. conflicts and armed parties political between the Conceptualizing links Table IV.14. conflict-affected relation to in DUI'selectionsin local in percent votes municipalities, Table IV.13. Results of elections(2005–2013) in local parties Albanian Table IV.12. 2011 voter supportfor Correlation: elections. Albanian parties Table IV.11. voter supportfor Correlation: 2008elections. Albanian parties Table IV.10. support for voter 2006elections.Correlation: parties Albanian Table IV.9. support for voter 2002elections.Correlation: parties Albanian Table IV.8. 2011 way One elections. ANOVA: conflict-affected and voter support municipalities Table IV.7. way 2008elections.One ANOVA: conflict-affected support and voter municipalities Table IV.6. way 2006elections.One ANOVA: conflict-affected support and voter municipalities support Table IV.5. way One 2002national elections. ANOVA: conflict-affected voter municipalities and Table IV.4. Results of elections(2002-2011) legislative in national parties Albanian Table IV.3. MPsand others from former DUI: combatants Table IV.2. Support for May in2002 Macedonia, parties Albanian Table IV. 1. toward Attitudes Ali February 2002 Macedonia, in Ahmeti Table III.11. in 2000 elections national legislative in Results ofSerbparties Table 2009 ofcounty III.10.CompetitionforSerbdeputy SDSS andin DPS head between Table in percent location during conflict, III.9.SDSS to municipalities' supportin relation voter Table (1997-2013) elections in III.8.Resultslegislative local ofSerbparties Table III.7.2011 support forSerbparties Correlation: voter elections. Table voter supportforSerbparties III.6.2007elections.Correlation: Table voter supportforSerbparties III.5.2003elections.Correlation: Table III.4.2011 One way elections. ANOVA: support parties and voter municipalities' location Table way III.3.2007elections.One ANOVA: support location and voter municipalities' Table way III.2.2003elections.One ANOVA: support location and voter municipalities' Table III.1. Voting unit electoral (2000-2011) ofSaborin forSerbmembers minority Table and Croatia Macedonia electionsin I.6.Post-conflictsub-nationallegislative Table Macedonia in and Croatia elections I.5.Post-conflictnational legislative Table 1991–2002 Censuses ofpopulationin ofMacedonia, Republic I.4.Ethnicstructure Table 1991–2011 ofpopulationin Censuses Croatia, I.3.Ethnicstructure Table settings in minority post-conflict parties ethnic between I.2.Factors ofcompetition Table conflicts and armed parties political between the I.1.Conceptualizing links Table 2.Results of (2002-2011) Macedonia electionsin legislative in national parties Albanian Table electionsin (2000-2011) Croatia in 1.Results national legislative ofSerbparties ...... LIST OF TABLES LIST ...... 225 225 223 220 197 196 194 194 194 193 192 192 191 191 190 169 162 161 131 128 124 123 121 120 120 118 118 118 116 38 38 37 36 29 27 13 13 7 CEU eTD Collection Table V.6. between Analyzing the competition Macedonia partiesAlbanian in Table V.5. betweenin Croatia Serbparties Analyzing the competition ...... 230 230 8 CEU eTD Collection SDSM SDS SSZ SDS Krajina SDS forSDS SDS SDP SDF SAO RSK RDK PPS PDP OSCE OFA NSS NS NLA NDU NDS NDP ND NATO NA Monarhist MANU KPC KLA KFOR JNA HSP HSLS HOS HNS HDZ EU DUI DUA DPS DPA DAAM ASH ANA “Storm” “Flash”

Democratic UnionforIntegration Democratic Unionof ofSerbs Democratic party of Democratic Party Albanians Democratic Alliance of Albanians CroatiaAction in ofSocialdemocrats National Albanian Army in operation army Croatian 1995 August in operation May1995 army Croatian Socialdemocratic Union of Macedonia UnionofMacedonia Socialdemocratic of Serb Democratic Party Serblands All Krajina Serb Democratic Party forUnificationof SerbStates Serb Democratic Party Serb Democratic Party Party Socialdemocratic Independent Autonomous Area Krajina ofSrpska Republic Revival Democratic National Party in ofSerbs Prosperity Party forDemocratic Organization Europe andin Cooperation forSecurity Ohrid Framework Agreement New SerbParty Our Party Liberation National Army New Union Democratic to (renamed New Forces NDU) Democratic Party Democratic National New Party Democratic North Atlantic Treaty Organization National Alternative “Monarhist” United party Serbdemocratic Macedonian and ofScience Academy Arts ProtectionCorps Kosovo Liberation in Army (UCK Albanian) NATO's Kosovo mission in Yugoslav National Army PartyCroatian ofLaw LiberalParty Social Croatian Forces Defense Croatian Democrats Party People's Croatian Liberal Party Democratic Croatia UnionEuropean List ofList Abbreviations 9 CEU eTD Collection ZVO ZSR ZSH VSNM VMRO-DPMNE UNTAES UNPROFOR UNPA UNMIK UN UCPMB SSS SRS RSK in SRS SPS SP SNS SNV SIOFA SFRY SEEU SDSS Independent SerbParty Independent in RSKSerb RadicalParty Serb RadicalParty Serb SocialistParty Alliance forChange Party Serb National ofOFA forImplementation Secretariat of Republic Socialist Federal Yugoslavia South EastUniversity European Party SerbDemocratic Independent Joint ofMunicipalities Council Association in ofSerbs Association in ofSerbs Croatia ofSerbnational minority Council UN Transitional forEastern and Baranja , Administration Western Sirmium ProtectionForce areas in Croatia UN protected UN Kosovo mission in United Nations and armyBujanovac Medvedja Liberation forPreshevo, Macedonian National Unity National Macedonian Organization Revolutionary Macedonian Internal Party for –Democratic 10 CEU eTD Collection endings is the ability of former rebel movements to transform themselves into “normal” political political into themselves movements to “normal” rebel transform abilityendings offormer isthe (Manning authors argue 2008: 8).Some war success factorsthe of civil defining ofthe key “one that sometimesnot” does ofdemocracyand the promotes establishment sometimes electoralism narrow forunderstanding and why how “missing necessary link” constitute a transition,[that] of democratic p 2008).On(Kovacs, other hand the agenda the post-conflict shape and influence theto are chance given becauseprocess dubiousactors the democratization hamper consequences and have negative transformation could Guerrilla-to-party a warlord democracy(Wantchekon, can create it isdominant, then if a such consequence 2004). negativeconsequence. unintended in somepoliticsisan For theofrebels isthat involvement The claim 2013). (Sisk, peace 2012) and whatdurable reallysustains (Woodward, impactsare long term what the it cases uncertain hand,isstill in post-conflict On other the (Jarstad,2009). signtheagreement forarmeddidpeace that not which notgroups does hold necessarily period; in power the they post-conflict to evendonot to if come donotfight process return political the are (Nilsson, in that included process peace 2008).Rebels the and todestabilize continue fight they agreements, then might peace 23).Ifwarring groups al.,not in (Dudouet included 2012: et are 'spoilers' “potential as ofpeace” are sometimesseen thisex-combatants isthat The behind logic and Zeeuw, parties ofnew building (Kumar capacity and ofguerrillas supportthe demobilizing 2008). (USIP,processes support the and disarming al,actors Dudouet2012).International et 2009; and argue transitions, and holisticsecurity participatory in ofwarringpeace parties forinclusion conflicts. ethnic To inclusive, advocate documents policy democracymajor and sustainbuild peace as wars orinter- labeled either civil conflicts, been intra-state have conflicts Most ofcontemporary THE PUZZLE arties in post-conflict settings are seen “ are in post-conflict settings arties as theas orfilters mediators 11 CEU eTD Collection 1 institutions merit and social then legacies institutionsstandard as procedures, operating one defines ofagency. the role and to socioeconomic environment) view. an institutionalist not does escape This If and political dependence, and legacies path explanations(i.e. and historical more to contextual weight at they disposal. the have which resources To one shouldgive post-conflict settings in study parties environment and use Partiestoinstitutional form their parties. adapt Peopleto together parties. come Rules donot parties. make isessentialforpolitical that sociologicalassumption perspective a misses However, setting. multiparty in as any function other politicswill then to parties, party transformed this tabula rasa. as politicsistreated studies. Post-conflictparty post-conflict democratization boxina most black parties, political research about the Notwithstanding in rich post-conflict settings. parties ofpolitical formation and functioning closely look the more party into and regulations) rules (i.e.and electoral liberal institutions formal post-conflict period? in the successful parties the most To move onefrom addressneedsto puzzle this emerge,or if they differently whysuccessful?toit they Or look at not are from are why rebels parties emerging are not toparties ispuzzling such seewhy it perspective From that post-conflict period in the 2013). forge to (Reilly, engineeringisneeded institutional parties and aggregative broad based,cross-cutting argument the role.purpose, a positive that toFor play are goes, andexpected parties conflict period 2008). (Randall, theconflict societies post- ofconflict in the isto likelihood decrease point main The organizations” in groupspost- toparties armed become impliesthat need 2008: 1); which (Zeeuw Gerchman, 2004. Gerchman, Kumar, societies, see conflict in socialservingdrivers demands as polarized and articulating 2004; Burnell, 2005; Gunther,and and McAllister, Dalton, Farell 2001; 2011; and 2011. Kwak, Janda aggregating and parties'in Also, for role formatter democracy, among othersand Lipset Sartori, Rokkan,1967; 1976; see, Aldrich, Mair, 1995; Diamond 1997; argument democracy areessential representative function. to Foran for parties that Schattschneider (1942) why parties E. science, startingfromquote from under examinationpolitical the famous Elmer been in have close Political parties and rebels conflictare isfinished, thatthe assumption implicit once There isan 1 parties in post-conflict cases, (i.e. their formationandare performance) their (i.e. cases, in post-conflict parties 12 CEU eTD Collection Table 2.Results of (2002-2011)Albanian in nationalMacedonia legislativeelections parties Table in in national Croatia 1.Results legislative elections ofSerbparties (2000-2011) for the results in 2. aretable shown parties political Albanian shownconflict. in electionsare 1and table legislative in resultsnational ofSerbparties electoral The the inter-ethnic to hadrelations nodirect parties and timenetworks other onwar orwerebuilt included post-conflict period, parties,in new the formed ofthe conflict. Several beforethe and after countries both in Minorityappeared ofmy level valid analysis. parties ethnic isthe minority parties ethnic from former twocountries and Macedonia, studied Croatia Yugoslavia. between competition The inter-ethnic dynamicsminority group.I the ofthe within an understanding political to have conflict, after It any isimportant, post-conflict settings. in minority Ilookedparties ethnic In my at research, more attention. NDS-DAAM NA NDR PDP DPA DUI SP ZSR ZSH sloga Srpska PPS SNS SDSS 15.38 47.72 2002 2000 2.76 2.82 6.76 5.65 35.3 ------17.31 46.96 2006 2003 0.43 0.36 0.42 2.57 7.24 11.8 7.3 - - - - 59.45 15.11 11.75 2008 2007 0.86 6.92 4.63 9.9 ------14.91 58.91 2011 2011 0.03 7.03 12.2 2.64 ------13 CEU eTD Collection second chapter, competing explanations. present the the and literature Ireview Inthe data. ofelectoral analysis myquantitative Icorroborate findings analysis, with intracing but the Imainlyrely approach. onprocess method a mixed design. I have the research expectations, and chapter,In the first my theory. Ielaborate my argument approach, theoretical Ipresent the and the successful than competitors. their more wererelatively SDSSonsub-nationallevel, conjunctionand DUI, similar to albeit to a create able which Other were minority parties Macedonia. ethnic in and Croatia ofminorityparties ethnic success electoral forthe accounts possibilitiespatronage to along extend with conflict'sutilizing legacies support. electoral to patronage attract extend of and thushadinclusion possibilitiesto The conjunction provide minority greater over institutions control which and political process conflict reconstruction post- ofthe alsocontrol theirSDSShad political and DUI to practices symboliccapital. sustain social post-conflict period. in the capital to electoral theThey attainedconflict, during members initiated support. and mobilization ofelectoral whichinterests their the capital, symbolic transferred They ofthe conflict. the of legacies utilize units foraggregation social local timeas war networks used They how perform. argument toMy minority they see parties ethnic to managed SDSS isthat and DUI to them other Icompared to came be. howSecond parties afterconflict and these happened the period. post-conflict inminority the parties ethnic To at Ifirst thewhat looked answer question most aresuccessful whythe posetheMacedonia and Croatia DUI question The SDSSin results in ND RDK DUA NDU ------0.78 0.19 - - 3.18 0.43 0.05 2.11 14 CEU eTD Collection chapter summarizes the findings and presents the theoretical andimplications. policy theoretical findings and presentsthe the summarizes chapter limits ofmy highlight the countriesapproach. the and and between similarities and last The sixth the explanations. Idiscuss differences the and against competing my against expectations Macedonia and Croatia from evidence empirical the results. Ichecked comparative provides the chapter The fifth ofother and strategies theanalysis elections from sections. areother in parties the Albanian in Macedonia. statistical isfocused results morewhileofthe section Again the theonDUI, first ofotherstrategies research Serbparties. of empirical the fourthcontains chapter The partiesAlbanian discuss data the ofelectoral and analysis SDSS,thea statistical while othersdedicated Ishow to in section One islargely in research Croatia. ofSerbparties empirical the contains The chapter third 15 CEU eTD Collection was at 40 per cent and many people were “dependent on a variety of illegal or informal activities activities ofillegal orinformal ona were“dependent variety people was and many 40per cent at the conflict after Bosniaunemployment al, andspoils (Dudouetexample, 2012).For in et provide actorscan onpolitical who dependent become people dire and socioeconomic are conditions Kaldor 2007). hybrid (Nordstrom,2004; into and formsofgovernance coalesce the the conflict, After 1998). witheconomies formal functionparallel in and wars, networks economies extra-legal After civil base power (Reno, alliances and local military are networks to used patronage create During a conflict, I.1.1.Patronage isthe secondone. ofconflict's legacies and utilization patronage context. mechanisms. isbasedontwocausal The framework extend istheThe possibilityto first in post-conflict minority parties ethnic between competition foranalyzing athe framework developed Usingstudies I patronage. these in extending andparties ethnic parties ofpolitical to show practices Steven Herbert and Kitschelt Chandrawork (2004)and ofKanchan Wilkinson (2007)wereimportant Finally, showrelevanceofsymboliclegacies. better the and ethnographicstudies to sociological the used Ifurther to them minority applied parties. and ofstructural symbolicconsequences and concepts largely Itook his ofthe Rosstheconflict. work consequences (1993)about influencedby the ofMarc agreementsandeconomy. war ofpeace implementation at by studiesinformed looking the Iwas was and context environment Mylocal parties. ethnic ofthe understanding environment forminority the post-conflict and context local moreto the approachsensitive My isalso and actors. international liberal institutions formal givesweight less to isfocusedactors, onlocal and approach My theoretical I.1.approachThe I. THEORY 16 CEU eTD Collection external and internal security,external and internal good environment), clean orclub and/or economic growth,lowinflation (e.g. public insurance social benefits), and/or housing, education,utilities goods public land, as such 2007: 10). goodsofferThe politicians jobs, accessto that subsidies sector be(e.g. private public can and (Kitschelt benefactor” partisan their their supportto electoral or whoWilkinson, to deliver promise target directly “ benefits and (Kitschelt performance Wilkinson, politicians relationship, then clientelistic isa 2007).Ifthere parties' analyzing when political anto important consider point are patronage Possibilities to extend (Reilly, wide and pervasive post-conflictare cases in networks the clientelistic 2013). tenancy,employment, support (Roberts, 2009). feasts)toandpolitical retain obtain charityand/or And security state (e.g.human essential provisionsand/or patronage” they social “common use (Taylor, period strongin thelikely topost-conflict remain to remaindominant and 2009). Elites seek they conflict, then are before culture the the within political practices social wererooted clientelism (Roberts, 2009: and 149).If patronage and systemsclientelism” ofpatronage informal, socially-ruled (De Waal, organization political by social and 2009: dominated and 99)and “operationalized are affinities to are social subordinate institutions networks” “state patronage In post-conflict countries and 2012: 581). (Strazzari, andimperatives” stabilization basedonstability calculus political out withofa it) close contact (orin thelevel positions power state byat designoften into integrated institutions; however, liberal challenge networks formal Patron-client “not they exogenous,but are post-conflict period. in control economy the can the also the conflict the to economy sustain war (Nordstrom, 2004: development” 197). transformation and which networks controlled Armed/political understanding postwar to are networks critical shows“militarized that ethnographic research which, upto now, (Kaldor, nationalist from parties” the 'protection' received have 2007: 71).Deep only to individuals or to identifiable small groups who have already delivered whoalready groups small have identifiable to individualsorto 17 CEU eTD Collection Parties from rebel groups seem to be better equipped than others to extend patronage in the post- in others patronage to extend groupsthan to rebel beequipped better Parties seem from patronage. extend most can party one ethnic that isthe most minority successful post-conflict period. in the parties ethnic forsuccess theexplanation ofminority that wouldmean This voter mobilize support. and to clientelism a significant wouldconstitute patronage Abilities to extend opportunitiesto patronage use socioeconomic and instruments the institutional have the parties ethnic minority post-conflict environment andInthe clientelism. forpatronage socioeconomic, isconducive However,conditions. and institutional environment, both the that itpost-conflict wouldseem under different parties ofpolitical to practices be established andseem clientelism Patronage ofsalt a takengrain (Lindberg with mobilization shouldbe 2008). and Morrison, However, forparty cases, includingpost-conflict in democracies, ofpatronage new the relevance 2004,2007). politics” (Chandra, and “patronage to democracy” “patronage lead 2007: 33)which could 2007; and Kitschelt (Hale, the forpatronage increase demand competition mobilization and Wilkinson, and networks ethnocultural ethnic ishomogeneous. example, For dense and ifconstituency their organization, have ifa strongparty patronage they extend ofresources, if accessorcontrol they have to easier find Politicians it will electorate. ofthe knowledge andlevel precinctorward contacts social and enforcement. a needsystem to ofmonitoring parties have level local This ismostdone with easily goods in which patrons period, provide over a reciprocitylonger sustained obligation, and exchange, social frequent contacts. exchanges through built and instrumental are practices areof “webs These Clientelistic relationships. goodsthe forclientelistic basis club toform allocate powers and discrete goods ofprivate allocation Politicized forclientelism. a necessary component structures are governance economic Politicized insurance policy schemes). and social through taxes (e.g. incomeredistribution or club goods club to their clients” (Kitschelt and toclients”(Kitschelt their Wilkinson, work, 2007:to clientelism 19).For private private 18 CEU eTD Collection 2 and also interests, the one needstocompetitive understand consequences ofconflicts understand the Conflict: Interpretations andInterests in Comparative Perspective To (1993) the bookofMarcRoss Ifind oflegacies, the relevance understand theoretically fight. resistance history ofthe onthe capitalize campaign and strongly electoral in traditionsand the symbolism onindigenous values, from rebels heavily parties draw hand, in passing.On other mentioned the mainly conflict are ofthe legacies literature peacebuilding 2004). However, country part (Manning, andofthe northern the central constituencies in in the its time voters war among mainlyattracted Mozambique example,politics. For RENAMO in party for post-conflict oflegacies the point that importance out areobservations empirical There I.1.2.Legacies oftheconflict conflict. ofthe legacies groups. from rebel parties on. to resources count have other They resourcescome from these And theofminority issomethingsuccess foraccountingin there So patronage. more try more to extend matching developnetwork partyand anya can other only then ethnic onpatronage, settings depends patronage. to notthey extend able are post-conflict parties in theofminorityAnd ethnic success if period. the post-conflict overin resources control political they have if patronage canperiod extend orthey the post-conflict throughin networks patronage such also theyextend conflict, then can during the social assistance services humanitarian and a network fordelivering Iftheyconflict period. developed objectives of Hezbollah” (Palmer Harik, 2004: 92). 2004: ofHarik, Hezbollah” (Palmer objectives overall consideration is projectson political servethe that selectionalso based undertaken of shows “the Hezbollah that highly a efficientbecome (Turner, electoralteam” by development about the rural agency 2006)report controlled and a network”which “swung action is in to into social Hamas “extensive knownservices Palestineis for For example, 2 However, then resources, over spoilsand have control political rebels parties donot from if important. Ross argues important. Ross to that Culture of 19 CEU eTD Collection continuity between armed groups and political parties. parties. and political groups armed continuity between isnot legacies ofstructural The impact the point structural out violence and political terrorism and studiesparty about transformation ofthebasis party. new claim. clear logical this and that isa rather Ithink ofguerrilla-to-Also, studies andwill networks the thesebecome structures then to parties, groupspolitical transformed armed are ofaffiliated and members ofarmedmembers made groups' structures. supportingand political social time war networks. and their to groupstructures the applies armed The first W are symbolic. second and legacies structural first are are that relevant: ofthe areconflict twotypesthere oflegacies 1993: 67). occurs” (Ross, To politics,Iposit that forpost-conflict itparty means understand what better and the social larger action andsettingwhich individualsperceive groups behavior in cultural offer and they ofpsychocultural canbasis explanations identity” formthe the in ways between “a link to “shared,fears ofthreats Inother deep others respondactions. words, seated each understand and to and how groups influences individuals framework strongly ofanthat basis interpretive form the externalworld. ofthe and perceptions shapedimages in areculturally foraction motives rooted They However, argument side ofthe onthe other conflict theory. isthe psychocultural the that It presupposes security, those(Ross, ofgroups” 1993: with 36). areequated orpower resources, easily material with issues positions. respect “suchconcerns Inthat as same instructural individuals and groups the sideOn ofthis argument one theory. conflict structural isthe by are presupposesshared interests that It matter sides in ofthepolitics. perceptions warring and structures both 12).Inpost-conflictsocial (Ross,countries. outcomes” management 1993: conflict understanding psychocultural as dispositions in socialwell as rooted in structure interests of importance to the Inotherrecognize words, isnecessary conflict. “it the of interpretations ar time networks are ar are timenetworks 20 If CEU eTD Collection understanding of the symbolic legacy of the conflict is close to sociological explanations of cultural explanationsofcultural to sociological conflict isclose ofthe ofthe legacy understanding symbolic and interpretations. commemorative events conflict. Such the of the legacy comprise symbolic They arethrough strengthened ofthe conflict Memories settlement. peace ofviolenceorwith the the end phenomenon. isan evolving thethat conflict does stopwith conflict such, not influenceofthe As the one accepts these Introducing elements, ofthe and understanding conflict. interpretations through the secondlegacy, toThis the bringsme symbolic ones. the isbuilt ofthe symboliclegacy conflict The the among voters. legitimacy higher and credibility periodhave the they post-conflict then in assistance, orhumanitarian social –and war provided services duringif the existed networks support. and to mobilize War Furthermore, patronage. in alsoproviding instrumental timeare networks of interests. community, local in the used party represent are to They voters towith communicate party. party. political forthe resources are important They aggregation facilitate networks existing The weakness. not their parties, new War forthe penetration deep networkssocial wide and time provide different Itake that, Contrary a to view. forthe timeisstrength ofwar networks continuity Structural goods public deliver (Reilly, andconflicts to 2013). tosocial and fail manage toaction ensurecollective not they disciplined agenda; orpolicy are ideology organizationally in with post-conflictare cases no parties atis that elections, functioningonly thin, weakorganizationsfocus, 2003). 1998; (Randall, Salih state onthe and dependent claim the Therefore, withideological personalized, noclear and elite, centralized are in post-conflict countries parties that system”de Zeeuw, democratic (Kumar and in participate a experience to 2008: 278). claim Authors emergingparties possessthe organizational rebel out movements neither northe offormer culture that:“Mostnew some For claim parties. new example, forthe advantage competitive tonetworks be a forgranted.surprising, istaken but it continuity with time donot war Authors consider structural 21 CEU eTD Collection (Hutchinson, 2007: 48). period. in the agency post-conflict places onthe focus This 44). in official and celebrated what isrecorded tocontrols The is“who ask question ceremonies” (Hutchinson, 2007: dead” aroundto monuments ofcommemorations the institutionalisation “the like the symboliccapitalconflict, from the institutionalize that practices social toit understand isimportant 47). memories” myths(Hutchinson, stock 2007: ofcollective to the and contributors major Therefore, “Withoutpost-conflict identities. memory, isnoidentity, there one as ofthe warfare issignificant and important forshaping conflict are ofthe and interpretations memory preserve the that practices Social (Harrison,1999:240). identity their and toexpress self-consciously” construct orless “more practices social engage and groups in identities between incompatibilities 2003).Conflictgives(Harrison, rise to identities between the are strongcommonalities there that fact notwithstandingthe conflict settings; hand, scholarsargueOn other in post- the identities confronting to isused strengthen symbolism that (Bourdieu, 1983:recognition” 250). mutual knowledge and which presupposes and encourages which it exchange and through the of constantlyreaffirmgroup through which they capital. symbolic their This isdone their with have contacts ifintensive they capital symbolic their and increase alsoThey maintain can during the capital conflict. cultural/symbolic acquired combatants have example,attributes. For former by individualsbecauseindividual oftheir and isacquired functions “symboliccapital” as capital 1983: 245).Inhisview, dies with(Bourdieu, its it bearer” and declines individual agent; cultural “quiteunconsciously...accumulated ofan beyond capacities the appropriating be Itaccumulated cannot be capital can cultural claimsthat He to culturalcapital. (1983)bringsattention example, Bourdieu For identities. forstrengthening showimportance andofwarfare to the studies which capital and social consecration, consecration, the symbolic constitution produced by a social institution and endlessly reproduced in reproduced social and endlessly producedthe byinstitution a symbolicconstitution “ through the alchemy through the 22 CEU eTD Collection capital and make efforts and make capital support. forpolitical it to utilize symbolic theof value Former combatants recognize symboliccapital. the serve to institutionalize ofKLA commemorations annual events other commemorative and casualties, and battles ofcivilian ( factions” political for rival and “ thesymbolic capitalconflict during groupsresistance ( armed with and former continuity structural highlight their are in proudto post-conflict Kosovo parties socialresolution; while differences political 1981).Nowadays, (Garwin, wereminuscule them between and diverging withgroups the armed confronting conflict continuity structural ofthe interpretations Fiannahad GailFail in civilwar and 1922,Fianna the after example,in For Ireland conflict period. divisionspost- forpolitical in the are important conflict ofthe issomelegacies that There evidence 2012: et 30). al., constituency local (Dudouet heroes” by uponlike their “looked are fighters freedom and highare moral ground;considered they to themselves They hold regard (Dudouet 2012: et 23). their al, “immersed in communities” combatantsare group.Fortheir example, which isimportant for appeal;and electoral in their donot have parties have which other something from rebels parties points.respect, political Inthat bringsthem ofthe memory conflict preserving the symboliccapital. sustain their rebelsand allow to former conflict with the identification Their period. the divisionspost-conflict ethnic in politicsand strengthen identity based Also, practices social dirges) commemorations, (e.g. rebels.practices Second, social former legitimizes increase capital a from rebelsparties have support. political aggregate an instrument to givessymbolic legacies combatants that This means strengthengroup's identity. they the practices in social areand ifinstitutionalized they of The utilization claimcapital symbolic with a providepossibilityto ofthecombatants conflict The symbolic legacies Schwandner-Sievers Ströhle, 2012). and that want toearned show They they diferencia specifica Schwandner-Sievers as such 2012:practices, and504).Social Ströhle, this identification becomes transformed into political capital capital political into transformed identificationbecomes this compared to other competing parties. First, the symbolic First, the competing parties. to compared other 23 CEU eTD Collection it produces in terms of patronage politics within groups”, which then means “lack of flexibility for the offlexibilityfor the “lack groups”, then politicswithin means ofpatronage which in terms it produces incentivesthat oftheOne economy and power-sharing political an isthat “electoral creates it criticisms F benefits. period. have power-sharingThey use andpolitical theirthey fortheir them at instruments disposal orbreak to power-sharing make capacities have the and Sierrathey RUF the Leone) post-conflict in in ANC in South Fein Burundi, inCNDD-FDDUNITAAfrica, Northern Ireland, in IRA/Sinn in Angola, (Jarstad,2008). and inexecutive power legislative (e.g. to parties former transform guerrillas When aspects from power-sharing, areand negative positive there to share pact political understooda as quotas). Power-sharing However, radicals. tame and help warring parties the arrangementsinclude employments, representation points,sector coalitions,public minority veto arrangements (e.g. grand the warringbetween parties. After inter-ethnic power-sharing agreementsprescribe peace conflicts anddivisions power provisionsforinclusion specific have Someagreements peace democratization. post-conflict in athe theycentralposition that isnowonder have and it underestimated together. design new all design orprescribes a be cannot oftheagreements peace importance The institutional existing to the whichchanges entails isusually agreement there ofa peace some type resolution.latter, case ofthe conflict peaceful Inthe victor can beora there a oftheAt theconflict end I.2.argumentThe andmy ofmysets basis expectations. factors approach formsthe and Croatia Macedonia. in post-conflict ofminorityparties ethnic success conjunction ofthese The the explain that mechanisms causal form symboliclegacies the and structural Iclaim that Therefore, ormal institutions are weak and former armed groups are strong in the post-conflict period. arepost-conflict period. groups strongin the armed are weakand former institutions ormal 24 CEU eTD Collection networks. networks. The issymbolism. secondfactor symboliccapital combatants have This meansformer that factor.structural time war groupstheir onarmed built from and rebels parties are that This means minority ofthe parties. ethnic conflict. ofthe function legacies are a These factors first isa The However, of performance relevantforthe factors which are twoother there cases in post-conflict group. within ethnic their to winmajority mostvotes ismost patronage likely the can party extend ethnic which thethat minority means winelections.It party ethnic to conditionforany isaminority minimal Patronage patronage. for conducive environment isespecially and socioeconomic political Iholdthe that conflict period. post- environment in the and socioeconomic to islinked the political factor One post-conflict period. in groups the from which armed derive parties ethnic ofminority performance the factors explain that three period. the Iposit the post-conflict dynamicswithin minority groupin political understand the notrelevantto so conflict are ofthe and causes characteristics the IclaimIn mythat approach conflict. during the and after oftheirrole because important the actors to political unpack boxed. actors Iargue butremainblack the literature, in it made the that isalready crucial This point power-sharing will they have then the peacebuilding, are in included at disposal. their arrangements and they parties political into are disposal.transformed Ifformer their havecombatants at which they resources seek to andthe will use environment institutional to partiesthe adapt Minority will ethnic Second power-sharing operate. in which they environment institutional provide arrangementswill the toparties. political to betransform allowed will thengroups resolution, rebel a conflict peaceful First, was if post-conflict period. there in the parties ethnic importantforminority conditions These are over time” 2013: (Sisk, 14). emergence groupidentity transcend that parties political ofintegrative 25 CEU eTD Collection not be important in cases where former armed groups were defeated. Quite the contrary and somewhat and thesomewhat contrary Quite were defeated. formergroups armed in where not cases be important and/ornetworks capital. symbolic will timeand war networks symbolic capital saythat This isnot to However,post-conflict period. difficult it be more will are ifdefeated, they rely time onwar to in the andcapital symbolic the timestructures war utilize can freely they then in resolution, peaceful orincluded are victors negotiatedIfthey resolution. orbe in defeated included be victors, conflict can opposition as acting the groups, Former organization with armed after government, conflict in intrastate ended. onhow conflict can depend forthe resources as party new ofconflict'sUsage legacies effects. political yield the will strongest combatants and symboliccapital conflict resolution. conflict and in participation the conjunctiondirectly offormer from the Therefore, combatantsderives symboliccapital offormer the conflict, while the ofthe memory institutionalize However,capital. which practices in social frompart cometaking only theircan symboliccapital symbolic timecan groupswar networks also appropriate basedonarmed which areand not parties most will successful. be symboliccapital the highest isnotNew exclusive. usageofsymbolism Also, have that and timeleaders prominent war ofthe whichthe has combatants most party thenthe case, Ifthis is have but capital. lowsymbolic will time basedonwar structures, willpossible abe party that groups. rebel derive will from parties ispossibleseveral itTheoretically that it isalso Theoretically the case. research.rarely the conditionformy main istrue constitutes and opposite that The politics.However, not enter combatants will is (Dudouet 2012)show et this al, that studies empirical It ispossibleformer parties. that political transform will groups to It not ispossiblearmed that group. within ethnic their groups fromwinmost rebel votes parties ethnic to conditionforminority main symbolic capital) isthe capital. canpolitical as and use (e.g.timenetworks which legacies war they ofconflict's The utilization 26 CEU eTD Collection networks. Third, the party existed before the conflict and their members did not participate in the innetworks. the did members not andparticipate their the conflict Third, party before the existed rebelstime war and their onformer built are parties conflict. example, For these intook the part members their conflict, but before notthe party armed exist some Second,joined the did ofthe groups. organized the For party conflict. example, in orpartyparticipated the paramilitarygroups members members and their the conflict party gives before fourpossibilities. First, the existed The table Table and Conceptualizing I.1. politicalarmed thelinksbetween parties conflicts II.1. table given in are and post-conflict groups parties armed betweenThe the links orare newly the formed. conflict –they before to timeothersexisted war networks, donot have links are different there In post-conflict and settings, groups somefrom parties: rebel derive types ofpolitical and oursaviors'. heroes,ourprotectors 'our as they be regarded will group ethnic period,their Inthewithin thepost-conflict voters. will influence have and strongmeaning will timeand war networks symbolism ofhow conflict ended, Regardless the and covert. closed, secret be butusagewill their post-conflict period, in timeandthe onwar networks symbolism will rely again thenfrom rebels parties by weredefeated government, hand,groups if the armed manifest. On other and open, public will and symbolism be then resolution, structures inor wereincluded peaceful ended. theregardless ofhow won conflict groups ofthese Ifarmed isinresources. the point usage The counter-intuitively, be necessaryresources will timeandcapital Iholdwar networks symbolic that conflict the armed before party The existed No Yes Party members participated in theconflict armed in Party participated members Actors in the conflict inActors the Former rebels and Former rebels supporters Yes New parties Old parties No 27 CEU eTD Collection the post-conflict period.the post-conflict in fromgroups which derive armed ofminorityparties ethnic theframework performance foranalyzing group. This argument 2. table issummarizedin Table my argument main 2presents and also offers a its ethnic gettingsupportwithin be most symbols in will successful and patronage factors, structures, three party the combines minority ethnic voters. toInthis whichever patronage their process as extend parties. ethnic can to which resources they get parties access They someto minority allow ethnic symbols,basis form structuresthe and ofthe forminority ofpower conflict, respectIn that legacies however,elections; ofconflict's legacies. utilization than wouldbeinfluential less patronage extending and clientelism. patronage haswinin chances to whichmost canhigh patronage extend party The of electorate. goods their inpractices to post-conflictinvites cases environment The socioeconomic 'club' 'private' extend with and/or opportunitiesto parties ethnic these provides instruments minority conflict power-sharing prescribesforminority instruments integration. usually of control political The access to to resources. get minorityparties ethnic gives cases opportunitiesto in post- post-conflict The power-sharing. bein included executive Furthermore, may it legislature. environment The institutional the ornational local representation in to get its groupand to votesethnic within winmost ofthe party ethnic forthe areconditions minority main and symboliccapital time ofwar structures Utilization structures andcapital. symbolic accessto willtime war have part conflict whose in took the members Table groupstheParties armed parties. between and the ofoptions 1presents forthe the relations set theconflict. armed not in participate conflict. isa newcomer,And the party fourth, did members and their conflict didbefore notthe it exist 28 CEU eTD Collection extend patronage to voters will have lowest chances forsuccess. tohave patronage voterslowest will extend orcannot have capital symbolic not timeand basedonwar networks donot which are parties ethnic most toMinority successful. patronage be the extend and possibilities to structures, capital symbolic of highest conjunction whichthe has the that party Iexpect formergroups, party rebel than from one which networks compete. it.ismore wouldconfirm Ifthere to but isnotmy contrary expectation, This However, time onwar built one moreminority parties ethnic than are there case that it be the could patronage. important to than be more and symboliccapital formerstructures that rebel expect symboliccapital. their andnetworks utilizing Inthis onpatronage. case, I rely secondwill mainly The party. ethnic incumbent minority war through mainlyonsupportthe mobilized time rely first will The successfulthan be the rebelsmore will from former minority party ethnic the that case, Iexpect Ifthis possibilitiespatronage. isthe has to partyextend ethnic which an incumbentagainst minority a newly party, couldentering former be rebels competing possibilitiespatronage, to without extend ofminority dynamics politics. at closerthe should takelook period a one A from minorityparty ethnic group. Inthe within post-conflict its successfulminorityparty ethnic the most tohighest be chances it voters,the then has to andpatronage can timeusesextend on war networks, capital, symbolical hypotheses. Ideduce table isbased several Based onthe party ethnic if one main isthat a minority The Table settings ethnic parties minority in between post-conflict Factors I.2. ofcompetition capital andnetworks symbolic utilizestime war Party No Yes Party can extend patronage to voters extendParty patronage can More likely to succeed likelyMore to Highest chances for Highest chances success Yes Less likely to succeed likelyLess to Lowest chances for Lowest chances success No 29 CEU eTD Collection who consider themselves ethnically distinct from other groups in society” and where“this other in groups society” and distinctfrom ethnically themselves who consider ofthe by members group groupisdefined ethnic groupand understand “an that definition ofethnic Johanna Birnir's Itake parties. groupsethnic formyOther areand key minority work ethnic terms well. other as cases alsoto be extended can and init Macedonia timeboth war networks, intheir Croatia ofthe alongoutcomes conflict. groups, with armed and conflicts non-state These the definitionscapture organizationsunderstand the influencethe force andto government usingarmed opposingthe groups armed interchangeably. belligerents, and guerrillas opposition rebels, Iuse groups Bythis I writing oftheincompatibility”. about Inmy stated the outcome forceusing to armed influence organized formally non-governmental group and fortheir a havingname groupofpeople announced (UCDP, supportactor fromnot a foreign have 2014).UCDP “opposition defines organization” “any as opposition ormay wherethe groupmay oneyear”, calendar deaths in 25battle-related least results in at ofa government state, atone isthe twoparties, least between ofwhich use force where the ofarmed territory and/or government that concerns incompatibility “contested as conflicts They intrastate define Program (UCDP). UppsalaConflictData definitionsfrom the Itake groups conflictFor and armed largethat civilwars. informs myisabout that and shapes understanding literature ofthe part andinterchangeably, conflicts conflicts ethnic developments.Iuse the post-conflict notwithstanding at precisely and conflicts, more ethnic primarily (Kalyvas, at 2008).Ilook literature science political civilwar, terms isa conflation ofthe There and historical sociology conflict ethnic in rebellion and I.3.Definitions operationalizationand 30 CEU eTD Collection supported the armed group during the conflict. Rebel groups have military leadership, but they also but leadership, they groups military Rebel thehave armedsupported conflict. the group during grouporsocial armed which groups/organizations supported the parties ofpolitical whichmembers groupsmembersarmed ofaffiliated and forexample, structures; political social supporting and the timenetworks. war at by legacies looking structural of the members I operationalize are the These Wilkinson, 2007: 2). and (Kitschelt employment, and services” goods orcontinuing accessto payments fordirect in return vote ofa citizen's exchange direct transaction,the to “a label interchangeably and clientelism patronage least, but appeals. Iuse not which it Last, the ismostgroupto ethnic likelyfrom to party ethnic come will defined, a supportsuch party. ethnically are not However, bulk ofsupportforan expressively the groups,who ethnic from that other orvoters elections.It voters ispossible mobilizes supportin their to ofonegroup,and ethnic members appeals isone that exclusively anparty ethnic 2004:3). Hence, (Chandra, strategy voters” centralto ofmobilizing its sucha representation of othersmakes and that exclusion to ofcategories the ofset category ethnic cause ofone particular a as championofthe itself party represents party overtly ethnic that “a as (2004).Chandra defines Kanchanparty Chandra from party. ethnic definitionMost ofminority formy isthe work important definition ofethnic the Itake affiliation ethnic countries selfidentity. as expressed istaken both since in Macedonia from and ispossibleCroatia data to it census use religion. Inthis respect and oflanguage basis commonly onthe distinctfrom others most being groupas ethnic identify their toin and extended Croatia can be groups within Individuals these Macedonia. Albanians in group. ethnic identifies the that themselves used identifyany group,and canethnic be This to definition (Birnir, among find self expressionofindividuals who commonalities 2007:isthe 24).Hence, it isdifficult that characteristic centers ona location,identification suppress,orrace” language, as such to 31 CEU eTD Collection they used in the competition. they political in used how and when by whom)and check were (e.g. practices of social initiation atsymbolic capital,the look formationof the conflict. Itrace in participation the oftheir memory the to popularity maintain their for be beneficial it wouldalso but casualties, to and civilian lost to comrades obliged pay respects feel suchsocial engage in practices. likely to are frommore symbolic capital. rebels Parties They would theevents, dirges conflict and sustain ofthe legacy timeinstrumentalizethe war monuments) and (e.g. practices commemorative Social havecapital. symbolic less network,will then they the time war and combatants. commanders However, warare prominent time of hierarchy lower in theythe were if there symboliccapital. example, can For networks also have from the time war votes. Other individuals and harness to capital political symboliccapital translatetheir support and easily They popular enjoy resolution. ofpeaceful in theperiod conflictinitial and during the roles andleadership responsibilities individuals. isascribed to capital makers. peace Think heroesand ofwar arehad individualswho These Symbolic practices. and social at by symboliclegacies looking capital the I operationalize time war networks. utilizing is that party Itake the from timethen war networks come mainly forelections candidates leadership, party ofthe president,members wider other party example, onthoseFor ifis built networks. the the the party more timethen war networks, from ofthe theparty arestructures in individuals there new time toonwar networks. whatthe isbuilt showextent party to political more The structures timeinofthe war networks period.the Imap post-conflict toroles andthe involvement, includingtheir ofthe the theconflict, period individualsfrom to betrace able isimportant research it groups an affiliated and organization not necessarily. conflict, but during the overlap may my For leadership. in political armed always Membership havesame a notpeople. the necessarily These are 32 CEU eTD Collection national, I can check for the reliability and validity of my findings. and validity ofmy forthe reliability check national, Ican Taking twolevels the account into national and sub- the ofanalysis, two levels between Second, switching elections, Iwouldmissthat. legislative only IfIfocus onnational concentrated. strongifare somegroups territorially ethnic can be in elections competition sub-national party fortworeasons. ethnic elections. Idothis First, minority results present.look ofsub-nationallegislative to at the But Ialso post-conflict elections the first indicator ofsuccess. in obtain elections. minority votes that parties ethnic the (2004), and look at Th To ofminorityparty, ethnic success the operationalize ofKanchan Chandra approach Ifollow the targeted the was implementation and whether implementation, oftheir control or unbiased. political has who weremade, instruments the how and thesepolicies Ilook control instruments, at what they extent patronage. useto extend can whichminority ethnic parties instruments To and to parties measure which and my isonpost-conflict focus policies Hence, ofwar). forcasualties and/or benefits social offormer combatants and re-socialization supportintegration forrefugee return, conflict (e.g. policies post- request more specific rebelslikely to are from armedformer Parties fromones groups. former networks. only andclientelistic parties, built patronage the not minority ethnic forall This isapplicable to extend willa as means parties them ethnic use that minority thenisvery likely parties, it ethnic the disposal at ofminority are ifleft they integration and forminority are instruments institutional there a If chance. operate. which minority parties environmentethnic institutional in the create They also democracy and give peace necessaryto aresustain highly they context arrangements. Ina post-conflict agreementsand subsequentpower-sharing peace derive often from instruments institutional Such and reconstructionaid). sector public employments rights and oftheir status (e.g. advancement and ofminorities forintegration post-conflictinstruments institutional Imainlyresources. onthe focus ofspoils and control political by lookingthe patronage to extend at ability the I operationalize I take votes for national legislative elections for all post-conflict elections, from elections,from post-conflict electionsforall legislative votes fornational I take e votes are a clear a clear e votes are 33 CEU eTD Collection resources and competences to improve the rights and status of Serbs in the area where it was whereit formed. rights area and in tostatus the ofSerbs the improve andresources competences and Osječko-baranjska in Croatia: became twocounties Vukovarsko-srijemska, formed. got was ZVO former representation and got proportional example,Serbs guaranteed For and rights to theofminorities. made improve status peacebuilding. alsopower-sharing introduced The agreements changes were arrangements.Institutional and OFAThe agreement the way andfor paved and demobilization provided fordemilitarization Ohrid Framework (OFA),Agreement crisis, in to aresolution the as peaceful 2001. August the concluded by EU and US, and facilitated ofMacedonia ofthe under thePresident parties, auspices reintegration. ofpeaceful aand process to ofthe start Macedonian main leaders The Albanian conflict end the theagreement to Erdut auspices, signed representatives,under international and Croat in 1995Serb ofSerb armed defeat forces military Following conflicts. a the are between norelations minority group.However, ethnic interdependent. are not they and eachthere They other donot border opposing organizations the governmentand between conflicts ethnic intrastate formedbiggest by the of Republic SocialistFederal ofthe werepart andCroatia Macedonia Yugoslavia (SFRY) and had I.4.Research design sub-nationallevel. holdnational and both will inonthe post-conflict settings parties not for, account fortheofminority myethnic success explanation ofthe time, most that, Iexpect Ican that level sub-national explanationsonthe and idiosyncratic be might somethough unique there My Even countries. argument in post-conflict ofminorityparties dynamics ethnic political the isabout parties. minority ofethnic variable: success in my dependent variation seea greater of analysis, Ican Samostojna Avtonomna Oblast Zajedničko VijećeZajedničko Opština (Independent (Independent Autonomous which Slavonia, Area, SAO) Eastern (Joint Council of Municipalities, ZVO) in the area in of ZVO) the (Joint ofMunicipalities, Council 34 CEU eTD Collection were several greater armed clashes. armed greater were several The territory, parts ofthe group controlled minor armed Albanian ofdemocracy.development year. end ofthat before the January2001and finished in It started There interrupted a 10year the InMacedonia, conflict in infrastructure Croatia. physical and civilian Serbcontrolled areas. to in and damage established the many casualties There victims, civilian were forces. ofSerbarmed under control was Croatia A ofSrpska was Krajina” “Republic so-called of territory 1/3 timeofthe close 1995.Duringthat to 1990s.1991and startedended in early in in It the parallel. in went Croatia in development disintegration was Croatia ofSFRY ofthe conflict in part The weredifferentconflicts and gravity. ofduration in terms democratic conflict and early The differences are First, significant the there and Macedonia. similarities, Beside between these Croatia directly. withparties not political deal and policingprerogatives. with and did peacekeeping state institutions with missionscooperated These institutions wereinstate charge ofOFA However, implementation. wereNATO there and EUmissions InMacedonia, Slavonia. former SAO in occupied East Krajina” the Srpska the “Republika so-called authorities from includingremaining Serb political actors, with political local ItAgreement. cooperated UNTAES, wasUN-mandated there mission, In Croatia, an in charge ofthe Erdut ofimplementation power-sharing. rebels to to former orto party design regulation. the electoral changesintroduce to grantThese didaccess documents not parties. prejudice forpolitical orpreference OFA sayagreement orthe Erdut isto That the that not did communities. weredone without environment forminority politics the institutional changes to The affirmative ofminorityrepresentation (e.g. formembers inadministration public employment) action OFAIn Macedonia, symbols, veto and national equitable usageofminority languages, greater secured 35 CEU eTD Collection to previous data. number in 2002,showsthe of the that conflict, after comparison in Albanians increased in Macedonia size of impact the did not hand theOn conflict other the Albanians in Macedonia. taken census The Bureau (2003). and Babić StateSource: Statistical Croatian Table I.3.Ethnic structure of population Croatia, in Censuses 1991–2011 ofCroatia.the population the conflict. after life fortheir voluntarily shows groupchanges orleft ethnic infearing The below table fled Manywere expelled,some ofthe conflict. consequence direct numbers a droptoas 4percent in Serbs Croatia. as themselves populationdeclared ofthe over 12percent conflict their After the conflict, Before the appendix. be foundin the zonescan and the groups ofethnic conflict concentration and border with to clusterKosovo the Macedonia close Albanians in territorial showing Maps . Territorially Bosniawhile with and SerbiaHerzegovina, the and closeborder to in cluster Serbs Croatia Orthodox,and Christian predominantly predominantly Sunni are Muslim. in Macedonia Albanians different quite inSecond, are Serbs Croatia from in are Serbs Croatia in Macedonia. Albanians to Croatia. not comparable werelowand infrastructure structures. governance to establish but did not and casualties damage numbers ofvictims,civilian The TOTAL Undeclared Others Serbs 4, 784,265 3, 736,356 392, 870 581, 663 73, 376 No 1991 12.2 78.1 100 1.5 8.2 % 4, 437,460 3, 977,171 169, 528 201, 631 89, 130 No 2001 89.6 100 3.9 4.5 % 2 4, 284,889 3, 874,321 197, 172 186, 633 26, 763 No 2011 90.42 0.62 4.36 100 4.6 % 36 CEU eTD Collection only municipalities. In sub-national legislative elections there are guaranteed seats for minorities in seatsforminorities guaranteed there are elections legislative Insub-national only municipalities. one-tier, has Macedonia municipalities, countieswhile governance, and two-tier has Also, local Croatia arena. same in electoral the parties andthemselves with other seatsforminority communities. are noguaranteed that This means competebetween parties Albanian in Macedonia. post-conflict period in the there elections isnothresholdnational legislative There and threshold. percent system,PR isa five and there A units for withisused PR closed sixelectoral list list isdone units,ona closed voting electoral Inthe Croatia. general units in electoral general the ten elected. most voteswho are receive Additionally, putin right upaany have list of the to Serbparties voterepresentatives. andforthree voters can three threeThenominate candidates upto candidates top ofcitizens, orindividualscan associations vote. right haveParties, the to citizens Serb-declared unit, whereonly electoral seatsin one nation-wide guaranteed compete forthree elections, Serbparties aredifferent. quite forminority politics regimes the countries, electoral national For legislative any ofthe to in minority parties ethnic regulation pertinent party isnospecific Third, there while OfficeSource: Statistical State ofMacedonia ofthe Republic Table I.4.Ethnic structure of population Censuses Republic1991–2002 of in Macedonia, TOTAL Others Vlachs Serbs Roma Turks Albanians Macedonians 2,033,964 1,328,187 441,987 84, 068 42,775 52,103 77,080 7,764 No 1991 21.7 100 4.1 0.4 2.1 2.6 3.8 65 % 1,945,932 1,295,964 441,104 38, 309 40,228 43,707 78,019 8,601 No 1994 22.6 66.6 100 0.4 2.2 % 2 2 4 2,022,547 1,297,981 509,083 47, 706 35,939 53,879 77,959 9,695 No 2002 100% 25.2 64.2 2.3 0.4 1.8 2.6 3.9 % 37 CEU eTD Collection Table elections sub-national in Post-conflict Croatia I.6. legislative and Macedonia conflict. . held the fouryears after elections were sub-nationallegislative Macedonia, was Erdut in the envisaged In reintegration. forthe act peaceful concluding the as Agreement Holding elections local complete. was reintegration peaceful right the after hadelections Croatia local had three. Macedonia conflict cycleswhile hadthe Croatia five after elections, Looking sub-national at Table in national Croatia legislative elections Post-conflict I.5. Macedonia and conflict. year the after elections wereone legislative first national the was InMacedonia, reintegration completed. theyears peaceful after and three conflict ended, the years inafter werefive Croatia elections national legislative The first 2011. electionsin 2008and were early there Macedonia in elections,whereas wereregular all Croatia had fourc both andCroatia Macedonia mayors persons council same areforall. rulesand the forelecting and the were organized in donotMacedonia exist mayors minorities inrepresenting 2009and 2013.Deputy minorities vote Elections whereonly ofcouncils. members the minoritieselected representing from deputy ofcounties mayors deputyand heads elected andcouncils regional local 2007. Beforethe that in wereintroduced minorities vote, elections,whereonly Special proportionalrepresentation. entitled wherethey in deputyare places ofcounties mayors deputyand heads thetominorities elect right have InCroatia, are seats. noguaranteed there InMacedonia, Croatia. municipal in county assemblies and Macedonia Croatia Macedonia Croatia 2005 1997 2002 2000 ycles of post-conflict national legislative elections.However, legislative ofpost-conflict national ycles in 2009 2001 2006 2003 2013 2005 2008 2007 2009 2011 2011 2013 38 CEU eTD Collection (National Democratic Reviwal, RDK), (National Democratic DPA), for Democratic Prosperity, PDP), 2002and 2013. competitors between DUI had 8ethnic These are and ZSH) Croatia, partija Srba PPS), Narodna Stranka 2013. between SDSS1997 and had 7competitors competitors. toethnic performance their their against they that differentIcompared Notwithstanding compete varying arenas, in electoral parties post-conflict entire period. in the group within a ethnic dominantposition their to them have enabled ofthese factors thethat conjunction group.Iclaim toethnic patronage their and resources extend control support, they and how to came political to get they timehow capital onwar networks, symbolic werebuilt used how parties these ethnic and toDUI Serbs ethnic SDSSto in appeals Macedonia. for Integration, DUI) IshowAlbanians. Democratic SerbParty, SDSS) in and Croatia time onwar networks. built parties These are in both. parties ethnic isvariation inthere supportforminority ofmy level valid analysis. country in isthe each parties ethnic between minority The competition And in and Croatia Macedonia. post-conflict context in onminority Ifocus the parties In myethnic research Nova Srpska StrankaNova Partia Demokratike ePartia Re Demokratike (Democratic Party DPS) ofSerbs, (Democratic (Serb National Party,(Serb National SNS), Zajednica Srba Zajednica Rijeke (New SerbParty,(New NSS) (New Democratic Party, (New Democratic ND), Partia Demokratike e Shqiperise Demokratike Partia Partia Demokratike Kombëtare,Partia Demokratike (Association ofSerbs Rijeka,ZSR). (Association in Samostalna Srpska Demokratska Stranka Bashkimi Demokratik për Integrim për Bashkimi Demokratik Partija Podunavskih Srba Srba Podunavskih Partija , Zajednica Srba Hrvatske Hrvatske Srba , Zajednica , Naša Stranka My main cases are the minority ethnic minority ethnic are cases the main My KombëtareRilindja Demokratike Partia Demokratike PopullorePartia Demokratike (Our Party, NS) (Democratic Party of (Democratic Albanians, (National Democratic Party,(National Democratic (Party in ofSerbs Podunavlje, (Association in ofSerbs (Democratic Union , Demokratska , Demokratska (Independent (Independent

Srpska (Party 39 CEU eTD Collection 3 declarations and programs, statues, (e.g. content party university Igathered experts and professors. ofdifferent to Italked representatives Ialso interviewedjournalists, conflict and parties. political whoaffiliatedpeople werein organizations, the only those who to civilians trying survive but also were the across spectrum, formations peoplein tookarmed period. who part Iinterviewed and post-conflict from the different conflict from experiences hadand deeppersonal who understanding groups, ethnic secondary sources. accounts from personal to gather able because Iwas Macedonia personalin interviews ground.Idid area fewer oftheon all conflict toand Debartrying cover in Idid Croatia. Skopje, interviews samein as principles preserved the Tetovo, , Lipkovo but in fewerMacedonia, interviews and Baranja Srem. Slavonia, Idid and SAOSlavonia East SAO Krajina”(RSK): SAO Krajina, “RepublicofSrpska so-called ofthe former the areas three West , , Vinkovci, but also capital, covered workCroatia field the and Borovo.My in Požega 2011 , in Idid , overinterviews 50interviews. conducted five in weeks 2013and and To in three months Ispent InCroatia, and workCroatia Macedonia. field extensive datain gather Idid I.5.gathering Data methodsand country-specific. show are mynot that findings different, are conflict conditions other. countryforthe control as Iusethein one outcomes Inthis wayI and the Macedonia, post- both and areCroatia similar outcomes in electoral groups. since the But, armed norelation to timeand war networks others onorincluded had werebuilt parties Some ofthe (National NA) and Alternative, NDP), Center for International Cooperation (MCMS) published interviews with political leaders recalling the conflict. International (MCMS)publishedrecalling for political with Cooperation the Center interviews leaders 2010.In in Macedonian 2011, participants the conflict in ethnic of onthe 10yearOFA, anniversary the Macedonian with debate Institute publishedproceedings 2010Foundation of Society ethnic a Open In –Macedonia and Albanian Bashkimi Demokratik ShqiptarBashkimi Demokratik Forca Demokratike e Reja (Democratic Unionof (Democratic DUA), Albanians, (New Democratic Forces, Democratic NDS). (New Kombëtare Alternative 3 I met with people, with Imet people, 40

CEU eTD Collection intra-group competition and if a minority party has political control of public resources, thencan ofpublic control it political has minority andparty if competition a intra-group there be then will territoriallyconcentrated, are example, For if minorities competing expectations. control. political size groupand of voters,ethnic turnout, someThis to wasofthe test relevant forthe wassuchas: number dataanalysis, which relevant other Intheset Iinput thedata conflict. after and, arguably, the municipalities conflict during in those precisely operated relevant they remained networks. war a as proxy can forsupportfrom time be regarded municipalities War networks time Support in on support forminorityparties. conflict-affected ethnic any has ofterritory impact control SAO West orSAO East) proper. orCroatia conflict-affected to seewhether Idid this or municipalities (e.g. in SAO their RSK Krajina, relation to location municipalities codedin the not. Ialso InCroatia, they were affected conflict whether the in or past relation to conflict municipality byI codedthe each had sufficient methods. to quantitative use and cases variation twocountries. the comparability between and ofmy the way observations increased number This Ialso Macedonia. in andCroatia over 60municipalities assures level municipal theon Aggregating data 200municipalities in from maindata over ofanalysis. werethe Icollected level units municipal and (i.e.in Croatia Serbparties parties ethnic cast forminority onthe in Macedonia) parties Albanian wherethe votes countryset a Ibuilt data each For and Croatia Macedonia. commissions in electoral the state andelectionsfrom sub-national post-conflict national onall data electoral available I gathered the conflict. during fromparties content Serbpolitical at the archival research party interviews officials. ofkey orviews elections, orcommunicated Idid Croatia Inaddition,in in competition their parties, ethnic about werereporting minority especiallysources, they when both parties countries. in from minority platforms) ethnic electoral To media theIused triangulate data Croatian War Fatherland of the Center Memorial Documentation and gathered gathered and 41 CEU eTD Collection analysis one Iused way ANOVA one Iused way Pearson's correlation. and bivariate ANOVA to spoils. For quantitative how and to resources the came control capital, political and they as and it used how, the timehow on war networks, werebuilt symboliccapital transferred parties they over time, the shows tracing ofspoilsandProcess andresources. control symbolism legacies, structural which Iposit: ofanalysis. the as method tracing main I usedprocess factors three analysis onthe isstructured The the present. methods. oriented to case Igive weight Therefore, greater to theconflict oftime: end ofthe from period an extended Ilook at ofminorityparties. ethnic success my variable, dependent with show will inferences the analysis quantitative causal whether the unclear difficult,spoils andIt resources). isvery quantify though However, not to them. impossible, even is it of control (i.e. patronage to symbolic extend and ability (i.e. symboliclegacies networks), capital) (i.e. legacies time war independentvariables:structural three methods. Ihave research oriented forcase- research question. ofmy call independentvariables and measurement The operationalization tomy answer main suitableapproach Ifindthis that isa analysisdata. ofelectoral with quantitative the findings Itry methods, to corroborate but oncase-orientedresearch IrelyIn my mainly research research methods. in case-oriented use competition, parties ethnic and minority parties, and political terrorism literature, surveyed, from guerrilla-to-party forpost-conflict studies2013). (Sisk, suited better methods are I Also, ofthe studies which most onlarge-Nstudies rely However, methods. quantitative analysis and authors argue oriented case that (Woodward 2012). al., Some et phenomena. aand rangemultifaceted ofissues encapsulate They methodology specific lack post-conflict democratization state-building and Studies ofpost-conflict tovoter patronage harness support. extend 42 CEU eTD Collection and Macedonia. Croatia in post-conflict minorityparties ethnic between shouldforcompetition be valid explanation under different outcomes, electoral Ishow conditions, my that argument country specific. isnot The forthe countries. inControlling twopost-conflict parties ofethnic strategies In this the way Icompare However, analysis. country Ialso showresults ofa twocountries, between analysisthe since in Idothe same togroup. appeal the that parties ethnic compare to and be able concentration for territorial explanations(e.g. power-sharing regimes),competing institutional account electoral and arrangements andCroatia Macedonia. Albanian in parties some constant ofthe to designkeep allows me This ones, groupanalysis in a within ofSerbparties other hypothesis, withI testin the in my parallel in dothe Macedonia. same Iwouldnotto fewer units be ofanalysis able requirements; however, to statistical according conservative operations, statistical were because there advanced have more used in Icould overCroatia, 200units ofanalysis of the Having method. the validity assures in which patronage Russia, again to extend to analyzepossibilities similar approach minority parties. ethnic With a (2007)uses Hale explanatoryvariables. forother correlationsIcontrol supportfor municipality and voter ofthe control political between check forinferences correlations to Iused period. thePearson's whole post-conflict andelectionsover local innational all parties ethnic minority supportforall elections,Ianalyzevoter firstsupport inpost-conflict foronly the one party However, method. assuresvaliditySalvador ofthe the which while Allison voter (2010)analyzes Furthermore, support forFMLN analyzing when voter in procedure El similar Allison a (2010)used conflict. of territory during the the justifies usage variables lownumber ofexplanatory The ANOVA. to conflict-affected inof and relation control thesupportforparties compare mean municipalities 43 CEU eTD Collection 6 5 4 (i.e. liberalization come before institutions)to has governance building institutionalization(i.e. that claim ofstate-building advocates For example, “liberal peacebuilding”. to alternative as and appeared largely organizations ofinternational and practices policies through developed the (Woodward, 2012) 2010: (Sisk, 57).It service was development delivery)” and(through forhuman sector reform) security (through forsecurity capacities governance orrebuilding,ofcore building, state the “emphasizes ofthe State-building spectrum. isonone agendaside state-building research In the post-conflict and Mehler, 2013). in HamburgSustainable Peace” of issue a special and (Bogaards,2013: 81). choices institutional network “Institutions for formationofa research recent The isgiven to and democracy andpeace conflicts building to469). Mostending attention ofthe and dynamic (Woodward, phenomenon” “multifaceted 2012: Bojicic-Dzelilovic, Kostovicova and strongly emerging; however, methodology, specific it a misses still isa it perhapsbecause and processes. actors andlevel local actors international them? responses are to and thepossible start,consequences conflicts whywhat theaddressed questions ethnic since conflicts, Most ofcontemporary World War conflicts. been intrastate IIhave II. LITERATURE REVIEW Nordstrom 2004. Nordstrom O'Leary, Ottaway, 1993; Brinkerhoff, 2002; 2008; and Sisk, Jarstad Sisk, Kaldor, 2007; 2009; Paris and 2007and 2006; 1998; and andAmong others Lake Schneckener Rothchild, 2000; see, Gurr Wolff, 2004;et Chandler, al., 2008; Sandole 2002. Petersen, Buhaug, 2010and Birnir, 2007; Wimmer, 2009; Min, and Cederman Wucherpfening et Roessler, al., 2012; Buhauget al., 2012; 2008; Among others see, Wolff, and Cordell 2006; Wolff, 2009; Woodward, Laitin, 1995; Collier, and 2003; Fearon 2009; to dropped 2012(UCDP, 23in number 2014). were inter-state seven 2004only to and 29on-going 16). intrastatetheir (Kalyvas,2006: In conflicts, were 2009there between1940and onewars 1990(Walter, civil were there forty For example, 118 1999); and from 1989 conflicts from 5 and sustaining peace building democracy, resolution, conflict haveAuthors explored role of the Kostovicova and Bojicic, 2006; Newman et2009; Newman all. and2006; Bojicic, Kostovicova Lijphart, 1977; Horowitz,and Lijphart, 1977; McGarry 1985,2008; Civil Wars 6 Post-conflict peacebuilding research is research Post-conflictpeacebuilding journal demonstrate this (Kurtenbach this (Kurtenbach demonstrate journal 4 Notable research research Notable 44 CEU eTD Collection 10 9 8 7 broad-based, aggregative, and to create actors rogue tame political are suggestedto party regulations regimeselectoral power-sharing institutions, onformalforexample focuses liberal democratization arrangements, 2010). (Sisk, new (i.e. contract)” a social and accountability popular participation inclusion, competition, political basedonrule-bound through non-violentdecision-making negotiated is which mutual security through institutions and processes oftransitiontowarda liberal process agenda. otherpost-conflict research side isonthe of Post-conflict democratization 2012). environment (Strazzari, post-conflict in networks the ofinformaland criminal 2012)and importance (Pickering, governance onlocal (Fagan, 2012),the conditions impact onsocioeconomic the neglects building impact (Stroschein, and hybrid 2012).State- structures are decentralized there post-conflict environment in structures,the while governance 2012).It (Gilbert, hierarchical assumes interpretative frameworks (Woodward, local ofthe and circumscription” the neglects circulation “production, 2012)and 2003).However, al., (Collierat economic conditions forgranted takes state-buildinglegitimacy usually (Parisand2009) Sisk, to improving to issues,design institutional the changes situationand security (Paris, 2004). introduction ofpluralism) and domesticcontext, to international putweight greater They (Kadima, 2008).(Kadima, and Tuesta and Southern Islands and and 2008) Papua East Soldevilla,Guinea the (Okole, Pacific New 2008), Africa Southeast in For example, South-Eastern 2008), (Bieber, Central Europe and Asia (Hicken, 2008), Latin America (Catón hostilities cessation to necessarilyof do not lead (Gaber, 1998) E andSriram, Mehler 2008; Tull, 2005; 2000) Spears, effects adverse have create inefficiencies theterm institutional long in or Reilly, (Rothchild, 2008; Jarstad, 2005; 2013; politics in ( are integrated former rebels Power-sharing 2003) if (Hartzell and even democracy Hoddie, found contribute peace to arrangements to and are Macginty, 2008. Sollenberg, 2005; and Posner 2008; Kalyvas Kocher, Kalyvas, 2007; 2007; 2008; Steenkamp, Ishiyama,McMillan,2001; 2001; Sambanis, Scarritt and2006; and 2003; 2009; and Kroenig, Fearon Laitin, Fish necessarilydemocracy, detrimental not offor is relevance claims andethnicity findpolitical that these see example for Snyder, 2000; and Snyder, Mansfield authors there 1996; 2005; who dispute 2006.However are Biddle, Kaufmann, political opposing for ofethnicity. like they expression salientand provide identities see Forexample to authorsinstitutionsSome of suggest the introduction post-conflictbecause that liberal contributes instabilityin phase lectoral regimes are seen asintroduce to areseen an instrument power-sharing early regimes lectoral 2009; (Sisk, Reilly, 2008); however, they 9 and political parties' regulation. parties' and political Pospieszna and Schneider,Pospieszna and 2013) . 10 For example, For ; however,; power-sharing arrangements can electoral engineering strategies and and strategies engineering electoral 7 Gormley-Henan and and Gormley-Henan

Post-conflict It “is as pursued Barkan, 2000;Barkan, 8

45 CEU eTD Collection 13 12 11 (Wantchekon, banditry protection against provides order and 2004, Wantchekon 2002). and Neeman it democracybecause and citizensprefer the elections haveof winning a chance believethey parties if the warring ispossible (democracy). Democracy orinternal arbitration (protectorate) arbitration to fighting, seekexternal to resume options: have warringthree parties oftheAt theconflict end 2005). (Simonsen, identities forpolitical usually instrumental become latter then with the identities, ethnic coincide conflicts 1998:(Kumar 230-231).Ifarmed and Ottaway loyalties votes” to to appealed gain parochial parties while “political tensions andexisting cleavages”, legacy, bitter a many electionsleft doubtin instances that islittle “there conflict countries aggravating liberal institutions. formal politics,than and party onpost-conflict electoral stronger impact territory, spread ona casualties wider with many civilwars, ofprotracted legacies perspective, a have approach. centered and an actor sociological perspective requirescontext a and Mehler, (Kurtenbach well” as the ofpeace role implementation in an important 2013: 2). The local actors) play and (international domestic behavior and actor termination) war (i.e. context but also the forpeace, the only not be determinant may choice institutional that “acknowledge peace, sustainable Authors theof issue special in (Höglund, Jarstad2009). andregimes Kovacs, Bogaards, 2008,2013).However, occursunder different polarization political violenceand electoral (Reilly, post-conflict partiessettings in and multi-ethnic and Reilly Nordlund,2008; 2006,2008,2013; For example, like in in like Forexample, 2005) 251). 2008: (ICG, orAfghanistan Iraq (Randal, 2009; Arian, 2005). 2004,2006), (Pinkney, Ghana (Manning, 1988; Meissner, and (Maalouf, Lebanon (Acka, 2009), Coast 2009) Ivory this thein case Forexample, was 2008). (Randall, party (Sisk, rules crafts democracy theelectoraland majority basis for 2013) pacts become and can negotiated UN reforms guided (Mehler, institutional localmediate actors For example, sharing power or 2013); elite'spost-conflict Civil WarsCivil Mozambique (Manning, 2007), Nepal (Raj Dahal, 2009), and (Raj Dahal, Bosnia Herzegovina Nepal (Manning,Mozambique 2007), journal from December 2013, dedicated to institutions for from2013,dedicated journal December 13

11

From a sociological From a 12 Inpost-

46 CEU eTD Collection their goals. their Terrorist organizations orrebel/guerrilla with associated usingviolence.However, are in to strategies achieve use and withnon-violent associated the are oflegitimate usually parties Political II.1.Terrorism and politicalviolence thereof. implications and the parties, political however, be relevant; may parties ethnic also and between groups armed overlooks the it connections on hand, literature the On other becomes competition relevant. in onminority parties ethnic literature from rebels.parties However, the then minority parties, into ethnic from rebels parties transform if ofthe performance explores the partly goals toIt usingballots. also tousing political bullets achieve from Itprocess process. shows the the it transformation explores because party isimportant literature the point guerrilla-to- From another of view the conflict. in to relations parties ofpolitical activities Itorigins shows and parties. and the political groups possiblearmed showslinksbecause the between it violenceisimportant and political onterrorism the pointliterature transformation. Fromofview one and guerrilla-to-party violence and political studies onterrorism conflict, forexample an armed settings. during and parties after and political groups armed studieslinks about between the are There post-conflict in the ofparties performance about guidance theoretical thereHowever isnocoherent 252). 2008: (Randall, parties” political become (Reilly, 158)and a 2008: parties” political peaceful into ofwarring armies transformation “the Post-conflict electionsencourage (Lyons, and democratization” termination war promotes [and, D.T]therefore parties political 2002: 26). into [goes,ofmilitias the transformation politics D.T]through “Demilitarizing “demilitarized”. be politicsneedsto are held, first and beforeelections the been has signed agreement After a peace fter an ethnic conflict the “priority may be precisely to induce armed forcesto armed to induce may be theprecisely “priority anconflict ethnic fter 47 CEU eTD Collection research interests lie in the last option. the last in lie research interests my own first potentialbullets. twocategories, ofthe and existence theoretical the Irecognize While replace ballots when toand third, ballots, usedin parallel are dominate,bullets second,when bullets at once. politics, includingusingboth when types be three ofsituations:first, could Theoretically there ofviolenceormoderate a group's cyclebetween usage a whole life can be groups. there appears that It alsoterrorist/rebel/guerrilla turn Parties into can with strategies violence. electoral their complement parties. political may direction. organize Parties works opposite The in the to relationship paramilitaries also transform Rebel may to groups participation. with electoral violenttactics to their complement mayparties groups rebel start Rebel groups. and between parties political therebeSo stronglinks could 1991: 429-30). (Weinberg, party a political transform to oritfully may with nonviolenttactics the ofviolence use factions (Weinberg,violent and non-violent 1991). A to formcomplement a party groupmay terrorist (Weinberg, splitindependent may in orthe party branch a create terrorist may 1991).Parties choseto attractiveness ontheir andstrategic depend fluid, mainly are rather arethey not fixed, choices efficient opts forthe other most not. ittimes its isviolence, goals. Sometimes to strategy achieve The and need support. mass group ahave ambitions political political structure, incentive given the Then, Weinberg groups' 'political that as groups with terrorist parties political (2003)equate and Pedahzur in Palestine 2006(Turner,elections in 2006). guerrilla partyorganization and a aand political forth (Ottaway, between Hamaswon the 1998)and organizationterrorist (Weinberg and Pedahzur, 2003),the UNITA in movement Angola moved back asa party acts Palestine both movementand the groups.a in Fatah example, For terrorist/rebel/guerrilla and parties dichotomy between a clear isseldom post-conflictthere cases conflict and 48 CEU eTD Collection party literature addresses this phenomenon. this party addresses literature parties. political groups into rebel transform former In thecase scenario, third theAnd guerrilla-to- 2009: 60). the power-sharing (Taylor, core” party-based their knownFront, National wereboth at the agreement as history, political ofColombia's prominent phenomena as known civilwar partisan the ofColombia. “Two history definedpolitical conflictthe have party violenceand led ofthe most 2013; and Calle Sánchez-Cuenca, de la and Hallward, 2013; engagement (Bhasin 2013). Alonso, Also, andPalestine ETA their of party in specter activities oradded Spain political transformed, in Hamasin in example, elections.For likely to are stand more supportthey territorially concentrated differentiate arena to electoral maysome the have groups and if terrorist enter fromthey competitors, Brathwaite (2013) claimsthat and ballots, usage ofbullets parallel Considering secondoption, the Birnir, Inman (Satana, and parties than secular to instigate violence more likely 2013). are basedparties elections(Newman,2013).Religious more become before parties, frequent political during elections. polarizedand usually restored) and Terrorist organized attacks, by and inspired Weinberg, 2013). (i.e. ornewly new system political toisunsettled happen the when This isexpected (Altier,organizations civilwar strife and even violence,civil in intrastate orengaged and Martin Violence 2008). et al., (Martin parties” political within characteristic A issue of special in the whichassimilate organizationisusually newborn structure, sameorvertical, the hierarchical, tend “they to wings groups/armed terrorist transformorcreate case,parties into when In the first in 2013 elaborates this point. There are cases where political parties created paramilitary point. inthis paramilitary created 2013elaborates parties wherepolitical cases are There Terrorism andPolitical La ViolenciaLa and 49 CEU eTD Collection 15 14 goals (Weinberg political realistic andgovernment having 2008), et Pedahzur al 2003,Martin and of legitimacy groupdynamicsinclude: from accepting 2007).Factors(Kovacs, whichrebel derive rebel incentivesforthe group and selective PR) provide collective democracyand which parliamentary support forrebels 2007; (Kovacs, Zeeuw, ofpopular level 2008)andinstitutions new (e.g. (Weinberg (Zeeuw, conflict 2008),inclusive settlements al 2003,Martin et and Pedahzur 2008),higher regimestability whichtransformation supportsuccessful include: environment Factors local from the transformation. fora successful account context the group'sinternational environment, local rebel dynamicsand that withinorganization looksatthe changes transformation and 2011). and (Ishiyama Bata, Studies show Itthe for lays conditions whereitand successful wherenot. out was of transformation and al., Dudouet2008). 2007;et Kovacs, Zeeuw the 2008; process looksat literature guerrilla-to-party The Latin America, Africa or (e.g.Asia Pool, 2001; 2007; al., Deonandan2007; et Manning, Allison, 2006; S countries. their headinggovernmentin respective the 38),andin wereincluded al.,orwere (Dudouet 2012: et insurgency conversion post-war infrom success their orrecent term battleground” electoral to the long remarkable elections.Some “achieved and runin parties political become period groups rebel conditions. environment and varying changing theystrategies in use and insurgent aregroups studiesThere ofrebel ofwhat typeswhich movements,in terms exist, II.2.Guerrilla-to-party transformation tudies of armed groups' transformation to political parties tend to focus on particular cases, usually in usually cases, to onparticular focus tend toparties political tudies groups' ofarmed transformation For more see Duduoet et al.,(2012) table 1 on page 6. al.,(2012) 1onpage Formore Duduoet table see et 2006. Among others see, Weinstein, 2005; 2007; 1998; Dunn,Clapham, 2007; Bøåsand Keen, Wood, 2003and Kalyvas, 15

14 However, the post-conflict in 50 CEU eTD Collection performance of the new parties. new ofthe performance the values/symbolskey to understand structures,are and resources rebel respect party Inthat continues. 2003). struggles (Salih of national liberation ends the isnosharp division guerrilla and There wherethe to be embodiment they as party state, continue blur tend the and the formergroups to Parties rebel from electorate. with the and ofinternalrelationship control mechanisms personalistic and clientelistic conflict. armed in the combatants lies transformed. ofpolitics ishardly basis Their relyThey on socioeconomic conditions. ofthe former the thethat legitimacy point Authors implicit, miss,ormake and legacies different ofhistorical the neglects importance former fromwhich guerrillas, the objectives to expected have 16).New (Zeeuware the2008: parties party in transition andpower retain the stability war-to-democracy in provide that leaders admitting rebel while relations, the interparty in ofpower be deprived combatants will former that assumes literature guerrilla-to-party Furthermore, assumptions.some heavy institutions are unsettled. stability post-conflict when They assumeregime performance. and ofthetheir parties new development on fortransformation rely Also, models the however, with and replacingbullets ballots; revoking as violence defined sayslittle it forthe very transformation process, foranalyzing the framework presentsa valid literature The guerrilla-to-party to2007). toviolence(Kovacs, ofthereturn decision rebels and Zeeuw, 2008: 273-274); however, orthe performance influenceparty necessarily it not does (Kumar transformation guerrilla-to-party ease upthe actors international can 2008: 20).Support from (Zeeuw adversaries” withformer dialogue their political and start issafe to a it disarm movements that “rebel stability to convince provide and political security must andcontext international on the regional undergoingdemocracy (Manning, 2008)and changes (Zeeuw, and structural attitudinal 2008).Further the to within groupcommitted 2007),creatinga constituency (Kovacs, having cohesion leadership 51 CEU eTD Collection 17 16 conflicts. ethnic settle andmeans societies as divided to in ofdiversity arrangements foraccommodation diversity isa large ofethnic accommodation There and deals that with democratization body ofliterature II.3.partiesMinority ethnic competition in disposal. their have at and whichthey resources environment institutional to the the adapt parties used). whichresources are To how in needsto consideration take parties' one performance the evaluate and competition electoral analysisresults and party's(i.e. ofelectoral analysis performance ofthe and the thenbegs performance. attention it isthe variable dependent party political viable When a parties' and resources forthe implications serious andhas the thegroups parties new rebel between the address doessecond. but theit necessarily first, job not explaining continuity structural The a parties. does good ornot, political as literature perform, successfully The guerrilla-to-party current the secondthey violence,and phasein 2007).Intherebels (Kovacs, abandon first parties political isperforming as twophases:violenceand second first isrevoking Rebel's transformationin goes unions, student organizations, 2010: groups105). pre-civildays” war and(Allison, peasant in toparties, political decades back dating several long histories Somethey fromhave scratch. start authors argue organizations groups not with rebel “new” rootsas parties are that “political sense in the resourcesforthe parties. new important andare legacies former that structures crucial point some As waystudies missa Inthat ones. existing same any willas ofthe parties new be is successful,then the However, transformation if that the isanassumption underlined there literature guerrilla-to-party in the For example see, Lijphart, 1977, 2004, 2012; McGarryO'Leary, Lijphart, 1977,2004,2012; see, and Forexample 2004. Moser, Friedman, 2005; 2003; 2005; Bochsler, 2010. and Barany Moser,Among others Stein,2000; see, Juberias, 2000; 2005; Stockwell, Anderweg, Grofmanand 2000; 16 17 On one side there is the 'centrifugalist' approach which advocates power-sharing which advocates 'centrifugalist' approach isthe one side On there On the other side is the 'centripetalist' approach which advocates creating electoral creatingelectoral which advocates approach other'centripetalist' side the is On 52 CEU eTD Collection 18 parties. onethnic main literature ornot, is the ofthe focus chooseto radicalize parties ethnic Whether (Szöcsik outbidding andethnic Zuber, 2). 2012: of perspective whichfrom ispuzzling a in competition”, parties positions by etho-national adopted the policy “in variance isgreat there democraciesshows that European in 22multinational parties 2006,2010). (Caspersen, A of210political positions onethno-national data cross-sectional recent an inter-ethnic another2001),even during competewith(Stroschein, thanone to rather conflict Evans and O'Leary2009). 2001; Mitchell, to decide cooperate sometimes Also, may parties ethnic and Evans, cooperation (Mitchell, O'Leary party andethnic fosters conflict ethnic conciliates but rather However, tensions, ethnic lead to not anddoes competition plurality are whereintra-group cases there partyformation ofthe system (Birnir, 2007). dimensionsmultiple ofethnicity, the even 'jump foster start' democracyand can parties ethnic for provide settings, incentives institutional which 2005).Inthe appropriate democracy (Chandra, 2008; Brunnbauer, 2007).However, the to others make argument not parties detrimental are ethnic that Macginty, (Mitchell, 1995;and strategy Gormley-Heenan often party 'outbidding' use their parties as other,than the 1985).Minority outbidding' of'ethnic ethnic (Horowitz, a labeledas strategy which was more regardedradical one wouldbe thenwas that it oneblock, partiesethnic leastin were at twoethnic 1995).Ifthere system dual ethnic (Mitchell, party to an create in wereexpected competition parties democracy, inter-ethnic instigates it because 2008).Ethnic (Rabushkaand Shepsle, 1972; tensions stability and to detrimental was competition consideredparty ethnic awas that For long time,it instigate inter-ethnicincentives to cooperation. political For example see, Horowitz, see, Reilly, 1985,1990,2008; Forexample 2001. 18

53 CEU eTD Collection the peace agreement orpower-sharingthe agreement peace ofcertainparties procedures forinclusion arrangements provide ininclusion power-sharing example, regime.For if electoral supportthrough institution the orprovide provide if fortheir they support forparties can provide Peace fromagreements rebels. ofparties failure theor success can explain oftheagreement the peace terms ended and waytheexample, conflict the from rebels. ofparties environment.performance For post-conflict institutional relatetoThe the first competition. the explain suggests which may literature of factors twosets The guerrilla-to-party in minorityparties ethnic transformation and from explanationscome guerrilla-to-party The competing II.4.Competingexplanations group. ethnic same towhich appeal the minority parties, ethnic different same partiesgroupin ethnic from third compare countries. To of the performance access from same fromparties different grouporcompare the ethnic parties country and same in groups the minority parties. done theyondifferent isthat caveat are Some Another compare ofanalysis. levels universe a as subset inof cases, the minorityin post-conflict parties claimsabout specific do not make ofthe all and different utilize in donotparties consideration ethnic competition take which resources issuccessful,thenhad astrategy. successful it party ethnic in onminority parties ethnic Studies voter support.However, isassumedif ismostthat an successful? whichIt strategy clear isnot always it strategy, be an donotadequate consider to parties outbidding usedifferent then they to strategies attract moresupport.Ifminority suchstrategyethnic them that voter they wouldget outbid, consider parties if Ethnic competition. parties in isonlypossibleforethnic outbidding ethnic strategies onelogic, ofthe (Enyedi, Bornschier, competition 2005; political actors shapeand structure who this 2009).Following ofrational in a parties perspective putsethnic competition, parties in The onminority ethnic work ceteris paribus ceteris , one should make a within countryandonparties focus a within analysis , one shouldmake 54 CEU eTD Collection transformation (Allison, 2006). transformation (Allison, isthat larger claim better The rebel have groups popular and more political after performance can and popular groups explain Second, supportforrebel size last? notsurprising. they quite hence are post-conflict elections; long theAlso, how does effect isunclear it (Allison, parties” 2010).However, political as ofrebels performance first from results come the the the twokey factors explaining populationare against civilian the ofviolence use territory and their and control capture ofrebels to Salvadorability responsible rightsInEl “the abuses. forhuman forceswere government conflict and duringwhere the had strongpresence regions wherethey in better performed from (Allison, thisrebels Salvador2010).Parties from point El corroborates in 1994 post-conflict elections forthe level, first and regional local sub-national at elections, gathered the conflict. during which control wereunder their legislative from national data Analysis ofelectoral in regions be ismore higher forformerlikely First,to supportrebels forparties capital. ideational group, which isto andrebel say histories their the ofthe conflict services during social extending centralization, rebel supportforthe group,hierarchical size and thepopular conflict, civilians during group. rebel ofthe characteristic andofviolenceagainst ofterritory use control include These factors the relateto from ofparties rebels, performance may set the offactors,explain The which second providing forothers. leeway while forsome setparties, impediments may regulations orparty thepost-conflict electoral period favored. somemayInthe parties regime,then be electoral changes to the agreement entails peace if the support (Allison, 2010).Similarly, voter incentivesto get possibilities forselective access to spoilsand they in then have government, are conflict and they the areafter period. groups victorious Ifrebel post-conflict in the structurally somewillfavored parties then be orthe legislative executive, in the 55 CEU eTD Collection will enjoy electoral support in those areas. Rebel's governance during the war helps them to establish to helps war them establish during areas. the Rebel'sgovernance support in those will electoral enjoy the party conflict,new then during the in some areas services social Fourth, ifgroupextended a rebel off-spring oftheir performance parties. gains after. the groups'which fromexplains rebel characteristics factor the next to This bringsattention electoral the bring war services during and providedsocial that security branches local respect,that the (Ishiyamaand2011: Batta, election” support during to the have mobilize helped time period 377).In organizational the war from inherited borrowed the areas.ofthe “Certainly and party rural features countryside in the services, andespecially social security which level, provided andregional national and 2011: Batta, the war Maoist organized 375).Duringthe district, onthe “People'sGovernments” considerableorganizational ofthe “inherited conduct People's a as result ofits capacity War” (Ishiyama and and centralized” structured organizational ofbeing hierarchically “tradition It had a capacities. considerable with remainedcentralized after Nepalconflict partyand duringthe in Maoist support(Manning, example, mass 2004, 2007).For to attract beequipped better will thenthe they case, organization groups' and centralized armed hierarchical follow the (Ishiyamaand2011). Batta, is Ifthat organization stronger rebel induce conflicts term Third, long (Zeeuw, from 2007)and parties rebels 50). wouldnot” Harik, said(Palmer 2004: they 38per cent oftheand member resistance vote for a saidthey that polled,would the62percent toOf 1,427individuals Hezbollah. the –reference resistance a memberof beto willing elect wouldindeed fromareas ofLebanon all and MuslimsChristian adults many that fact young results period. “confirmedthe Poll post-conflict inpopularity ofHezbollah the contributed forthe resistance and armed victories battlefield (Allison,parties” 2006).InLebanon, groups ofthese political as forthesuccess thaninitial factors institutional explanation better provide a to conflict supporttend during the and popular number “The ofcombatants parties. results political as 56 CEU eTD Collection wartime factors. It appears unlikely that the organization's appears the unlikely that wartime factors. variable It success the military only shouldbe Harik, 2004:(Palmer 108). However, to explanatorypower nottoo careful tomuch give “weshouldbe sloganofMartyrs' was the onwards war Blood fromcampaign 'Loyaltyto supreme the their rule and 2011). (Ishiyama Batta, otherthey party doforany had where Hezbollah in For areas example, as from rebels, toforparties expected theywork the are voters symbols and which attract identity and (e.g. values, offices are ismaterial the capital capital administrative ideational and while power), the (Allison, capital. 2010: 105). and administrative ideational isthat have point parties The The parties” political new typically we those as issues with parties associate political as performance their to least explaining be important at as are likely theto conflict during performance and“groups their factor. groups last ofrebel isthe capital, Histories, orideational histories that ofrebel Some claim help NGOsand provide assistance. that ofseveraland foundations control has relief also Hezbollah fighters. offallen and aid loans program forfamilies small services,health education, water, supplyofdrinkable garbageand range collection from support, reconstruction, to agriculture the ended. war after they well continued warand during forgovernance They the started substitute as (Palmer2004). success electoral Harik, fortheir beneficial was delivery The and latter networks service which services, withand social networkspublic people community provided established that Hezbollah 2010: period” post-war 121).Similarly,the in (Allison, the FMLN Lebanon, conflict in during the for implications had civilwar positive during the structures authoritative developFMLN alternative to ability to“the ofthe goes saythat zones”; which to non-conflict zones(relative zones) and ex-conflict non-controlled zones(relative to in controlled “FMLNgreater that indeed results was supportwas Salvador organized FMLN educationprograms. and popular production agricultural collective The areas ofEl example,in population.For some the local groupdidorintimidate notrebel coerce legitimacy. political their if the post-conflict period supportin tothe electoral isthen translated This 57 CEU eTD Collection Minority politics in post-conflict countries is a specific subset in the universe of minority politics. It has universe subset inofminority specific politics. the countries in isa Minority post-conflict politics competitors (Szekely, then withethnic-kin their partners, their cooperation with governing 2014). closer tointer-ethnic willing maintain be theymore competitors can and their more than successful be can moderateparties ethnic parties, potential ofgoverning clientelistic to Due they radicalize. will they be moderate. then will government, opposition, are in then parties ethnic opposite,And if minority part parties ofthe are and Szöcsik, 2013).Ifminority ethnic orradical(Bochsler to be moderate parties reasonforminority can ethnic be a in government orexclusion ofgovernment,inclusion Beside levels (Zuber, but alsocompetitors” in oftheir light sharing), parameters(power institutional 2012: 921). preferences and (outbidding) in ofsocietal light not strategies only choosetheir elites “ethnic party market.It segmented appears isa perfectly arenas wherethere electoral to moderate in more likely are then they segmented, isimperfectly market ethnic arenas wherethe in electoral parties, with other (Zuber, minority parties ethnic between competition 2011, cooperate parties ethnic 2012).Ifminority are relevantfor competitors andwith relations other demands,Social opportunitystructures competition. when party ethnic in analyzing consideration (Bochsler, to be taken incentivesneed and electoral minorities ofethnic patterns spatial 2012).Hence, competition be intra-group will thenisverythere ofgovernment, likely that it levels multiple (Bochsler, ofminority parties system ethnic the supports creation 2011). are if there Inaddition, electoral and permissiveness groups ofethnic the concentration territorial isfoundthat example, it For competition. hypothesisintra-group tentative andforward about isdeveloping putting agenda hand, On other the 2006: 151). performance”(Allison, electoral each group's in explaining there are only few studies of minority ethnic parties in competition. ofminorityparties ethnic are onlythere studies few research The 58 CEU eTD Collection concentration of minorities and permissive electoral rules allow for intra-group competition. Inclusion Inclusion allowcompetition. forintra-group rules permissive of minorities electoral and concentration territorial that in suggests competition onminorityparties ethnic hand, theOn literature other the mitigated. however, forthe performance; party's be important how in effect which isunclear way and isthe it period.the Finally, post-conflict ofthegroupto rebel capital history orideational the one wouldexpect in parties successful then they be more other cadres, then will party alsonew include experience and have if past political armedthey to the group,and similar and coherent, centralized rebels are from if that parties wouldexpect otherOne parties. than successful they be more conflict, then will during security an extended servicesproviders social and werelocal extended brancheslocal which long. forhow clear larger parties from derive if that one wouldexpect Also, with groups, many rebel it even isnot though conflict regions, tosupportin getformer from more rebels parties would expect support.One spoilsvoters toand can get their provide they in included government,then rebels are from more will Ifparties thensuccessful. fromthey be favorrebels, parties post-conflict institutions If ofthegroups. rebel characteristics to the environment institutional and the post-conflict relate to To forthe ofparties performance literature guerrilla-to-party explanationsfrom summarize, the the ofintra-bloccompetition. costs lowered the ofproportionalrepresentation and the introduction to radicals moderate forethnic parties) power-sharing incentives(i.e. providedAgreement institutional topolitical accessible all arrangements differentiating SDLP Sinn Féin from supporters”(Coakley, 2008: 798). Also, Friday Good the in plays role a major ofparamilitaryviolence onthe perspectives legitimacy that isto“it be presumed withinNorthern IrishCatholics that the frompoints Northernout Ireland research issue. For example, touch uponthe some studies which are tangentially though there even attention; not great received 59 CEU eTD Collection have not been put together with minority ethnic parties in competition. in with minority parties ethnic been puthave together not However, a similar point. make literature, andtransformation guerrilla-to-party democratization they moderate.Post-conflict thenwill radicals ethnic and provides incentives, agreement isinclusive arguably parties, ethnic justifiedornot. whether violencewas onthe perspective based peace ifAnd the paramilitaries and between inference there settings, isan their kin.appealing to own Inpost-conflict moderate when also theylikely to parties, are with cooperate other parties ethnic elections. Ifminority moderate partiesand win induceto ethnic can possibilitiespatronage, to extend in government,and 60 CEU eTD Collection 20 19 moremounting, SDSbecoming was radical. A a enacted new Parliament Croatian the day before However, in parliament. represented support and was won electoral some inter-ethnic as tensions were in 1990.It ofSerbsIt Croatia. stoodin the elections rights in SDS formed and protect was to represent Party, and functioning ofHDZ response the SDS)formation a to as messages nationalistic exclaiming of, memories respondedwith hand, Serbs 2010:the 75).On theother (Goldstein WWII Ustasha fascist, and police, re-enacting theof members principally administration, state forcing tothe Serbs leave discussed, regimewas the when Inthe future followed period suit. Tuđman's governmentwas HDZ 2005). (Barić, and politicsofSlobodanFranjo wasMilošević ofthe This part Tuđman, media and the fear-mongering seemed elite in it that In Croatia, 1990s conflict ethnic instigating playeda rolethe in forthe causes 2001)weremain war. (Banac, and nationalism (Woodward, ofthe economy political failures 1999) (Zimmermann, elites political 1995),irresponsible how convincingly showed was economy (Ramet,1996)and divisionsethnic the deteriorating when system federal to integrate ofthe failure pathfrom steming dependency the out2001), others pointed a (Kaplan, 1996; Kaufman, 1995)somehatreds outethnic pointed long(Cohen, standing 1995; Bennett, ofthe in war and exploredcauses consequences ofauthors who the From the variety Yugoslavia III.1.conflict The post-conflictand environment for minority politicsin III.SERB PARTIES CROATIA IN copy. CenterFatherland Memorial of from Documentation the the Obtained Croatian War February 2011 in Zagreb, of Rašković, firstSDS, of president Letter Jovan Franjo to Tuđman, 20February, HDZ, from leader of 1990 Author's with Kragulj, aredescendants of Interview Mihaljo Knin slaughteredpeople”. 01.10.2013 in Croatia organizedSerbs the words the with in crowd Serb “Serbs Februarypoet a 1989.One addressed rallyKninin big in Croatia 19 and formed the and formed Srpska Demokratska Stranka Demokratska Srpska . 20 (Serb Democratic 61 CEU eTD Collection 21 form 'Nikola had“a He a proposalbrigade to partisan. Tesla', in whichthe wouldfight ofSerbs, made formed. A and (1991-1992)was Juzbašić, a Živko Serbpolitician part government ofthat WWII unity awas governmentofnational erupted, the when For conflict brethren. ethnic example, their oppose wereready to authorities Croatian and ofthe supported Serbs the conflict. Some during the However, Somesupport Serbsweren'tinSDS Croatia in all RSK. didproper andCroatia not stayed in and high instability. institutional personnel changes frequent by were led Veljko (Caspersen, 2010: with Hadžić” 101).RSK Goran marked Džakulawas and –SAO two other SAOsin Croatia Western and and SAOBaranja Slavonia Slavonia, Western – Srem Council. SerbNational ofthe onlyofSAOwell as Krajina president Milan was president as Babić The the throughout war. wereconstant them andbetween rivalries leader political “Formally, however, SAO Western andSlavonia. SAO Slavonia Eastern its Eachown not cohesive. had The parts were three ofSAO made Krajina, Srpska RSK) theofSerbKrajina, Krajina”(Republic “Republika proclaimed Krajina 1991,the ofSAO 19December parliament ofroughlyOn ofCroatia. control one third supportofthe the with Serbs, the In thefollowed, that fighting Yugoslav National Army (JNA), took 78-79). (Goldstein, action forarmed 2010: populationcalling local inflamed the and asradicalized additionally fromones, local , as Politicians well Croatia. leave independence. Serbs SAO and Krajina The in Western resolution a enacted to Slavonia and Eastern leave voted to a Parliament resolution Croatian February 22,1991,the Yugoslavia and declared 86). (GoldsteinKrajina) 2010: escalation ofinter-ethnic led to This On fighting. and relations armed Constitution in December, StatuteofSerb 1990,Serbs the adopted Autonomous (SAOArea ofKrajina Hadžić 26.02.1992-12.02.1994; Milan and governments 12.02.1994-05.08.1995) six undated). Hadžić Martić (RSK, 5 1994 to August presidents Goran ofyears three InRSK four (Milan period Babić had 19.12.1991-26.02.1992; 1995). 12February had from two sessions (one 12February1994,and 26February from which 1992to the second formed parliament. its 26February1992eachregion own had 1990and 19December Between aAfter that was joint parliament 21

62 CEU eTD Collection 23 22 West UNPA in May 1995and in by“Flash” theoperation overtaken army Croatian militarily zone was (UNPROFOR), deployed the was UNPA in 1995. until peace the in and Croatia maintained zones mission in UN peacekeeping Yugoslavia, Force United Nations the Protection as known UNPA, wereinand South West in was Slavonia West UNPA, East East was UNPA. Slavonia and regions ofRSK. NorthUNPA widerpractically border and , ofBanovina made was whereJNA ofthe but zonesand outside werein that Croatia, “pink areas” had control. were These four UNPA North,South, zonesin Croatia: West UNPA Beside the and East. werealso zonesthere (UNPA) wereformed. settlement. a political thepending was ceasefire idea to were protect The There in Croatia UN resolution protected areas UNCouncil Security Basedona January 3,1992in Sarajevo. lostend Croatia of1991. intensity by the in The fighting armed A wason cease final fire signed disappeared. and discrimination. maltreatment to andsubject harassment, some wereoften attacked times They proper.Croatia suspicion. at with werelooked At first they they were escalated the as And conflict positions in ofSerbs the didimprove not significantly with authorities Croatian The cooperation nickname“Tuđman'sa mocking the opposition. always Serbs”, and supportednever it HDZ because speakerHowever, ofparliament. a deputy had MPs and even instood in Parliament elections, SNS got SNS the PartySerb National wasinconflict. (SNS).proper onlyCroatia during SNS Serbparty the proposal”. refused the Homeland War brigade, forthe 2,000volunteered even though some side Croatian and onthe Tuđman notwithstanding that UNPA that notwithstanding functional territorial reorganization introduced and zones of RSK. To highlight the the continuity throughout textI the political labelsterritory; use for of RSK's representation Serb nema-a-kad-e-doi-ne-zna-se.aspx http://www.slobodnadalmacija.hr/Scena/Adrian/tabid/175/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/185229/Novog-Svetozara- se”, zna at a 25.08.2012,available kaddoći Svetozara ne nema, će “Novog Dalmacija. Slobodna 22 Other Serbs in started to organize to in Otherproper Serbs Croatia started the politically and formed last accessed on4February 2014. accessed last 63 23 CEU eTD Collection 25 24 the ofscrimmage”. closeline still to are Serbs,mentions and weapons armed noone demobilization, Slavonia. in Eastern institutions functioning werestill uniformed werefilledwith and “streets The However, 2010). RSK (Cvikić, reintegration peaceful about the not Serbs very enthusiastic were 2010). 2010; Serbia Škare –Ožbolt, (Klein, and theCroatia tensions between deescalating first step toward agreement arranged”. “wasalready 2011), withEast (Barić, the inSlavonia negotiated Serbs SAO representatives international Erdut the 2007; Klein, Bosnia(Bing, 2010). and Herzegovina inconflicts and Croatia evenAnd though andin DaytonMilošević between Tuđman” 2010: (Caspersen, 115) efforts part as ofwider to end the Stoltenberg, UNnegotiator, peace wereco-signers. of“negotiations the was result ErdutThe agreement PeterUS Gabraith, ofthe government. Croatian representative toAmbassador and Croatia, Thorvald and as Hrvoje inSlavonia Šarinić Serbs SAO as East ofthe 1995, by Milan Milanović representative 11, ofErdut the onNovember village signed Itin was signingagreement. withofaCroatia peace the UNPA thatsaySAO Slavonia, East orEast Eastern isto Slavonia in integrated was peacefully zone, period.the post-conflict (Vrkić,Slavonia 1997: 189). in in ofSerbs Croatia highest hadconcentration the Slavonia Thus Eastern some 60,000went butin many as andalso Eastern Herzegovina, Serbia, fledto even Bosnia people to 2010).Manyofthe during(Goldstein, over 100,000left “Storm” “Flash” and after 18,000 refugees left around that Some estimate those exited areas. massively “Flash” Serbs and “Storm” operations military North and South UNPA in in “Storm” overtaken operation zoneswere 1995.DuringtheAugust http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199601/60124-005-pubs-beo.htm at 24.1.1996,available –cekaga doBezdna AIM stigne Batina”, “Ko Belgrade. withInterview Vojislav 15.10.2013 in Stanimirović, Vukovar. 24 It marked the start of the peaceful reintegration and was also the also the and was reintegration peaceful start ofthe the It marked last accessed on4February 2014. accessed last 25 64

CEU eTD Collection 27 26 and be incentivesforminorityto members stay and economic political provided ofSerbsCroats wouldbe made set up. and force police adestroyed andtransitional that property The ofproperty, return agreement envisaged forreconstructionof and aid compensationforlost property for ZVO an instrument was formationof representation and fromdocument. that derive Serbs other minorities and rights constitutional for all forSerbsand Croatia that important in isthedocument Agreement most (Vrkić,Agreement” the wouldsaythat Erdut many 193).Even today Serbrepresentatives 1997: the 2010:wouldsaythegained Erdut they (Škare75).Serbs but war “Storm” –Ožbolt, they lost “that in they “expected Vukovar, and to “Flash” equal victories military parts ofPodunavlje, in as other happy Erdut about hand, Croats werenot the On other the “coldly” because it andAgreement accepted . status and basic their guaranteed theagreement On otherErdut hand, the representation. political an impact ontheir both which aofthehad minority Serbscounties, srijemska. groupin new became and wasOsječko-baranjska twocounties: Slavonia results. SAOinto East divided Vukovarsko- referendum; however, the did government not recognize community and Croatian the international group. becamea andminority if divided they was the area jeopardized if group. ethnic statusmajority as their rights towouldbethe their preserve They that area feared 2011). (Barić, council ofthe waspresident executive Stanimirović elected Serbsfor autonomy wanted and ofthe waspresident Serbarea in Hadžić 1996.Goran andelected Srem” Baranja Vojislav ofEast assembly “SerbSlavonia, area Slavoniathe as ofthe ofSAOrenamed The East was assembly in in Vukovar. Interviews with Vojislav 16.10.2013, all Nedeljković 15.10.2013, Dragan Crnogorac Stanimirović 21.10.2013,Miodrag Feral Tribune. with Hedl, Drago Interview Vojislav Stanimirovic, “We in all were Trenches”, Split, 3March,1997. institutional integration of Serbs and representation of their issues. and issues. representation ofSerbs oftheir integration institutional The Zajedničko VijećeZajedničko Opština 27

The Erdut political guaranteed Agreement (Joint Council of Municipalities, ZVO). ZVO). (Joint ofMunicipalities, Council 26 organizedThey even a 65 CEU eTD Collection demands in thedemands UNTAES in region. UNCouncil. to Security the a LetterThey ofIntention to was answer Serb submitted The also Letter an (Vrkić, Slavonia Eastern answeredto request. Klein's to werewilling and cooperate 1997).Hence, they in governance Croatian stepping main back stone forbringing the wereseenas because elections importance electionswereofcrucial the For government Croatian rights ofminorities. and inclusion the strongerregarding commitments to government give askedthe Croatian to mission, prolongand the organizewere notto the met UN Council period. Security asked He transitional and finish the elections 1996. However, ofUNTAES, Klein, of1996Jacques byhead the end conditions considered all that period, wouldbe uponwhichformed. transitional ZVO supposedhappenThis in was December to will be organized elections stipulated that oftheThe agreement the Erdut end 30days before was process reintegration finished. the wastask ofUNTAES final tofair be supposed elections the a signthat peaceful mission and and to organizedevelopment, 2010). elections(Klein, and fair local free organizationThe offree and reconstruction and promote freedoms, human promote to rightspost-conflict to homes, and their to return to and displaced safely allow background,refugees ethnic to oftheir inhabitantslocal regardless trust between encourage region, to characterofthe the multi-ethnic tounder control, retain Croatian reintegration. The UNTAES area back and secured todemilitarized supposed bring mission the was and Baranja Slavonia, Eastern Western Simium(UNTAES) the peaceful to and monitor implement the with1037,established UN Council, resolution Security The UN Transitional Administration in However, relationship. patron-client give way incentivescould fora ofsuch control political post-conflict environment. highly in a Suchincentivesare needed area. in theintegrated post-conflict 66 CEU eTD Collection Republic of Croatia, 1998, ofCroatia, Republic persons fromArt. 2).ZVO elected Serbcouncil these formed was from and Western in and parts ofOsječko-Baranjska Srem and Vukovarsko-Srijemska (Govt. of counties” Baranja Slavonia, in Eastern interestsSerbcommunity the ofthe a“harmonizes as body that defined 1998.It was and formed on15October this ZVO commitment respected government The Croatian election. 2010).UNTAESregion (Klein, voted 1997 in 90%ofthe that the population estimated around April the return in to whilewere50,000Croats waiting there other partsSerb refugeesofCroatia, from (Vrkić,vote” 1997: 291). region in ofwhich the 60,000were 150,000people werean estimated There organized, to get to chance, Serbs new all and then documents, a andCroatian to take get enrolled to forMarch 1997.However,scheduled move to Kleinthem to decided “to give he wanted April because ittowards end. UNPA electionsin first post-conflict The werefirst Slavonia, orSAO Zone East East, These weresufficientthe toUNTAES bring community international forthe guarantees mission (Art. 11). rights” and widowshealth social have disabled, full andwill orphans, especially casualties, identity “war and that protection ofcultural ofminority educationand Serbs right that wouldhave (Art. 9). minority” forthesolutions national interests ofcommon governmentguaranteed Croatian The find to in “proposeto everyand helping fourmonths, atonce least Presidentmeet with ofCroatia, the (Art. 4). authority” the transitional The formationofthe under region isnow in that the and police judiciary services, “localhealth Serbs in be represented will counties. 700to officers that 800Serbpolice guarantees that also got They integrated and wouldbe headsin positionsboth ofdeputy the toguaranteed get Vukovarsko-Srijemska and Osječko-Baranjska were letter Serbs on16March,1997.Inthe ofCroatia, other parts electionsin local withtogether the In the letter, the UNTAES electionsin to committed government hold Croatian the region, administered

ZVO was also guaranteed, as well that it would well as it that ZVO also guaranteed, was 67 CEU eTD Collection 31 30 29 28 national level. county onlocal, and ofthe law constitutional implementation NationalThe which means isin charge minorities Council level, The fornational protection National onnational ofminority administration. and minority'sinlocal councils state nominate The representatives sub-national should work members budget. voluntarily, state Elected or from the payments. monthly get but they non-profit organizations. are Sub-nationalcouncils candidates. bygovernment, local financed are They were over 1.5percent. theto propose right Associations ofminorities, orindividualsgot NGOs whereminorities and counties bodies in municipalities elected as wereenvisaged national councils and level. sub-national minorities, onnational ofnational lawnew alsocouncils sub- introduced The was introduced, andlevel regional local cultural autonomy, bodies onnational, in elected representation and media.Guaranteed religion in enacted 2002. law was constitutional a when new improved minorities, weresignificantly and rightsincludingother ofSerbs, The status other positions. andculture, to assistant forinterior, headsofcounties, ministers would nominate deputy education,sportand justice, ZVO For levels. example, and positionsnational forpolitical oncounty Serbcandidates to nominate of3years. fora Kuna period of3.5million governmentforfinancing Croatian with the signed an 1998,ZVO agreement donations. own1December On municipalities, and income and cities from contributionsfrom budget state ofCroatia, wasfromareas. be ZVO financed the to municipal level, then it got guaranteed seats in the county and municipal seats it the county guaranteed in and assemblies. got level,municipal then below seats, 1.5% four together. all got groups overof group oncounty or a the population, was If minority 5% Seats in Three rights. Wanting its towas topressure. in progress EU susceptible integration, make Croatia EU international pressure community, from and aftercriticism the changes came The EU,improve mainly to minority the Croatia. in parties structuring among wouldlater Serb of for the crucial competition ZVO resources prove strong competences and The of citizens News Joint trust. of26.12.1998,pp.2]Establishing Municipalities. Council Успостава15 Дана. граħанског Заједничког поверења. Новости општина веħа 26.12.1998,п.2 Sabor

were guaranteed if the minority groupwhich if effectively thewas minority were 1.5%, guaranteed over Serbs, appliedto and only 29

30 31 Minorities were guaranteed usage of language, symbols, usageoflanguage, wereguaranteed Minorities as well as positions in administration and the judiciary. inand the administration well as positions as The 28

ZVO got competence ZVO competence got [15 Days. 68 CEU eTD Collection that “Serb diaspora in Croatia is a historical victim ... Every victim is best defended with democracy defended with victim isbest victim ...Every isa Croatia historical “Serb diasporathat in stated founding declaration example,the For nationalism. ethnic notone” 6),it escape (SDS did 1990: 2011). (Knežević, and anparty, ethnic Even defined “not thoughas SDS itself ethic but an 1990;SDS formedhowever, was in Kninon17February in also established Serbia branches were party III.2.Formation radicalizationofSDSand ofthis party. the trace origins conflict and in Croatia. dominant Serbparty To goback to onethe toneeds came this, understandit first how ofSerbs. years SDSS the to representation Over grew be political the was periodthe ofstructuring also Serbs Eastern It and Slavonia. retaining in refugees in returning Croatia, peace period forsustaining won region convincingly. and only reintegrated in the put candidates elections it aThis crucial was SDSS to was on5March1997in Borovo,close formed Vukovar. local first post-conflict Inthe SerbParty, Democratic (Independent the Serbparties. between competition SDSS) the dominates support. InCroatia, electoral and harness patronage extend Arguably party a anypossibilityto minority institutionsethnic wouldgive over these control a political councils. ofrights andminority introduced lawwide guaranteed set side, theOn constitutional other the a as powerfulbody,side regional isZVO, reintegration. ofthe apeaceful as consequence came which one On iswell Croatia elaborated. in post-conflict environment forminority politics The institutional and minority MPs in minority organizations are by councils,members proposed other andfive local county nominated from body. an elected Councils isnot are Seven inmembers are minorityit. groups represented All isalso inCouncil charge budget. from state fornational ofdispersingminorities funds National The Sabor are ex-officio are ofthe Council. members National Samostalna Srpska Demokratska Stranka

69 CEU eTD Collection 33 32 to borders ofadministrative Serbs,the redrawing culturalforthe as autonomy and equality well as democracy, programadvocated and it in moderate position its fairly “took a national human rights, 10). initially and education.SDS language Serbculture, promote Third, wereto and protect SDS goals (SDS whichlive” we area1990: in ofthe national structure reflect the that primarily will municipalities regions and in ofCroatia a“administrative new division SDS1990: goalto 10).Second,create an was a as very urgent Serbmajority inappears with Croatia municipalities underdeveloped need” (SDS ofthe indevelopment InSDS' situationofSerbs Croatia. view “the the firsteconomic applied to economy.democracy and market Croatia. Serbinterests SDS On otherdefended in hand the This forwardreforms party toward one ofSDSside On the put weremixed. The goals programmatic federal introduction ofa Yugoslavia Serbs woulddominate. where Yugoslavia. and ofSlobodanthe Milošević the sidingpolitics seenas thiswith InCroatia, was of all to bein introduced –one voice” “one SDScitizen the demanded principle of theregime, federal put who you ofSerbpeopleones in orforthe prison”. and equality honor, fought voteheroeswho forthe electionsyou will foryour upcoming true whether onthe dignity you “It to isupto decide the during communism.told people: activities He fortheir imprisoned which were Serbinterests” ofSDS leadership was that fordemocracyand of“martyrs stated made Yugoslavia. in Knin1990, speech delivered an aelectoral prominentSDS Opačić, memberin Jovan of ruling to in the Communistparty partyopposition a as democratic and SDS itself portrayed (SDS freedom” 1990: ofequality6). principles and and freedom. need around todemocratic gather have Croatia a special thein Therefore, Serbpeople Interview withInterview Antun Vujić, 17.02.2011 Zagreb in the Fatherland War 2011. Zagreb, February in Knin1990. in Opačić of Speech Jovan copy.Authors Center Croatian Memorial of from Documentation the Obtained 33 32

However, future regardsto the in 70 CEU eTD Collection 35 34 JNA SDSon6January1992informed in while Plitvice fooddrivesgroups, fortheraising armed and Tevrške, Plavno, , 1991brought decisions forfund- on3and Brezovo4November Polje and activein whoCroatia. from Serbia were and paramilitarystructures parties were political there formation and organizationthat fact notwithstandingthe ofparamilitarystructures; organizationmilitary to in the ofSerbs Croatia. region in contributed each structures political local The the to aid started but leadership, then servedpolitical mainlyas conflict SDS In the ofthe beginning branches ofSDS in Western wereorganized Slavonia and Eastern started. the conflict ethnic after Serbs supported SKH-SDP,regions the dominantly in 1990. party communist successor branches innot have Western in Inthese Croatia. elections first Eastern multiparty forthe Slavonia and and Miškulin, 2007).SDS authorities (Bašić parties did and confrontation with Croatian were gettingin branches local 2007) and their (Kubo, to homogenization ethnic contributed elections SDS significantly 2011). (Knežević, municipalities in some councils Serbdominated local majority in Through the and get parliament a (Goldstein to managed convincingly” win5MPsnational 2010: in 73).SDS the won wherethe surroundings, inparty Kninand the forelections“only to set upcandidates wereheld in electionsinThe Croatia first SDS short timemanaged period ofthe April 1990.Because and actions. its wasSDSradicalizing positions thewas as conflict escalating, Yugoslav ofSerbs2010: Croatia”(Caspersen, 48).But interests andin vowedto the protect Federation ofthe existence SDScontinued supported regionsthe and municipalities. Serb-majority create Croatian Memorial Documentation Center of the Fatherland Memorial of Documentation the Center Croatian War February 2011). in Zagreb, (Authors RSK” and borders copy. ofthe creation the western Serb the defense in participated from the Obtained “Westatement saying can't forget most gave this SRSthat volunteers, party beside the that, own with volunteers public was registry from fordocumentation, SRSprotested Serbia denied RSK, having a party in not complete in of disorderlyfromSRS,31.10.1993). detachment (Order the volunteer drunkenness and behavior Kikinda for one When organized to back banned SRSarrestedNoviSad and volunteerslocal members militia.In and paramilitary and Obrovac SRShad Šešelj's partyFor example, organization and organized RSK in paramilitary In units. Nova Varoš SRS SKH-SDPthat convincinglyin won Vukovar and1990. in the surroundings areas Interviews with Vojislav 15.10.2013in Stanimirović Vukovar of andBorovo.Because 27.10.2013in Miroslav Keravica 35 SDS local branches in SDS branches local 34 local The 71 CEU eTD Collection 37 36 Party]. [Socialdemocratic (SDP) Party] (SPS) partija andParty], Socijaldemokratska partija[SerbSocialist socijalista Srpska ofRSK. life in thewere important political stranka[Serb Radical (SRS) These radikalna wereSrpska Center, Memorial Croatian (Archive ofthe that parties SDS' wereother Beside there undated). fractions SDS)forUnificationofSerbStates] države(SDS [Serb Democraticsjedinjenje srpske za Party stranka anddemokratska za Srpska (“Monarhist”), party [United(“Monarhisti”) Serbdemocratic of Democratic Party Serblands]srpska (SDS SSZ),Jedinstvena stranka All demokratska [Serb strankazemalja demokratska srpskih party (SDSSrpska democratic Krajina] Krajina), andoverbickering fighting resources. [Serb stranka demokratska Krajine wereSrpska These to differences (Barić,regional factions 2005)due SDS in several split by internal which werefueled apart. fell majority, However, andRSK. created succeeded de facto ofRSK, duringand the SDS time imploded a wherethey were mainly territoryofCroatia, substantialpart to occupyofthe Serbs a managed armed in the inter-ethnic activepart SDSand took resultthat radicalized The was conflict. end The secessionist party. party ethnic a radical into SDS moreIn awentmoderate shortperiod fromorless a movement”. itpopulation, so a resembled ofthe thealmost entire ofSDSinterests reflected and the platform (out of8,000inhabitants) activated organize theythat to “started theforself-defense. people With theofSDS were actions 1,100people . Tovarnik, Partytheof of beginning in 1994in strankaKrajina] seljačka founded Peasant and [Serb Srpska Krajine also Manastir, with party] seat Beli in peoples a Srpskih RSKof with Stranka SerbRSK] in [Party patriota Patriots seat withBeli party in ofManastir, peoples seat Krajina] [Democratic [Romanian-roma Rumunjsko-romska narodnastranka 'marginal Krajine Demokratska (SNO)narodnastranka as: parties'Srpska National narodnaobnova Revival], [Serb such the Fatherland theCenter Croatian Memorial document of from Documentation The War other Zagreb also in mentions 2011 copy.Authors the Fatherland Center Croatian Memorialof from Documentation the Obtained War Zagreb, February in 37

36 72 CEU eTD Collection committee for national salvation was elected with the mission to organize mission waswith to salvation the aggressor... elected to fornational committee the resistance formations. a Baranja events party in reportproposal the ofthe [SDS,As shows "onthe D.T]after one directly organizing (SDS, branches local were battlefields” 1992: all 6).Some lines military in the wereonthefront barricades, protruding ofthe times and first sympathizers,fromof ourmembers the difficult “in that the example,SDSpartyfromFor 1992 states in majority program its great events war during thewere formed conflict. in operating RSK. These werestrongand networks organizations. and social political Wide groups, and networks,political armed and dense intertwining ofaffiliated oftheforcesormembers armed part wereeither Many ofthein which lived RSK Serbs overlapping. was formations and armed inparties Serbpolitical theDuring themembership conflict 1993(RSK, ofRSK parliament 1994). in toSDS the (Monarhist) wereelected SRS, from Candidates SDS-Krajina,SDS SPS, ofSerbLands, paramilitary structures. SDP and United in Knin, andHadžić, Goran Vukovar, controlled local they leaders political because wereimportant 128).Milanin important” Babić, 2010: (Caspersen, structureswerenot such as but party increased emerged; issues, valence primary politicallyissues, new salient competition importance; of great party resources, were military especially resources, “Non-political forwinningwas keyin factor elections. a was organization their parties increasing, andresources coercive ofmilitary was Control weakening. RSKstiff parties in indicated number ofpolitical However, competition. political number of the as Center, Memorial Croatian (Archive ofthe took place” the Serb rebellion 18). undated: high The 1990,before wereheld councils in electionsformunicipal RSK, councilslast municipal and from the representativesofall ofRSK formed “parliament was from the electionswereheld 1993. Before these December wereheld local) in and inparliamentary RSK and onlyThe (Presidential, elections first 73 CEU eTD Collection 40 39 38 the first front line. time the electionspartyseveralwhere whole we RSK activities, for in After thestarted multiparty our the definitionRadical bloodyforSerb“In Partyin andofwagewar state, thesympathizers Serb theof members final battle saythat: from (SRS).public1994they Serbradical party letter Ina with casethe The was same volunteersothersoldiers with andof Serb officer, the from people, land, system”. set upa to strong defense fightingthe rest mobilizationwith engagements, contributedCroatianand stop aggression, and to together actions they the maturity highofpatriotism: showed their Krajina political with andof“members a and sympathizers SDS level that announcement, SDS-Krajina,claimed in For this a public fact. proclaiming example werepublicly Many ofthe parties political to show engagement. beneficial military inquest forlegitimacy. their important as element They it saw it also and was politicians parties timeFor war networks. to weavegroups handthe in hand went trenches”. days,in wereall the inadmit that those “we thatSome RSK Serbpoliticians mindin period. surprisingcircumstancesin havingThis in the ishardly and place”. time date before inscheduled convention the the attend able so are to not ofthe they fatherland, service ofparty members members,organs many party and ofthat Srpska ofthe in Because Krajina. are called border areasof ofRepublic were“pilingup…in some because forces Croatian furtheruntil notice ispostponed convention its that party press InJanuary1993,SDSannouncing members”. sentrelease a ofJulyisfilledupwith which bynew the headquarters war end a In mid-Junecommitteeelects the from from Archive. Author's copy. Public 1993.Document Board, Demokratska Stranka Knin 24February Executive Krajine, Srpska Announcement, Feral Tribune. with Hedl, Drago Interview Vojislav Stanimirovic, “We in all were Trenches”,, Split, 03.03.1997. from Document Archive of Fatherland War. copy.Author's Demokratska Stranka (SDS), Srpska Public Knin, 21January, Krajina, Srpska Republika Announcement, 1993. 38 39 Membership in political parties and armed and armed inparties political Membership 40

74 CEU eTD Collection 42 41 purpose.On that electionsin formed 1997.SDSS was with the local and toin participate party political RSK.were activein executive council. transitional to council, a large This structures of political which made was extent, done by Serbside,a was from Erdutthe ofthe agreement, implementation ofthe inThe work the bulk Slavonia. persisted. However, since Croatia. leaders ofSerbmilitary fled politicsand most be activein structures. political ofarmedwere part and some that war-timeThis meant nolonger Serbleaders could a liability. structurespolitical became charges authoritiescriminal issued Croatian who Serbs against or in participation military usedto winelectionsand couldn't resources coercive war be After the functions.had military 19.05.1993”. war. duringSlavonia the he was that ofthe President After until whereheAssembly remained of ofthedefense territorial another “wascommander while person SRS concerned”, Western are onlyof police members armywhen the and and you speakofdepoliticizing commander ofbrigade, to “remains be ofaassembly local SRSpresident and governmentofRSK. the parliament writes that toof the a letterpresidents sent appointments political in objected to example,SRS some In another to homeland”. lines bordersof the onthepresent firstour muchpreserve were present front the goal very with from from Archive. Author's copy. SRS, Westen President to of Letter Slavonia, Assembly of Minister, Prime RSK, and Okučani, 20.06.1993.Document copy.Author's from 1994.Document Radicalna (SRS). Oblast public, Zapadna Okučani, Slavonia, to Srpska Stranka Letter Archive. For theFor There was a high concentration of refugees, but also of war time networks in Eastern Eastern but alsotimenetworksin ofwar ofrefugees, a high was concentration There 42 timethey when during the members functions This political meansSDS performed that Eastern Slavonia wasn't militarily overtaken, many of the political structures from RSK ofthe political militarily many wasn't overtaken, Slavonia Eastern Erdut agreement to be implemented to be implemented agreement Erdut For t For he peaceful reintegration to work Serbs in Eastern Slavonia needed to form neededa Slavonia into to Serbs Eastern work reintegration peaceful he Serbs needed to become politically organized. become Serbs to needed 41

75 CEU eTD Collection 44 43 was“Storm”. case it after expelled as the in action isa military there Vukovar, will they be toand that Serbsleave part have ofthe a big will by feltSerbia. side they thebetrayed On andother “Storm”. followed “Flash” after understood ifThey Knin,and what sawhappened because in they option what peace Most acceptedthe Serbs ofthe theyusto will plan or force leave. accept the peace Erdut was store “Storm”,us.Either in “Flash”we we what for On Serbs theand tragedyofknew from other Agreement. by taught the bad from “were experience, Western by the deal forward left,acceptput the to peace where Slavonia Serbs all the Erdut Slavonia. ofEastern reintegration and the peaceful inperiod: Agreement saythat They Vojislav of implementation managingthe was that council transitional andexecutive the Stanimirović However, around gathered werepeople one side, structuresOn there weredivided. the Serbpolitical essential. was leadership Serbpolitical reachcooperative it and oftheto region reintegration (Vrkić, goal” final orwithto goaroundwe them the 1997: 125). goalpeaceful final was The can how move decision arewithforward: we to left the areas, inbut their rule Serb “localpoliticians Ivan reintegration. peaceful Vrkić, in charge was who that noticed ofthe from side, process Croatian of the before period Slavonia and induring control Eastern SDS RSK structures had from political III.3.Formation ofSDSS onground. control time which networks had political side, t the other Interview with 15.10.2013 in Nikolić, Interview Danko Vukovar. withInterview Vojislav 15.10.2013 in Stanimirović, Vukovar. he formation of SDSS was continuation, or better said institutionalization ofthe war said institutionalization orbetter he continuation, formationofSDSS was 44 43

76 CEU eTD Collection 46 45 pro-governmental“” newspaper formation ofSDSS,daily in the 1997and the of the elections example,in For view activeanymore. to them be politically to outallow them ofpoliticsand not take the to werefully strategy marginalize weredetermined in The to involved Croats the Croats radicals. the sameHadžić confirms story, (Vrkić, which Hadžić did” 1997: 101). from be athe dealtaken area. not will journalist madeHadžićthat singlelog with a he that Klein requested that At the end the to twotanks and ofin put fiftyoak.ofthen readySlavonian declared Serbia with wagons He the train front was train toa station, to train upHadžić,gatheredandfor him thewhere “Klein entouragepress took Erdut his picked with possibilities theforsmuggling. toradical's diplomatically suppress continued area. that oilin upthe hadofthe refinery to control give support from and Slobodan Milošević to marginalize KleinJacques continued radicals. and other Hadžić With lost hisengagementthe they government”. the Croatian to person with wascooperate right finishednot he the hispoliticswas and that that knew doing. what heHadžić was forgambling,was and that women, goodcars,money grilledlamb, (Vrkić, reactions severe public in Serbsinterested the “was ofthe 255),becauseviews Hadžić in 1997: increasingly unpopular. processwas with in he faced involved the to hereintegration tried get When Presidentwas ofSDSRSK, becoming leader Hadžić,and Goran former people. the support ofthe (Vrkić,security 1997: 403).However, wasthey radicals werelosing legitimacy ofthe shakenand the were organizing the explosions andto setting process deteriorate reintegration the protests against werealso present. formations assembly Paramilitary Slavonia. ofSAO East to some they According byHadžić. Goran structures led side, wereradicalpolitical On other wereorganized the They in the Interview with Interview Ivan Vrkić, Osijek. 24.10.2013 in Interviews in Vukovar, 2013. October 45 46 Klein 77 CEU eTD Collection 47 ofthe president party.became vice (Vrkić, from Hadžić separated 323). 1997: 307 and SDSS was MiroslavWhen Keravica formed, and UNTAESthe Croats long as he as was activities, continuation to ofhispolitical supportthe elections(Vrkić, in the to1997: participate 223-224),but wanted 1997: 264). sufficient was That for Vukovar (Vrkić, a as radicalSerbpolitician was reintegration, seen induring RSKthe peaceful and Mayor Miroslavof For Keravica, in example, politics. wereinterestedin Butremaining process. they peace in the wereequallycooperative ofthem Notall ofparticipating. werethinking politicians activeSerb ofthe Increasing number more certain. end electionswerebecoming drawing toward its reintegration. peaceful which supported the Serbpoliticians included was integration peaceful As the region. reintegrated to the governance Croatian bringing back and UNTAESThey supported and and the in mostly holding elections surface. structures Croatsinterested will were cooperative political structures. incentivesforradical moderategave and economic gain more wasanticipated that There an smuggling and the to which formations prevent the paramilitary was eradicate ofthisbasis strategy to SDSS. wasCroats and UNTAES it In hindsightthe wouldsaythat many of leadership political chosethe that UNTAES support (Barić, 2011). support(Vrkić, local their wereincreasing process peace tocommitted the had 1997: 188)and structures. political and cooperative whospace were structures formoderate political The (Vrkić, criminal war with a suspected 1997: 91). ofthese all effortsThe behind idea more to make was contrary, it On make and a didsecret. not isnot to everyoneknowwilling work he wanted to that (Vrkić,documents” 1997: 321).Ivan Vrkić Hadžić Goran work with absolutelyrefusing to closely was soon as arrest him will he we as gets ofthe president party becomes if the Hadžić published “that Osijek. Interviews Branislav with Vorkapić 07.10.2013,Milorad Mišković09.10.2013, and Miljenko Turniški in 15.10.2013,all 47 view. very simplistic This isa strategymarginalize was to There a But clear the the radicals. 78 CEU eTD Collection 49 48 to them stay. and to help property individuals and fortheir to toSerbs take convince meant That survive”. party, organization, nopolitical noorganization are whereSerbs majority, ofgovernance could we not organization seena as political was The region. forSerbs that party “Without ofvitalimportance in the identity. and national maintain cultural andtheir the to region goal main start. from the This the was in to them Slavonia, retain rightsin ofSerbs Eastern accomplishSDSS the was to and protect formed (Vrkić, got majority” he norHadžić votingpublic “neither 1997: 325). roundof Inthe voting. first in ofthea secondroundofsecret party wasPresident Stanimirović elected things, ofcadres”. had we,a catharsis other time period among transitional “duringthat the note in Serbpoliticians ofSerbs Croatia. forthe juncture representation political waspresident a critical forpresident: were twocandidates Vojislav Goran and Hadžić. Stanimirović votingThe forparty 1997. assembly The founding calledon05March1997in ofSDSS Borovo,near was Vukovar. There electionsin in the local wereto ifparticipate formthey a needparty to The they understood that Serbs (Vrkić, will prevail whetherormoderate wasradicals developments.It uncertain political 1997: 283). formationand to party internal Serbdynamicsin in regards the limitedand Croatsinfluence had However, ones. structures cooperative frominto RSK more radicalpolitical transform the UNTAES career. political their continue theto realitychance political got intention to need a and clear was There activein RSK. structures political continuation to the ofthe accept rather The wereready who ones was region. It reintegrated in leadership the political ofnew wasThere orimposition noreplacement Interview withInterview Vojislav 15.10.2013 in Stanimirović, Vukovar. with Nedeljković Interview Miodrag 16.10.2013in Vukovar. 49 In the first period (1997/1998), the main priorities of SDSS were to establish security establish the for priorities ofSDSS period main wereto Inthe (1997/1998), first 48 Vojislav 79 CEU eTD Collection 52 51 50 and to ofreturnees, forthe ofbudgetary housingdemands means butsources, also“increase demanded and frominternational public coming private, in returnees' areas areas SDSS supported investments areas. jobsin theand securing returnees' To ofreturnee and sustainability return fosterofrefugees the 1997(SDSS,returns” 2005: in 1). ofhouseholds forproperty renewal return, This advocating meant the ofrefugee process and Croatia opened theminority ofnew laid politicsin “foundations view they Intheir post-conflict period. in the ofSDSS wasisto Serbintegrate The goal help policy main the and ofmembers interests ofSerbnationality”. rightsprogram to and committed “the SDSS stayed in ofgovernment (SDSS, Croatia 1997:latest levels 1).Intheir all in public” and political life political the and national, in “Serbcivic participation, (SDSS,to 1997:aim secure conflict period 6),with the post- in the interests party”Serbspecific “asaadvocating minority 1997: itself 3).SDSS defined (SDSS, the side” ontheCroatian toSerband responsible be crimes punished, forwar also called“all SDSS (SDSS, (SDS) 1997: Rašković” Jovan 1).Despite connection Democratic such Party making 19 from the organizations political historical heritageofthe program the The ofSDSS Serbs first claimed ofthe they that wereproposing. theprogram measures and oftheir implementation mainin OSCEUNHCR,the which werethe partners cooperation with and SDSS forrefugee had close conditions return. was and priority returncreating main ofproperty the to them survive”. and afterwar helped keptthe we here that them stayed people crucialthat here, was was stopthe from “It challengingSerbs fleeing. the task to most and goin amnesty elections. accept upthe and to weapons documents, give Croatian Art. 11, of Statute SDSS, 15.03.2009 withInterview Vojislav 15.10.2013 in Stanimirović, Vukovar. with 15.10.2013 in Nikolić, Interview Danko Vukovar. th century in Croatia to the time Serbs were led by “people's tribune and leader of Serb byand “people'sleader tribune wereled timeSerbs in to Croatia the century 51 In the second phase (1998/1999) the secondphase(1998/1999) Inthe 50 In that period period Inthat 52

80 CEU eTD Collection 53 theConcerning latter, ofminority, view ofSDSS in are “asinstitution the ZVO the institutions main forlowerofgovernance. level competences and increasing SDSS regionalism alsogreater demanded (SDSS, role” 2005: 5). their forstrengthening impulse elected officials in involved the of should level be work more onsub-national VSNMs added “an as (Councils Manjine Minority, ofSerbNational Srpske Nacionalne VSNM). SDSS considered their that ofcultural autonomy. and institutions self-governance sub-national referred to This mainly Vijeća 3).Lately,none isSerb” (SDSS, 2005: minority alsoimproving meant Serbrepresentation increasing that fact with the the 141employedofwhich has ministry ofthe relevant forreturnees Administration with dealing ones Serbinterests. especially police, the judiciary and illustrated need forthisThe “best Firstly, administration, government, job positionsininstitutions, more forSerbs public demanded they ofgovernment. inlevels all the ofSDSS increase Serbrepresentation goal Second policy and isto was equal”. ofwar casualties make civilian and other to the conditions and legal create latter,persons. the Concerning markofsuffering toplaces “adequately SDSS vouches ofSerbpeople a top priorityforSDSS.remains unresolved still and missing issues are tothere thethat This fact isdue and military,victims, civilian and wounded. ofdeceased families rights ofrefugeesThe and lost return ofthe Serb care (SDSS, thetake community” 2005:SDSSthat state 3).Furthermore, demanded criminal charges Serb the concerning ofthe discrimination crimesdecrease forwar members against notary “to public (SDSS, and2005: the 3)and cadaster the relevantinstitutionsas such with the fraud, forgeries, sometimes in cooperation done by andindividuals, pure robbery” blackmailing ofSerbnationality, from forexampleaway “taking citizens from like property wrongdoings, using targeted themake spending more efficient” and Serbs 2).SDSS to alsothe (SDSS,tried protect 2005: 2014. Program stranka, 2013-2017, at srpska za available Samostalnademokratska www.sdss.hr last accessed on6February accessed last 53

81 CEU eTD Collection 57 56 55 54 2011 in the advocatingforturnout the increasing membershipand branches and sub-branches, census. organization. organizational tothe mainly SDSSenhancing devoted was more opening performance, SDSS most reportsInternal from that efforts show party towardthe building weredirected Dalmacija”. ofLika the and regions also spreadin The party county. ofwhich 42%wereyoung. have SDSSout “4,000 Inthisclaimed members periodto oftime Zagrebacka city ofNovemberand beginning forthe was1999.It ofZagreb was Zagreb in established party members”. county are baranjska there Osječko- example, For in municipalitieslive. all whereSerbs SDSS in apractically has party branch and Osječko-baranjska twocounties into it(e.g. divided after was regionVukovarsko-srijemska). even Vukovar Manstir, and Beli in 1997”. “in Slavonia region ofEastern reintegrated in branches regional ofSDSSthe The wereformed first (SDSS, 2005:of the 5). population” be, D.T]in script official “Cyrillic [to onedemanded third whereSerbcommunity useisover places in SDSS the ofSerbspecifics. preservation in with concept Croatia anpolicy” integral foradopting SDSS multiculturalism. educational also supports cultural and the “language, They to aim influence institution ofminority, ofCroatia”(SDSS, territory 1997: onthe7). whole personal self-governance (SNV), an Council as SerbNational and the territoryoftwocounties, onthe self-governance regional Osijek, 26.11.2012 for 2008-2012, work county branchof Jelić. period ReportSDSS Osjecko-baranjska of of county in Jovan the the “ 15Dana. Osijek, 26.11.2012 for 2008-2012, workcounty branchof Jelić. period ReportSDSSOsjecko-baranjska of county in Jovan the Osijek, 26.11.2012 for 2008-2012, workcounty branchof Jelić. period ReportSDSSOsjecko-baranjska of county in Jovan the Основан регионалниодбор СДСС-а уЗагребу“, 55 SDSS also started to form branches in other parts ofCroatia. in SDSStoother alsoform started branches branch ofSDSSThe in “8 municipal and 2 city branches, with 24 local sub-branches” with “1,709 branches, with sub-branches” 2city 24local municipal and “8 54

Highest concentration of local branches wasin this preserved branches oflocal Highest concentration No 16,03.11.1999, p.4. 56 82 57 CEU eTD Collection 62 61 60 59 58 conflict. ofthe ofthe legacies institutionalization networks. with the time war continuity structural of SDSS building wasprocess The a SDSS followed after. like notofKnin”.was timea forSDSSmayor to “still have it ofKninin not2008 because formayor areas.example,runcandidates For SDSSformer did conflict and cities”. municipalities those branches toin party pressingtaskform was party the “most For refugees werereturning. SAO and theKrajina places former in This mainly included Western wheresome Serb Slavonia, weresufficient wherethere branches, didbut not whereit have some Serbreturnees. municipalities reintegration”. peaceful end ofthe forthe ofCroatia ofRepublic government “onofthe basis Erdut headsofcounties and twodeputy of and Letter ofintention Agreement 2005; afterelectionsin 18deputytotal, SDSS13mayors,the mayors hadmembers, 232council and 2001”. with inelections comparison 2005were“30% higher electionsin local results ofthe SerbMPs gotthree in all 2003.SDSS' electionsin 2000,but the toparliamentary failed winseatsin won onlyinsupport.SDSS overwhelming Slavonia, 1997and inSDSS Eastern stoodin elections, local to Serbs. post-conflict related Very any waspolicies. focus ondeveloping if put little with dealt werediscussed that The issues policy Knin of the Serb Cultural Knin of )Association (SKD .27.06.2012. “Prosvjeta” Author's copy. the branchin the renewal President marking of Čupković. of 15years Knin.Speech from SKD in “Prosvjeta” Dragoljub Večernji oduumirovino”,, 11.08.2008. List. vraćaju uKnintek kad “Srbi se SDSS-au2005god, p.5. SDSS. oaktivnostima Izveštaj SDSS-au2005god, p.2. SDSS. oaktivnostima Izveštaj SDSS-au2005god, p.1. SDSS. oaktivnostima Izveštaj Srpsko Dru Kulturno 62 However, these areas. SDSSeven wasfromin built scratch, not a was There š 60 tvo “Prosvjeta” Previously SDSS was cautious to play a strong role in political life in life political strongrole Previously play cautiousin SDSS was a to which facilitated the return of refugees and the formationof and the return ofrefugees facilitatedthe which

61 In the conflict areas Serbs first formed NGOs, first areas Serbs formed Inthe conflict 59 SDSS won seats in SDSS won seats 58 In 83 CEU eTD Collection 66 65 64 63 they placesweremajority. in where the governance representation and how SDSSWhen was asked SDSS theSlavonia, was effortsFor in oftheir Serbs Eastern continuation have political to party.than a RSK”. who individualsand groups in united existed It went into Slavonia in Eastern SDSS.1997was ofa “SDSS movement structurespolitical from more activeSerb all to SDSnot exist, allowed inwas Since aCroatia. 'rebellion' SDSperspective, instigated From Croatia. a Croatian a Serbrebellion SDSin Court forinstigating Constitutional had banned inparticipate elections. register however,They SDS; to tried wererefused. they Croatian The to party a political to have ofEasternneeded Serbs reintegration Slavonia, oftheAt thepeaceful end SDSS ofSDS founders that was and haveacknowledge been onSDS' built structures.admit also to important rightstoday. are their also inrecognition and ofSerbs Croatia Party SDSS'kept headquarters. officials in ideas party ofSDS initial for the that acknowledge officials connectionwith SDS. their donot hide ofSDS, first leader is Rašković, ofJovan picture The the forcesofRSK. armed to that aThere large isnodoubt SDSS extent isbasedonSDS. Highparty However, below, it as be shown will ofSDSS wereactivein oftheand activists members leading many the leave country structures in to involved armed all and encouraged, allowed, leadersand Croatia Serbmilitary left most ofthat the ofSerbarmed Because for members groups. groups. theaided formationofarmed ofindictments thousands ended raised Croatia the conflict After SDS leadership;notwithstandingthat betweenand political a division military During RSKwas there III.3.1.Structural Legacies: SDSSbuilt SDSon Interview with 15.10.2013 in Nikolić, Interview Danko Vukovar with Nedeljković Interview Miodrag 16.10.2013in Vukovar. with 15.10.2013 in Nikolić, Interview Danko Vukovar. with Nedeljković Interview Miodrag 16.10.2013in Vukovar. 66

64 Founding members ofSDSS Founding members . 63

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84 CEU eTD Collection 67 a as party, registered couldSince not SDS be elections,the upcoming and forthe under timepressure career, withpolitical continue their SDSS. as albeit transformed Serbside. from the tothe agreement gaveopportunity them Erdut The reintegration ofpeaceful process in whichcharge council was executive of was transitional Stanimirović the leading ofimplementation ended. the conflict after Slavonia in Eastern reintegration. peaceful weresupporting the They Vojislav forthe organization political aThis crucialmoment was in SDSprevailed ofSerbs Croatia. moderates Serbia.their in property stay whetherSerbs in wereinterested will not Croatia”. They lotand made transferred Krajina go.were of Butin a wasto that ruling money Belgrade following themany way not people mostly what head.following andthought was Belgrade Miloševićwouldsay. their He with own was Forusit clear that wasintellectuals,people meeting. He me. like He that theboard afraid central not of could did form left SDSS.after He to I that. Ipeople ofdid thehad support, board SDS. getand in majority we sothat asThe changedpresident, him majority of Hadžićas SDSS,Goran SDS. formed I president replaced “When we a difficultThat was had own his He moment. and thin SDSS was and blurred. Vojislav this point: acknowledges Stanimirović ofSDS. assembly the centralboard Actually to calledby foundSDSSthe was SDSThe between line We had organize to in elections. in participate politically orderto condition”.That was the isSerbs. there organization If nopolitical will andelections, goto control youthe8% donot Croatsthe with municipality. some For are6,000inhabitants, 92% Borovothere nottheare municipalities. in in we governance example, could have old certainly were theSerbs peoplefromand“Parts activists stayed. that others were SDS, of Without political organization Serbmajority, with in municipalities governance political retain quote illustrates: this as why,formed and reason was main SDSthe and to that wereinvolved old from saythat activists they Interview withInterview Vojislav 15.10.2013 in Stanimirović, Vukovar. 67 85 CEU eTD Collection 69 68 he so region the ona tooktourreintegrated from him in RSK out they politicians that point Some ofthe theSlavonia. in Serbs Eastern not with When Pupovac very formed,was SDSS familiar was Milorad participating the war. in have”. he that not did On Pupovac thean other got electorate hand 1997. With of due hadthe stigma to some we constrains pass the Croatian hadwith Pupovacauthorities, because a we SDS SSS,Srpska Democraticon5March StrankaSerb one and [Independent Party] (SDSS) SamostalnaDemokratska into Party].onpaper,[Independent also a Itparty Serb was voters. without We usedmerged registration his and the twoparties, (SSS) registeredSamostalna Srpska a Stranka agreementhim.party had madewith and came He we an “Pupovac ofSDSS.foundation from sides the merger. mutualforboth benefit was There conflict. to the alwaysHe a advocated peace-solution forthe acandidate prime him All made ofthat ofPresident actions ofthe didalso butvery notcritical was During thesupportRSK, he war Tuđman. who not in involved RSK. was a moderate politician was and a Serbintellectual to Zagreb. formwas andSSS, they Pupovac in documents which registered helped However, Serbs applyRSK. this didin to not in Serbs Western Croatian to get wereable Slavonia and SDS. ofthe ofRSK stigma because parties Serbs. Serbpolitical to join wereafraid Serbs proper.Croatia after, the Duringthe period and war in concerns for raised security activism political party. to formtook a 100signatures was difficult It rather in other Zagreb places raise and supportin to SDS Serbs,from members, politically including active Western Slavonia. thewas that formationofSSS by Stranka,the Srpska (Samostalna 1995.Somehelped SSS) claim in in wasproper, Croatia who inSerb politician Zagreb active SerbParty Independent formed the toSerbs decided merge by Stanimirović led party. existing already with another Pupovac, a Milorad Interview withInterview Vojislav 15.10.2013 in Stanimirović, Vukovar. with Požega. 22.10.2013in Interview Miroslav Grozdanić 68 argumentTheir it isthat 69 86 CEU eTD Collection 71 70 SDSS. SDScontinuity and between head of Vukovarsko-Sremska county. structural strongly examples the corroborate All ofthese in SAOandparliament MP Slavonia RSK. in memberof SDSSdeputy as he was After the conflict memberof was MirkoJagetić Furthermore, council. transitional in executive the and tourism was Milorad Lemić an MPin 1997elections. fortrade also secretary and was theparliament, RSK in persons council as ofSDSS in weremembers got ofthem elected RSK and Both parliament. Vukovar Slavonia ofSAO East ofparliament from member was region. Rebrača Jovo , an MP and in the and Baranja inManastir politician Beli RSK,stronglocal in andwas a ministeroffinance deputy Mayor of was Miroslav Keravica Vukovar ofSDSS. president andvice inbecame RSK, Vaso Žigić SDSS. Vojin MP in SAOand ofparliament an member Slavonia was Šuša RSK in the parliament. 219). Vojislav in Stanimirović RSK MP was of becamepresident He government. and ministerin Šuša, “Stanimirović, Vojnović, Knežević, and UNTAES the theCroatian timeconflict, after for the first by delegationswerewelcomed period President when reintegration theRSK. peaceful example, For during Tuđman to went Vukovar holders power weremainly main from base and ofthe Slavonia in SDSSThe Eastern was political convincingly. and won Slavonia party seatin but ofthe was the Zagreb, Vukovar. in nextSDSSEastern ran month inThe elections SDSS on19March1997in hisfutureregistered prospects. wouldimprove political was Slavonia instatus However, ofSerbs Croatia. that probably merging understood he also the in Serbs Eastern with the voters. morewith would become familiar (RSK, undated: 49). It is unclear Itwhether is undated:(RSK, 49). Vrkić third to of or refers them, a to person. one MPs Jefto SAOand Slavonia were parliament RSK, and fromManastir. twoKnežević in both of Milan, Beli There Interviews Jovan with Ajduković, 17.10.2013in Vukovar 27.10.2013 in Miroslav Keravica, and Borovo. 71 Keravica, Žigić, Šiljan, Lemić and others” (Vrkić, Šiljan,Lemić and others” Žigić, Keravica, 1997: 70 Undoubtedly Pupovac wanted to improve politically the wanted Undoubtedlytopolitically improve Pupovac 87 CEU eTD Collection Building the party structure of SDSS was not a problem because it came in the footprints in came SDS. SDSS becauseBuilding the wasit party the of a of structure not problem partybuilt here was The the refugees. very thiswell: point The quotes illustrate following ofSDS usingand the infrastructure out around to Croatia region, branch than reintegrated base in the wasthe built SDSS admitthat strategy first to ofSDSS.representatives Serbpolitical became president and later ofSDS president in in hismunicipality who SAO was memberofParliament Slavonia, was SDSS. conflictNedeljković, in SDS they the Milorad and Duringthe after were Slavonia. conflict in RSK. ofparliament andof government Grozdanić from politicians They wereboth Western of Veljko ofSDS Đakula, president in Western member Đakula andwas Miroslav Slavonia, Grozdanić. in the theirFor branches they to homes. example, returned Western help with the weremade Slavonia when branches uplocal ofSDSS. forsetting SomeSDS contacts andpart servedas became members, refugees Some were Slavonia. in ofthe Eastern wereharbored Serbrefugees itwho other the used hand onSDS. to the continued build On hand it other outregions, onone When in to SDSS branch started of RSK” 2011: (Barić, 453). time during the existed ofall that parties representatives that the party united SDSS apolitical as new of the formation went ofCroatia through life political in the from region Serbs said that integrating sense off' 'turning “In a process. political reintegration SDSS peaceful during the Serbarea, better the timejoined war networks, with intheir SAOalong Slavonia, 443). Moststructures political ofthe 2011: (Barić, ofmunicipalities” council joint through the and realize [Serb,D.T]rights municipalities in power D.T] and [winning, forSerbgathering, “foundation and SDSSto becamethe exist, conflict period. Serbinstitutions and fromSAOceased all RSK Slavonia the elections, 1997local After post- and the reintegration from the peaceful representation ofpolitical so continuation was there ofthe Serbs, representative political in the 1997,SDSSas acted post-conflict local elections After the 88 CEU eTD Collection 75 74 73 72 RSK sublieutenant in army. Rkman aprone war journalist and was example, For Bogdan candidates. positions SDSS' serveonpolitical as home joinedtheir to during returned RSK, SDSSto and wereactive refugees, who ManastirMayor ofBeli (1997-2000).Some (1997)andperson council (Vrkić,executive council the deputy 1997: SDSSfounding. was 30 and entered from He 200).He transitional in the was foragriculture secretary and the Serbpoliticians closelocal association, to Serbrefugee hein was the period reintegration active Eastern Duringthe Manastir Slavonia. in Beli and in settled “Storm”, operation fled Knin.He after townclosewas a Gospić, small to from Lazinica inexample, politics.For Špiro involved local stay and get to refugees decided Some ofthe inand party. membership Communist were in Vukovar. With timeRSK. some otherfrom we of contacts the had We through families, friends, eachother knew contacts. whomwe with Some fromwho had returned ofand ofrefugees Some [localaremade them SDSS, D.T] branches the previous taken party SDS. the from new was membership North and of Banija and directionDalmatia inKordun, bases inthe notofplaces, Lika, the But all. general in After the founding here[in Vukovar, in like wassome D.T]places, SDSin went revitalize present onto other Knin.I we in they andwent when back. weremade that here the refugees with start the party. we and getthem together wouldprepare contacts, several people familycontacts, also contacts There were party. politics and in a be afraidin to national were active skeptical In yousomeone. can local all Personal communities find to itthat continued live. they second nopeople, and people and “Storm”And areasleft“Flash” firstwere in in there where of difficulties SDS structures. It thiswasonexisting in was hereduringafter revitalizing area. made Krajina, in SDS active numbershighest arestronger, here,we Serbia close. is bases startedThen the build country. we to around weren'ta lot There [in Vukovar, Croatia partswere devastated. because of other D.T] We arein here,because we ourselves first established See news portal “E-novine”. “Rkman – i ratni huškač i oficir i “E-novine”.ratni “Rkman –i huškač [Rkman news – portal See War and abetter officer]”. 12.07.2013 (availabe with 15.10.2013 in Nikolić, Interview Danko Vukovar with Nedeljković Interview Miodrag 16.10.2013in Vukovar. with Interview Jovan Ajduković, 17.10.2013in Vukovar 74 73 72 75 89

CEU eTD Collection 79 78 77 76 different parties. of candidates members forceswerefoundamong outformer ofRSK'sarmed one that shouldpoint 2013. from elections in SDSSlocal in the electedcandidates as RSK's forceswere armed ofRSK. ofthestructures weremembers armed Krajina) of members reports that werenews there Also, former around SAO andKnin(i.e. Kordun ofSDSSregionsLika ofBanija, members fromleading the it some ofthe that structures. isknown Nevertheless ofarmed being whilepart RSK; others deny of armed in the structures drafted who wereforcefully people SDSSSome built they say ofthe that the state. pensionCroatian war forhisservices from time ofSAOhe andreceived Krajina, that during the closeMartić, to being Milan forces,while with security Croatian accused ofcooperating war.during the county, andofthat Serbdeputykninska county head structures part ismentionedofarmy being as Šibensko- inofSDSS Rašković, 2013.Jovan in president the elections local after is originally from, person in elected council as Vukovar. head ofSisa becamedeputy He „MilošBanija Vojnović“. board and was ofthe president executive SDSS joined and He became was Then he fugitivein Vukovar fromand Kordun Homelandofpeople was ofthe Club and president accessed on24.11.2013.accessed http://www.dnevno.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/86823-do-jucer-agresori-a-sutra-gradonacelnici-i-dozupani-lijepe-nase.html at headscountiesour mayors from in beautiful 15.05.2013.(available tomorrow and of homeland]”. and deputy Lijepe [Agressorsyesterday, I sutranaše “Do “Oko”. dožupani until agresori, news gradonačelnici jučer a portal See vojske-krajine.html http://www.dnevno.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/87113-evo-kako-su-na-izborima-u-hrvatskoj-prosli-bivsi-pripadnici-srpske- electionsat Croatia]”.20.05.2013(avaliable thein formertheof in members'Serbdid Krajina' army how of su prošli vojske[This “Evoizborima is “Oko”. Krajine' pripadnici kako uHrvatskoj news 'Srpske na bivši portal See od-7-312-67-kn.html at ofregistry, in head countynot Rašković is the Deputy and pension of gets22.12.2012,available military 7,312.67kn]”, nemavojnu uRegistru,a Raškovića od7.312,67kn[Impersonator: “'Lažnjak':Podžupana prima mirovinu Dnevno. on 3February 2014. http://www.slobodnadalmacija.hr/Hrvatska/tabid/66/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/82044/Default.aspx at 04.12.2009,available state!?”,, before Krajina elections. [SAO državu!? Kninarmygetsmeritof pension for CroatianThe barracks of chief the mirovinazboghrvatsku Kninskeza zasluga PRED kasarne “SAO Šefu IZBORE. Dalmacija. KRAJINA” Slobodna at http://www.dnevno.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/74169-laznjak-podzupana-raskovica-nema-u-registru-a-prima-vojnu-mirovinu- http://www.e-novine.com/region/region-hrvatska/87619-Rkman---ratni-huka-oficir.html 76 79 He left Knin after operation “Storm”, but was among first to return. Rašković isalso but return. “Storm”, was firstRašković Kninafterto left among He operation It goes to show that this is not only a practice of SDSS, but that in Croatia there are there Croatia ofSDSS, to goes onlybutin show that thisa practice It that isnot ) accessed on24.11.2013.) accessed last accessed on4February2014. accessed last č ko-Moslova ) accessed on24.11.2013.) accessed č ka county,ka wherehe 78 However, last accessed accessed last 77

) 90 CEU eTD Collection 80 during RSK: activities political 2011. to an conditions serveas MP. henot does that have says He ofhis because isstigmatized He Vojislav in 2007and in afterelections parliamentary twice winning resigned Stanimirović hismandate 433 young the Serbsjoined theparty”. region from workinggroupfororganizing to the high grade youth organizations in a ofSDSSshortperiod because a very ofSDSS.board in[ofSDSS, Formain FebruaryD.T]gave the 1999“the formation example, post-conflict Croatia. minister in ofinterior early priority after cadreput a as was Attracting party new assistant servedas reintegration, unit police wasduring Đukić,oftransitional who example, Petar head conscious effort ofthe stigma war. youngerwhobear promote the people donot attract and to For SDSS in Having makes fromthat mind, RSK. a ofSDSS onactivepoliticians The was core based admit. are to willing ofRSK forcesthan members more armed former and community, tofamily inSerbs defendlife, position their were SDSS there it in are that isplausible jeopardy. the war SDS during that and inwasthat theformations, Butmind having armed supporting isa structurespersonal ofRSK armed membershipin the fights, in declaring forSerbs Croatia orpassive during the a crime,wereactive they forces.Regardlesscommitted whether armed part of the they were whether declare to freely able being to Ittoward impediments people Serbs. alsoserious sets crimes. anonymous forwar indictments and pressure seenan as instrument ofintimidation can be This RSK, kept of thousands activein but whoalso forall weremilitarily amnesty granted Croatia ofRSK. thestructures involvement armed their in comes to it when Serbs are Croatia cautious in admit. free they to ofRSK forcesthen are members more armed former National Council. 15 Days. News ofCouncil Council. News the Joint of 09.02.1999,pp.2] 15Days. Municipalities. National Srpskom Podrška Narodnom Vijeću. 09.02.1999,str. općina. 15Dana. vijeća Zajedničkog Serb 2[Support to 80

91 CEU eTD Collection 81 mention in importantpublic in to overlapped RSK. foundit groups and Parties armed parties political in duringCroatia. the be startedformed conflict to Symbolic capital To membershipin some extent III.3.2.Symbolic Legacies: Symbolic capital electoralgains for conflict. ofthe symboliclegacies ofthe with the parallel institutionalization It wentthe in conflict. to worked SDSS.networks built of legacies structural ofthe This shows process the institutionalization time war with their prevailedand together Slavonia in SDS' Croatia. moderates Eastern banned from were and ofSDS.radicalSerb politicians Militaryleaders onthe built It infrastructure Slavonia. was ofEastern reintegration peaceful end atofthe the SDSS elections waslocal before the formed isdeputyof SDSSSrđanMilaković in Mayor Osijek of and Vukovar. electedbusiness Mayor and was ofhismunicipality. community Young head becamethe Gvero Boško Vukovarsko-Srijemska county. Similarly, the in himself Predragestablishing BurzaSDSS joined after young businessman in hismunicipality. of deputy as Mayor as and twice head wastwice He elected he waswell SDSS invitedtoknown because join Furthermore,was a Čurčić Đorđe stigmatization. Germany. RSK activeduring andsuffer doesn't politically ormilitarily wasn't He personal Serbia Croatia, refugeeand in ofSDSSZVO. anda president as spent He hischildhood candidate forMP, wayDraganCrnogorac, deputy In that as Crnogorac gotisvice the mandate. onhim”. burdenwar does have waynot gave of atwice colleaguewho the for younger and I and Isometheresigned paperattime, thenmandate. me.return names So wouldservefor they (četnici); wouldthrow fromnot haveconstant fromwas harassment “I Parliament. I thehard-liners. isolatedmyself right called could stand I the Interview with Interview Vojislav 15.10.2013 in Stanimirović, Vukovar. 81

92 CEU eTD Collection 84 83 82 lives their togave ourheroeswho and eternalgratitude sign ofgreat “in the commemorative speeches party.obligation political as SDS-SZ 1994 organized on26June oflaying flowers ceremony a and organized fighters. to to commemorations pay fallen respect oftheir sawactivity part They as this SDS factions conflict. during werealsothe started the capital symbolic to practices sustain Social were“fromoffice-salon and the flag” Croatian second under the type”. to thestand wasfirst gutsnot “had Parties'the rationale that the part whonotconflict. ones take in did RSKthe than in better wouldpresentinterests then Serbpolitical state they Croatian fought the people politicians. ofthe credibility was the enhancing wasgroups inseenas conflict if rationale that and The patriots andwarriors people types ofthe ofgoodman, its cadres party in SDSOne noted in“this accepts faction RSK that parties. political formembership in characteristic seenpositive as was armedMembership structures in hands”. their a gunin in battle people with led who President, the willsupport to proven SDS give Serbnationalists, for forproposedcandidates list and “on the experiencewerefavored with candidates battle statement, in RSK. presidential ofSDSelections forthe the –Krajina announcement press their According to aassetcareer. as positive fora groupwaspolitical in armed seen conflict, participation exampleis One legitimacy, the ofwar, times in support.Duringthe electoral theirforattracting increased chances and ofarmed werepart groups. members their announcements that Arguably their this contributed to copy. општинског одбора СДС ЗемаљаГлина, Српских Глина јули 1994,Бр. 1, with SDS-SZ and Banija Coordinator Kordun, Paspalj, for Interview Mile of copy. општинског одбора СДС ЗемаљаГлина, Српских Глина јули 1994,Бр. 1, with SDS-SZ and Banija CoordinatorKordun, Paspalj, for Interview Mile of copy.Author's Demokratska Stranka, Public Srpska Glavni Odbor,Announcement, Knin,27.11.1993. from Document Archive. 82 , honest intellectuals” [italics added, D.T]. intellectuals” [italics , honest 83 in participation armed The active pp. 27. pp. 25. Отаџбина, ИнформаривниОтаџбина, часопис Отаџбина, ИнформаривниОтаџбина, часопис

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93 CEU eTD Collection 86 85 it Democraticdidn't it Partysupposedly (SDS),aorganization. is because usname Serb terrorist let we to decided Then We've Party (SDSS). Democratic council Serb of set upthe initiative Independent That's because our they little mischief, political block? Q: the elections? ready for youAre getting uppolitical youAre setting parties? Will electionssingleSerb in as youa run the ininterview 1997. old party. to the resemble purposefully selected This ishow Vojislav in an it Stanimirović explained SDS. towas purposefulshowlineagewith strategy the a party the ofthe was Therefore, name case ofSDSS symboliccapital. there Inthe translatethe important to periodwas In theit post-conflict goodorganizer as himself andofficer capable people”. among and enjoysthe respect great and provenofficer patriot,fighter saying “he andproven that isa has ofKrajina” army in the refinery, indirector oil an argument with appointment fora political basedonhissymboliccapital, was who their ofRSK a candidate, supported party thedemocratic Forother social things. example, oftheiramongand arguing because symboliccapital, position fora arepolitical fit candidates their that community.local Different members oftheir trying use partiescapital symbolic to were the political officials supportfrom topolitical used symboliccapitalharness was Their in public the and from the politicallypositions. appointed credibleto assume wereregarded people theengagement conflict in Because oftheir symboliccapital. in their element constituted a crucial The ofindividuals activities Glina. in 1991in municipality first Serbdied wherethe place at the front oraand Memorialhouse in for theofourpeople” freedom Okučani, No 17/95, Okučani, 27.04.1995. Document from 27.04.1995.Document NoOkučani, 17/95, Okučani, Archive. Author's copy. Party, Democratic Social council of to municipality Main BoardLetter Krajina, Okučani, executive Serb Republic 42-43. Отаџбина, ИнформаривниОтаџбина, часопис општинског одбора СДС Земаља Српских Глина, Глина јули 1, 1994,Бр.

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95 CEU eTD Collection 93 92 the instrumentmemory to main preserve the became practices, social collective as Commemorations, politics. still enjoys that. respect He for centers. tosomeone's in be or collective huts forced in sleep You your have I dignity”. of thinkcrown will is his this that the you “Storm”. donotstayyour afterIf insell “Flash”to andbags and property people leave. like want Croatia, You will not choose representatives. elections and your You with your life nylon leave packedin to a home not grounds your have choice He reintegration. saying this: rolelike due his thewas peaceful “You to in possibility documents, have go in take to together. aStanimirović strongandeveryone charisma keeps has them. we village, hefor If anyan goin is idol Serb This is theCroatia. voterofother Eastern SDSS in base cities.But is the Serb numerous. community most is There Serbs Zagreb verytheand Pupovacurban in in passes wellunchallenged authorityamongCroatia. the Serbs Eastern thethe Erdut implementation of wouldnot sosuccessful.Stanimirović ofAgreement the andSerbs has be representation andbiggest oflower. most Serbs Croatia,the parties support in but wouldbe important more divisionsThere wouldbe and in stayed not among theirhethe wouldberesponsible people in homes. that If was SDSS the probably fact the party for Erdut implementationinvolved in of the the and reintegration directly Heresponsibleis the peaceful was for Agreement. 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Commemorations image. example, the peaceful after right party to the create instrument meaningandas wereused political events Commemorative had capital. the instrumentsymbolic to main sustain some,werealso For the commemorations of the conflict. zlocina-/ vojničkomNo 562,24.09.2010. na ratnimžrtvama “Parastos vukovarskom groblju”, Novosti. “ 15Dana. SNV. Vijesti. žrtve 28.11.2012, zločina”, “Sećanjena ratnog at available Извор. Извор. Извор. Извор. last accessed on4February 2014. accessed last “ “ “ “ Парастос за погинуле“, за Парастос Лист заједничког већа Бр. општина, 5 заједничког уАлеји“, Лист Парастос општина, већа 5 Бр. Помен цивилне за жртве рата“, Заједничког Лист већа Двонедељник, општина, p.12. 09/2013, За злочинеЗа нема оправдања“, заједничког Лист општина, већа 52, 10/2012, No p.3. Парастос жртвамаПарастос рата уВуковару“, commemorations in other places where Serb civilian victims were killed victims werekilled whereSerbcivilian other places in commemorations No 14,21.09.1999,p.16. 100 96 94 Representatives of other Serb political ofother Serbpolitical Representatives SDSS was co-organizer the dirge of the and and in 2012 and 0 , 09 http://snv.hr/vijesti/secanje-na-zrtve-ratnog- 0 /2012, p. /2012, , 09 /2012, p. /2012, 97 99 ; when Dušan when president Latas, ; 23. isPaulin Another place 19. 98

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97 CEU eTD Collection 103 102 101 Serbs against mostcommitted Serbs, that ofcrimes and injusticesdone to out and pointed returnees “Flash” and “Storm”. of operations problems concerns forthe ofrefugees, statements raised The uptothe 2013to issuedeveryanniversary mark year “statements ofmemory” were to exodus”.Similar toand them led politicsthat and to crimes judge war committed to sanction rights rights, and work and lost housing theofrenewal, as refugeesissues issues, “solve work remaining to and to together Croatia security”. legal ofhome, pension,“right andin work, overall Serbia calledauthorities The statement acquire and cannot returned, have supportstill alsoforrefugeesnot express who they the statement sufferedvictims who suffering”. inremember their silence wholeperiod war in 1991-1995and the In citizensofSerbnationality”. Croatian With SNV the statement, with “the commiseration expressed war, suffering, new also “caused butthey that ofover destruction,200,000 new andexoduses new presidentvice ofSDSS. the “Storm”an end to “Flash” brought and readoperations that statement The of Memory”on4 issued was 2009. August symboliccapital. ofmemory”instrument areforpreserving another “Statements first “Statement The time. symboliccapital over their instrument to preserve committed. Serbs against were marksites ofSDSSwhereatrocities work isto the political preserve and aggressors. whichSerbsas portrays the discourseinonly political Croatia dominant the werealsoagainst casualties, Serbs message a political It casualties. carries civilian the homage to possibility providepay with them the constituency to fortheir consider important work party. political partsofthe ofthe events are representativesofSDSSFor commemorative They accessed on4February 2014. accessed SNV. sjećanja”,at Zagreb, 04.08.2009,available “Izjava Čurčić, Đorđe Interview Osijek. with 16.10.2013in Interview with Vojislav Stanimirović, 15.10.2013in Vukovar. 102

R egular commemorations of casualties are obligation for SDSS. But they also present an obligation forSDSS.also present But are ofcasualties they commemorations egular 103 It was ofSNV Pupovac, president It signed by Milorad and http://www.snv.hr/pdf/Izjava_sjecanja_VIII_09.pdf 101 partTherefore, ofthe last last 98 CEU eTD Collection 105 104 forSDSS.success andread thisa as political was ofSDSS. the in graves for thepreserving succeeded prospects Serbs site burial intact. preserve the important but to also reintegration, peaceful This was forthe important the For in crimes. Serbs forwar imprisoned later politician Vukovar, it wider region, was and the Croat Glavaš,a ofBranimir radical down, them a proposal 1997: which was 305)orto bulldoze city outskirts andtoof the monuments the (Vrkić, move wantedSerbgraves to either governance, they Croats, Forafter reclaimed becameabattleground. example, symbolic it conflict period During the conflict Vukovar Inthe post- atrocities werecommitted. wheremany a battleground was present in Vukovar. the discourseunderlines divergent andcontested isvery vividly understandingconflict, ofthe ethnic alsosufferings victims,and their they were from nationalists, Croatian overlooked. shouldnot be This ofview, partsFrom ofCroatia. a occupied Serbpoint aggressors, and themselves weredefending Serbs capital. werethe rebellion, they the considersinstigated that a Serbs discourse dominantCroatian The the symbolic istheinstrument forpreserving discourse ofthethird conflict Supporting a contested past conflict. over the the Serbpointdiscourse contested toward contributes the in symboliccapital ofSDSSpreserve the and suffered”. who ones with andthe themselves commiserate sufferings” isnospace forthese there Croatia suffer ofthose who feelings which is“insulting the isarguedremained unpunished.theof It memory public “in ispreserved because this that practice sjecanja-srpskog-narodnog-vijeca/ Feral Tribune. DragoHedl, Interview with Vojislav “We Stanimirovic, were in all Trenches”, Split, 03.03.1997. SNV. Vijesti. at vijeća”,03.08.2012available Srpskognarodnog sjećanja “5. izjava 105

last accessed on5February2014. accessed last 104 However, to also serves practice the http://snv.hr/vijesti/5-izjava- 99 CEU eTD Collection 107 106 [EasternD.T]. Podunavlje Slavonia, of reintegration to Croatian the peaceful Pupovac: Serbsa celebrate have reason Journalist: Mr. is day Serbs Croatiacelebrate? Pupovac “Storm”for in to a in this one point illustrated Croatia in prominent Serbpolitician TV debate ofSDSS, Milorad and president a Pupovac, vice beyond, cleansing. forethnic werea prelude events. notdoes these attend and the among Serbcommunity operations, military formany The SDSS and “Storm”. in victories institutions “Flash” organize military the to celebrate manifestations example,Croatian For contested. are similarly the andin eventswar Croatia from Other dates suffering in Croatia”. in the of city andcommemorations politicsofmemory joint “building joint Vukovar of places and other be punished. crimes war all and that equally for victimsbestatement treated all asked asked that The session in Vukovar ofmemory'. they a 2012.Onoccasion issued 'statement on15November this They different, SNV SDSS events. doesn'ttake inInstead, the part commemorative joint held and ZVO a However, in takeevents. such parties part discourseissomewhat Serbperceptionand because the year,institutions, every organize 'fall toof the commemorate events Vukovar'. Different political war. of fall 18November the thesymbolizes For Croats Vukovar occupation.Croatian and subsequent to therekilling mass ofCroats close afterward was Vukovar. controlled Serbs Vukovar the throughout in Vukovar onboth and sides weremany there fighting on18Novembercasualties 1991.Inthe defeated to win,weremilitarily they way Croats,beyondand even Serbs. tried possibilities though their Another example from Vukovar of18November, marking isthe aforCroats daymeaning ofcontested 18.10.2013) “Storm”.5'48''. Operation From Available on YouTube: February 2014. javnosti.rs/aktuelne-vesti/2012-11-15/izjava-secanja-sno-i-zvo-povodom-godisnjice-u-vukovaru Discussion on HTV1, 24.07.2009. Milorad Pupovac and General Petar Stipec, Head of CroatianHQ, Military Petar on Discussion of onHTV1, andHead Stipec, General 24.07.2009.Milorad Pupovac povodom ZVO sećanjaSNO i godišnjiceu Beta.“Izjava Vukovaru”, 15.11.2012, at available 106

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wb7UlTVWRic 107 : http://www.glas- last accessed on5 accessed last (accessed on (accessed 100 CEU eTD Collection as their political base” (Vrkić, political their as “Epirus” company aconstruction 225).For private 1997: example, base well ofSerbs, to the improve “as material 1997: forreconstruction served 195).Foreign donoraid however,post-conflict reconstruction; stronger (Vrkić, politicians alsolocal beto used make could it were high. needed donors from forthe highly foreign Financial aid was uncertainfuture. faced an They destroyed away. ortaken rates and destroyed. unemployment was infrastructure Poverty public The post-conflict period. situationin inSerbs the a dire were harassed. They were Their was property III.3.3.Patronage clientelismand party. resource forthe and becamea valuable institutionalized was ofthelegacy conflict supporting discourse. a contested and statementsofmemory commemorative events, symbolic The capital. symbolic to which aim preserve the practices These are also social supported, ordeveloped, with SDSkept. was SDSS toisregularlypaid. casualties Serbwar homage that sure partyThe makes side,lineage the symbolic On other Slavonia. homes in Serbs their Eastern andthe protect retain was reintegration to decisive the peaceful roleduring one gains.side,ofStanimirović On the electoral their the into symboliccapitalwar from strategytranslatethe SDSS devised has ato purposeful peace. withof sharethat somethingCroatia.That can is share,and citizens all we we that Pupovac: Two be should said. things We want andcelebrate to can we A. and theofintegrity establishment B. the territorial … aftersuffering. that recover Pupovac: difficult It is a their “Storm”.is that daysuffering, Because Serbs celebrate of for to which it difficult after was to Journalist: And “Storm”? Pupovac: right. That is Journalist: That is 15January.

101 CEU eTD Collection 111 110 109 108 the after fully this of6,000inhabitants “2,500 employedwar”and in were before Borovoout oftotal in subsequent years. a challenge and reconciliation. impedimentforreturn economy a as great The was impoverished one. exclusive it not eventhe was leave, though peoplestrong reasonforthe to region. in to the stay people and wassurvive forthe it essential They was bad claim economy The a to minority members. their and resources equipment agricultural theyessential that provided confirm (Vrkić, to surplusSerbia” it they the and transfer sell those times activein 1997: 327).Serbpoliticians forharvest seeds or among fertilizers, themselves, complained“Serbsshareeverything Slavonia that example, For Hungariansin channeled. aidselectively was post-conflict Also, some seemsofthe that it SDSSsupply. thepresent to and power had post-conflict reconstruction. tothe had opportunity channel they was also The forpatronage demand and Serbmajority in reconstruction.SDSSinofthe municipalities power was all in post-conflict leader “Vuković”, in registered Vukovar, region in and companies the main was the alsoconstruction among career. hisbusiness anybetween and connections political denied He wasMP lists forSDSS in municipal in headed2001and elected He Erdut the from in SDSS 2011. list the ofSDSS. among founding of“Epirus”1997andmembers 2002,was between the manager general in “workedmostErdut. hundred workersduring reconstruction” employed about and 17.11.1999, p.2. poslom.html#.UvEPYayoiPM http://izbori2011.tportal.hr/sve-vijesti/163513/Ni-SDSS-ni-HDZ-sutra-ni-SDP-nemaju-veze-s-mojim- 15 Dana. “ 15Dana. 15 Dana. “Teška 15Dana. No I 8,14.06.1999,p.2. uprocesupovratka pomirbe”, ekonomska prepreka situacija glavna T-portal. SDSS,ni HDZ, ni sutra “Ni SDP, nemaju vezesmojim06.12.2011, poslom”, at available “ 15Dana. Обнова привреде најважнији фактор спровоћење за свих тачака Ердутског споразума“, Општина Ердут“, last accessed on4February2014. accessed last No 8,14.06.1999,p.10. 111

Unemployment was high all around Eastern Slavonia. For example, For Slavonia. higharoundUnemployment Eastern all was 109 However, hisother company 110 108 And remained it Jovo Vuković, No 17, No 102 CEU eTD Collection 119 118 117 116 115 114 113 112 theirreintegration. in homes after itthe SDSSpeople peaceful that that achievedremain is helped to The value biggest ofSDSS, this as quoteachievements shows: 2010:the(Cvikić, 164).On other, officials high party wasofthe biggest this claimone that relations” social “clientelistic to elites develop incentivesforpolitical set ofmaterial the necessary one side, On some argue Slavonia. in Eastern Erdut the ofthe that implementation providedAgreement SDSS.SDSSsocial understood Itthat provided gains wentwas political to jobssupportforSerbs and Vojislav president ofSDSS,the and council, also so executive was ofthe Stanimirović transitional head RSK. during agenda parties washigh ofpolitical andonthe it post-conflict period also protection. to and health social and got orphans access This in wasimportant forSerbs the issue an institutions. was fromincouncil, Serbside, charge in process. keepemployment public their ofthe got Serbs to ofRSKwouldgetsupport. social they andthe that institutions public transitional executive The support. wouldkeepin Serbs employment that agreement envisaged Erdut The of the implementation Darda, 320worked.conflict only Memorial Documentation Center of Documentation the Fatherland Center Memorial War Zagreb, February in 2011. invalidsfamilies fighters”. war of fallen fighters, and the Croatian documents has both obtained copiesfrom Author of dignified treatment of as amongwas them electoral promises.“honorable of main and points Fifth main the promise undated). Krajina, (SDS Milan in the 1993 presidential brochure had for of elections five RSK Martić Also the electoral is lost the RSK, positionthat difficult” the area oftheirespecially of in and dearest Serbof the all ones situation people familiesfighters. woundedof forof fallen theand Serb taking care advocate This very broughta war difficult to of News Joint of 26.12.1998,pp.6]municipalities. Municipalities. Council For example, the platform of SDS [SDS thesocial mostly platform will reads“In policySDS Forexample, of Krajina D.T] firstly and Krajina, with Interview Vojislav 15.10.2013in Stanimirović, Vukovar. “ 15Dana. 15Dana“ “ 15Dana. “ 15Dana. “ 15Dana. Заједничког Српских Из Новости општина. 15Дана. веħа Days. 26.12.1998,п. општина Serb 6[15 From 114 Markušica, Markušica, 118 Мирковци статусом за –жал општине“, Општина Ердут“, Општина Маркушица“, Општина Дарда“, Разминиравање свих проблема“, –решење

Pensions were given to 6,800 persons in the region. Persons disabled in the war, Persons 6,800personsin giventhe Pensions region. disabled to in the were widows 115 112 municipalitiesŠodolovci, as such in similar other situationwas The No 8,14.06.1999,p.10. No No 7,25.05.1999,p.10. 116 No 9,30.06.1999,p.10. orErdut. 117 People were in need of employment and/or ofemployment social werein need People No 11,No 31.07.1999,p.6. No 5,11.03.1999, p.4. 119 113

103 CEU eTD Collection 123 122 121 120 party supplygroup.However, toethnic their could a SDSS level onlocal also got governance with lighting. orpublic waterrebuilding roads, supply system suchas and destroyed ofdamaged infrastructure, public renewals and reconstruction period included could it supplygovernment patronage. post-conflict partin the And indeed, ofSDSS'governance in if SDSS period was theand of post-conflict part in forpatronage was isa demand there that isvery difficult bodies ofgovernmentit in participation well without that that”. achieve to very “know credit”and they to forthem raise conditions create home, their orto electricity in them bring votersto “expect their that voters. SDSS providefortheir considered benefits could then they nemesis. withformer ofgovernment share their governance werepart if that they rationale was The and had UNTAES backing. forSDSS wasjustification to resources major to the spoilsand Access ofSerbs, reintegration inclusion peaceful part was ofthe and governance, Reconstruction ofpolitical wereinSDSS IfSerbs majority, got deputies. deputies. got SDSS andthe gotHDZ top positions whereCroats wheremajority, and municipalities counties and (e.g. Mayorsand headsofcounties) tospoilsand positions divide (Vrkić, agreement political in got 1997: top 359-404).HDZ positions SDSS, HDZ winningmade main parties, in and 1997,the a post-conflict local elections After the fordifferent partner SDSS coalition becamea desirable it bring Serbvotes, parties. could Croatian and national government.Because in participation sub-national accesstoSDSS spoilswith got further Total poverty. health schools. system, theofanything. keptstayedother their Croatiahave position theynot here.In parts They and did Very over, were important. taken People administration,judiciary, werepublic and integrated, in worked that police, they id=535271 http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/trae/archive/data/199704/70421-002-trae-zag.htm Interview with Đorđe Čurčić, Đorđe Interview Osijek. with 16.10.2013in Vreme. stranke”, No 881,22.11.2007, imenanove “Stara i at available hisat available Zagreb. “Glavasand jackpot”,,18.04.1997, AIM Miodrag16.10.2013in Interview with Nedeljković Vukovar. 120 last accessed on4February 2014. accessed last 123

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CEU eTD Collection 128 127 126 125 124 government. werepartgroup if ofthe they with someEU”. to chapters close supply, water supporttohousing,roads, them renewtheir and to give and electricity. neededThis was refugees return areas “towhere supportrenewthe sawHDZtheand condition they to with a chance to side, more SDSS wanted On spoils other access process. Croatia'sthe accession order to accelerate in EUto minorities'position improve by the constitutionality wereunder political and they parliament in side, OnHDZ stronger majority HDZ new one needed with the government. signed an agreement 2003 and 2007.It then electionsin legislative theSDSS national wonSerbseatsin guaranteed the also through goes them”. forSerborganizationsfinancing through goes them. inadministration All ofSerbs public employment level. onlocal agreespoilsandforSerbs “SDSSresources that controls analystsLocal equally All advantage. an unfair SDSS'them that pointing ofspoilsandgave resources competitors control are their other side, the support.On always translateto finances electoral not providing does also saythat However, support in exchanges. electoral they and that orcultural issues, expect pensioners, sports they organizations budgets, forvarious Serbnon-governmental ormunicipal from county with dealing institutions local in services and employment deprived persons subsistence to of350Kuna socially to supplychance targeted one-off wood granting goods. and heating 'private' example, For money clanak=815 2014. +milorad+delic+nacelnik+opcinu++pretvorio+u+svoj+dnevni+boravak+.html at 08.02.2012, available Municipalities. andCouncil of cities.News Joint of municipalities 26.12.1998,pp.7] Parentium.“Stanimirović o potpisivanju sporazuma sa Sanaderom”,19.12.2003, available at opotpisivanjuSanaderom”,19.12.2003, Parentium.“Stanimirović available sporazuma sa Interview with Vojislav Stanimirović, 15.10.2013in Vukovar. Knin. Mihaljo Interview 01.10.2013in with Kragulj, 15 Дана. Slobodna Lika. “Gordana Petrić - Milorad Delić, načelnik, općinu Petrić Lika. -načelnik, Slobodna “Gordana Milorad Delić, Vrhovine pretvorio dnevni boravak!”, usvoj Хроника last accessed on6February2014. accessed last општина општина http://slobodnalika.com/novosti/12193_gordana++petric+ 126 и градова 127

SDSS considered that they could do much more for their ethnic ethnic domuch fortheir could more SDSS considered they that . Новости ЗаједничкогНовости веħа of Days. 26.12.1998,п. општина 7[15 Chronicle 128 In the agreement fromgovernment's Inthe2003SDSS got agreement . 125 SDSS officials funding, to theysecure admitthat try 124

or discretionary provision of public health provisionhealth ofpublic or discretionary last accessed on4February accessed last http://porec.mobi/prva.asp? 105 CEU eTD Collection 133 132 131 130 129 SDSS' pushchanged MPs to continued fortargeted goods forSerbs. 2005”.23,000 Serbhouses2005.No until reconstructed was from Serbhouse of suffering” wouldbe marked. and places “grave andsites the informed better public the wouldbe accelerated, exhumation wouldbe was of whereit trials” outprocesses pointed that war expelledand crime missing and deceased, persons ofwar, civilian “the casualties dedicated to was ofthe andagreement monuments churches.part One ofSerbcultural and renewal and script ofSerblanguage includingintroduction policy language around returnee's of 200jobsareas. in the implementation considerationthe took into The agreement development. order to economic supportlocal protection, in systems, electricity, kindergartens, roads, ambulances, system, health social and in education, water returnee's areas in in investments andgreater renewing solutions houses forhousingissues, for financing For forthe SDSS'earmarks' inexample, gotSerbs Croatia. In the more 2007agreement and Serborganization. supportforreturnees wasthere ofbudgetary lack and Usageproblematic was otherofSerblanguage institutions. public of Serbsjudiciary police, and in with proportionalrepresentation problems werestill there Croatia, in hand, except Eastern On other the ofhouses, submitted forrenewal positively. from9,700wereanswered Furthermore, 16,200demands 2005(SDSS, 2005: toin 3). houses,aSerbs 2004and totalof3,500,werereturned taken from government. Serbsassistant in will ministers the to and be property returned taken unlawfully commitment that effective solutions”]. copy. http://porec.mobi/prva.asp?clanak=764 Novosti, Kronika. “Bolja komunikaija, efektnija rješenja”, No. 720, 4.10.2013, p. 2 [“ Better communication, more 720,4.10.2013,p.2[“ rješenja”, Better Novosti, No. efektnija komunikaija, “Bolja Kronika. Interview with Vojislav Stanimirović, 15.10.2013in Vukovar. SDSS-a između “Sporazum HDZ-a I osaradnji Hrvatskom 10.01.2008.p.6. Saboru”, Vladi I RH copy.Author's I SDSS-ao saradnji između Formore “Sporazum HDZ-a see RH Hrvatskom 10.01.2008. Saboru”, I Vladi Author's SDSS i potpisali Parentium.“HDZ ugovor budućoj at osuradnjipotpori vladi”, i 18.12.2003available 129

The implementation of the agreement did not gosmoothly; agreementhowever, did ofthe implementation The 3,450unlawfully 131 SDSS representatives proudly point out that they “reconstructed they that point “reconstructed SDSSout representativesproudly last accessed on6February 2014. accessed last 130 create to wereexpected policies These 133 132

A fter the government the government fter 106 CEU eTD Collection 135 134 ofSerbsorganizing life (e.g. the and cultural improve aims social to summer forSerbstudents camps useand cultural language policies). improving ofSerbsfollowing theimproving and rights (e.g. Vukovarko-srijemska and forprotecting alsoother counties.has competences Osječko-baranjska It and (TV, ofthe community Serbethnic theZVO manage media isto of area in andthe press) radio affairs,assistant forinternal competencesof ministers ofthe sport One and culture). justice,education, institutions (e.g. public to Serbrepresentativesin propose in theand deputy twocounties heads Serb to 1998.ZVO nominate foundingcompetences has on15October the confirmed government Vukovarsko-srijemska counties”. and Slavonia, Eastern community Baranja in Western and Sremareas ofOsječko-baranjska in the Serbnational ofthe interests wasa as bodyharmonizes ZVO “that defined post-conflict period. and rights in the positions the totheir whichSerbs improve wouldhelp was an as institution envisaged Serbs. prominently.Among thesefeatures ZVO It reintegration. ofthe ZVO apeaceful product was institutions and organizations toSDSS elected target controls all have almost that means to benefits organizations” (SDSS, 2012b). SDSS that gives one-offThis indicates support to its financial voters. cultural supportto providing Serbsportand indication, financial and medicine social SDSS that financial “ party's workingprogramgive for2012-2012envisages will and scholarships”. and “stipend sport manifestations” “support forculturaland aid”, and financial The 2012(SDSS, 95,000Eurosbetween Donationsfor“gifts are 2010and made it over 2012a). donated fordonations. budget parts ofitsexample, party SDSS allocates party'sshows that The report financial institutions and andorganization'club' 'private'directly goods orthrough under itsFor control. If targeted then SDSS extends national andgovernment, sub-national be secured from cannot goods Decision of Croatian government, Urbroj: Croatian Decisiongovernment, 5030114-98-1, of 7,Zagreb, 15.10.1998. Art. Urbroj: Croatian Decisiongovernment, 5030114-98-1, of 2,Zagreb, 15.10.1998. Art. 134

It was It founded in Vukovar the Croatian on23May 1997and aid to citizenson aid to 135

ZVO 107 CEU eTD Collection 136 SDSS when level was and regional national in on local, a lot toand managed achieve we ZVO, and strengthen to ofSDSS”, preserve SDSS onthetrack members and considersthat “was right and SDSS. members. ZVO was cooperationbetween there that close acknowledged ofZVO first president The are nominates, whichex-officio ZVO counties, usually ofZVO are SDSS and presidents they vice positions presidents alsoin had ofZVO high SDSS.man Other ofStanimirovic. d The Vojnović ofSDSS. was hand wasHe president right while vice ofZVO also he the becamepresident and Vukovarsko-srijemska county. However, from personsSDSS. council Miloš most were ofthese bypersons,any Serbcouncil was party, be formed from to in Osječko-baranjska from municipalities 2011: (Barić, ofmunicipalities” council joint forthe own representatives 444). assembly ofZVO The 2011:elections” (Barić, 443). their branches to board“recommend main ofSDSS calleditsThe local 446). in byparticipated the SDSS “ZVOwaswho tobecandidates formed Stanimirović According to and Vukovar, in Serbcultural aboutcenter tothe same be was done and the Vukovar” 2011: (Barić, Beli in Manastir, and thetelevision suchas centers radio and culturalinstitutions, informative Borovo inventory, “finances, ZVO,property to meaning offices and cars. of Also, founding rights the transfer its session dissolving,to its decided last headed at –before by Stanimirović, executive council, conflict period. exist. Serbinstitutions fromceased to RSK the elections, 1997local After The transitthe post- conflict to in from the ofZVOstructures forSerbpolitical The allowed formation wasSDSS ofZVOit had has control formed. since offering party, political assets beneficial forany aid legal 2006).ZVO'sare resources (ZVO, free and by individualand organizingproblems, their and help with them cultural events) sporting,and religious many meeting points. Council of News Joint many of26.01.1999,pp.5] meeting Municipalities. 26.01.1999, п.5 15 Дана. Војновиħ: Милош СДФ имају ЗВО и многе додирне тачке. Заједничког Новости општина веħа 136 in delegates [ZVO's, members, D.T]assembly, one“most agrees that current The are [15 First Joint ofMiloš Days. meeting Municipalities. ofCouncil the Vojnović: ZVO SDF have and eputy heads of eputy heads 108 CEU eTD Collection 140 139 138 137 SNV). Council, National ofSNVThe assembly ofSerbnational memberscouncils upofall ismade in Another prominent organization by SDSS is which iscontrolled arguably relationships patron-client in are creating instrumental practices such withopportunities, and himSerbs employment ZVO hethat provided admits Furthermore, under political organization, winlocal to elections. toas a wasrepresentativesresources got community, function “When ZVO functioning we and built the spreadand to government, provided possibility to uswith this a and in and strong establishourselves make base region”. the financing own wouldnotit.had notseat, from reintegration.did its themade ZVO that, party we have peaceful have If the ZVO.is product [from we in ZVO of werepresent 2003,D.T], through a worked not 1997to “When we Parliament SDSS: fordeveloping instrumental was president ZVO vice that he ofZVOwhen was SDSS, the acknowledges president same at proposed SDSS membersserveinadministration. public to ZVO bulletin. Furthermore, a messages,thusresembling party newsSDSS. and party It featured information 1998was about ZVO filledwith in bi-weekly started which example,the For newsletter ofSDSS. forSDSS. rise Itand development supported the importantinstrument ZVO political is an government”. of Dragan Cukic, Mirko Pupovac assigned . News of Dragan .News Joint Mirko Cukic, Pupovac of 26.01.1999]of assigned Municipalities. Council ЗаједничкогНовости општина веħа 26. омаловажавањем нипоштодавањем“, и Лист заједничкон општина, већа 57,Двонедељник, No. 12/2002, p.7. Interview with Jovan Interview with Ajduković, 17.10.2013in Vukovar Interview Jovan Ajduković, 17.10.2013in Vukovar 15Дана. Извор. Interview with Dragan Crnogorac, president of ZVO and MP withCrnogorac,ZVO president and of Interview Dragan from SDSS, “ Прва седница 137

Заједничког општина. веħа 139 01 .199 9 [15 Days. meetingofCouncil the Joint [15 First ofInstead Municipalities. Уместо предложен Ħукиħа Драгана Мирко Пуповац 138

Jovan Jovan Ajduković, isalso a who former Srpsko Vijeće Nacionalno Лојалност држави не заслужује државине Лојалност се . 140 (Serb .

109 CEU eTD Collection Serb victimsin Varivoda 2010.SNV in isby large and Croatia, Serbinstitution influential in an seenas in “Storm”, operation after Varivoda SNV in wider Kninregion. and Gošići, the a erected monument to SNV Croatia. influence in organizes victims,killed ofSerbcivilian commemorations annual regular a is seen as Serbweekly, “Novosti” which weekly magazine and wider butgreat enjoys reputation a with SDSS (SNV, and ZVO which weredone together return ofrefugees, 13).SNV 2007: publishes a firstin 10years, SNV the SerbsCroats and trust between and rebuilding reintegration, peaceful lists the county level organizations and fromVSNMs international and donations. top achievements Among the (SNV, 10-12). 2007: The funding forSNV of the budgetbudgets from state ofCroatia, from the comes frommonuments development fund and toa initiate importantin forSerbs Croatia WWII are that and to of culture proposalstorenewmonuments andit, toimprove give for protection ofSerbrights ofthe framework legal to the “Storm”, monitor implementation “Flash” and operations expelled after identity, citizenswithcollective own equal as were that ones especially the Serbrefugees, to repatriate society, the Serbcommunity Croatian overall in the to level, reintegrate and national from county local, with authorities, and Croatia tocooperation Serbcommunityimprove in the institutionally strengthen oftheagreement (SNV, Erdut for full implementation 1997). Today goals ofSNV the are to When SNV push totrust, rebuild and returnto ofrefugees, the goals main wereto formedaid was its front row. in the foundingshows seated assemblyPupovac and isaofthe Stanimirović picture which anniversary 10year SNV's marking page vice ofSDSS.thea publication isalsoOn He the president front ofSNV.member ofSNV, president Milorad Pupovac became positionthen. that since andretained has SNV. assembly constitutive ofSNVThe Zagreb held on19Julya was in 1997.SDSSfounding was (e.g. SKD SDF, “Prosvjeta”, to form and Istra)gave and ZVO initiative inAssociations ofSerbs Rijeka electionsaround(SNV, Croatia in countyminority (VSNM)elected level SerbNGOs 2008a). Several 110 CEU eTD Collection 143 142 141 their back. to get people property and Baranja. Slavonia in Eastern be present ZVOorder to and cooperationwith in also memberofSDSS. leader former SDF close SDS established in networkbranches oflocal established had a well Western by led It Slavonia. was Veljko Đakula, (SDF) 1995. was that Democratic Forum in established organizationThe return. supported SDF refugee NikoliDanko aidsocial from Vukovar “offeredwas by rights” educationonhuman and led field, in advice the legal forPeace, Legal Center example, andFor the Croatia. Slavonia Serbs Eastern in Psycho-Advice and non-governmental organizationsSDSS oflager had control status of wereworkingto the that improve forSDSS. platforms political public become socialwhich often cultural events, and ofmemory.sessions andstatements issue VSNM SNV and organize haveto funds supportand/or also between SDSSpoint and ofcloseness VSNM. Further, VSNM and SNV organize commemorative the county offices Osječko-baranjska isin SDSS' branch in county of VSNM. the This corroborates seat of example,the For usefortheir could advantage. which they instrument forminority integration 2011. thein won candidates majority” lists, our andweremore BeliOsijek. Ifthere to electionsin Manastir [VSNM,D.T] attention special elections for VSNM, SDSS organized “paid readthey InSDSS' party that reports one can lists. party SDSS ofmost also assumedcontrol of the should thoughnotin parties participate VSNM. Even ofSDSS. arm an extended [15 Days.[15 Osijek, 26.11.2012 15Дана. 11, pažnje”, No deložacije “Mirovineucentru 15Dana. I 31.07.1999,p.9. SDSSperiod ofOsjecko-baranjska county in for the 2008-2012, Jovanwork county branchof Jelić. Report Serb Democratic Forum Serb Српски демократскиСрпски форум (Уместо карте) личне ć , who later became secretary general ofSDSS. general becamesecretary , who later (Instead Municipalities. ofCouncil of ID).News Joint of 26.01.1999pp.5] 141 In this manner SDSS had political control of another ofanother SDSS control Inthishad political manner 143 SDSS and SDF announced that they will trythe to will help announced SDSSthey andthat SDF . Новости Заједничког. Новости општина веħа 142 Serb Another example isthe 26.01.1999, п. п. 111 5

CEU eTD Collection 145 144 to targethad means group. ethnic tooftheir members benefits directly, and organizations partyorthrough institutions donations, through controlled and which they but SDSSpatronage not and extended possibilities'club' 'private' Last, least, new to goods. extend to themspoilsand gave access government in andsupport sub-national national forSerbs. Participation charge jobsand gotsocial possibilities to they secure Erdut ofthe agreement, implementation ofthe reconstructionand aid. the channel post-conflict capacitySDSS in to had the theyThen, were since However, parties. forpolitical preferences period the SDSS wonpost-conflict First, in control. political Serbcommunity prejudiceor to without servethe ofIntentionand were ofthe Letter implementation and integration. minority protection Erdut ofthe They a as consequence come and the Agreement for and essential institutionally prescribed the has ofthe Most are that instruments. instruments the out it onethat party shouldpoint isnot theSDSS resultsNotwithstanding that achieved, positive with interests.one deals that Serb the only is hasThis that instruments”. party them. municipalities, reconstructed churches. we our Then because ofAll gives only that thisis legitimacythat to party the “We their stay in homes. to helped because we people successfulSerb party aremost we that together stayed with And ofSerbs Croatia: theimproved in situation ofthe people. workSDSS they claimforbenefit that have substantially They outthey that point to position”. buy it political use money theand they state from SDSS say that theCritics electorate. relationship with patron-client possibilities to create Vocal institutions and controlorganizations over outthe ofSDSS critics that gave point political SDSS Interview with Interview with Vojislav Stanimirović, 15.10.2013in Vukovar. Jovan Interview with Ajduković, 17.10.2013in Vukovar 144

145 On the other hand, representativesof On other the “received “received 112 CEU eTD Collection dependent variable. dependent municipality. this results theper and party consider With Imeasure and party candidates' the results, the municipality, in each candidates ofthe three result the average Itook criterionforcompetition. minimal were cast. casting votes fordifferent three rules, the wouldsatisfy aAccording electoral to candidates votes three least whereat municipalities elections,Iincluded legislative one vote.least national For got at whereSerbparties municipalities Iincluded For elections, sub-national elections. parliamentary different andelections (1997-2013).Icreated for forcounty elections data elections, forlocal sets post-conflict all 200 municipalities in in over parties Serbpolitical results forall electoral I collected threshold. percent isa five units, there electoral units. Inthese electoral listsgeneral inon their the However,electorate. Serbcandidates often parties, have oriented left and especially parties, Croatian ofthe Serbs usually upa part substantial units, inmake where ones the electoral general elections in runin parliamentary and candidates Inaddition,some Serbparties are elected. who most votes get vote). right only have unitSerbs the to electoral where Voters votes. upto three can cast The candidates one as whole isregarded (i.e.ofCroatia unit the Serbminority special electoral from a are elected SerbMPs legislative. national seatsin guaranteed the Serbs three have 2009 andelections. 2013local the seatsat representation. Different deputy forguaranteed candidates parties put Serband Croatian to areproportional entitled wherethey mayorsheadsofcounties Serbs vote and fordeputy also mostlists votes. which have Additionally, in made 2007, lawelections changesforlocal to with the the onparty to but toSerbcandidates rather Serbparties, given areexclusively level not andlocal county parties. Croatian competewith but themselves, also they on between They reserved compete seats The in different in compete Croatia elections. Serb parties national legislative county local, and elections: III.4. Competition parties betweenpost-conflict Serb in Croatia 113 CEU eTD Collection 148 147 146 regions. Consequentially, fledand Serbs these timein Serbwar networks expect one wouldnot in since SAO SAO East hold This wouldparticularly West overrun and SAO weremilitarily Krajina werepartargue that ofRSK. municipalities and denserin the timewerestronger war networks that inconflict-affected RSK I municipalities and networks. strength time proxies ofwar as for the ones mapsMaps ofRSK conflict-affected with and Itake coordinates areas in Croatia. the conflict. properCroatia during To municipality, location ofeach the measure Google Icompared was SAO East, the in municipality Icodedmy whether research. West, orwas SAO Krajina in it conflict-affected was and whether ornot, ofmunicipalities'location, isbased on The measurement 2011 the elections Iuse data. census ofthe 2011 inanalysis 2003and 2007,and forthe elections parliamentary analysis ofthe parliamentary in 2001and andcensuses 2011.for Statistics,DZS) from the istaken ofSerbs from fortotalpopulationand number data fromwere obtained was whether it results conflict conflict-affected and electoral ofvoters, turnout ornot.and Number numbermunicipality, in ofSerbs each total populationand during the and location ofmunicipality per ofvotersmunicipality, and turnout suchas: number variables, other include me relevant allowed to onmunicipalities ofanalysis level conflict regions.the Setting 30%areformer inand about the proper, are datain inCroatia the set to SAO 70%ofmunicipalities East. in former Close and especially however, which werein proper; Croatia municipalities conflict regions was in turnout former higher the possible variance. andthe with it ofmunicipalities the number Iaimedto increase get whereSerbparties votes, municipalities criterion,all liberalUsing selection a from 2011from at available is at from available 2001is The data census site: Most onDIP's the results web areavailable of sample in the isappendix. in about thevariance data More the found sets and information Državno izbornoDržavno poverenstvo http://www.dzs.hr/Hrv/censuses/census2011/censuslogo.htm http://www.dzs.hr/Hrv/censuses/Census2001/census.htm www.izbori.hr (State Electoral Commission, DIP) Commission, Electoral ofCroatia. (State . Državni statistiku za zavod 148 146 in used datathe 2001census are The In the data set, most Serbs live in Serbs Intheset,in most live data . and the census data the census and (State Bureau Bureau (State 147 The 114 CEU eTD Collection votes become elected. votes elected. become 2000and forSerbMPs2011The voting between results ofthe the given in are seats in 2000 elections.However, guaranteed got 2002and Serbs three changed law was in Constitutional the Srba Hrvatske lists, the like 2011while in SDSS was the it coalition and in SDSS, 2003and contested. SNS2007, werethe heavily competitors and PSS main elections are forall funds state which disperses Minorities ofSerbNational Council National VSNMs). These spoils,ex-office suchas and government access to in participation government, in participation the from and gettingearmarks proposingbills financing, tangible (e.g. party and others are media presence) in arerepresentation (e.g. symbolic political to ofwhich resources some getwinners access in Croatia. Serbparties between pinnacleofcompetition the electionsare The legislative National versus others. municipalities the ZVO controlled party inclearlyseethe support in this'private' which SDSSway andgoods But Ican 'club' can extend. 0. 1,and others are are coded counties possible small measure ofthe isaofportion crude This two in the wheremunicipalities control, variable,labeledZVO SDSS' a dummy Icoded control. and Osječko-baranjska Vukovarsko-srijemska UNTAES (former and isunder orSAO East) region in twoconflict-affected forminority integration instruments counties controls competences. ZVO To has whereZVO municipalities ofspoilsandIlooked resources, control at measure political timeremainedintact. war networks SDSS SAO wasofthe East in a showsgoodpart built that by which process re-buildingthe returnnetworks,the and theofrefugee Notwithstanding processes affected proper ofCroatia and werenot which werepart municipalities by the conflict. Sabor. Zajednica SrbaZajednica Rijeke Voters candidates. forupto thetothree vote right have who ones most ofthe The get in the 2007. Serbsseat guaranteed (Association in ZHS) had ofSerbs Croatia, one (Association ofSerbs Rijeka,ZRS) in (Association 2003or the in Srpska sloga Srpska . Some Serb NGOs have also put candidate put candidate . Some have SerbNGOs also Zajednica Zajednica Sabor Sabor and 115 CEU eTD Collection 149 Table III.1. Voting for Serbmembers of turnout. below.table voter from of2percent the a minimum won showsthat table results forparties The SDSS 2 SDSS 1 Turnout votes Total of No SP 3 SP 2 SP 1 3 Sloga Srpska 2 Sloga Srpska 1 Sloga Srpska 3 ZSH 2 ZSH 1 ZSH 3 ZSR 2 ZSR 1 ZSR PPS 3 PPS 2 PPS 1 3 SNS 2 SNS 1 SNS SDSS 3 [Association of Serbs[Association Osjecko-baranjska county). in [Socialist Hrvatske (SRP) Workers (U.S.O.B.Z) zupanije Croatia] and 2007; UdrugaSrba Party in of Osjecko-baranjske youthparty], [Croatian [A Demokracije (ABECEDA) Abeceda radnicka partija Socijalisticka of C Democracy] and B (U.P.D.K) Kukuruzari Donji (HSM) Kukuruzari] mladih –Donji Hrvatskastranka 2003; of in returnees [Association Blok (BVHrvatski – Treci (LS) Block], LiberalnaStranka [Liberal Party],– [Third Blok) povratnika Udruga Croatian minorityinclude: parliamentary inelections electoralunit which the Serb partyin competed The lists the other Treci 149 12, 396 31, 962 1, 467 9, 171 No 168, 606 2000 47.72 18.96 5.65 35.3 % Sabor Sabor 15, 661 16, 092 25, 773 25, 210 47, 610 1, 100 1, 201 1, 376 2, 797 3, 655 3, 889 4, 517 4, 551 No - in Serb minority electoral unitin (2000-2011) Serbminority electoral 222, 769 2003 32.89 54.13 52.95 21.37 9.56 33.8 2.31 2.52 2.89 5.87 7.68 8.19 9.49 % - 12, 714 14, 917 25, 092 1, 147 1, 446 9, 443 2, 332 2, 270 1, 028 1, 242 6, 557 608 898 No 190, 510 2007 37.64 50.67 59.45 13.17 26.21 4.57 5.76 2.42 9.29 9.05 4.95 3.58 4.1 % 12, 212 14, 120 14, 445 23, 072 2, 076 3, 497 4, 745 338 610 883 No No 183, 992 2011 15.16 20.57 52.93 62.61 12.54 1.46 2.64 3.83 61.2 % 9 116 CEU eTD Collection distribution of voter turnout is roughly the same compared to former SAO East and SAO Krajina. SAO SAO Krajina. East to compared former and the turnout same distribution isroughly ofvoter Also, the the sample, arein overrepresented from proper Croatia though municipalities variable. Even support isa continuous party –withand the fourcategories variable status isa categorial municipal the islowand also variables because number since method ofexplanatory the was most appropriate the way regions ofRSK. one Iused ANOVA cycle. means electoral the in compare parties' each to This supportin former thenwouldhave networks, onwarhigher built it was if time that a Serbparty expect conflict. I during the to municipalities'location in relation supportforSerbparties ofelectoral variance extendhad possibilitiespatronage. to To timeIanalyzedthe war networks the supportfrom test My argument timeand itonwar networks built was because most party SDSSsuccessful isthat the ofthe 50percent votes. Pupovac got over in over 60percent 2011. climbed to supporteven Their three all partySerbMPs votesin andmost the had ofthe 2003) SDSSin was represented not (2000- (35.3%).In this period won Pupovac had 9,171votes candidate. 12,396(47.72%)while Đukić Milorad Pupovac, SDSS' SNS'to managed defeat Milan Đukić, In the candidate, 2000elections Resan,Dragana Ind. Milošević,Ind. Mikić,Ind. 1Slobodan 2Ljubomir 3Duško4Branislav Simić, Tekić. SP3 Marić, Nemanja SP 2 Cvetanović, Dušan SP1 Rodić; Milan 3 Veljko 2 sloga sloga Srpska Srpska Đakula, Ajduković, Jovan 1 sloga Vuković;Srpska Jovo 3 Vojislav 2 SDSS SDSS Stanimirović, Pupovac, Milorad 1 SDSS for elections 2011 Kosić; Vladimir 3 PPS Šolaja, Javorina Ljubica 2 PPS Livada,ZSH 1Svetozar 2 ZSH Veljko Leskovac, Lubovac. 3Branko ZSH Đakula, Rade 1 PPS Hinić; Dragan 3 SNS Crnković, Dušan 2 2007 electionsSDSS for 1Milorad Pupovac, SDSS 2 Vojislav Stanimirović, SNS SDSS Šušak,SNS Gajica, 3Ratko 1Luka 1 Čupić; ZSR Tatjana OlujićMusić, ZSR 2 Vaso Vujnović, ZSR 3 Vidoje Jovanović; Đukić, Milan 1 SNS Milan PPS 3 Šolaja, Javorina 2 Ksenija Ljubica SNS Leskovac, PPS Gajica, Rade PPS 1 Uzelac, 3 Milan SNSAleksić-Ambrozić, Ratko 3 SDSS Vojislav Stanimirović, 2 SDSS Pupovac, Milorad 1 SDSS for elections 2003 2000 electionsSDSSInd. for 1MiloradĐukić, 1Milan Livada, 1 Pupovac, 1Svetozar ZSH SNS Veselin Pejnović; Candidates elections: in Ind. 4 Ind. 3 Ind. 2 Ind. 1 Ind. 2, 944 11.33 Sabor. However, SDSS' following all got candidates elections in Sabor . Vojislav and Milorad Stanimirović 470 587 556 855 2.04 2.54 2.41 3.71 117 CEU eTD Collection Table III.4.2011 way One elections. ANOVA: municipalities' and location voter support parties 0.05.Standard at 0.01.**.Significantparenthesis. ***. Significant deviation in at Table III.3.2007elections. way One ANOVA: municipalities'and location voter support 0.05.Standard at 0.01.**.Significantparenthesis. ***. Significant deviationin at Table III.2.2003elections. way One ANOVA: municipalities'and location voter support tests. show results ofthe the isnohomogeneity analysesofvariance. there shows inthree that all Levene's test Tables 2,3and 4 Croatia proper Croatia SAO Krajina SAO West SAO East Croatia proper Croatia SAO Krajina SAO West SAO East F testLevene's proper Croatia SAO Krajina SAO West SAO East F testLevene's 160 154 167 35 28 34 28 36 27 N N N 6 6 6 17.943*** 21.39*** (107.431) (234.027) (573.896) (410.660) (32.637) (357.33) (68.474) (31.199) (99.132) (39.129) (53.198 231.02 168.47 SDSS SDSS 21.06 70.74 32.17 26.54 28.44 375.4 SDSS 24.85 53.57 32.33 268.4 .000' .000' 11.864*** 11.829*** (105.751) (38.207) (23.088) (87.828) (11.602) (7.478) (2.647) (7.053) 79.13 22.72 58.47 12.75 .000' .000' SNS SNS 18.8 3.63 3.22 5.08 Srpska slogaSrpska (83.527) (30.23) (31.9) 22.91 20.61 43.61 7.99 13.398*** 10.722*** (126.498) (16.044) (20.678) (71.495) (11.628) (11.710) (5.177) (11.98) 21.18 10.67 44.01 13.35 58.52 .000' .000' 7.57 5.24 PPS PPS 5 (6.559) (3.645) (5.699) 1.91 4.29 4.42 SP (13.299) (15.924) (17.685) (15.348) 4.544** 4.612** 4 (8.101) (4.526) (10.5) 15.29 (7.9) .110' ZSH ZSR 0.27 3.64 8.55 4.67 7.46 5.68 9.1 12 118 CEU eTD Collection 150 base. a strongvoter it support and to into the turn to managed institutionalize but it that also werewidenetworks and dense, Croatia. ended in the conflict after This showsSDSS that was time onlywherewar in built places not However,sense. surprising that effect it the isvery in strongly2011. isstill present This is16years stronger. it common period, israther but isnotforthepost-conflict a surprisingfinding early This regionstime were wherewar networks networkshighest has was supportin time and onwar built has. Stanimirović from proper Croatia than municipalities confirmsThis SDSS finding my hypothesis. supportin Milorad otherPupovacmore has Milorad hand the Pupovac.former than On SAO East that thenisclear it ofindividual candidates, theVojislav results more has Stanimirović supportin and looksat voter timeexisted, wherewar networks supportforSDSS. SAOIfone East, particularly strongholds. RSK former regions, between isa strongassociation there These that results confirm voter thoughinare SDSSSAOits This winsEast showseven ofSerbvotes, municipalities that most other municipalities regions. from inEast to former compared highest andSAO remains deviation was in proper.most live Croatia ofSerbs also showand standard SDSS'meanThe that results score though conflict regions even from former showin SDSSmunicipalities The that gets most results votes weaker effect. candidates. areforindividual scores compared results mean alsoThe hold the when effectmeans the signify that a parties Serbpolitical forthe isstrongestLowerscores forthem. F other statisticallysignificant. Serbparties forall are The forSDSS, results The arewhich scores highest F 0.05.Standard at 0.01.**.Significantparenthesis. ***. Significant deviationin at F testLevene's the are presentedappendix. in The results 19.345*** (61.885) .000' 9.242*** (16.754) .000' 4.825** (3.498) .008' 150 119

CEU eTD Collection Table Correlation: III.6. 2007elections. voter support for Serbparties (2-tailed).**. Correlation significant is at the 0.01level Table Correlation: III.5. 2003elections. voter support for Serbparties 7. tables given 5,6and in electionsare legislative correlations fornational A Serbparties. opportunitiesforthe higher electoral ofthe highermeans turnout The results municipality ishigher, inthe ofSerbs a percent thewouldalso be higher. supportforSerbparties then support. with Serbparty a theyhighrelationship that positive sense shouldindicate This meansif that municipality. invoters andthe turnout the very similar in and theofvoters are data number census The municipality, number in with ofSerbs the the inferences to possibility check gave me of the number Running correlations with municipalities. ZVO-controlled highest relationship support topositive have SDSS'voter Iexpect andpossibilitiespatronage, thushas toBecause ZVO, extend SDSS controls whereZVO competence. has municipalities Serbvoters. than to likely other vote are more They voter havesupport. higher thenwill patronage, it of Serbsin theAbout one live the third sample in extend results withpossibilities has to differentifelectoral that a party Iexpect variables. explanatory support,Icorrelated and voter possibilitiespatronage to extend between inferences Second, to test ZVO control ZVO conflict-affected Turnout of votersNo census)(2001 ofNumber Serbs = 222 N control ZVO conflict-affected Turnout of votersNo census)(2001 ofNumber Serbs = 236 N .302** .231** .971** .742** .745** .335** .201** .980** .752** .769** SDSS SDSS .175** .605** .840** .759** .223** .814** .812** .733** -0.046 .083' SNS SNS .669** .660** .689** .268** .227** .963** .837** .859** -0.019 .142* PPS PPS .264** .899** .855** .828** .184** .750** .866** .924** .074' ZSH ZSR 0.13 120 CEU eTD Collection most significant. most significant. conflict-affected showsSDSS positively that voter relatedto This supportismore SDSSstrength coefficient ofthe in 2007and 2011, decreased strongest and statistically itthe still was SDSS had a marginally stronger coefficient though the otherand even parties, in to 2003,compared The coefficients forconflict-affected but positive, weaker. Serbvoter supportare municipalities and a disciplined electorate. support and probably voter SDSS a that has stable with voterIt SDSS means that supportturnout. ispositivelycorrelated coefficientpositive 2011.This 0.971in 2003to 0.990in withfrom voterand increasing turnout shows However, Serbparties. smaller and diversified, alsoforthe goes in more SDSS an has incredibly high voters. support forSerbparties ishigh, the number and Serbvoters This ofSerbs wherethe shows that ofSerb regards to number in and particularly to Serbparties, theSDSS theother has lowest compared and Serbvoters ishighest. highcoefficients; positive also have parties similar The other however, number relationship ofSerbs. with ofSerbs the get number This most showsthey supportwhere that highest (e.g.have ZSR,and positive ZSH SP) the and lists Serbparties forcandidates smaller that ofSerbsisinteresting to withsee ofSerbvoters. number It support and forSerbparties number significant. results are statistically Almost ofthe all showThey highcoefficients positive forvoter (2-tailed). (2-tailed).*.Correlation significant at**. Correlationis the significant0.05level is at the 0.01level Table III.7. 2011 elections. Correlation: voter for support Serbparties (2-tailed). (2-tailed).*.Correlation significant at**. Correlationis the significant0.05level is at the 0.01level ZVO control ZVO conflict-affected Turnout of votersNo (2011 census) ofNumber Serbs = 229 N .351** .175** .990** .709** .740** SDSS Srpska sloga .199** .906** .781** .776** .164* .747** .796** .825** .159* .090' SP 121 CEU eTD Collection 151 won ofvotes thetotalamount if most in contribute theseAlso, SDSS twocounties votes that gets in the Vukovarsko-srijemska. other many twocounties, votesSerbparties. than SDSSmore Inthese gets elections. national legislative winin different Serbparties votes that isfoundifMore corroboration the one sees in the counties hypothesis. those municipalities. voter have supportin is mosthighest likely to These my results confirm party isthe that but it votes in wins municipalities ZVO-controlled that onlynot party and the exclusive however,controlled municipalities; the coefficients than SDSS. are weaker This SDSS shows that is 2007andSloga's2011 Srpska hand, voter ZSH supportin with ZVO- ispositively correlated the negative.On other the isvery coefficientthoughweakand it significant, even statistically isnot 2011.0.302 in 2003to 0.351in shows but a PPS positive, weaker, coefficient in2007 2003,while in support forSDSS the shows coefficient voter a positive municipalities from withstrength increasing of conflict-affected through ZVO. extend SDSS patronage can municipalities. in And ZVO-controlled Namely, correlation. forthisZVO inI check the controlled are a sub-set municipalities ZVO-controlled instruments. integration controlling minority forexampleby means, have and 'club' 'private'ifthe to goods they possibilities extend forparties conflict-affected sense, reconstruction.Inthat returna municipalities andrefugee post-conflict provide highforassistingregard theredemand conflict-affected placeswouldbe as where municipalities above. However, pointin analysis oftheshown corroboration ofvariance previous another can one these sense, results Inthat are networks exist. asorstill time existed, regarded wherewar places Conflict-affected Serbparties. with other thanisthecan be it case municipalities municipalities the appendix. arepresentedin The tables 151 ZVO has competences in two counties, Osječko-baranjska and Osječko-baranjska twocounties, competencesin has ZVO 122 CEU eTD Collection Table III.8.Results in(1997-2013) of legislative local elections Serbparties SDSS. close to 2013. turnout) even managed to in andcome none have modest have more results parties The other ofthe 20, 062 (6.6percent to thendecreased supporthas their oftheand since percent turnout), (45 won 1997and 2013.In1997they 61,451votes electionsbetween oflocal incycles all Serb parties below. table in arethe presented The results showother SDSSmost They that won votesto compared offer post-conflict period in the elections corroboration. from legislative local additional The results Serbs Croatia. represents the that in the party main and to unit become beenhas sufficientSerbminority electoral in the wininelections parliamentary to patronage. extend most possibilities to base forSDSS. aFor strongvoter region SDSS became thisThis and had transferred networks, war symboliccapital, from built was SDSSformer time that was there ErdutEast Slavonia). intothe after reintegrated Croatia werepeacefully They signed. It was Agreement in62 percent 2011. Large the UNTAES werein ofthese counties parts offormer SAO part zone (i.e. in ofCroatia. all in 2003,60percent 2007and made in twocounties for55percent votes in these The NSS and NS NS DPS PPS NSS SNS SDSS Turnout votesof Total No 134, 898 61, 451 No 1997 (N=28) ------186, 978 45.55 72.14 % ------162, 232 25, 494 5, 330 No 2001 (N=36) - - - - - 343, 037 15.71 47.29 3.28 % - - - - - 208, 046 27, 337 1, 616 No 2005 (N=54) - - - - - 521, 148 13.14 39.92 0.77 % - - - - - 378, 949 26, 230 1, 971 1, 967 770 841 No 2009 (N=67) - - 900, 877 42.06 0.52 0.52 0.22 6.92 0.2 % - - 303, 282 20, 062 1052 602 No 83 42 - - 2013 (N=51) 704, 234 43.06 0.35 6.61 0.2 % 0 0 - - 123 CEU eTD Collection employment) goods Serbs.employment) to Voter equally almost elections,was supportforSDSS, legislative local (e.g. reconstruction) and 'private' extend (e.g.they possibilities 'club' housingand to provided ofSDSS. strengthening formationand an introduction forthe branch ofSKDwere “Prosvjeta” Also, became apractice. common suchas formationofvarious SerbNGO's, Knin The post-conflict the Dirges also institutionalized. networks. was on former capital time Symbolic war and commemorations refugeesupporting return. the structure gave build SDSS party return a their The possibility to refugee SDSS “Storm”. after was operation ofthe wereexpelled former Serbs wheremost SAO Krajina, branches in the butto SAOalsoform started theEast, concentratedformer SDSS in was mainly still in 2001 For elections secondlocal was evenSDSS challenged. the wonin 1997and not everywhere Erdut ofthe agreement. sector implementation public with jobsin the the reconstruction orsecuring post-conflict with likechanneling extendforexample and had possibilitiespatronage, to capital SDSS onthe wasthistimenetworksofSDS. war area in built symbolic their institutionalized They region. wasUNTAES the This afterErdut reintegrated the zone peacefully which was Agreement. SAO of theEast in former SDSS municipalities had lists only post-conflictelections local In the first Table III.9.SDSS voter in support relation municipalities' to in during location conflict, percent (1991-1995). conflict period during ofterritory the control below. table in arethe presented The results whichisthis? The arisesiswhy question To at relation to SDSS'voter Ilooked answer supportin SAO Krajina SAO West SAO East Croatia proper Croatia 1997 (N=28) 98.77 0.37 0.86 0 2001 (N=36) 25.51 63.69 10.8 0 2005 (N=54) 13.58 45.66 1.06 39.7 2009 (N=67) 17.53 34.17 47.11 1.19 2013 (N=53) 45.34 42.77 11.63 0.27 124 CEU eTD Collection the conflict in the conflict Western there. possibilitiespatronage to extend and had Slavonia Western of legacies SDSS. which DPS institutionalized very theysimilar to isa Slavonia Serbparty are of Serbs, DPS). argument. corroborates casemy ofDPS The because DPSin in won these elections in head ofcounty Western 2013to in Slavonia 2009and forSerbdeputy lost elections ofoccasions. sub-national First, they couple SDSS lost electionsona III.4.1.Whylose SDSSelections?did Serbparties. ofthestrategies other the then SDSSunsuccessful when show cases lostvarying toand Ifirstexplore move success. electionswith local various national and in challenged them Other Serbparties patronage. extend and organization, institutions controlled political to Oncethey appeal. had possibilities electoral they voter mobilizing support. the voters and with communication their strengthened symboliccapital Their for units which social werebeneficial had micro andtimethey densewar networks the wide Serbparties. before advantage other a competitive them With ofthe gave legacies institutionalization possibilitiespatronage. to and gained extend ofthe conflict the SDSS legacies institutionalized The SAO Krajina. in votertheir supportincreased patronage. as theyextend tocould spoilsandwhich resources gaveaccess government them result As a in Serbareas). Inclusion and infrastructure housingin rebuildingpublic former (e.g. SAO Krajina in forSerbsespecially gotforreturnees earmarks they and coalition agreement Inthe government. onwards. To fromin shouldparticipating recallthat 2003SDSS whyhappenedwas one understand this electionsin and SAO2005and SAOregions Krajina forthe theEast former distributed between Demokratska Partija Srba Partija Demokratska (Democratic Party (Democratic Party 125 CEU eTD Collection 155 154 153 152 organized and Grozdanić ontheir left Serbs Đakula own. were a branch ofSDF in Western Slavonia. provisions for Western and Slavonia. the conflict after the challenge ofrefugeesThe was greatest return stayed. Đakula region,and fledGrozdanić but massively the The Erdut not have any did Agreement in May 1995 Western “Flash”. Serbs Croats in militarily byoperation the was overtaken Slavonia conflict. position the after isvery similarto This Vojislav Eastern However, Slavonia. in Stanimirović Serbleaders main in the Grozdanić wereamong Đakula and Western that and remainedin Slavonia, Krajina. previous role”. because aofmy lot, Ireallygot There in my part to connected ofmywas “part charisma ofthe from conflict: the he carries time capital month” in 1991,only mobilized forcefully fora ofRSK, “be but ofthestructures Heclaims to in armed RSK. part was of municipality president wasand was parliament conflictprominent memberofDPS.he RSK Duringthe in elections”. more Krajina authority have active in were in sayingwho Croatia the “people that conflict during toactivities hispolitical it directly connects authority from time”. that ofSDF.president In Western ofwar. was strong.From the “Đakula time Slavonia always is He DPS. started was byThe party Veljko ofSDS leader in SAO former Đakula, West and Slavonia from Western Slavonia. SDSS established inThey first Western to splintered form and then Slavonia, networks onwar DPSbuilt andwas returnees. time toward supportingmainly Serbrefugees geared ofthousands ofhundreds Croatia. left who recovery Serbs material goalsThe ofDPS program are vanish (DPS, in live shameund.). and politically orto and return, ofDPS spiritual The isthe goal main to organize twooptions: SerbshaveDPS formedCroatia considersthat “only was in 2009.DPS in Požega, interview Miroslav with Grozdanić, 22.10.2013. Author's Požega, interview Miroslav with Grozdanić, 22.10.2013. Author's interview with Author's Veljko Zagreb, 01.03.2011. Đakula, interview with Author's Tihomir Aleksić, 22.10.2013. Požega 152 Đakula himself is aware of the symbolic capital that he possesses symboliccapitalhe that and isaware ofthe himself Đakula 154 . Like Đakula, he is similarly aware of the symbolic aware ofthe he issimilarly Đakula, . Like 153

M iroslav Grozdanić is another similar and isanother Grozdanić similar iroslav 155 126

CEU eTD Collection 157 156 a different take ofthe and understanding conflict. the than comesnarrative SDSSto approach it when DPS organize and SDF also forthe in Serbs commemorative events Western However, Slavonia. they hasSDF”. with cooperation connected and to SDSSthem is with and...now Inwere DPS helped winthe together mandates were helpingthe2003we people. there around employing we 200people. were the 100werecampaign. in involved At least We villages, all we had in coverage 2003weSDSS2007/08, electionsParliament.people“In SDF forlocal for them helped logistics, onthe ground. gave the withand SNV.to ZVO SDSS'links and cooperation organization, party political toresources supportthe DPS. later first SDSS and waysimilar This isin a undoubtedly,These activities, however, career; political fortheir beneficial were alsoSDF used they getting rights”. in had and help 5lawyersthe we to people branches thetheir country around housing,every step –with property, personal SDF pensions, convalidation, personalreconstructionetc. had 18 documents, brought their refugees thereturn. theirandpossibilitiesfor UNHCR we checkout property see to to We in helped people us Cross forhelped assistance Croatianthroughwith little, government negotiations very through projects. Red and the this all families havein practically ofregion. People I helped knowthat. me because We lot had of a international nothingother nowork becauseon,foodassistance stuff. theyleave and had to We UNHCR,RedCross. with worked of tohousing. wepeople“After SDF with reconstruction “Flash” worked provide Then provide to humanitarian them reconstructionprocess: the post-conflict influencein their quote illustrates charge life. ineveryday andtheir improvement forSerbs brought benefits that direct process This ofthe in Western strongsupportorganizations. ofinternational It Slavonia. had werein and Grozdanić Đakula ofSerbrights and protection post-conflict reconstruction refugees,SDF returnthe supported ofthe the Požega, interview Miroslav with Grozdanić, 22.10.2013. Author's Požega, interview Miroslav with Grozdanić, 22.10.2013. Author's 157 156 127 CEU eTD Collection 159 158 Table III.10. CompetitionSDSSDPS between and for ofcounty head Serbdeputy in 2009 in SAO Krajina. to in votes 12below. compared SDSS'are table oftheir given The results in county, Šibensko-Kninska and Požeško-slavonska) maslovačka, Karlovačka was part ofwhich part ofSAO orfully werepartially that in counties mostly candidates placed West (e.g. Sisačko- SAO countyformer Požeško-slavonska partcounties. was ofthe West In2009DPS the conflict. during Western ofSisačko-maslovačka and Požeško-slavonska the territories mainly over Slavonia extent history” and nationalist hidden (DPS, byund). communist and werefogged, hiddenourpast distorted that abouttruths from ourselvesand acreate conscious isnecessaryto “it mythsand usthat whothrough beandwater”, will slavesto persons flushed out not saying “we that past conflict, from the toitself wants distance in DPS Croatia. theconcerning conflict thenSerbleadership. irresponsible position ofthe because position isinwithAnd line the ofDPS this great as victory.crime and exodus Croats However, werebrought Serbs in also holdsthat such he they that negativeby Serbs, suffered isseenso “Storm” operation heavily, it Serbs and that a as see missing Đakula diedSerbs. agrees that and insult hisactexpelled, forall an Serb refugees called Minister serving thePrime Mikelić, ofRSK, longest Pupovac, Borislav by Milorad criticized in “Storm” Kninin operation toceremony mark 2012. August was He Serbs. caused uproar among This organized theCroatian annual IvoJosipović and attended President ofCroatian invitation accepted the example, For Veljko saysofmyths, and tired upbones dirges” Đakula hedigging is“sick that maslovacka Sisacko- Counties last accessed on4February 2014). accessed last at 2012 (available glave.lt.html at 07.08.2012, available For more see Borislav Mikelić open letter “Afirmisanje zločina u Oluji poniživanjem Srba”, Glas Srpske, 04September Glas “Afirmisanjezločina poniživanjem Srba”, Srpske, FormoreMikelić open Borislav uOluji letter see Formore Interview with see Veljko preko kostiju parastosa mi i Politika Online, “Prekopavanja glave”,, je Đakula, last accessed on4February2014 accessed last Serb voters http://www.glassrpske.com/plus/teme/Afirmisanje-zlocina-u-Oluji-ponizavanjem-Srba/lat/91626.html 30, 034 http://www.politika.rs/rubrike/region/Prekopavanja-kostiju-i-parastosa-mi-je-preko- Turnout % 14.54 1, 357 SDSS SDSS % 31.07 1, 115 DPS 159 DPS % DPS 25.53 while while . 158 128

He CEU eTD Collection 160 mainly built timefromDPS onwar networks isa party Western refugees. It symbolic has and Slavonia is infavor. their got 22.11.Obrovac it ofthree showsthe factors that again winsconjunction places DPS where This in in votes, wonwhile SAO and InPakrac, partKrajina. ofthe DPS 51.64percent offormer Dalmatia SAO the offormer one incenter for deputy inPakrac, 2013: mayor West, Obrovac, in and one in 21percent. while oftheSDSS'candidate got 60percent votes, close to DPSAlso, ran twocandidates he won Inthe wasstrongest there. elections intheydeputy DPS' 2013.It assessmentthat were head, county, Požeško-slavonska one candidate DPSin this point. ran only the Miroslav acting Grozdanić corroborate fordeputy deputy further mayors oftheheadscounties and 2013elections The results stayed and it that”. people, like war.during the Pupovac. Herewas neither exist SDSS didthen, not Veljko and some other Đakula events ofthe winhere because and Đakula conflict. and“Grozdanić during strongholdthe before their ofSAO washeart the slavonska county West was Miroslav Grozdanić DPS' candidate. and wasThis in county. Požeško-slavonska victory Sisačko-maslovačka, and a had goodresults in Požeško- SDSS. offactors However, islower than conjunction wheretheir counties kninska and Karlovačka they SDSS then to first andbuilt, DPS patronage) and in capital Western DPSŠibensko- Slavonia. lost in timesymbolic war networks, factors (i.e. ofthree same Grozdanićconjunction the used Đakula and slavonska Pozesko- kninska Sibensko- Karlovacka interview with Author's Tihomir Aleksić, 22.10.2013. Pozega 10, 827 18, 701 23, 324 160

19.06 15.87 12.7 2, 776 1, 304 527 38.33 77.87 35.22 637 695 259 46.33 19.5 7 129 CEU eTD Collection elections in these electoral units. these electoral elections in units 4andfrom 5. electoral PPS, runin Table 11 2000 from the Serbparties results ofthe shows the 9,and Rade Leskovac, units in5and Pupovachad electoral inMilanand 6 Milorad 9.SNS Đukić ofSAO territory SDSS Krajina. hadencompasses the Vojislav 4and 5, units in Stanimirović electoral SAO 6captures unit former electoral region, Slavonia, SAO East West 9 unit and electoral Slavonia UNTAES the units former 4and 9.Electoral 5 cover units 4,5,6and electoral competedin the parties unit. electoral Serb the was5%threshold, Serbminority wherethere and in a units the electoral general in competed settings. In2000Serbparties in minority post-conflict parties ethnic between competition outcomeof influence the rules can and electoral strategies Electoral explanation. limits to my tothey lost SDSS wouldexpect to win, though one elections.Even legislative first post-conflict national were the secondcaseSDSS when 2000presentlost. the electionsin legislative The national elections These forSDSSworks Itandminority it forDPS works parties. well. ethnic as isa winningfor patronage inmodel conjunction with legacies institutionalizationofconflict's that successful thanDPS even more SDSS. was my exampleofDPS argument. corroborates The shows It electionsin inis why success the had the sub-national DPS most Western elections Inthese Slavonia. mainly to Western former in SAO Dalmatia, Krajina. party though branches the has even Slavonia, This to isconfinedthe offer means orreach, appeal, their goods theBut andelectorate. 'club' 'private' to through forminoritySDF, instruments over integration, public it bydonors, international had backed control political did though period.not it have Even post-conflict reconstructionin the assistance and return, thehumanitarian ofrefugee aided process ofRSK it from the and because capital time Srpska Nacionalna Stranka Nacionalna Srpska (Serb National Party,(Serb National SNS). are show there that These elections 130 CEU eTD Collection reintegration, was endowed with symbolic capital, and last but not least SDSS already had SDSSpossibilities not and already last least with was but symboliccapital, reintegration, endowed peaceful in playeda keythe time inSlavonia, war networks role SAO arosefrom East Stanimirović the electionsto and lostSNS. the SDSS to ofMilan decided runPupovac instead Đukić. Instead, Serbrepresentative in the as been elected isvery he likely wouldhave that unit,it electoral then Serbminority SDSS' in the had over been Pupovac 9,000votes. won IfStanimirović candidate (see IV.1. table unit. electoral was Milorad the Pupovac hisSDSS'opponent Serbminority above). in seat, over and 12,000votes won Serbminoritywhichone alsoguaranteed in unit, the elected. ran He However, Milan sixtimes almost votesĐukić. than unit more had 5Stanimirović got Milan Đukić 5.However, units18,000 in4and electoral it not sufficient was pass 5%threshold. Inelectoral to the over candidates, Serbparty to wonvotes compared other Stanimirović most In the 2000elections Table III.11. national Serbparties legislative Resultselections2000 in of in SDSS Milorad Pupovac SDSS Milorad % in Stanimirović SDSS Vojislav Stanimirović SDSS Vojislav Turnout % in Turnout Total votes PPS in % PPS in LeskovacPPS Rade Đukić Milan % in SNS Đukić Milan SNS inPupovac % Electoral unit 4 unit Electoral 259, 894 330, 754 78.58 7550 0.09 2.91 235 Electoral unit 5 unit Electoral 271, 163 376, 847 10, 667 1, 817 71.96 0.67 3.93 0.17 474 Electoral unitElectoral 6 265, 026 342, 755 2, 167 77.32 0.82 Electoral unitElectoral 9 265, 780 366, 023 2, 012 72.61 0.28 0.76 750 Sabor 131

CEU eTD Collection 163 162 161 region andofKninwherewe the Slavonia wider Eastern twocounties are the in and 9,and those SNV, ways. units, 4,5 thatthree as some electoral strategy First, would goin “in electoral an developed law,discriminatory representativesin they so wouldwinsome and SNV, regardless ofthe to calledSerbs vote, wherehe held conference Stanimirović a press and acts”. calls forboycott things similar irresponsible as calls all and to refuse and politics ofagreements to tothe stay determined his“compatriots appealingto conference and constructively. a press Pupovac held elections.Milorad orboycottthe not radicalize It did wererefused. but they and submittedtwoamendments, the changes proposed isa decrease”. there representatives, that ofSerb number in ofan the increase instead refugee accomplishedreturn andin theintegration results to President a letter Tudjman successfully the implemented peaceful logical after that isnot saying “it the sent upperof parliament proportionalrepresentation.house SDSSin members seatsand guaranteed representatives in the ofSerb to number decided decrease the led wasHDZ government reintegration concluded, strategy? electoral Why did SDSS an chosesuch peaceful and the conflict ended, After the conflict. during the in heZagreb ofhimwas opinion abecause favorable formerand manynot RSK have influence in did Vukovar have pointPupovac strongpolitical did atnot withMilorad that SDSSthis reveal founders Interviews in samecapital. ofsymbolic haveamount andthe timeindidwar networks RSK not ofthe wasnot part was Onfrom hand, Pupovac Zagreb, other oftheagreement. Erdut implementation reconstructionand channelingofpost-conflict with Slavonia the in patronage Eastern to extend Dana, No 14,21.09.1999,p.4. No Dana, Formore “ see No nijeuskladu15 Dana, 14,21.09.1999, p.6. sa zakonom”, Formore “Prijedlogizbornog ustavnim see zakona 15,18.10.1999,p.6. FormoreSaborskih Predsjedniku “Pismozastupnika Republike”, No see 15Dana, trojice –Srba Не прихваћамоНе смањење бројапредставника српске заједнице у Заступничком дому Сабора“, 15 Sabor from three to one. Serbs objected to the change, asking instead to have to askinghave instead change, objected one.to threeSerbs the to from 161 Stanimirović spoke in the upper house of parliament against upperofparliament house in spoke the Stanimirović Sabor Sabor and announced that SDSS, that and and announced 163

After a joint meeting ofSDSS After ameeting joint 162 SDSSreasonably acted 132 CEU eTD Collection 164 clientelism. ethnic promoted and others Some multiculturalism promoted three Serb The main SDSSsolid programs. opposition. from parties in Splinter developed othersmoderates, wereradicals a varietyofdifferent tried toSerb competingSDSS parties have Some wereincumbent tactics. III.4.2.Why otherSerb parties didn't win? part. next explainedin ofSNS the success which are electoral behind the reasons weresome idiosyncratic there local Furthermore, anforSerbparties. impediment proved to be in SDSSprecluded from representation unit. the Pupovac lostSerbminority electoral unitsin and also electoral wrong strategy The electoral However, not met. expectations were their in mandates the notThey get did any Inthiswouldwin7to way8seatsin unit. SDSSit Serb minority believedthat electoral the 9,and ran in units party in6and electoral the list Pupovac unitsheaded 4and 5,while electoral unit. minority the electoral list the general Serbnational in party headed Stanimirović the Therefore, raise andinter-ethnic not likereasons ofCroatia, to covering unit whole an electoral tensions –to runin UNTAES former Slavonia). zone SAO (i.e. East wouldbe–out tooThey ofsecurity it early thought in the former unitswere the that 2000could electoral winin SDSS in considered Stanimirović that Serbrefugees to tovote. and bring Herzegovina in andSrpska Bosnia Republika in Serbia with shouldauthorities find anadded they agreement that thirdly, forminority representative. in elections candidate nominated wouldhave a and was smaller”, the ofSerbpopulation percent other“where listsparties onjoint candidates with secondly, the can we pass threshold”; because think we independently Serb to give SDSS wanted goin elections ofSerbpopulation,to percent and eleven ten that isbetween estimate there Formore “ see Српско народно веће СДСС и позвали Србе изађу No 15Dana, 16, 03.11.1999, изборе“, да на p.4. Sabor. units electoral general in theAlso, 5%threshold Sabor 164 Stanimirović also Stanimirović from the general from Sabor. 133 CEU eTD Collection 166 165 Homeland “Memorial ofthe War by the state. Croatian 1992”, with and weredecorated ofthe were members army Croatian SNSp.14), whileleaders regional some with only a(NIT rifle” defended isnot Croatia army “because forworkingoncomputers 4,1994, Croatian have in applied claimed to SNS ofparliament (Ðukić,party” 2008:members 754).Some homeland”. Croatian extremist Serbdemocratic to the opposition direct SNSrepresented “program The hismotto:and symbol“proud ofSerbpeople and party appropriated be their fromscientist to Croatia, ofNikola took the they picture thethat fact in Serbs isbest Croatia, captured Tesla, in famous Serb a ofthe solution crisis. peaceful and constitution, and and its government ofSNS, position about the The suchdifficulties,Notwithstanding basedsovereignty, SNSadvocatingcitizen was forCroatia respect Veselin assassination twice ofSNS,he escaped that Pejnović,thenpresident says vice ofSNS activities (NIT, political the which hampered seriousfaced challenges security 1993: 22-23) left. activists and many SNS disappeared harassed,attacked bysome media, proper weremaltreated, SDS from and Serbs Krajina. towith did be associated not want and in proper towho Croatia Serbs undertoSNSremained threat hislife. Zagreb, appealed escaped to 1990.Shortly after,SDS' candidate in ofSDS, Milanpresident and in Babić, conflict with he got hisbirth Lapac, as wasMayor 2007.He inplace, hisdeath anduntil Donji ledpresident in elected SNS support. SNS Đukić idiosyncratic inbecame of local wasin May Zagreb 1991.Milan founded against SNS success hadSDSS,because SDSS period limited mostly was Inthe post-conflict formed. Srpska Stranka Nacionalna successful. andwas competing strategies, parties, win.However, party to a couldminority ethnic conditions, help none ofthe in post-conflict Croatia 2011. SDSS in formedcompetitors to acoalition joint right underAny the strategies, ofthese interview with Author's Veselin Pejnović, 23.12.2013. Skopje interview with Author's Veselin Pejnović, 23.12.2013. Skopje (Serb National Party,(Serb National when was moderate Serbparty SNS) an incumbent 165 SerbsCroatia The remained in who . 166

134 CEU eTD Collection 168 167 Croatia. ofourhomeland patriots remainhard still we President, “četnici”, This youus when call President Franjo Tuđman Mr. letter“today asaying: public wrote him Milan Serbs, Ðukić insulted when ofSerbs. treatment example, andFor derogatory opposed discriminatory representatives were to (SNS, religious) 1991: 3-4).SNS cultural,and needs (e.g. national, specific the and have Serbpeople Serbrightsimprove in Croatia. A of ofSNS part was in principle are Serbs Croatia programmatic that also Itworkingto in was Serbs RSK. authorities Croatian against SNS not just was colludingwith bulletin (NIT, its5)and inparty party(SNS, their for example, in 1991: program 7-8) 1993: “Tuđman's they werecalled a and “regimeparty” Serbs”. (Ðukić, 2008: 753).SNSlabeledas werecalled“Serb was traitors” initiativeboard fromand the people idea” “crazy RSKformationofSNS Serbiaa 1998:the declared 122).Mediaand treason in (Mišković, TV Manastir, Beli as fromand described newspaper NoviSadin SAOSerbia, East and a in Slavonia, (Mišković, 1998: 121). Croatia” “free byOrthodox priest Eastern in was event heavilycriticized The only delegation the joint visited example,on24November For 1992a with authorities. Croatian Sabor in Cres-Lošinj. conflictthe SNSrepresented Duringthe was and Rijeka Grubišno , polje, larger Brod,, and Osijek, inSlavonski Zagreb, SNS For hadbranches local example, cities. from proper, Serbs Croatia included the RSK. party branches in Structurally have party mainlyfrom the and in ruralKrajina”. in areas andthe you ahad as state, SDSSdominated Croatia that accepted to waswho urban period,Serbs there Inthat forSerbs SNS appealed that be a balance. sowill engaged there that to forthe whobe waspolitically Serbs it understood remained that necessary party. supported the Former ofSNS authorities members Croatian admit that “The leadership state interview with Author's Veljko Zagreb, 01.03.2011. Đakula, interview Branislav with Author's Vorkapić, Osijek, 07.10.2013. and Milan Ðukić was elected deputy speaker. Milan elected Ðukić was and SNS had joint political and symbolic activities andactivities symbolic political joint SNS had 168

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Skopje 169 toThis SNS' marginalization. led 136 CEU eTD Collection 170 SNSnottime onwar results built positive post-conflict was bring period. in it did the Croatia not state,support efforts forthe in Croatian and pushingto resolution Serbrights improve forpeaceful itHowever, inwhen not times imaginable. was in even Croatia, integration ofviolence, rejection its advocatingSerb to be the a time. party SNS onthe and sidewrong remained at was wrong 2003 andsupport 2007showsSNS that had higher electionsin legislative ofvoter structure supportin national hand, the inthevotes won 2005.On other ofSNS' 536votes, fora it third makes heonly received 2005.Even in though Donjiagain in Lapac SDSS region. Ðukić fromdefeated Ðukićthis whilewas SDSS party didMilan still not branches, have ). (Donji Kninand Lapac, SAO 40%ofSNS' Krajina. votesmunicipalities werefrom three total 2001a electionsin local candidate. the from. 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SNS have access direct public did not the executive, werenot in included They interview Branislav with Author's Vorkapić, 07.10.2013in Osijek. 170 third of SNS' support came from former SAO East, and two thirds were from former andthird twothirds SAO were from East, ofSNS' supportcame in municipalities which were part of Croatia proper ofCroatia which werepart in municipalities 137 . CEU eTD Collection 173 172 171 forMPŠolaja, a PPS candidate wasofSDS-Krajina. who President in 2003and 2007elections, information”. and Baranja Slavonia, West ministerfor as D.T],in SremSlavonia, which Iparticipated [SAO East creationofgovernment in inin 1992and1998.Inhiswords, the RSK PPS “engaged he was in ofRSK. government in participated the one point and at (SRS line” RSK, first“war infront 1994). the and waged sympathizers ofthe SDS” to party 2010: the (Caspersen, 107).Members partner alliance in1992a). SRS RSK founded in was Vukovar or rival more were“an radical even in July 1992and (Art. 5,SRS, SerbFreedomMovement” followerand SerbČetnik Movement SRS ofthe a “legal was Party, StrankaSrpska (SerbRadical Radikalna led SRS) by Vojislav 2005). 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last accessed on7October2013) accessed last obtained from the Croatian from the Croatian obtained obtained 173 138 CEU eTD Collection 176 175 174 Croatia. twocommunities in ofthe forafuture joint symbolic acts wereneeded Vukovar. by Croats,He norbysuch Serbs. and rightlyso, well claimed, act taken neither His was on18November, communities victims from both and Serbs forCroats in daymeaning ofcontested the forit.are responsible onSerbstherefore attacks protect and to to failed act ofSDSSsayingvery leadership, they critical that hand, he was On other SDSS the toelections. with 2000parliamentary cooperate also wanted forthe better”. solutions are Ithought that other that 1991and before inthough that “in he admitted even citizens”, with other all equal ofCroatia, Republic theycitizensofthe “are because Belgrade, to more than Serbsto to Croatia turn Zagreb Leskovac in reintegration. advocated the peaceful after PPS the a pursued different conflict, positions during and theactivities Notwithstanding radical course (Art. 1,PPS, ofPodunavlje1998). in Croatia development region 1993),PPS inoverall in Krajina (SRS RSK, Croatia advocates andSrpska Republic and Herzegovina in with Srpska Bosnia Republic ofSerbia Republic -whichuniting united” meant territories wouldbe and Serb Serbs whereall Serbstate independentandSRS democratic RSK “establishinga free, in was in (Art.1,PPS, Croatia community 1998).However,Serb ethnic of goal the programmatic main while (Art.2, SRS RSK, similarly, in 1992: 1)and of mentaldevelopment and material, moral advocates PPS ofSerbpeople” mental advancement and material, moral ofSRSThe RSKthe to goal “help was in Vukovar, p.15. 2014. http://web.archive.org/web/19991009121152/http://www.voa.gov/miscl/croatia/leskoc.html at 21October1998,available Serbs Podunavlje RadeParty Leskovac, of of image the newresidues the buildbrakesawaywith that to important Serb a Yugo-communist claimspresident past” of of by Milanas SDS-Krajina. president changed Babić in RSK February(undated), 2010.In of Documentation the Fatherland Center the Croatian Memorial from War Zagreb. in inArchive “Political RSK” Parties For more see Rade Leskovac interview for Serb diaspora, Serb Internet News, “For Croats we are still aggressors”, News, Croats Internet we interview Serb“For are Serb Formore for diaspora, Rade see Leskovac Formore “ see For more see Voice of Serbstois Croatia in have “All it political that of understand America (VOA) representatives Погубно је стављати политичку вољу права изнад чињеница“, и 175 In line with his change from radical to moderate, Leskovac laid flowers to flowers laid to moderate, Leskovac from withradical Inline hischange Š olaja had olaja had radical positions, advocating unificationSerbs positions,Bosnia.radical with in advocating Shewas 15 Dana, No 8,14.06.1999,ZVO: No 15 Dana, last accessed on27January accessed last 176 174 PPS 139 CEU eTD Collection 179 178 177 results and supportfor party structure average lookingthe of supportforthe when corroborated at existed networks exist. orstill whereformer support in time war party places gets This isagain in SAO bit SAOvoter ishighestEast, Krajina. higher supportforPPS in and a the that This means SDSS. criticized heavily 2007,shows that supportin 2003and electoral analysis ofthe The ofvariance, However, Serbparties. cooperation between gesturesin 2007and to radical ethnic they turned again divisions ethnic in to bridge to tried be moderate, conflict they Vukovar, calledforgreater and SRS RSK. primarily in radicals, ofSerbhard onwartimenetworks line PPS built isa party the After modestin 2009andsupport. got for mayor PPS as ran hisson ofSDSS.candidate of candidates Leskovac followed the closely Vukovar and highest candidate the placed was fourth though Leskovac elections,even 2007parliamentary in the ofcontroversy. caused a lot November and Serbia. ofGreater association organized Croatian over the wereplaced posters The mark program 18 to a poster in Vukovar symbolic sign”, which isa simulatingfinger “three aofLeskovac picture with up elections,PPS put Inview ofthe 2007parliamentary andradicalism. PPS turnedLeskovac again to ofthe government. Croatian being puppets for attacked Serbrepresentatives parties, ofethnic dismissedand suchaccusation, typical Leskovac frombring accusations Serborganizations them colludingwith theyauthorities. Croatian that are success however, in electoral did2000.It forPPS notdid, bring to moderate fromThe radical change http://www.24sata.hr/reporteri/provokacija-troprsti-rade-leskovac-u-vukovaru-37064 2013) 02.05.2007(availableat aggressors”, Serb nationalminorityZagreb]: of [Council Zagreb, –City2007,p.9. the of grada Zagreba организација“ at 02.05.2007 (available For more see 24 Sata, “Provokacija?! For more 24Sata, “Provokacija?! see Troprsti u Rade Leskovac Vukovaru”, at 14November2007,available “Forarestill fordiaspora,News, Croats Internet we interview Rade Serb Formorewith Serb Rade see Leskovac's Formore Political see organization representation “ in and [Serbs in Croatia in 2007,ListSerb [Serbs institutions organizations], of and Vijeće manjine nacionalne srpske

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140 CEU eTD Collection 180 For means approach. it withthem a multicultural ofrefugees,Serb rights,isunderlined and return for (NSS, advocacy 2009b: 6).NSS relations” and “intercultural ofschooling” concept multicultural ofSerbs;autonomy however, “multi-ethnic forpromoting and Serbghettos but not forcreating support policy. forSMEs,and social tourism, and just and cultural NSS educational demanded production, 1).NSS regionalism, (NSS, investmentsin agriculture multiculturalism” supports 2009b: equality and ofsocial society ofCroatia, Republic in the society civic anofbuilding Serb issueas the approaches that withorientation “democratic a as party example, For NSSitself Croatia. defined forrightsin ofSerbs attention special orientation and democratic between isbalanced program ofNSS not sufficiently did other parties claimed because it position in the improve ofSerbs Croatia. Eastern option Slavonia, ain 2009,as third Serbpolitical electionsin local was before the founded NSS’ and Osječko-baranjska was be aim activein initial to Vukovarsko-Srijemska counties. The party Mayor deputy Lađarevic was Svetislav of Vukovar from1999. SDSS in RSK well. in as ofZVO.politician local 1999, frompresident was SDSS,alsoHe vice and was was head MirkoJagetić of prominentmembers. deputy and long time Vukovarsko-srijemska county in the ofSDSS wereamong founders and Jagetić Lađarević vice-presidents. Ljubomir wereelected Radić 1 February 2009in Vukovar. and and MirkoJagetić elected president, was Lađarević Svetislav from SDSS. NSS wason to failed winelections. solid programs,founded political but They developed StrankaNova Srpska possibilitiespatronage. to notextend it have resources; hence did ofpublic control political not have However,individual candidates. sufficient PPS to manage get did not elected. support PPS to get did accessed on27January2014. accessed at 01February2009,available Serb party founded”, “New http://www.jutarnji.hr/u-vukovaru-osnovana-nova-srpska-stranka/285363/ For more see , “New Serb Party founded in Serb Formore in JutarnjiList, Party founded see “New Vukovar”, at 01February 2009,available (New Serb Party, NSS) and Naša Stranka Naša http://www.e-novine.com/index.php?news=22039 (Our Party,(Our areparties splinter NS) last accessed on27January2014; accessed last E-novine 180 last last The 141 CEU eTD Collection 183 182 181 “stuffed like Serbrepresentativesare purposeoffoundingexisting “the therefore animals” and between relations NS,best”. notAjduković, andthe SDSS are independent candidate. he was ofthe out”. and statute kicked isabreach serious That 2011, ofcountySerb deputy in head alone be candidateas couldofSDSS. went He not D.T]and party claim comrades elections[for did in not intra-party pass hadreasons:“he moreAjduković prosaic ourkinas state. Without are we lost”. it oflesserresistance. line following a more oriented Belgrade, followtowards and Iwantedbe Also, to and pushingPupovac a was “Istronger was Serbagenda, withSDSS Pupovac: because ofconflict president and fortwomandates was (2001-2005). president ofZVO he left claimsthat Ajduković notbut a was memberofSDS. was ofSDSS'executive board, conflictvice he president After the January 2011 in Borovo,close to Vukovar. Jovan wasin ministerforjustice RSK, Ajduković assistant from SDSS. Jovan party NS splinter isanother on8 ofNS,the president party formed Ajduković, past” 1). (NSS, 2009b: fora different bad”,it be so “base was will that enlightenment ofall notthe repeat will politicsthat past” withand dealing “critical the supports war and “decisive whoall crimes committed (NSS, crimes” war committed 2009b: who 1). ones especially the to NSS punish Therefore, demands side ofwar, darkest thepronounced who the ones scenario, ofwar theand creators “condemns and post-conflict issues. address NSS not does aims directly rejectsuseofviolencein political program The 2). (NSS, people” ofCroatian 2009b: rightsgeneral and identity well as as Serbrights and equalidentity supportfor“special co-existenceand toleranceimproving and interview Jovan with Author's Ajduković, Vukovar, 17.10.2013. interview SDSS with partyAuthor's high official, Vukovar, 15.10.2013 interview Jovan with Author's Ajduković, Vukovar, 17.10.2013. 181 Notwithstanding the differences the Notwithstanding two,former between the 183

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In and national Macedonians ofethnic a as state Macedonia constitutionnew defined wasamongthere a strongperception classcitizens. are second Albanians they that preambleofthe The Macedonia. rationale in security Albanians (DPA) and a political coalitions have 1998-2002.Multiethnic in governmentfrom was Party competitor of in1998(ICG,their Democratic governmentfrompartner 1992to 1998)and situationof but alsoissues Macedonia, onthe in Albanians in Kosovo. (ICG, 1990s in in the 1998). parliament sixths ofthe seats werefocusedonminority activities Their in 1990. allowed pluralismwas political when Macedonia, one filledabout parties political Albanian The in registered to Prosperityfirst (PDP)amongbe parties Party was the Albanian forDemocratic I IV. ALBANIAN PARTIESMACEDONIA IN V.1.forconflict Thepost-conflict andenvironment minority Frchkovski, Skopje, 24.01.2014 Frchkovski, Skopje, organized EthnicMacedonian diaspora JNA. groups same paramilitary for reasons. Ljubomir with Author's interview It is very It is that likely were organizingAlbanians againstMiloševićand possiblethreatsSlobodan paramilitaries from withAuthor's Crvenkovski,05.09.2011. Skopje, interview Branko “Are Skopje. AIM 24.01.1996 and the Government Parliament”, Leaving Albanians politics in Macedonia politics in 185 Despite the participation in parliament and inclusion in government, in inand inclusion parliament the participation Despite 184

PDP was coalition a junior 186 The 145 CEU eTD Collection 190 189 188 187 An inter-ethnic 2001. erupted in conflict and internal” both “external oftheThe crisis were origins (Sulejmani, 2010). perspective another which discrimination gave institutional and wereviolentincidents of view there in power-sharingAlbanians wereincluded and enjoyedsomehowever, rights; opposite from point an where ofpeace oasis was tooofview FromMacedonia late. one point to beand too seemed But little it a and started minister self-government forlocal TV in channel (Georgievski, language Albanian 2010). positionto the improve of Albanians. employed They an appointed police, in the Albanians Albanian demands wereignored. formed between The government, new VMRO-DPMNE and DPA in 1998,tried 2005:Kostova, 20;2001). MoI, They that claimed their and that wereinfringed Albanian rights NLA 2006; 1998and 2000(Stojarová, and courts between stations police attacked several bombed and interests.Albanian of the rights way” legal realized in cannot be Albanians status in their Macedonia about were disappointed NLA(NLA) Macedonia. in formed thegroupwas because that pointarmed members out Albanians timeAt the same Liberation National wereformed, the groups like armed Albanian transnational Army frustrations. and openclassesfor language university in 1997. teachers Albanian organized protestsnationalistic were to educationin improve when governmentwanted the Albanian example,radical For from Macedonians. ethnic reactions nationalist demands with weremet interview Besim with Author's Hoda, Tetovo, 26.05. 2013. interview Rafiz with Author's Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, Limani, interview Raim 18.12.2012. with Author's Skopje, withAuthor's Crvenkovski,05.09.2011. Skopje, interview Branko 190 . 188 “ NLA realized that form people when to started 189

and that Macedonia was not open to meet not that open was Macedonia and 187

This contributed to This Albanian 146 CEU eTD Collection 194 193 192 191 positions of Albanians in Macedonia. threatened. 2012:Demjaha, 172).DPA and werefeeling gravity wereloosing political considered they that other DPA officials calledNLA with(Rusi,2004: them 7; askeddeal the governmentto and traitors representativesof political legitimate Macedonia,Albanians in similarly critical. “extremists”. as attacks the violence and denounced 100). Kosovo (Pendarovski, 2005: the condemned community international The governmentand servedKLA as that was on16February 2001infirst village battle fought conflict in basedduring the 2001.NLA in January/February started The conflict on22January astation police shelled of critical since ...wereconsistently 7). in(Rusi,2004: Macedonia” politicians Albanian 2006).“NLA elite(Stojarová, inAlbanian Macedonia ofthe duringand war members, the course communityAlbanian (Belamy, conflict. 2002)contributed to the ruling challenged the conflict also The within processesthe transformation (Hislope, to ofsocial corruption 2002)connected smuggling and 15; 2008; Phillips, Veliu, cross-border crimenetworks, factors,transnational as such 2008).Other 2008: Serbia Kosovo,(Menaj, and Macedonia armedbetween Southern operated Albanian groupwho KLAclose with connections onetransnational extent inwas Kosovo.1999and 2001there Between (Frchkovski, 2010: 17).However, most ofNLA notwithstandingtheir from membersMacedonia, were of proliferation groups supportforthe (Hislope, 2003)andarmed logistical paramilitaries Albanian and externally,Macedonia, effect wasspill-over there a Kosovo (Lyon, from as 2002),such (Hatay, 28).Internally, 2005: frustrations among standingand grievances werelong there in Albanians interview with Author's 17.06.2013. Skopje, Pollozhani, Aziz Public statement of Ismanovski,56,ft. quoted91 in 2008: Xhaferi, Arben to isolated. weapons”, It's 06.04.2001 Dnevnik. time been “Extremists have collect MoI Original in (2001), documentreproduced is White Book, III.Appendix 194

PDP ofNLA more was supportive the to possibility remedy saw conflicta andas they the ofDPA, Xhaferi,Arben leader the replace conflict aimedto the that considered 192

DPA, governing the party,Albanian was 193 while Menduh Menduh while hisdeputy,Thaci, and 191 and the and the 147 CEU eTD Collection 200 199 198 197 196 195 NATO, ofUN General's and Secretary toletters the OSCE Commission ofEuropean and President 65). (Ismanovski, conflict2008: resolution in involved the to get community international sent Ahmeti 6. Communique No NLA and that factor” the international explainedin was it as nottoMacedonia” intend divide “did Some NLA attention of the wasto “attract ofthe the conflict done that spreading claim commanders clashes inarmed Tetovo Skopje. the and close capital to and spreading. escalating conflict was The homogenize in community supportofNLA, Albanian to demandsbut ofNLA, the “not only in Macedonia. people Albanian forwardby manythe demands put reiterated ofthe in the and parties were 1990s political Albanian improvements of conflict and ofthe resolution asked forpeaceful rights. Albanian NLA integrity ofMacedonia, theysupportforthe territorial inclaimed communique issued No.6 which strongly NLA that and persisted rights “fought of forthe Macedonia”.Albanians in hand, On other the Ali resolution 2011) supported ofNLA, a (Karapejovski, peaceful leader Ahmeti, (Veliu, solution it saw abecause as partial they 2008: 105). resolution 2010), found(Ajdini, awas when peaceful weredisappointed 2008: 125).Some soldiers was unifyaim to Greater if not in areas populated Albanian (Menaj, Greater then Kosovo Albania, in ofminority rights. and improvement resolution peaceful in were interested rights andfor greater changes to constitutional demand Albanians. However, notNLA all members Initially, NLA butmoved soon occupiers, uniformMacedonian the of to beagainst fighting claimed Interview with Hazbi Lika, aka Commander Chella, in Menaj, Commander Lika,in 163 Chella, aka 2008: Hazbi Interview with interview Gjorgji with Author's Spasov, 11.07.2013. Skopje, interviewDebar, G'zim with Ostreni, Author's 14.07.2013. copya level former obtained high NLAAuthor's from leader. Interview with Ali Ahmeti, in2008: Ismanovki, quoted 67 interview Besim with Author's Hoda, Tetovo, 26.05.2013. 200

Ahmeti and NLA, based on their experience from Kosovo, wanted experience from the basedontheir andAhmeti NLA, 199 and to mobilize more to mobilize fighters. and were There 198

This contributed to the to the This contributed 195

Some claim that the final final the claim that Some 197 196 requests These InMarch2001 148 CEU eTD Collection 206 205 204 203 202 201 NLA and Kosovo, intellectualsfrom actors, and International some Macedonia. Albanian in parties improvements of rights. Albanian Convention of a platform joint demands. Albanian 149; (Menaj,included Laity, 2008: actors 2009: urged 22).International DPA and PDP toupwith come talks; and demandsthe of positions NLA Macedonia. actors in Albanian peace in included the wanted to be and DPA, conflict. the which throughout government functioned the second entered was unifyThe to Macedonians, of ethnic and SDSM, andVMRO-DPMNE the largest ofethnic parties Albanians, PDP government. a grand coalition to actors form was ofthe action largestThe international The first parties and conflict(Ilievski in Macedonia ofthe resolution peaceful Taleski, Laity, 2009; 2009). rebel to groups compared other reasonable seemed (Gaber, the challenge security adequately to respond 2011), other andside onthe under control. situationback get the (Frchkovski, 2010: 18).However, to steps tookthe all necessary they radicalizing conflict was the as a largely actors had International view ofNLA unfavorable conflict the ofthe beginning at 2004: 5). (Rusi, Balkans” coexistencein the ofethnic a model to Macedonia “make involvement asking their July, 2013). http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2001/nov/29/is-there-a-good-terrorist/?pagination=false “NLA end Macedonia”. to thein war project 2008: is Iseini in etThe al, 28-30. reproduced originaldocument of Statement NLA from in 08.05.2001,reproduced Veliu, 11. 2008: Skopje, interview Rizvan Sulejmani, with Author's 08.07.2013 Interview of Fazli Veliu for “Voice of Kosovo”, 2 in August 2001,reproduced Veliu, 89-93 2008: The New York good of“Isterrorist?”, 29.11.2001 Books. a Review there at (available withAuthor's Crvenkovski,05.09.2011. Skopje, interview Branko 203

however, only that PDP and considered it actors wereagainst international and DPA be can 205 and to peaceful resolution which would entail demilitarization ofNLA demilitarization which towould entail resolution peaceful and and 206

201 In this way the stage was set to have closer cooperation between cooperationbetween was waythehave closer stage set to In this 204

On one side, it seemed that Macedonian state institutions did not institutions did state seemed Macedonian side,On it that one

International actors pushed NLA pushed actors International Geneva to tothe commit . 202

International actors played a decisive role in the in the role playeda decisive actors International the demands ofNLA the last accessed on29 accessed last 149 CEU eTD Collection 211 210 209 208 207 ofthe the OhridFramework endedsigning with The negotiations (OFA)Agreement on13 August 2009: 53). “NLA because otherwise needed return (Laity, weapons” and wouldnot cease fire wouldnot declare by 133)andNATO wasinformed (Menaj, 2008: also 2011: (Ahmeti, 8). ofNLA involvement The was ofDPA the wasleaders Ahmeti phone contactwith in PDP and in Ohrid the negotiations during envoys Special from NATO ofMacedonia. Republic ofthe the President and facilitators. EUservedas SDSM, representing and the parties main Albanians, PDP and DPA, auspices of under the place took Macedonians, ethnic representing the parties negotiations,main between Peace VMRO-DPMNE and andcommunity”. international institutions thestructures, state armed between DPA PDP and represent aNLA mandate to had role “the ofinterlocutors and to the play negotiations in ofthe NLA realand influence “the strength ofDPA the legitimacy formal with (2004: and9). PDP” NLA,between DPA and PDP and to offer crisis”. to the solution peaceful “a governmentinstitutions”. including those within “soughtdifferences to reduce” declaration The Prizren NLA transform measuresand integrate to also envisaged declaration occupations “various civilian in in the OhridFramework incorporated werelater declaration (OFA).Agreement of the improve rights changes to constitutional points Prizren fromAlbanians. ofthe the Most . signed adeclaration joint ofDPA,president ofPDP, Imerpresident Imeri, and Ali ofNLA, representative political the as Ahmeti, NLA a meeting between mediated and Prizren. partiesAlbanian in withAuthor's interview Pollozhani,Aziz 17.06.2013. Skopje, Ali Ahmeti's Fakti for in (daily interview newspaper in 2004: language), Rusi, quoted 8. Albanian interview Pendarovski, Stevo 07.09.2011. with Skopje, Author's 41-42. is 2008: Ljatifi, in The reproduced originaldocument Imeri Imer Interview with Menaj, in 158 2008: 208 In the declaration they committed to a peaceful resolution and requested and requested resolution peaceful to committed a they Inthe declaration 207

At the meeting At the 210 211 linked The declaration 209

The Prizren Arben Xhaferi,Arben 150 CEU eTD Collection 213 212 have effective did orin not 17%of state places, conflict 100populated “the in and power control about OFA. prescribed as in wereenacted and laws new changes weremade Constitutional Duringthe OFA the ended after Armed clashes finally 2001. Parliament on16November ratifiedin was 153). 2009: (Phillips, Macedonia” in career a topolitical obviouslyestablish “Ahmeti that wanted point out NATO the givingposingwith when weapons, back interviews.were inclined to givingSome media and mediapublicity. to get activity gun collection put onashow NLA'scommanders media and members and demobilize. NLA supported OFA with NATO an signed,agreement concluded was and oneit day after to disarm wayfortransformation ofNLA paved the and conflict Macedonia in politics integration and their OFAand municipalities. local post- forminority politicsin environment institutional changed the officially populationcould be ofthe over which20percent make by groups ethnic parliament in used spoken promulgated, symbolsgroups ofethnic and languages forusageofnational were laws Special resources. access to minorities'greater allowing therefore municipalities local competences ofthe the increasing was at aimed Decentralization envisaged. was Further ofdecentralization on,a process forminority inadministration. was representation' employment public enacted principle of'equitable inand a parliament, right weregiven veto minorities inclusionInspecific, protection ofminorities. and changes. forthe introduced mechanisms systemPRthere was electoral were to and The changed inOFA parliament. be promulgated tocombatantswill all amnesty ofinstitutional stipulated a number that It2001. ofNLA. also envisaged and dismemberment a demilitarization prescribed The agreement t Kosova E Lirë. “Disarmament agreement betweenNATO Kosova“Disarmament agreement ELirë. 16.08.2001 (availablea and the14.08.2001and NLA”, interview Gjorgji with Author's Spasov, 11.07.2013. Skopje, http://www.kosovaelire.com/irjm_carmatosja_nato_uck.php 213

NATO organized “Essential Harvest” to collect weapons from NLA weapons NLA. Harvest” to collect “Essential the used

last accessed on29July, accessed last 2013) . 212 151 CEU eTD Collection with varying electoral success. electoral with varying The Different in possibilities patronage. power toparties extend possibilities but have these used parties future forthe it model and that Macedonia isthe Albanians in OFA 2001andofNLA, theconflict role in theof and improved position changed substantially OFAthem for accomplishment greatest isthe Macedonia. Albanians in thanks to that, the think They OFA that is not and adequate functioning. Other isnot view veryofOFA. positive have a Albanians For other hand,Albanians. the some On opposeAlbanians OFA the they that implementation think because some ethnic OFA oppose Albanians. EthnicMacedonians much giving as to seeit too because they OFACriticism toward also from Macedonians, ethnic years.but mountingoverIt the from came was ofthe all does it adequatelyseems that satisfy not (Osmani, 2011:Albanian expectations 14). but level, local it and to resources the competences brought more hand decentralization On other the for only employments remainedbenefits the then sector public changed, Albanians (Osmani, 2011: 15). became basedonidentity. and symbols were the forusageoflanguage laws outonce Some that point size group. toofethnic the werepegged administration, these resources As access to a consequence, in and employment public rights,usage as oflanguages such Some minority decentralization). OFAconflict period. and veto rights democracy(e.g. elements ofconsociational introduced The ofOFA implementation post- in the environment forminority politics the institutional changed 2005/2006. (Hatay, displaced over 170,000internally homes to by their returned 2005: all 14)ofwhomalmost numbers. butsides, in smaller were below 200and there estimated was The ofcasualties totalnumber werelower. forceslosses 258-263), whilesecurity Macedonian onboth civilianThere casualties were (Pendarovski, 2005:its 101).NLA territory” (Ostreni, 2011: 50-60 members at are estimated losses Democratic UnionforIntegration (Ahmeti, 2011:(Ahmeti, 10).OFA gave Albanian (Bashkimi Demokratik për Demokratik për (Bashkimi 152 CEU eTD Collection 214 Hashim Kosovo, “IbrahimRugova, and joint individual andThaci Ramush several Haradinaj,issued However, KLA and former leaders political started, in Macedonia the when conflict in commanders North-Western in 2008: inKosovo 126). Prizren partwas (Menaj, greater it and forthe Macedonia, 2005). Mincheva, supported by the (Lyon, structures transnational criminal diaspora and Albanian Hislope. 2002; 2002; and 2000. 1998 between and attacks forthe with hisuncle, bombings asuspect, prime along and was Macedonia, However, the Kosovowhich founded the Liberation 2009; (Phillips, Hislope, 2002). inArmy (KLA) Kosovo Key NLA like leaders Ali FazliAhmeti, Veliu, core werepart group andofthe Emrush Xhemaili, atstate, a maximum. Yugoslavia (SFRY), territories where at ortothe aunite minimum, in theone Balkans Albanians in live of the improve status goals wereto political time, their that of Republic SocialistFederal Albanians in Front forKosovo in Liberation National the in the andSwitzerland wereactive In diaspora. Albanian 1981. ain become republic to immigrated they and serveda prisonsentence werearrested After they young Fazli student, and Veliu, Kosovo requesting to protest part movement hisuncle,ofthe were ties. and political andclose Kosovo family Macedonia communitieshave Albanian in Ali as Ahmeti, I origins.I firsttheir trace period. and oppositionalparty. both incumbent wonas They elections To understandperformance their a NLA,dominant which derivesIntegrim, BDI), from became party post-conflict Albanian in the V.2.Formation functioningand ofNLA interview Pendarovski, Stevo 7.11.2011. with Skopje, Author's 214

K origins ofNLA origins (Rusi,2004). unclear remain LA and NLA UCPMB in valleyand Preshevo to connected were “sister closely groups”, NLA in ofShipkovica was the ofthe village forsome conflict in part headquarters Ali Ali KLA led Ahmeti operations in 153 CEU eTD Collection 216 215 support.“NLAinternational supported by was leadership”, political had army and headquarters in Switzerland. andSwitzerland Germany. Fazli Veliu key representativesofNLA the Xhaferi and wereamong Musa 2008: et 6).NLA al, (Iseini Macedonia” from the backing had supportand diaspora, mainlyAlbanian in saythat with 90%ofNLA certainty “one can “HoxhafromBut aka Prizren”. the fighters werefrom UCPMB,and Samidin Xhezairi, inthenandNLA, finally KLA, joined in firststates heactive was that Albanians from who Menaj Petrit membersNLA, and(2008:181) KosovoAlbania in forexample, were (Kostova, 2005: 30). state” becomes the Macedonian-Albanian Constitution, to according with armsMacedonia, until Further, state. Macedonian with the “NLA that statement claimed the wagewar army will that isan the negotiations actors in shouldbe involved international and inthat Macedonia with position their today. isnotThe functional website (Pendarovski, 2005: 99).NLA on13January2000. and demandswebsite its ontheir program posted front and inMacedonia” isto nextSouth forKosovo,openSerbia a goal the battle shows after that NLA in Macedonia yeartheOne conflict before in document which “published it site a web ontheir (Rusi, 2004: 13). his former commanders” probably Ali and funding inAhmeti's ofKLA the involvement creation to thatignore him empowered onNLA big notimpact leadershave a Kosovo's did political and on “Ironically,Ahmeti. was it though smaller, in Kosovo parties supported moreNLA radical, and (Iseinial, 2008). et from calls The onNLAstatements calling toorganization suspend 13)even arms” lay (Rusi,2004: their down and last accessed on9 accessed last April, 2014) BBC. “The BBC.“The at 28.05.2001(available machine”, fund-raising Albanian Ismanovski,51-52.Parts ofin 2008: thearereproduced program 216 among roletothe fund-raise Their was for advocate diaspora, and Albanian 215 that claimed The statement initial not satisfied Albanians were

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1356196.stm 154

CEU eTD Collection 219 218 217 say theythat can everything”. thinking everywhere going callingthemselves grewandwithout and actions, not-controllable, theirthey pride act control, twocommitted capableas generals. so-called one CommonSome soldiers, or policemenwithout order and became control. among the people. theyof that areout apprehensionany demonstrated policesome ofThe cases in uncontrolled military undeserved heroism ...Different leaving moved a commanders, inspeed in bitterfeeling proclaimed soldiers, vehicles self area secret. about a problems to extent to that certain thingsnot andThere aresomeproud that say whichclaim true are NLA sit hours, for asassignments. inand places theyhave public donot combatants cafes “enter They everywhere talk that: It reads and discipline. havehierarchy strict July2001showsthegroupdidreport that not armed from defendvillages”(Belamy, their wanted ofpeople to simply who a majority 2002: NLA 132).One NLA “loose network toofdifferent was be a and believed includingMarxist, nationalist groups armed warriors'. NLA that experts estimate most were'weekend that ofthem men fewerarmed and had even 2,000by number to their rose May2001andmen that in 2001(Phillips,August 116). 2009: Other about (Ostreni, 2011: 5-6,000members 254-255).However, estimate NLA that others 800armed had had medical logistics personnel) and (e.g. communication, civilian structures arms supporting and all 2006: (Stojarová 12). brigade)” the under whole NLA, height conflict the ofthe areat claimsthat There Tetovo (112th the ofGostivar surroundings (116th and in brigade) and Radusha(115th brigade) NLA in operated Kumanovo (113th brigades “which had five (114th in Skopje brigade), brigade), by different Kosovodiaspora, and Macedonia, and the Albanians in from Macedonia. parties political of the army,of reproduced reach support Menaj, fromto for victory in healthy war”, thein bases people increasingthe NLA, of the Command 112 “Mujdin brigade Aliu”, No condition 13,19.07.2001,Shipkovica, Report “Moral-political interview Pendarovski, Stevo 07.09.2011. with Skopje, Author's interview Rafiz with Author's Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, 218

219 155 217 CEU eTD Collection 221 220 redraw from Tetovo redraw not beginning want to inofthe did the ofJulycommanders 2001.Some when isthevivid moment example Ali with ceaseNATO fire negotiatedAhmeti a NLA and ordered to 123).One military(Menaj, 2008: order” and the concept was main because it fellowship then rather from NLAaccounts from was friendly andmore orders respect “taking made that combatants claim NLAbetween elements around Tetovo, Kumanovo(Belamy, and Skopje” 2002: 136).Personal day, twice to him per weresubmitting reports commanders Liberation National Head ofthe Army. theDuring theNLA conflict status, legal signed issuedby statement onits a Ali asAhmeti Political May 2001”. 2). Previousto that about known. heard in Macedonia not“Albanians publicly was Ahmeti inAhmeti “emergedAhmeti 2001” (Rusi,2004: end D.T]atofMarch-April [in Macedonia, the figure a as public Veliu he andchose ideologue that regarded the was as (Maleska, 2010). hissuccessor as Ahmeti Ali Fazli Some regarded Veliu, (Belamy, leader to be hisuncle, the out others pointed that 2002),while However, it not that oftheclear was beginning conflict in the ofNLA. wasAhmeti leader main the commanderofNLAmilitary to subordinate and was whoAhmeti, leader. the political was main 2011: rules and(Ostreni, regulations andcommand NLA's internal main becamethe 245-248).Ostreni (Ostreni,to from2011). come Kosovo organizational prepared the chain Ostreni the of structure, in wasgeneral KLAOstreni, who a ofStaff Joint Chief andwas later Corp, Kosovo in the Protection organization andcommand hierarchical ofthe beginning conflict. in the Then Ali G'zimAhmeti called This showsNLA that NLA that likely It very looseisvery structure. had a a didcentralized not have 2008: 167 2008: Original document is reproduced in MoI Original in (2001), documentreproduced is White Book, III.Appendix interview Bujar16.05.2013. Osmani, with Skopje, Author's 220 221 Even though G'zim Ostreni Even(2011) though NLA that claims “there was little evidence of coordination ofcoordination evidence little was “there 156 CEU eTD Collection fight in Macedonia was about improving the positions was and improvingthe rights Macedonia fight of about in Albanians. However, public the Also, hand, onone argued he staunchly supportedand aresolution peaceful strongly Ahmeti the that energy great dubiousand devoted appeared (Rusi, 2004: to12). Hoxha withdraw” to trying persuade to withdraw from “Peter [NATO's Feith Arachinovo, in in 2001,D.T]still Macedonia envoy special he was Evenorder Hoxha. direct from though aka given Commandant led Shaqiri, by Xhezair Ahmeti was. ofcommand chain exact ofNLA actions The partwere wider North-Eastern ofMacedonia in the get NLA interveneand to actorsto decided International surewhat the but werenot ofthe village, out Skopje. capital East airport. and ofthe nearby shellcapital threatening the to They were NLA isfoundwhen Another similar example seized of control Arachinovo, village North- Albanian 2008:(Menaj, 129) NLA and conditions” orderyouimplementfire of all to asits the generalI cease commander general and commander consultedme about with what and onHazbi, he remained suggested.Ali talks The when ended brute: 'I Hazbi said to Ali am you. with war Ilir movedIlirbackeddown, fromand to fromwhen all The and but Hoxha Hazbi, phone Hoxha Prizren, to willIlisten said went war, when me,repeat I what to youfrom me; stop betray be thenI onwards in will if theand war saying: 'Tell for war wage years. isshall Hoxha there that twenty thosemore international representatives one who And you from of wasconfrontedtheHoxha Prizren, opinion of theupset phone and again HoxhaPrizren interfered Then from the youus,thatwillorder'. that cannot implement without object not representatives decide and we onthe other side Abaz suggest that killed twochildren)? I womanthose NATO youvillage were (one and tell where civilians unprotected before the war. We a from casualties. can soldier redraw a the redrawvillagehad ofHow where nine Poroj, we from cannot conditiononpositions to fire, redraw tohe this:usto like more the saidnoway cease something 'Thereeven is implement this“In talked forfromtheto talks phone took Hoxha Prizren and persuasion, [codename for Abaz Ali D.T],Ahmeti, and fighting. and stopthe 157 CEU eTD Collection 224 223 222 further NLA that adds ortoofterritories. secession thecreate destabilize country not want to did NLA and property. life unnecessaryto create damage not conflict and to wasspreadthe careful He position towas the improve of political: (Menaj, Macedonia 2008: 147-155). Albanians in Therefore, for too early in be involved politics.However, to Ahmeti Ahmeti it considering was idea, skeptical ofthat werehighly representatives International in Macedonia. career preserve NLA however, formation; an as armed future political a possible about interested he was organization. andthe dismember to disarm and agreed cease fire in aJuly ceasefire 2001. arrange Forresolution. example, peaceful and to NLA,supporta persuadeto them be constructive with to necessary to engage the fighting. organizations. NLA and appealed pressured actors International downand to weapons tostop put the labeled NLA conflict and actorsthe condemned In the international beginning and terrorist as Ahmeti situation(Laity, overall withhim the and 40) 2010: that did not trust actors international over command NLA. had full Ahmeti frustrated They with were episodes, and similarother Because ofthis, was command highly ortheir conditions, not centralized. soldiers. NLA those implausible words, under their which isnot with inconsistent wereeither actions day supportingonthe NLA thesame statement while process, 10 convoy killing a military ambushed 163). (Menaj, division” D.T] 2008: in Ohridstarted, the negotiations When Ali a issued public Ahmeti [for, but rather “no room left government forcooperation sayingMacedonian thestatement that Slav statements from interview Pendarovski, Stevo 07.09.2011. with Skopje, Author's Skopje, interview Rizvan Sulejmani, with Author's 08.07.2013. MoI Original in (2001), documentreproduced is White Book, III.Appendix 223

However, was it that actors international considered escalating, conflict was the as NLA's 113th different brigade with a was tone President Boris Trajkovski NATO requested and to a serveas mediator to Peter Feith met Feith with Peter Ali Ahmeti 222 224 claimed that his principal goal in 2001 goal that claimed hisprincipal while NLA's 112th a issued brigade to arrange that. that. to arrange to a agreed Ahmeti

Ahmeti wasAhmeti interestedto not 158 CEU eTD Collection 227 226 225 “inherit (Veliu, NLA” 82). 2008: was populationfor there local fromThey that demand the claimed Macedonia. The ofNLA leadership which subject” will “political to possibility form a the discussed elected. to failed get vote than less and in 1%ofthe in2000, where he got Kosovo stood in election local 2001. priorconflict in to ambition the political in involved politics”. order to get ain did war not start After OFA was signed Ali saying in “we Macedonia, enter that will hintedpolitics Ahmeti not he that IV.3.Transformation ofNLA toDUI in Macedonia. parties political Albanian strongimpact madeon a conflict ofthe ofthe legacies institutionalization time and networks the Some remainedwithNLAnetworks, DUI. other joined parties. combatants ofwar The transformation DUI. formed they When failed, that ofNLAleadership to tried structure coordinating council. through a representation political Albanian as program Declaration (Veliu,use the its Prizren 2008:142) future Fazli perspectives. Veliu NLA that believed shouldaparty, create new party should this and that NLA dayjust One before beginning. ofNLA dissolved, wasthe leadership publicly werediscussing 2010:end (Aliti, forus” 50). was party ofa political thedevelopment but was end ofNLA, the That in Shipkovica. press ofNLA. conference isto end, that say demilitarization They declared the was That ofNLA headquarters and the 2006:representatives on 5June2002(Stojarová 13).“Political had a Ali proclaimedNLAAhmeti that publicly DUIfounded was dissolved2001and on27September was interview Pendarovski, Stevo 07.09.2011. with Skopje, Author's interview Rafiz with Author's Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, Ali FreeAhmeti's Radio Rusi, quoted in 13. for Europe, 2004: interview 227

It seemed logical that that seemed logical It in the conflict after career political build wouldtryAhmeti a to The central leadership of NLA, along with most of the war time alongofthe ofNLA, time withwar leadership most The central 226 However, believeotherwise, because some Ahmeti 225

NLA not they have that did claim members . In the post-conflict period Inthe post-conflict and theAhmeti 159 CEU eTD Collection 232 231 230 229 228 electionsof2002. the rivals in party'sthe and position securing electoral that eliminating any When NLA. Therefore, hand, marginalizedwas becoming to stay and opted with form him a party and help to Ahmeti, 14). formerdominated (Rusi,2004: byNLA” the others inAnd PDP the that party aware werealready [was] council “coordinating seeingthe that wouldlose significance, was they leadership that concerned DPA PDP and However, council. becoordinating part agreed ofthe to initially part (Veliu,politically active 2008: 194). NLA. Within werestrongopinions that there NLA, and follow to Albanian shouldbe subordinate parties however,representatives; NLA and “Ali three wouldget helm”. wasAhmeti the to be supposed at way that wouldgofaster in implementation coordinate ofOFA's process inAlbanian the demands implementation. was OFAAhmeti's that rationale coordination body ofall Albanians in Macedonia”. to all call decision wing,brought andthe political army a to form subjects political Albanian getimplemented. parties it Albanian to OFA eventhat though with cooperate needed NLA'sto primarilyaccomplishment,they was the step of The first NLA and Ahmeti was structure to representation. political Albanian consideredAhmeti NLA active(Veliu, topolitically become 113). 2008: interview with Author's 17.06.2013. Skopje, Pollozhani, Aziz Interview of Fazli Veliu for “Voice of Kosovo” 2 in August 2001,reproduced Veliu, 91. 2008: Limani, interview Raim 18.12.2012. with Author's Skopje, interview Rafiz with Author's Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, Ali Ahmeti's Fakti for in (daily interview newspaper in 2004: language), Rusi, quoted 8. Albanian 231 DPA much inwith itsbecame too if line itpower it thought anwouldlose as incumbent party

The argument that was toif NLA, NLA wouldbe secondary parties political Albanian became “DPA bring and to Council to the tried hijack thereby influence, under their Ahmeti 228 Following the experience with the Prizren declaration “NLA, “NLA, declaration the Prizren experiencewith Following the

(Menaj 2008,150). two partiesAlbanian wouldnominate 229 will was awhich council idea to have The of the PDP ofthe . 232

On the other the On 230

160 CEU eTD Collection 234 233 The of idea wasformany aacceptable leading party Ahmeti Albanians. in taken aThe poll results from forDemocracy,Source: Institute Solidarity (IDSCS), and Society Civil Skopje Table IV. 1. towardAttitudes Ali Ahmeti in2002 Macedonia, February relationship. strongand andconsistent show a statistically significant unanimous almost was supportforhim. Albanians there shown below, table The in results, the are toward him. ornegativeattitudes positive A attitudes. However, had negative vast majority among figure. controversial public A they had February 2002 askedrespondentswhether out carried in poll ofNLA. perspectives political forthe itfuture considered negative form aparty. new NLA former to attract started parties Albanian commanders combatantsand the party new shouldbe formed”. a andcooperate that political “NLA coordinationfailed, council After the the that existing concluded wish partiesAlbanian donot to (Rusi, 2004: 14). DPAfailed, the ofreducing Council,aim with the again ondestroying concentrated power” Ahmeti's Symmetric measures Symmetric Directionalmeasures Chisquare 1,055N= Negative Positive Author's interview with Besim Hoda, withAuthor's Hoda, interview Besim Tetovo, 26.05.2013 18.12.2012. withSkopje, Author's Limani, interview Raim Attitudespercent in Ahmeti Ali about DPA after functioningsoon that. the stopped council the left and council Cramer'sContingency:.702.569; V: 81.3 17.7 Lambda: .751; Eta: .883 Lambda:Eta: .751; All .000 Albanians 96.8 2.1 233 NLA to appealed commanders toAhmeti 234

Ali butAhmeti known a well was 161 CEU eTD Collection 235 new in the people party. DUI. NLA to various include broaden itsand appeal to and strategy had idea thea clear start from and twoprominentcommanders intellectuals. Albanian PDPAlso, MPs from several to transferred together”. idea. supported decision the brought commanders the brigade and the leadership political The should we form party. apolitical new askedwhether He commanders. brigade called all We all army “Ali bywingof NLA. the and partypolitical brought political new jointly was to form a Ahmeti 2002, NLA party, apolitical new announced UnionforIntegration (DUI). the Democratic The decision summer 2002.Inthe forSeptember of werescheduled elections national legislative The post-conflict forDemocracy,Source: Institute Solidarity (IDSCS), andSociety Civil Skopje Table IV.2. Support for Albanian in Macedonia, May 2002 parties below.table party, poll. in ontheplace DPA third and PDP lead had the was second. shown resultsin are theThe 14% ofall partyby said they led wouldsupporta Albanians Ali Ahmeti. unformed still This the placed May 2002show this. show relationship. a significantconsistent and statistically results are The About Symmetricmeasures Directionalmeasures Chisquare N=1,055 partyof AhmetiAli NDP DPA PDP Author's interview withAuthor's interview Rafiz Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, Support for Albanian parties in percent, May 2002 May percent, parties Supportin for Albanian 235 twoofNLA's fourvice-presidents, high wasWhen ranking DUI it had formed Cramer's.383; V: Contingency: .684 Lambda:.210; .478Eta: 2.5 6.1 3.5 All 1 .000 Albanians 14.1 34.6 5.9 20 162 CEU eTD Collection 237 236 of Kosovo. of OFA, partywasThe program focusedonimplementation andmulti-ethnic building forindependence and a declaration ofMacedonia integration forEuropean party a declaration program, in 2005and2009. president again party a new In2005,the adopted candidates. werenoother There mainly municipalities, Albanian-populated. congress 2005. firstDUI party on19November had its 34 hadbranches local in pointparty the At this OFA, and in indeclaration was the Prizren underlined attitudes”. DUI'spolitical term and are “long (Ahmeti, 2011: 9). ofMacedonia” and independence coherence ofthe out“preservation that point They ofthe or division country secession and democracy opposes a as multi-ethnic 8). DUI Macedonia sees for positions Itand the rights improved Macedonia. (Ahmeti,2011: future secured their Albanians and top priority. also for DUI, For and OFAAhmeti, accomplishmentfor the biggest remains Albanians in 12years. theImplementation significantly of OFA past ofDUIchanged in haveThe not goals remains democracy,local solve to diaspora. and to the educationproblems, involve higher Albanian urgent poverty. to reduce actions governmentand develop tothe onitsdecentralize DUIagenda put ofinter-ethnic ofhomes, improvement ofrefugees and reconstruction return former fighters, and trust oflaw. and rule andfunctional democracy economy of manifestoalso DUI's calledforreintegration multi-ethnicity, oforganized elimination in EUand NATO, integration and crime corruption, a building support for stabilityand 2002).OtherofMacedonia goalsthe included founding (DUI, manifesto council. ofthethe coordinating one ofOFAThe implementation full wasin goal main the ofDUI the assembly in The ofDUIheld inaugural was Tetovo as manifestowas 2002.DUI's on5June same the Republic of Macedoniaoptimism”, has bewith 21.03.2004 to seen of Republic Radio Free Radio “Tetovo: Europe. First DUI”, Congress19.11.2005 of of candidate Ostreni, DUI. Ostreni Radio Interview presidential offor Europe.”G'zim G'zim Free future The of 237 Ali party as wasAhmeti re-elected unanimously 236 163 CEU eTD Collection 239 238 toHowever, reference NLA. not direct manifestoofDUImake The did founding introduction the others. among revenues formunicipalities, jobs, tax 6-8%, creationof100,000new and greater However, offers DUI additional growth of made annual interests economic as: whichsuch are ofwider official increasing language, and recognition stateofKosovo. representation institutions in Albanian that target promises The electoral main a law for voters were:Albanian ensuring second Albanian a as beyond (DUI, issues gowell ethnic 2009). theDUI'spolicies showsprogram that secondcongress from diplomacy, multilateral culture, NATO processes. and various reform and EUintegration, partyThe ministries. oneconomy, alsochapters include platforms their Therefore, infrastructure,education, different controlled because ofpolicies they forwider range line inParticipation governmentcalled from from 2002to 2006and2008onward. inthen government DUI juniorpartner was coalition (Kadriu, 2011). party ethnic (Kadriu, 2011:municipalities left some to considerbeleaning a DUI 148).Becausethis ofall Albanian forthe tax increasing revenues and focus withdecentralization a onfiscal decentralization ininstitutions. public push representation tradition and forequitable further more demanded They theimprove usageof symbols, to promote and national language Albanian and historyAlbanian culture (DUI,are commitmentto long-term forDUI 2009).Other tasks isa democracy in Macedonia and multicultural newin a in2009.Building multi-ethnic the program programs in 2008and party multiethnic”. from monoethnicstate to the to “transform it needed was groups in and society”, therefore of biggest andtrust forbuilding ethnic democracy in Macedonia. http://www.pressonline.com.mk/?ItemID=4B31EA45D3110642913E601C55E339E7 pBroj=1935&stID=56808&pR=2 Lobi, Online Press. “DUI had a Congress and adopted resolution for independence of Kosovo” (availableat of a adoptedKosovo” Online Lobi, Press. independence Congress resolution “DUI for had and Utrinski Vesnik. “Ali DUI” (availableat unanimously Ahmeti leader of for elected 238 In the view of Inthe view OFAAhmeti, forreconciliation basis was acontract, “social last accessed on22 accessed last April 2014) 239 OFA, in electoral DUI's werepraised its achievements, and http://star.utrinski.com.mk/? last accessed on22 accessed last April, 2014) 164 CEU eTD Collection 240 to offer representation principle ofequitable in institutions. employment public forexample, by patronage, usingOFA's to extend ofinstitutions and control possibilities political party. important forthe resources became and legacies symbolic DUIin when it power Also, was had from other Structural ofthe conflict. the legacies institutionalized it isthat parties political Albanian in OFA then appropriated declaration, council. the coordination and outlinedin apart What DUI sets proclaimedones byin NLA. the Prizren agenda werecrafted main oftheThe political points ballots. with werereplaced bullets different are andnot goals aim ofDUI substantially The the than ofNLA's armed But a as continuation the politicswas struggle. DUI'sa sense in seen involvement to 'politicians'”(Vankovska become weresupposedisarm the and form: fighters to bizarre 2003:29). In a received Macedonia pre-electoral combatants in offormer andsome, reintegration “demobilization officials expertsLocal and legitimacy ofDUINLA. from the flows fromthe that DUI agree forOFA 2006:full(Friedman, 15).DUI credit took was war necessary. the that and claimed led creationofOFA to the and understanding” international by“reached NLA,started it then organized 2001was conflict in 2006: in(Friedman, the 13).DUI's UCK” that in 2002stated program “theofourpeople to glorify struggle and howcontinued [and,wagepeace”, wage war D.T]know to NLA.with the theto as knew “who them ones site web described DUIformed party was their When lineage have their promoted Since formation,DUI addressingthetheir 15) when ofDUI. foundation of the change positions in “broughtpowers an essential which (Rusi,2004: Macedonia” Albanians in 1). 2001” (DUI, 2009: to progressive wasreferred modestThe only founding more and manifesto in ofthe DUI ina“uprising as product 2009described program ofthe “Whoparty are”, we section, Author's interviews with Bekim SkopjeAuthor's with Bakiu, 15.12.2010. interviews Rexhepi, Skopje Baskim 20.12.2010and 240 For For 165 CEU eTD Collection 242 241 NLA DUI and The between overlap For well. loweras ranks example, in structures the continues in charge forOFA ofthe governmentsecretariat in implementation 2011. different 2002and 2006.Xhaferi had between deputy minister positionsprime ministerial and became minister prime heto was be deputy after resigned chosen ofDUI,to Ostreni asecretary posthe NLAin Xhaferi was 2004.Musa affairs international liaison. becamegeneral conflict he After the 2002to 2011. from campaign headquarters head ofDUI'selectoral He presidential DUI's candidate was was Parliament electedand in was He president. andvice later general secretary Ostreni, the became Fazli structures. example, theFor high positionsparty in Veliu, vice becameDUI's and G'zim president the ofDUI. ofNLA, leader leader who became the NLA him was The closest in to people assumed the ofNLA equivalentleadership to wasThe ofDUI leadership practically (Ademi, 2011). Ali Ahmeti, on the ground. of structures NLAThe the basisfaces and in. joined new were sides. all branches from came aAt the beginningthe soldierslarger made slowly developed DUI the local part branches. of UCK itannouncethat and awhen wave was great There was Ali a making party. were Ahmeti support forThe the local broadenappeal. their intellectualsto parties from and point: other illustratesthat politicians This quote usedNLAThey supportand enjoyedlocal the as forDUI. basis included timeAt thethey same a party. to decided form commanders werec They subjects”. political existing to the processes political day the leaving politics, orto forgetto symbolic,toevery the return fighters and D.T]and [political about our capital to enter “whether with a dilemma werefaced the failed, combatants coordinating council When the IV.3.1Structural Legacies: NLA on DUIbuilt interview Besim with Author's Hoda, Tetovo, 26.05.2013 withAuthor's interview Rafiz Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, onscious about their political and symbolic capital. andcapital. symbolic political their about onscious 242

241

Ali Ali and hisbrigade Ahmeti 166 CEU eTD Collection 244 243 by NLAthe werecreated beginning fighters. structures ofNLA fighters and The stone corner werethe ofNLAThe transformation purposeful strategy. followed to a DUI similar ofDUI in “Localbranches structures. open toparty wider include shouldbe onNLA built DUIthat shouldfirst be new networks, the also that structurestime but war and their students, thepeasants(Veliu, and workers...” people, youth, 2008: 117). words, Inother Veliu argued fight the ofour personsand propagated helped forlogistics,who supporters, members influential NLA shouldencapsulate future subject “the political to it, subjects wereclose members, who parties,DPA,Albanian primarily ofNLA. legacy capital and the woulduse of idea The Veliu was that Different in entries Veliu's upset,existing that and even showconcerned, journal he war was that transform NLAThe to strategy discussed the was conflict. during party apolitical create new and to re-brandingNLA. ofthe communitiesessentially a was thepresence local in forthe public;however, personaofDUI werethe public face and other its party ofthe and the structure NLA NLA leaders. becameDUI'slocal ofDUI”. the core fighters were NLA werestarted branches “when local in charge. and combatants commanders were leaders of Local Bejtaothers. inDUI'sofficials andGostivar inNevzat among Duraku Lipkovo, thethat donot fact hide those municipalities. with in Hazbi theThis Lika was case Tetovo, Talat Xhaferi in Tearce, Sadula severalAlso, different branches headsofDUI'slocal in the wereNLA municipalities in commanders and Mayor winas ofOslomej”. presidency, the NowShipkovica. party he isin to ofInterior run Minister and went todeputy become close first to appeared “Fatmir Dehari security, chief the ofhispersonal as Ahmeti, in in pictures interview Bujar16.05.2013. Osmani, with Skopje, Author's interview Pendarovski, Stevo 07.09.2011. with Skopje, Author's 243

Dehari was elected mayor of Kichevo in the local elections in 2013. elections ofKichevolocal in wasmayor the Dehari elected 244 It seems that the intellectuals It the seems that 167

CEU eTD Collection 247 246 245 (Vankovska, 66). 2003: in and/oreconomic the advantages) reimbursement promised Western country” parts ofthe financial (i.e. reasons DUIand material join out that offinancial will people had attitudes politics”. However, party inclusive) formultiethnic (i.e. “idea or idea the Macedonians refuted “ethnic where very few oftheAlbanians live. isthe action realization that motiveforthis insisted the The party Macedonia in Eastern opened branches It appeal. even change its itsDUI imageand to tried transform 2011, fromhealth 2008to spokesperson was ofDUI. and after DUI. andto was join minister in government, asked The Osmaniministerfor servedas young Bujar high official calledbylevel a OsmaniDUI government, was partnercoalition in who servinga as was part ofNLA support,wasknown. butpublicly it not medic and becamejunior After DUI formed was conflict he was During the ofMedicine. Faculty at the theinOsmani hisgeneration was best student example,Bujar For appeal. electoral widen their and to DUIthem increase which joined helped New faces experience. political brought practical parties fromof ex-combatants.other Politicians only not party to ofthe image,forDUI be public necessarybecause was The people ofnew inclusion to werecoming DUI”. parties political but frommembers, also members other among and euphoria all enthusiasm party. new Albanians forthe influx mass was ofnew There PDP. mainly from and politicians, popular intellectuals great was Founding“there members that note ofDUI”.members ofNLA tendency main “The remainedwith DUI. and structures leadership the core was members to be branches”. local of all Limani, interview Raim 18.12.2012. with Author's Skopje, Limani, interview Raim 18.12.2012. with Author's Skopje, interview Rafiz with Author's Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, 246 DUI also attracted other people which had nothing to do with NLA, to which haddowith as nothing such people DUIother also attracted 245 Some NLA Some however, orremainedindependent; joined parties, members other 247 168 CEU eTD Collection 249 248 Table IV.3. MPs from DUI: former combatants others and ofNLA. legacies structural its best efforts a large appeal, and broaden theirthe change ofDUI image basedonthe isstill part to DUI combatantsamong MPs 2011. belowfrom shows offormer 2002to theThe number table Despite prominently onit. unitelectoral Ali Commandantfeatured Challa) and Hazbi (aka list Lika headedAhmeti the NLA unit.sixth Ostreni spokesperson.waselectoral Inthe first fifth onDUI'sparty G'zim in the the list NLA Sadulafeatured another Duraku, and Commandant Shpati Misini, andaka Hajrula commandant, andof close associate commandant wasAhmeti, second. unit also electoral the list second The in NLA Beqiri, thewasand Nazmi by unit list HisniShaqiri headed secondelectoral were second.Inthe was by unitlist Rafiz headed electoral the In the first M'suesi Commander and Fazli aka Aliti, Veliu NLA. from electionscame ofDUI's Most the 2002parliamentary in candidate candidates selection. authority.broker andhighest has ofNLA forthe strength indicator One DUI structures within isthe regarded lesspowerful. faces are with allcoalition are in They Ali isthe power who main Ahmeti, time politicians. DUI, NLA inside twofactions cadrescreated has party new The to push attract and peace combatants Others combatants Former All pBroj=938&stID=581&pR=2 Utrinski Utrinski Vesnik. “NLA (availableat conquerparliament” move to onthe commanders interview Pendarovski, Stevo 07.09.2011. with Skopje, Author's 248 It is largely believed that combatants still have the upper hand in the party and new islargelynew party hand in It the and the upper combatantshave still believed that last accessed on26 accessed last April 2014). 2002 10 16 6 2006 15 7 8 2008 13 18 5 http://star.utrinski.com.mk/? 2011 15 10 5 249 169

CEU eTD Collection 250 the symboliccapital sustainfrom manifestations the public to and other commemorative events The organization organize role very which playsimportant isto another ofNLA's veterans are one family”. extended same part that.see making or family. is of DUI usas the People We work together. NLA organization veterans and DUI of year. per done or once twice actions that. like There arehumanitarian You difference make a cannot whetherNLA veterans fund made is help NLA to –for familiesfighters, help. of help,invalids whofor need fallen that need for all fighters is That organize“They every year. charitableevents from from donations appointedThey employed, officials...a collect solidarity organization ofthe activities illustrates the links and showswith the DUI: ofveterans forDUI toavenue target former NLA to patronage families. and their combatants followingThe quote by Fazli Veliu. The also timewhichprovides war networks supportDUI.an It Association gathers organization as organization served flanking party. forthe The ofNLA's veteransAssociation isheaded cooperationwith the conflictclose DUIAfter the kept ofNLA's veterans.Association This actions” (Veliu, 158). 2008: villages. They offered shelter, resources. food and daysThese they situsforand motivate usto joint with coexistence the locals surrounding and moral are(Shipkovica)support... andfrom have thein place we economic “In we which networks. support from these ofDUI. activities political supported the journal war The ofFazli Veliu offers ofthe one account NLA.aided NLA helped They conflict. withduring foodandthe shelter conflict they After the conflict. during werebuilt networks the andwho supporters villagers oflocal werenetworks They alsotimeforsupport.Partsofthese DUIrelywar networks Beside could onother NLA's structures interview Rafiz with Author's Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, 250

170 CEU eTD Collection 252 251 support ofthe“full population. local ofbeingThey tortured. had enough a didtrue we was What ofNLA Inthe thewords to conflict. beduring started built The symboliccapital had they commanders elections”. the had people. authority authority with forwinning be peoplegreat was can these estimate that Their NLA brought who OFA the tothat fighters them clear was join fighters“It them. to werepopular and other butonly also observation, ofthe their PDP parties. political Albanian and DPA to attract wanted gains. andfor electoral used incapital political be translated notThis easily was symbolic capital could conflict NLA end atofthe that It the seemed had. it that ofthe quite symboliccapital aware were This organizing onethnic theand politicalpeoplegrounds. aspirationsthose regions in interests of political option. groups, armed leadersD.T]ona [of took different who we were Therefore, we, role leading for and their vote for to call the wagedthecan people consideredthethat war that key board“the D.T] DUI, people initiative [of ofDUI. interests electoral and servedthe overlapped ofthat: isillustrative This quote communities. inlocal authority their symbolic capital and ofNLA andlegacies structural symbolic The post-conflict environment. in the aparty tonew best material build werethe commanders had They very early, NLA post-conflict period. in symbolicthe wouldplay significance which capital the (Rusi, 2004: understood, 14).He capital” used lookscertainto be political andas struggle foundation Writing ofNLA the transformation about NLA's history inRusi notedofthe to2002,Iso “the DUI that IV.3.2.Symbolic Legacies: Symbolic capital electoral for gains conflict. Author's interview withAuthor's interview Rafiz Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, interview Misini, Hajrula 16.07.2013. Skopje, with Author's 252 251

171 CEU eTD Collection 2001 and OFA describes NLA aswho people'slife. improved combatants heroes Among Albanians gone”2010: (Milchin, 6). villains are heroes, and the main The in the conflict discourseabout Albanian turn versa, slowlyall into vice werevillainsand myths, wereheroes,and theirs ours to all say that in of 2001onbasis theconflict to profitsarmed built from possibilities were“additional conflict there supportforNLAThe popular gains ofDUI. political forthe beneficial conflict was during the After the 2012:move 7). everyday”(Neofotistos, through which landscape ofthe an integralpart are the and, roads hence, main Albanians physically with the of oronthe onvillage built squares side memorials are ofthe “Most national flag. Albanian (Neofotistos, 2012: 4). in ofNLA the wereburied uniform They coffin and the wrapped usually was graves” orelaborate “in and re-buried newly-built memorials wereexhumed conflict some favor (Veliu,their died. wherethey combatants wereburied 96).Duringthe conflict 2008: After the shirts(Veliu, tohats and soldiersweartheir and wanted the imitating 2008: 115) in and recitedpoems NLA photoswith to the take popularwanted respectsupport.Children enjoyed and fighters, were NLAwhen an combatantswouldenter heroes. as claim weregreeted village, they Albanian They and symboliccapital. built sustain their to practices social 101 andinitiated 137).Inthis way they Also, (Veliu, fighters struggle and their ofthe glorifying the fallen others heroism wouldhold speeches 2008: “Vejce,for example in (Veliu, etc” Larce Selce, Brodec, 2008:these 84).On occasions, Veliu and families to(Veliu, their paid fightersvisits fallen and the commemorate had to ceremonies 2008: 65), NLA Fazli fighters orbattles. Veliu different he writesvisited inthat journal hiswar NLA and brigades offallen memory in practices with social furtherand sustained was enhanced The symbolic capital protected us. (Ismanovski, lives 2008: their forourrights” 8-9). They sacrificed NLA confirms forthem that the population local revolution”, and ourchildren. combatants “were They 172 CEU eTD Collection 254 253 a “to together produce which come and physicalobjects purposefullysocialinvested in practices hierarchy. This they iswhy offered NLA the ontheirorhigh positionsparty in lists combatantspositions support. electoral and itsforattracting aware potency ofNLA's symbolic capital partiesAlbanian were (DPA,people's support” 1). 2008: dimension, given this their theirsociety, weight intellectualin without abilities, trick, win theyanyto will in beway not able intellectual. were by the legitimized war,They people. false of the heads the whicha in credibility gave Without this ordinary nothingfind they itagreethat people, the are to fact extraordinary, with hard inor moral, political aspects: all orderandlose bravestlikely the security. mysteriousalive, image, most peace, of prevents people thisThe leadersparty of “t DPA program, Inits 2008electoral gain. forpolitical thesymbolic capitalconflict from wrote that: the voters”. andforelections. strongcandidates strongpoliticians as among party support in havethe and big They “NLA inadvantage elections. important are considered activeinstill DUI are who politically veterans citizens. fellow prestigetheir social to among enjoy families tend a competitive them thisAnd gives communities. local their importantfigures in public fighters became conflict, former After the Their (Neofotistos,the be2012: Iwouldstill unemployed” 6). martyrs, OFA conflict, under institutionthe public after “ifwerenot that for it provisions,considered equitable 2010: (Mehmeti, 23). treatment” and legal political better A young was who in Albanian employed NLA combatants his political party built it is [DUI,itslegitimacyonthecrisis. political andpremise Fears his D.T] will continuesbuild political to of interview MPs RDK,24.02.2014 with Skopje, Author's from Limani, interview Raim 18.12.2012. with Author's Skopje, 254 253 symboliccapital. their to istheDUI preserve reasonwhy that main wanted And They

Even DPA, DUI that oruses, has, ofDUI, acknowledges opponent political main the

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On 13 On day the August, çlirim ) from 174 CEU eTD Collection 258 257 gathering. Mayor ofLipkovoSadula the Duraku, municipality, alsothe issituated, addressed Slupchane in which contemporary history. This recentof history the most is Albanians theof Republic in Macedonia”. a looksin that museum hasbig but has ameaning soul, small, big big and message. of erasable traces arethe These moment.day, asymbolic “This is special One by andNLA, glorifymarks founded whentheleft makeerasable we eternal wasaddress by given Ali said who that: Ahmeti many guests. theamong other event, attended ofcasualties combatants andThe families keynote NLA publications. alongFormer NLA's withand andother uniforms, books features equipment 2001conflict. fromcasualties the in issituated house. a small museum The permanentexhibit The November 2012. oftheNLA thegraveyard museum vicinity The isin and civilian combatants a conflict-affectedIn Slupchane, village, Ali to a NLA museum dedicated opened Ahmeti on21 10). abound” (Neofotistos, 2012: and “homeland”, “sacrifice” generally. 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NLA 21.11.2012 todaySlupchane” in opened at (available 258 himAccording NLA to liberator. but aggressor a not an was armed contribute It wanted to last accessed on20March2014) accessed last last accessed on20March2014) accessed last 257 175 CEU eTD Collection 259 by army was accompanied but this timehe not Minister wentas to of Defense, Slupchane Xhaferi also reshuffle In2013,following footsteps ofDefense. ofFatmirBesimi, the becameMinister Xhaferi Talat silent. keeping government a wasdropped and after the weeks proposal eventually After several indefinitely, filibuster Xhaferi could that seemed procedures it poetry, includingreading and books filibusteredby was amendments, and it Talat former NLA Xhaferi, commander. of torules Due unclear of inItthousands parliament. filed policyDUItheprominently DUI's blocked law among goals. thatAnd more NLA even benefits. any social be given combatantswerenot to featured issuehas This DUI,wider “terrorists”. as and the them Albanian community, ofthe labeling. because wereoutraged conflict. forcesduring the security Macedonian apply law did to not The NLA it members, labeled and to of members benefits law granting submittedVMRO-DPMNE a proposal fora in reaction VMRO-DPMNE. and between government inDUI wasthe there that crisis extent serious werestrongtoreactions the Army uniforms official and armywerewearing who by memberspersonnel accompanied were he ofhiscabinet was been an NLA hadthough not himself Besimi member, moderate politician, considered anda iswidely ofDefense.Even was graveyard stir inbyMinister the FatmirBesimi, a2012,when visited created big on 5May, ofNLA the whichday isconsidered and on13 fighters, fallen However,August. this activity ofthe country. democratization to the DUI organizes year events every in Slupchane commemorative %D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8 %D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8-%D1%9C%D0%B5-%D1%81%D0%B5- %D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0- %D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0-%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8-%D1%9C%D0%B5-%D0%BA %D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0-%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BB http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD of suspected crimes. war members amnesty from He wasgranted by2011, Parliament but in DUI, the was list soonreleased. with NLA other along chargedwas MP 2002,after hisbeingas in elected forwasand for detained 2001.He crimes arrested war activitiesin on without municipality of100,000people water, leftThis a over “Ventili”. label Commandant earned the Duraku and He Balkan Insight. “The Macedonian coalition will consolidate or fall apart”, 11 or will Macedoniancoalition fall Balkan apart”, Insight.“The consolidate 2012(availableat September . 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D.T]: [are the commanders there, the Iam[in DUI,there, D.T],if argument DUI DUI,G'zimthe Ostreni isNLA. summarizes heading then saying “if Ali isthereAhmeti 2012:officialsDUI” 3-4).DUI high (Neofotistos, argue ofNLA if the leaders because main that are NLA ofthe legacy appropriation ofthe to “political versionwhich ofnationhood” led a particular by officials and discourseofmartyrdompublicly disseminate to produce and have supporters upona built “DUI afterconflict ended. the even and12years sustainDUI NLA'scapital tosymbolic tried preserve the all way”. fromNLA's 2001shouldbe sacrifices realized NLA and inproclaiming war Slupchane “the of that hisspeechideals territory”,noted and in free NLA fallen to paythe respect personnel. went He to of the start 12years from “to celebrate fighters, http://24vesti.mk/ministerot-za-odbrana-gi-chestvuvashe-borcite-na-ona-vo-slupchane interview MPs RDK,24.02.2014 with Skopje, Author's from interview MPs RDK,24.02.2014 with Skopje, Author's from interviewDebar, G'zim with Ostreni, Author's 14.07.2013. 24Vesti. paidNLA Ministerofrespect to “The Defense fighters 03.05.2013(availableat Slupchane”, in symbolic capital exclusive. symbolic capital exclusive. 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last accessed on20March2014) accessed last 178 CEU eTD Collection 266 effective didbut have competences.NLA they governance ongroundand thus had control political NLA legitimacy, NLA-DUI and have DUI notstructures electoral formed. did was not demobilized areas.populated in September2002, elections parliamentary and before the conflict ended After the (Pendarovski, Macedonia 2005). conflict in during the in mainlyThe caused was damage Albanian post-conflict region. in the governance destroyed partially 5,500housesAround orcompletely were NLA oflocal approval needed. was commanders the supportand infrastructure, and public to reconstructionofhouses start important.the as Inorder mayors from DPA, andpersons, council elected local PDP seen they were not but andparties, smaller territory and wereeffectively charge in municipalities. ofpost-conflict were timeAt thethere same example,NLAFor NLA post-conflict reconstruction. channelingthe was of had control commanders waysnew patronage. to how extend withcollude organized (Hislope, 2002). syndicates crime post-conflict phasebrought conflict and The and even patronage inextend corruption, faithful,engage possibilities to employparty partners, had partners. coalition government between Spoils weredivided coalition junior Albanian as parties, 2001(Hislope, 2002). conflict in before the even in Macedonia andwerepresent clientelism Patronage IV.3.3.Patronage clientelismand andsupport. sustaining forgaining instruments electoral important andbecome clientelism patronage suchconditions Under economic surface. interest symbolic capitaloff wears over time. socio- conflict fades,primary the when ofthe And memory situationof whichthe improved achievement However, in Macedonia. Albanians the seemsthat it 2002, Skopje 25.07.2013. 2002, Skopje post-conflict in workinginternational interview sponsored for reconstruction projects local with engineer Author's 266 NLAThis that meant controlled local combatants 179 CEU eTD Collection 267 resources. accessto evenspoilsand DUI inmore newly was governmentandin formed got 2002the included combatants. goods fortheir rebuildinghouses as such possibilities 'private' to extend After the elections suchas water goods supplypossibilities 'club' for to extend and roads building hadAlbanians and they works NLA started period NLA process. post-conflict the Inthe were overseeing commanders had populationurged local that NLA village (Veliu, supply in demand one water to 179). 2008: the When interlocutor. the servedas combatants orcommandant testifies Fazliu example,in For journal hiswar to goods. some public get to DUI, become access yet theto ofNLA, approached leadership The local resources. with them access couldto provide they and that control political they conflict After the (Veliu, commanders high ranking NLA that recognized villagers 2008: 134).Local had effective of the villagearea road in part toa combatants took rebuild Tetovo, was which officially opened by NLA andexample, rebuilding.For post-conflict reconstruction was directlyin involved the also This showsNLA that purposes. fortheir NLA post-conflict reconstruction tothe power channel had the word.last We to we had gothroughforgot and them, about the Mayor”. the NLA, have notclearthey orlikethat gunsand[former They itvery D.T] something shooting were waving But was that. houses be to rebuiltfirst.They other wanted mayoraway. they but chasedhim The came, wasbut tense, dangerous. not It start. when arrived. aNLA next day commotion we was The there there. guys were theThey let workers not continue. did mayor. to we whenrebuild entered“First to thewent houses, we I thinkwas DPA. he us to told which He houses from (Veliu,fighters!” to that: testify workingonpost-conflict reconstruction 2008: 150).People offamilies symbolicexpenses offallen to houses “cover their and built rebuild and obligation to and families. members toNLA their benefits direct totried provide prerogativeand took their as 2002, Skopje 25.07.2013. 2002, Skopje post-conflict in workinginternational interview sponsored for reconstruction projects local with engineer Author's 267 180 CEU eTD Collection 269 268 (Vankovska, 64).However, 2003: NLA profile SDSM not high accept did in commanders high bargaining positions political in and forhigher the insist formore the to leadership with SDSM” so werepushing time war heroism, they fortheir moment wasto right be it rewarded believed that the KLA in “Former government. up high positions level have forfilling commanders priority commanders as waspatronage to goods ethnic 'club' extended believedNLAAlbanians. example, For DUI 'private'but timeas war networks goods, later to was their patronage first inperiod directed that the seems to spoils andIt resources. got access conflict, they the the entered governmentafter When DUI and inter-ethnicimproved tensions deescalated. Education in wasAlbanian improved. A was process initiated. decentralization situation security The Mostwent well. ofOFA forusage Laws ofsymbols werepassed. wasand language implemented. institutions. public foremployment in tothe applied possibilities twoparties between The cooperation to be avoided. needed from side,Macedonians revolt ethnic ontheAlbanians; other did process not goeasily.implementation growing expectations of itsatisfy the had oneto hand, On priorities. political main forDUI and veryfor This important was general. Albanians in The 2006. andfrom functioned 2002to and DUIformed was ofOFA implementation The wasofthe one country. stability ofthe wouldbeforthe detrimental it formed, then thenot governmentwas isstallingand ofgovernment if the that formation ancreate impression SDSM DUIbetween started. and intelligently. rather managed The was whole process to The was idea be included. needed was to DUI it government, that clear forgovernmentformation The negotiations SDSM,the won2002and communitywouldlead new and in thewhich For government. international ofthe be part support former populationdidto guerrillas not Macedonian ethnic ofthe The majority interview with Author's 17.06.2013. Skopje, Pollozhani, Aziz interview Gjorgji with Author's Spasov, 11.07.2013. Skopje, 268 SDSM between government The 269 This especially 181 CEU eTD Collection 270 won ofthe most DPA, than seats in votes and Parliament hadAlbanian more wasn't the it in included However, DUI that in 2006.Despitefact the the elections after government DUI not in included was electionsin 2005. the local for DUI patronage. to the extend possibilities This secured ofthe sector.a vastpublic part where wonmost ofmunicipalities DUI in in weremajority Albanians no Albanians. of control political gave government divisionsnew DUI ofspoilsinThe the post-conflict majority, were there wherepractically in tomunicipalities nosense get made positions because public it where municipalities DUI positions ofthe gotin percent positions. extra get similar were Albanians If administration. positions public in the would 70-80%ofthe population,DUI Albanians constituted In people. new togood opportunity attract gotofthe even DUI more municipalities Albanian-majority NLA Some positionsown went to towithDUI the fill its cadres. needed others provided a combatants; communication, for agencies. all employment, administrativeorgans.And areother there Everywherethey 25%. got went issues, ofto where the moneyOne funds is. Albanians. for for electric Then aviationcontrol, agencies, came and social policy, and health. education They 1ministry. also got forsocial Then pensions, thefunds health, public came interior. defense, in and example finance, control. they wouldhave So economy, next ministries were The relevance in labor justice. We ministers, for dividealso places get if theynot a deputy did minister, get a deputy then minister, they could for ministriesimportant interior, were divided: affairs foreign defense, justice.From and those four, 1,ministry got DUI for We to dividedeverythingrule. the according 25% levels. First of went wholepower the most onseveral division The levels. local spoils illustratesweredivided: how This quote proportional representation. With and DUIpositions onnational got themany in inclusion government with accordance OFAdivision done in was secured meaning for'equitablerepresentation', principle ofspoilsand toresources. came division cooperativeit when positions, werevery but instead The interview Gjorgji with Author's Spasov, 11.07.2013. Skopje, 270 182 CEU eTD Collection 272 271 as its role representatives marginalizedAlbanian by theofDUI. actions However, in stayed it negotiations between VMRO-DPMNE DPA and DUI, It saw the leave government. threatening to was up.Duringthe didease not the significantly Parliament, tensions ethnic They but to returned was stepinofOFA, forward implementation one and enhancing also widening but rights. Albanian NLA a(Kadriu, government 2011: to to discuss method form combatantsand the DUI 147).For this ofthe a law toforusage relations, adopt status legal of findforthe aAlbanian solution to language, majority. and boycott DUI's ofParliament. with “double” be voted wereto that agreement45laws listed The and Ali on29 May 2007. “May so-called agreement” signed a Ahmeti crisis This political ended the between of and leader prime Gruevski, DUI.VMRO-DPMNE Nikola minister and VMRO-DPMNE, negotiations and EUrepresentatives initiated situation.US to the calm actors intervened International madeofOFA. to they speedupimplementation demands inalso included government,and was be DUI'sdemand government. to theprincipal wouldbehavecentral toward municipalities However, DUI's how meetingto with somediscuss mayors he 15municipalities the calleda from forsomewar”. new not “preparation was toparliament leave decision consideredAhmeti the that campaign(Balkanalysis,2006b). armed As a consequence, letter to NATO,sent an open offormer and EU,while NLA US some a new considered commanders outraged.community were consequences” for“inter-ethnic warnedof“grave Ahmeti and relations” DPA to decided include government, partner. coalition a as junior the DUIwider and Albanian government. wouldform ofthe votes and VMRO-DPMNE, majority which thewon party mId=37&eventId=23038&egId=13 http://star.kanal5.com.mk/%28S%281ucfvpbovt3zkrnd3eto3jn2%29%29/default.aspx? 2013) on7December accessed at 30.01.2007. (available Kanal 5 Kanal TV. Badinter, votes for agreeonthe list even and of can't DUI VMRO-DPMNE 22.03.2007(available at Cf. Utrinski Vesnik. war. bethreat ofleaving claimsthat not Parliamentunderstood DUI should of Leader as 272 The agreement also entailed obligation to enact a new law for the committee forinter-ethnic law new forthe committee toa enact entailed obligation agreement also The http://www.utrinski.mk/default-mk.asp?ItemID=F0070F873D912D4D86B16ACDC5E36EB9 , accessed on 7 December 2013) on7December , accessed DUI left the Parliament in the January left 2007. Parliament DUI Ali 271

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CEU eTD Collection 276 275 274 273 forfamiliesNLA housingoffallen and employment to secure standing been requestshas their policy targeting continue ofgovernmentto toDUI be part NLA needed to former benefits of One members. in included won ofvotesgovernment. and was most that. They in 2006. supported DUI 2008. have electionsin new thishad we to And iswhy of position andimplemented the improved. Albanians want to “did goagainst people not the Therefore, government. argumentTheir fromOFA was2002to 2006,then DUIin when government that was was in get back to electionswerea chance For early parliament. sizeDUI in its to winand increase ofDUIdecision and had itsreasons. own VMRO-DPMNE. party Each sawVMRO-DPMNE a chance the deadlock. political from an exit electionsin 2008provided Early rebellion forfreeing forarmed call be tolerated”. cannot forassimilation and calls Albanian areas DPA “the that radicalstatementssaying the Minister coalitionofPrime rejected Gruevski, partner and NATO,enter in 2001”. the crisis like one will a enter but problems “if that the of radical statements will the arenot country Macedonia not solved, Albanians in going slowly was which led “May agreement” The ofthe implementation Ali some toAhmeti make DUI and VMRO-DPMNE. the between and DPA,Albanian DUI parties, as well inter-ethnic as continued, the tensions between forNLADUI and pensions benefits would not get families. and their members in return parliament. ofDUI the andgovernment welcomed to DPAVMRO-DPMNE explained that accessed on 7 December 2013) on7December accessed 29.10.2007(availableat Macedonia”, http://www.vecer.com.mk/?ItemID=557B21242A818B4BA5DE94BBD8BEFB99 ItemID=A05FCD14DD4B074DA9E3B5E54CF698AB at 29.05.2007, (available interview with Author's 14.07.2013. Skopje Pollozhani, Aziz Cf. Vecher. DPA leader of “The Menduh forrebellion treatsDUI armed Thaci of new condemns from inAlbanians Cf. Vecher. at Kathimerini”, Greek ofnewspaper 27.10.2007(available for DUI of the leader “Interview Utrinski Vesnik. not “Do worry, fighters is there for says of nodeal NLA, their to partner DPA”,VMRO-DPMNE http://www.utrinski.mk/default-mk.asp? http://www.vecer.com.mk/?ItemID=C6F036CEB36E6A40BCC70C666D07BB35 , accessed at 7 December 2013) at 7December , accessed 274 On the other hand, Menduh On other the of leader Thaci, electionswerea joint early The accessed on 7 December 2013) on7December accessed 273 polarization The 276

DUI again 275

184 , CEU eTD Collection 280 279 278 277 supporters. their relationship with point: that twoquotes illustrate These the issmaller”. resistance connectionwith NLA,NLA the to isconnected then hisfamily candidate, but argument main isthe and NLA a toward “ifisresistance sometimesthere haveand foremployment” advantage families and their NLAemploy of fighters “the claim that families. DUI oftheir representatives and members veterans and was public to in supporters using it membersthe administration topossibility employparty and it DUI a as administration. read public ofminorities representation' in ahas provision of'equitable throughofOFA. patronage implementation to extend DUI alsopossibilities has the OFA example, For Association of War Veterans, current isFazli whose president Veliu”. NLA primarily to wereallocated projects from tothe according “lists families combatantsand their and housing sponsored, government flatsinvestment, For public NLA. in demands example, offormer However, families. combatants and their to policies cater to other use DUIable government was however, forformer asolution NLA success.policy was deliver able DUI to not with noapparent 2001”. ouractions in will repeat Fazli even led frustrations and Veliu resolved, fighterswe status offreedom isnot that the to “if claim NLA thestatus offormer that social claiming solved. will members be lot of caused a The uncertainty partner. PolicyDUI and Social was from forLabor Bajrami, Minister hand, Xhelal the On other combatants. However, from secure an wasagreement to DUI not able coalitionVMRO-DPMNE, its a0206604463 http://www.thefreelibrary.com/No+apartments+for+disabled+NLA+fighters%3a+government+project+ignores...- 26.12.2011 (availableat 20 March2014) interview party with Author's official Skopje DUI, from disabled for NLA Koha. apartments “No project fighters: government ignores 11Albanians”, August 2009(availableat pressure Centrevia “Ahmeti MacedonianInformation putting (MIC). Veliu resolving for NLA status”, fighters' on 08.01.2010(availableat http://lajmpress.com/lajme/maqedoni/2868.html accessed last Lajm.“Rain Returns 2001”, last accessed on20March2014) accessed last http://micnews.com.mk/node/29024 280

In this wayDUI ispurposefullyIn this targeting and creating patron-client benefits 277 Fazli Fazli Veliu rhetoric; push with issue tough to continued forthe last accessed on20March2014) accessed last 279

278

185 CEU eTD Collection 284 283 282 281 gains from material the subventions, you that willyouemployment, havethat some benefits, give support. electoral harness voters and strong instrumentto motivate and forclientelism patronage. are strongdemands there that parties it saythat Albanian claim isa They under OFA the wider in equitable representation, Albanian community. the conflict.after NLAFamilies ofdeceased ofyears supportfora theyfromcouple that DUI got only combatants claim However, DUI scopeoftargeted that widened itthe networks. seems beyond time war benefits their situation”. their improve means to inonly the governmenthas a party party, mother seeDUI their hand, as they was since power and“DUI 2001, onthe mainly other in otherPoliticians from deliver. DUI timeexpect war networks to that partiesAlbanian consider one On support. electoral formaximizing isbeneficial Second, theirit fighters families. of itsand former to a as successor NLA DUI behinditself sees this. First, are tworationales There care' andto has 'take conflict 2001or woundfallen in fromto and invalids“. fighters the given practice to power. comes Forexample,employment,advantagegivenNLA it to is to when veterans orof relatives party dolittlehelp„DUI NLA asto can a areinstruments andthere possibility their dosowhen families. But to is veterans sure fromprovide their employed,family”. thefor someone familyis that they sothat could level. have we onlocal power thosenumbers. whosomewhere lost areintegrated where Part of familymembers We make and the police,customs. in army but in jobs, havewho donot theysmall integrated, are There aresomenot who NLA“Part of enteredadministration, integrated,public or universitydegree education they fighters are secondary who have http://www.utrinski.mk/?ItemID=30D1AFB7AE27794D8F1C8E22893F3444 Utrinski vesnik. Reportage “Except the monument of the monument NLA “Except vesnik. Utrinski Reportage at Slupchanenothing in is there 06.08.2013(available else”, interview MPs RDK,24.02.2014. with Skopje, Author's from Limani, interview Raim 18.12.2012. with Author's Skopje, interview Rafiz with Author's Aliti, 20.12.2012. Skopje, 284

DUI started to extend 'private' goods, such as employment ininstitutions employment public as 'private'such DUI to goods, extend started 282 “That means you support a party means“That you supporta last accessed on20March2014) accessed last 283 Representatives ofdifferentRepresentatives

281

186 CEU eTD Collection 285 purpose. fortheir post-conflict reconstruction the NLA, channel DUIformed, was could before They of First, remnants post-conflict entire period. the throughout DUIpatronage patronage. extended has party. extend sector public beento has used continuously and the economy Political ofthe control ofDUI, orDPA, practice an exclusive andisnot clientelism Patronage orany other political Albanian (Frchkovski, 2010: 19). are called but they donotuntil work budget arepublic payroll. putemployed persons onthe salary state, from home,the sit receive at They Nonetheless, employees. newly fornew isnoneed and in planning wherethere cases done without ofSIOFA control party in employs the sector.Albanians public in However, issometimes employment to cadres. foremployment new certificates shows to sendsthe message,the that and public, This the shows. Inan official in public televised beenhas to promoted the ceremony, party officials out give employment 2008.On occasions favorthey when governmentin several 2006. DUIthe joined returned DPAadvantage. itsparty andown usedthesupporters employ in loyalists out possibility toDUI kick and jobsforpartyDPA,public DUI loyalists. in when power, usedSIOFA have toparty their institutions. public Albanians in Through SIOFA provide tool haveto government partiesa Albanian in necessary. remedy is,and to where administration SIOFA that This means employment the of oversees partner. ofSIOFA's One percentageof what the isto check competences Albanians workingin public ofOFAfor Implementation (SIOFA). the from by a Itrepresentative isheaded Albanian coalition junior ingovernment 2006(Mehmeti,2011: 46). employment. wassameDPA when 2002,butcontinued by DUIthe practice started in The entered forusingOFA's criticized partiesAlbanian were principle forparty representation equitable party”. interview MPs RDK,24.02.2014. with Skoje, Author's from 285

'Equitable representation' is implemented by the Secretariat Secretariat isimplemented representation' by the 'Equitable 187 CEU eTD Collection One caveat should be noted here. shouldbe caveat noted One was in Macedonia 2002. taken last in census The a more was There D at isavailable and of the ofMacedonia, Commission Republic Electoral (SEC) State municipality. in control the had political and which party conflict ornot the come data from Electoral of population and number municipality, in each Albanians affected municipality whetherwas the by the municipality, and turnout number per ofvoters the as such level onmunicipal relevant variables total measure me allowed other to ofanalysis level onmunicipalities the Setting thesets. data variation, in and cases, have in more fora vote.veryorder to leastlowthreshold Iopted at one received parties where Ionly municipalities included elections. fornational legislative other elections and the Albanian local one sets, forthe twodata (2002–2013).Icreated inpost-conflict elections all municipalities parties. To results forall electoral Icollected competition their analyze 60 in over parties Albanian underrules. PR partywith lists closed other and themselves with competebetween parties Albanian compete parties elections, political local national parties.and Inboth rules,special forminority ethnic elections. national legislative in and local seats,or partiesnoguaranteed Albanian compete are There IV.4.Competition between Albanianparties in post-conflict Macedonia relationship between patron-client create incentives to their supporters. Albanian and parties loyalists. Inthis way, of control political and DPAfamilies. DUI, have OFA's used well, as toparty employ representation principle ofequitable resources. targetThey to wereable supporters,primarily their NLA benefits to and their combatants goods'club' to to spoilsand got within access inclusion governmentthey Albanians. Second, rebuildingprocess. in the were also active extended projects which some and oversaw initiated They ata for population and number of forpopulationand ata in census 2002. Albanians from come the institutional instruments for minority inclusion was inclusion instruments as used forminority institutional www.sec.mk . 188 CEU eTD Collection 286 70% of in live conflict-affectedAlbanians municipalities. former in conflict clustered the Albanians are was higher.municipalities affected the were not 70%ofmunicipalitiessample theseOver in turnout and the in by the conflict support. higher to voter be get able and thus possibilitiespatronage to haveextend most municipality to ofthe which control had political patronage. To affiliation political controlthe measure Icoded ofthe political mayor. party the Iexpect municipality. extend proxy forparties' possibilities to municipality a as ofthe control political Itake of control political to dummymeasure variable Ialsoa higherused will supportthere. from have rebels in conflict-affected parties werewiderthat networks andone denser wouldexpect municipalities and conflict-affected networks. ofwar strength atime as proxy forthe municipalities Arguably, time war 0 otherwise. in 2001.Itake conflict research measurementbasedonmyofthe was thorough The ofNLA activities or reported was 1forconflict-affected the coded during municipality 2001,then and was the conflict-affected measure municipality clashes whether variable to werearmed ornot. Ifthere of results The electoral a Iused dummy performance. oftheir are measurement parties Albanian it taken. the was closer year to in 2013,were11 the years census. which after were more forelections data valid census shouldbe The one,elections thelocal was yearcensus last thewhile insame the taken, when 2002,werein legislative durable. usuallycircumstances more thatnational are Ianalyze, post-conflict elections The first under normal patterns big since are demographic not they very changes, thereprobably even are if hand, the On other since demographics then. in the be might changes 2002; there notwithstandingthat in 2011 attempt recent failed. but a tocensus, it take are from data most census recent the Therefore, Tables the withsample the appendix. arein information about 286 The in conflict-affected turnout was municipalities lower. However, over 189 CEU eTD Collection Table IV.4. Results of national partiesAlbanian legislative elections in (2002-2011) support. electoral in 4. table presented The results are inand 2011 increased with a steady elections national legislative (61%).DUI inpost-conflict won all in 2002(75%). elections was parliamentary in the 2006and highest 2008(55-56%), Then dropped in it 2011. electionsin 2008and ofearly weretwocycles in 2006there the elections regular turnoutThe 2011. betweencycles 2002and in September2002and after wereheld first post-conflict elections The The between competition main elections. national legislative Albanian isforthe werefour parties There 2005. electionsin local ofmost had woncontrol DUI After and that municipalities. majority Albanian affected DPA municipalities. in control most of had political the until Albanian municipalities majority region. means that This most mostintensively, votes, get and compete parties Albanian in conflict- ND RDK DUA NDU DAAM NDS- NA NDP PDP DPA DUI Turnout voters Registered 143, 676 934, 294 25, 837 26, 378 63, 124 No ------2002 (N=65) 1, 239,397 15.38 75.38 2.76 2.82 6.76 % ------961, 831 113, 519 70, 259 3, 507 4, 077 4, 117 No - - - - - 2006 (N=82) 1, 711, 515 56.19 0.43 0.36 0.42 11.8 7.3 % - - - - - 125, 699 831, 781 82, 376 6, 484 1, 651 7, 213 No - - - - - 2008 (N=66) 1, 486,721 55.95 15.11 0.78 0.19 0.86 9.9 % - - - - - 942, 643 115, 091 19, 958 29, 996 66, 312 4, 029 470 277 No - - - 2011 (N=66) 1, 526,043 61.77 3.18 0.43 0.05 0.03 7.03 12.2 2.11 % - - - 190 CEU eTD Collection Table IV.6. One way 2006elections. ANOVA: voter and municipalities conflict-affected support 0.1.Standard 0.05.*.Significantparenthesis. at 0.01.**.Significantdeviationin ***. Significant at at support Table IV.5. One 2002national way elections. ANOVA: voter and municipalities conflict-affected thenmuch DUI's. lower in 2002and 2006. municipalities results forDPAThe are scores butmean atheir similar structure, have conflict-affected inhigher party thenonconflict-affected in supportthe got to compared municipalities, support affected forDUIalmost times Electoral was parties. 10ten to compared other municipalities by farscorein the supportshowsDUIconflict- that highest had oftheelectoral comparison mean conflict-affected municipalities. effect F showstrongest and significant The the values forDUI. The the below. tables shows that Levene's test issufficient there between conflict-affected variance and non way ANOVA cycle. electoral results in mean each the compare parties' in are to presented The results support in DUIhaveconflict-affected that higher will Iexpect municipalities. one Iused supportfor ofelectoral variance analyzed the to conflict-affected in relation parties Albanian patronage. extend andnetworks had possibilitiesto To support from timeI war networks the test My argument was most DUI successful isthat the time itonwar partybuilt Albanian was because No Yes affected conflict- F testLevene's No Yes conflict-affected 64 18 N 47 18 N (1, 269.64) (3, 504.13) 4, 717.94 446.81 DUI (1826.85) (5188.37) 41.32*** 6223.22 673.57 0.000 DUI (3, 019.33) 2, 935.28 (823.35) 272.25 DPA (2181.39) 32.36*** (904.97) 2535.28 372.11 0.000 DPA (114.11) (31.61) NDP 64 18 (1140.04) 30.56*** (302.12) 1121.61 131.68 0.000 PDP (157.08) (97.71) 126.44 19.23 NA NDS-DAAM (743.17) (869.82) 4.51** 729.33 0.152 270.4 (341.63) NDP (47.19) 187.5 11.59 191 CEU eTD Collection their electoral appeal. appeal. electoral their aconvincinglythe result, won elections. As DUI NLA on local werebuilt conflict. branches Local strengthened symboliccapital and their structures DUI and NLA ofthe andlegacies structural symbolic and the fresh strong. DUI institutionalized were favor ofDUI. ended. the conflict after one year 2002electionswereheld linkagesThe between werein odds itthe conflict-affected that support,then isclear electoral formobilizing municipalities strongfactor my in werea confirm hypothesis.timenetworks war that The Ifone assumes results 0.1.Standard 0.05.*.Significantparenthesis. at 0.01.**.Significantdeviationin ***. Significant at at Table IV.8. 2011 way One elections. ANOVA: and municipalities voter conflict-affected support 0.1.Standard 0.05.*.Significantparenthesis. at 0.01.**.Significantdeviationin ***. Significant at at Table IV.7. One way 2008elections. ANOVA: voter and municipalities conflict-affected support 0.1.Standard 0.05.*.Significantparenthesis. at 0.01.**.Significantdeviationin ***. Significant at at Levene's testLevene's No Yes affected conflict- F testLevene's F test Levene's No Yes affected conflict- F 48 18 N 48 18 N (1, 864.25) (1, 223.04) (3, 29.68*** 4, 267.44 797.44 0.005 DUI (2, 062.64) (3, 306.91) 66.07*** 36.18*** 4, 873.33 791.23 0.000 0.009 DUI (3, 377.06) (3, (1, 050.9) (1, 18.52*** 2, 700.06 368.98 0.001 DPA (1, 055.39) (3, 566.75) (1, 990.04) (1, 27.45*** 3, 405.83 40.31*** 15.93*** 1, 314.39 (363.24) 438.98 132.02 0.000 0.000 0.001 RDK DPA (451.85) (731.25) 9.23*** 178.65 632.39 0.002 ND 11.56*** (196.28) (27.57) 3.49* 0.005 10.38 64.06 0.001 NDU (393.54) (63.56) 6.92** 172.17 0.000 19.38 DUA 27.55*** 12.65*** (468.83) (40.92) 366.89 0.000 12.69 0.000 PDP 14.39*** (14.67) (9.54) 0.001 15.61 NDU 3.94 15.39 (24.06) 16.37*** (107.67) (483.22) 10.37** 270.11 0.000 33.79 0.000 DUA 20.16*** 0.000 PDP 0 192 CEU eTD Collection **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. *.Correlation significant**. Correlation at significant is the 0.05level is at the (2-tailed). 0.01level. Table IV.9. Correlation: 2002elections. voter support for partiesAlbanian below. tables in arethe presented elections fornational legislative the correlations also be higher. A opportunitiesfor more electoral highermeans turnout parties.Albanian results of The of percent ifthat the ishigher, in a municipality Albanians support for the then would parties Albanian highrelationship with positive should indicate a they the that sense support. party Albanian meansThis municipality. inof voters andthe turnout very similar in and theofvoters are data number census The number with of the inferences to possibility check gave me theAlbanians municipality, in number the correlations voter wouldget support. Running higher and patronage, to wouldbeextend then able they different an if that Iexpect explanatoryvariables. in control municipalities, political has party Albanian To results effects test of forthe electoral Icorrelated control political from with parties Albanian thesurprising that effect ended. the 10years conflict after ispresent timenetworks. ofwar supportby mitigated theand institutionalization continuous And isvery it support insame conflict-affected remainedonthe level. municipalities indication ofstrong This isan Over electoral years DUI'smean extend sothe resources could patronage. access to they spoilsand and got capital symbolic preserve their to practices social timeand war networks initiated most ofthe in higher non-affected than and substantially control parties, the DUI of had other still municipalities. than in conflict-affected result remainedhigher DUI's electoral In next municipalities mean elections DPA control conflict-affected Turnout of No Voters of No Albanians = 65 N 0.635** 0.629** 0.431** 0.966** 0.264* DUI 0.587** 0.583** 0.408** 0.946** 0.256* DPA 0.528** 0.572** 0.728** 0.285* 0.216 PDP 0.259** 0.739** 0.313* 0.307* 0.236 NDP 193 CEU eTD Collection political control of municipalities was not very relevant for harnessing votes. On the other hand, my On other was hand, very the relevantforharnessing votes. of municipalities not control political 2002. Hence, DPA'sand budgets in Hence possibilities patronage. had to limited extend mayors forDUI,worked notforDPA? it why work did competences had limited one hand, On municipalities in coefficient 2002and their municipalities DUI's.assumes islower than control If one political that other votes getthan more were likely to Albanian However, parties. DPA of control had political control. political wherethey had municipalities DUIthey control, had means political once that This confirmhypothesis. partly coefficients DUI's my The results otherin higher parties than are *.Correlation significant**. Correlationat significantis the 0.05level is at the(2-tailed). 0.01level. Table IV.12. 2011 Correlation: elections. voter support for Albanian parties *.Correlation significant**. Correlationat significantis the 0.05level is at the(2-tailed). 0.01level. Table IV.11. Correlation: 2008elections. voter support for Albanian parties *.Correlation significant**. Correlationat significantis the 0.05level is at the (2-tailed). 0.01level. Table IV.10. Correlation: 2006elections. voter support for partiesAlbanian No of No Voters of No Albanians = 66 N controlDUI conflict-affected Turnout of No Voters of No Albanians = 82 N DUI controlDUI affected conflict- Turnout of votersNo Albanians of No = 66 N controlDUI conflict-affected Turnout 0.492** 0.563** 0.416** 0.540** 0.968** DUI 0.720** 0.673** 0.601** 0.436** 0.523** 0.967** 0.673** 0.352** 0.449** 0.967** DUI DUI 0.348** 0.474** 0.403** 0.504** 0.895** DPA 0.595** 0.548** 0.430** 0.489** 0.936** 0.601** 0.579** 0.359** 0.450** 0.950** DPA DPA 0.446** 0.344** 0.471** 0.788** 0.254* RDK 0.462** 0.355** 0.368** 0.443** 0.604** ND 0.446** 0.485** 0.317** 0.428** 0.355** 0.368** 0.439** 0.686** 0.012 0.288 NDU NDP 0.335** 0.383** 0.590** -0.002' 0.313* DUA 0.459** 0.549** 0.643** 0.500** 0.370** 0.286** 0.363** 0.628** 0.256* 0.229 PDP NA 0.303** 0.428** 0.533** 0.606** 0.736** NDU NDS-DAAM 0.449** 0.373** 0.433** 0.465** 0.773** 0.412** 0.264** 0.291** 0.385** 0.214 DUA 0.489** 0.613** 0.294* 0.264* 0.166 PDP 194 CEU eTD Collection The results of the local elections provide another corroboration of my argument. ofmy providecorroboration another ofthe elections local legislative The Local results However, highest coefficients. it whichthe has isDUI of correlationswithpositive number conflict-affected control. Albanians, political municipalities and control. political all impacts This bias methodological parties. Albanian They show, all more orless, with conflict-affected also and be with resultspositively will correlated electoral municipalities results ofan with number of positivelycorrelated partyAlbanian are party's the Albanians, then of spurious electoral could once have that the effectAlbanians meaning explanatoryvariables, onother of Albanians. Highnumber votes for indicatesmore Albanians parties. Albanian number the Therefore, results of electoral between findcorrelation we clustering positive of and number parties Albanian Macedonia. and The conflict aresame inregion. the municipalities majority Albanian ofthe a result As in theset. data municipalities and North-West between clustered North-East live Albanians mainly in between overlap conflict-affected isaand great DPA hand, there On municipalities other the controlled matchDUI's success. could not electoral support forDUI. electoral reconstruction, provided Without other the capacities, such partiesAlbanian field. channelingofpost-conflict ofNLA,their symbolicThe and and structural legacies success. electoral their guaranteed The other playing have a didlevel not parties political Albanian houses) than'private' goods (e.g.DPA's rebuilding to a mayors.party transformation Hence, their NLA/DUIoffer the could conflict Thus, after supply) and more and (e.g.roads water 'club' building figures. NLAgovernance reconstruction. the channel post-conflict to influenceand wereable structures chapter, control. NLA'stimeassumedpolitical war networks providers and local security as acted They the shown 2002elections,as onground.Priorprevious hadto strongcontrol in NLA/DUI the structures the capturesofficial control only forpolitical measure governance. ofthe conflict, consequence As a 195 CEU eTD Collection that DUIthat conflict-affected enjoys strongsupportin conflict-affected take Ifwe municipalities. in non-affected it theresult gets higher times mean than three municipalities. indication This isanother parties. results thanofother substantially the higher was supportforDUI thealmost Also, electoral for DUI. conflict-affected results DUI'sin datathat electoral were The show mean municipalities results. to get parties conclusive for all the significant categories between variance The values F were conflict-affected in relation to results However,of the electoral municipalities. not enough was there DUI inall won almost Irunone-way municipalities. majority Albanian ANOVA variance analyzethe to Table IV.13. Results of local partiesAlbanian (2005 in –2013) elections the turnout. DPAsecond with 6.7%,and 5.9%.In2013DUI 19.5%,DPA third won 11% got won and RDK 4%of DPA-PDP coalition 2005,whileturnout the in wonwas won2009,while ND 16.9%.DUI 15.1%in elections.DUI 22.4%ofthe inthree won all in 2013.DUIbest results higher had2009 andthe a bit elections. oflocal thecycles parties three Albanian in in wassimilar 2005and turnout roughly The post-conflict period. in the competitive elections werequite Table results ofdifferent 10shows the RDK ND PDP DPA NDP DPA-PDP DUI Turnout voters Registered 123, 453 550, 663 93, 440 6, 572 No - - - - 2005 (N=40) 1, 043,919 16.97 22.42 52.74 1.19 % - - - - 617, 481 41, 414 36, 619 93, 584 1, 700 No - - - 2009 (N=40) 1, 196,559 15.16 51.6 0.28 5.93 6.7 % - - - 700, 501 137, 083 28, 515 77, 724 No - - - - 2013 (N=37) 1, 123,849 62.33 19.57 11.09 4.07 % - - - - 196 CEU eTD Collection thanks to their war time networks. Once they had patronage possibilities on national level, they were onnationalthey level, they possibilities had patronage thanks time networks. Once towar their parties. support in conflict-affected electoral which Iargue preserved higher They municipalities, is other to compared advantage DUI had ofconflict's a competitive legacies, institutionalization Albanian to offer representation principle equitable patronage. as in administration employment public With the resources. targeted they The shows tracing that process to NLA benefits andOFA's used combatants all controlled almost from 2005. municipalities Albanian-majority accesstoThey spoilsand got possibilities patronage. to extend in government 2002and they ofthe national becamepart They capital. done in was conflict-affected This mainly municipalities. their sameincreased At the time,DUI symbolic museums)their to (e.g.institutionalize monument and inobjects and physical invested (e.g. practices commemorations) social initiated ofvoters. DUI andfor communication mobilization conflict-affectedtime werestronger networks in municipalities. becameDUI's units They social micro legacies. ofconflict's the institutionalization from DUI indicator that benefits War this another as I take Table IV.14. in relation elections DUI'sin votes local in percent municipalities, toconflict-affected from 2009,came conflict-affected2005 and 2013,and 66%in municipalities. supportforDUI in electoral forDUI's support.70%ofthe what this means electoral illustrate better conflict-affected ofDUI's below Ishowstructure relation to In thevotes in to table municipalities the were12years theconflict. after in ones 2013,which elections,including local timewerestronger. war networks supportwherethe DUImostthat electoral gets the This holdsforall oneconclusion can an asdraw initial timethen proxyofwar networks, forthemunicipalities strength a No Yes conflict-affected 2005 (N=40) 29.94 70.06 2009 (N=40) 66.53 33.47 2013 (N=37) 70.38 29.62 197 CEU eTD Collection accompanied by theaccompanied UK that inAmbassador Skopje, OFA and the forMacedonia was best option the However, continue. struggleAlbanian to statement, a public he made several days letter an 2005: as MP 131;(Haxhirexha, Rusi,2004).Haxhirexha denounced OFA in parliament and vowed wanted be federalized country andto the nationMacedonia be a in constituent Albanians to 131).NDP (Haxhirexha, them 2005: negotiate with authorities to with not OFA. satisfied was NDP NLA. NDP and asked the ofthe rebels in put still defense itself useofviolence,“but rejected NDP NLA closewith contacts had conflict (Rusi,2004; during the Veliu, 2008)but wasin included not the of association in prisoners 1999. political Albanian of thepresident vice in 1981.Haxhirexha Kosovo became protest nationalistic in in for participation 129). KastriotMP Haxhirexha, from DPA, ofNDP. wasfirst president the served He 8years in prison of 2005: position growing(Haxhirexha, every was day” and legal constitutional from their Albanians and status of the improve working properlyrights to dissatisfaction hand, “the the On other Albanians. the that acting Onit claimed reasons. two main was one side, representativeswerenot Albanian inpatronage 2002.NDP wason11 founded 2005).NDP March2001(Haxhirexha, was out of formed (NDP). possibilities to extend and legacies relying oninstitutionalizationofconflict's They werealso Party Democratic National from came the first inpost-conflict elections tothe DUI The challenge main IV.4.1.Can DUIlose elections? idiosyncrasies. oflocal electionsbecause local timein At theDUIdefeated same was elections. party.legislative challenge forthe a real presented DUI, werenotas successful as but They However, servedDUI has patronage well. other same in have the model national used parties Albanian elections. local to andalso winin legacies to able extend conflict's strategyinstitutionalize The to 198 CEU eTD Collection 288 287 hisvillage. erected” in Shehadie NLA “sister ofa dead Ademi, Naser commandant, to whoma monumentAdemi, was high in NLA's hierarchy. him and behind was unit, firstsixth Kastriot inelectoral was the Haxhirexha former NLA However, unit. first inelectoral the list were ontop ofthe combatants, very they werenot NDP NLA several other had and Jusuf example,Muzafer ontheirFor Haruni lists. combatants Ademi, day”. find knewit unsupervised,wouldnot the constructionwe next though we there we material even left everyone who they knew were. 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This NDP injoined Hoxha NLA, Commander Shaqiri, aka Xhezair time war networks conflict. His the after 13). 2006: (Friedman, forMacedonia” proposal solution ofa federal supportformultiethnicexpressed democracy. NDP was “marginal seenas party... best known forits pBroj=938&stID=581&pR=2 25.07.2013. 2002, Skopje Utrinski Utrinski Vesnik. “NLA (availableat conquerparliament” move to onthe commanders post-conflict in workinginternational interview sponsored for reconstruction projects local with engineer Author's 288

last accessed on26 accessed last April 2014). http://star.utrinski.com.mk/? 287 199 CEU eTD Collection 289 a leading considered Xhaferi was in the ideas ethno-nationalistic pushingforward intellectual Albanian 2011). Xhaferi,Arben DPA's ofMacedonia. president 1994to federalization 2007,promoted from from PDP party a splinter a right-leaning to in be 1994and isconsidered (Kadriu, party ethnic Albanian was strategy. it DUI's emulating 2002and its2008because improved results between DPA as appeared of the performance in Macedonia. parties Albanian of Democratic Party The Albanians (DPA) withimprove patronage in conjunction showsconflict's that isalegacies secondexample which There to failed 2006.He winsufficientnational in another supportandjoined later Albanian party. most ofNDP merged the merger DUI.objected to 2005and Shaqiri with electionsin local and ran in June2003. Mala in DUI'sRechica in agreement in headquarters signedAhmeti a cooperation After that DUI NDP saw the party. assimilate actions andto took real challenge a as Kastriotand Haxhirexha Ali group. ethnic target and to reconstructionprocess members thechannel to ofhis post-conflict selective benefits able from thewas He to NLA. andlegacies onstructural symbolic relied because he more competitive However,than Shaqiri. was thanShaqiri Shaqiri. which got are only 60%fewer Haxirexha 7,639votes where unit sixth inelectoral the list the party are majority,Albanians voters potential and thushad more Haxhirexha NDP's led Kastriot elections.Incomparison, president the wina mandateat candidate to totalvotes which NDPwhich 50%ofthe isalmost was only Shaqiri level. NDP the got onnational got Shaqiri's-led 12,635votes, list list. the leading party was Xhezair unitShaqiri electoral 2,where NDP 2002. electionsin parliamentary in the overin 25,000votes won best result had the They http://www.economist.com/node/555442 on9 accessed last April, 2014) Xhaferi, Macedonia's pivotal The “Arben Economist. 29.03.2011Albanian”, (availableat 289 200

CEU eTD Collection 294 293 292 291 290 ofOFA.signatories signed and PDP was Prizren declaration and DPA the OFA. negotiated one ofthe XhaferiArben was (Xhaferi, 2001). mediation under state international Macedonian authorities” The representatives and conflict resolution. To conflict, DPA stopthe legitimate “among dialogue demanded Albanian to sprint”. of theimprove rights however,Albanians; DPA while others wanted race, to runa long prepared “was DPA's NLA toward the position conflict spread. changed the when to similardemands made They they that [DPA, but was inbefore There Prizren, a meeting destroy us”. to D.T]tried towas NLA a secret not “Menduh saythat who commanders andThaci Mr. did us. not join Xhaferi DPA leaders with Macedonian any cost”. beat thedefeated that UCK insisted diplomats and meetings with foreign informationin tothat “have claimed politiciansAlbanian even time had passed”. their that without war of the realizing Kosovo affair, an as intra-Albanian the conflict described NLA calling the glory to trying recapture “extremists, DPA 2001. started whenin conflict the partner the government coalition in a junior was Xhaferi Arben other(Xhaferi, 1998). among issues parliament”, chamber ofa two- and autonomy formation and territorial onpolitical referendum and flags, the languages formation, rights, state should consist of“inherited agreement and the state” a “bi-national Macedonia 1990s. panic-interview-arben-xhaferi last accessed on9 accessed last panic-interview-arben-xhaferi April, 2014). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1256855.stm IWPR. “An with an Panic: Optimist in interview at http://iwpr.net/report-news/optimist- (available Xhaferi”, Arben interview NLA with Author's Commandander, 14.07.2013. Skopje, Dnevnik. “We recordings of have by talks DPA”,Anti-Albanian 02.04.2001 BBC.“Popular holds02.04.2001 (availableat role”, Albanian leader key Interview with Menaj, in 153 2008: Xhaferi Arben 290 He considered that ethnic Macedonians and considered He ethnic that to make an agreement Albanians shouldhave 294 DPA in included the not to want butthem be onNLA, did theattacks verbal retracted from last accessed on9 accessed last April, 2014) 291 DPA to hostile NLA was and some 292

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last accessed on9 accessed last April, 2014). http://star.utrinski.com.mk/? 296

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CEU eTD Collection 305 304 303 302 employed 800new courts and andin interpreters and 99translators civil servants Albanian provided to in (DPA, timegovernment they during the were Albanians example, 2008).For they DPA's goods ofthe wastestimonial and 'club' 'private' they forthe a 2008elections program electoral between 2008(OSCE/ODIHR, 2008). werecalledin early when parties elections Albanian ofthe timenetworks. war violence capacities to ofelectoral diminishthe increase toThis an led votes”. inand secure place people their doing to that get party loyalists. DPAits term, laying wasoff purposefully ofDUI sympathizers and employing own and their members oftheof invalids 2001war, (Kadriu, 2011: independenceofKosovo recognizingthe and 150).During CriminalInternational Tribunal forformer Yugoslavia status solving Macedonia, the sent cases back to and language Albanian increasing flag, Albanian ininstitutions, solving public representation Albanian agreement with VMRO-DPMNE which offered to goods 'club' usageof greater as such Albanians DPA the crisis, Notwithstanding political accessto spoilsand resources. got a coalition made They degradationofOFA”.2001, as the wider population.“AAlbanian large as took blowto it contributionsfrom ofthea electorate part with government in included the they were VMRO-DPMNE. forDUI, revolt but alsoThis for caused DPAEven though in 2006, elections national legislative the votesDUI and MPs after than had fewer subordinate he was to influence,because the same NowAhmeti. have Matoshi cannot Ali Ahmeti”. secretary.became general hishigh commander, But withand G'zimalsohad Ostreni,us we was Ali example, “ Interview with Hajrula Misini, 16.07.2013. Hajrula Interview Skopje, with G'zim Interview with Ostreni, Debar, 14.07.2013. Skopje, interview Rizvan Sulejmani, with Author's 08.07.2013. interview Misini, Hajrula 16.07.2013. Skopje, with Author's Ruzhdi Matoshi was a deputy commander of the ofthe commander a deputy Matoshi was Ruzhdi Tetovo went He to DPA brigade. and 304 “With 2,500officials kicked they out one move from DUI levels. onall were They 303 DUI radicalized, left Parliament and pushed for early elections. andforearly pushed Parliament left radicalized, DUI 305

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Ifit things wouldbe waited, “DPAto 2008.Manybelievedthat DUI in [in government entered it electionsin lost2008,because the 2006to 2008.However, from possibilities patronage to extend elections the again parliamentary it lost DPA and had timeappropriatedsome war networks, symboliccapital, supportfrom increased support in conflict-affectedelectoral fell2,700in 2011. to municipalities former NLA supportfromalso timenetworks.Once gotwar more DPA, left members mean the offormer thatinclusion NLA thiswith an as indicator 3,405.Itake 935 in 2006and to DPA members DPA's supportin 2, conflict-affected from electoral 2,535in increased 2002to mean municipalities former NLA and to radicalize include decisions to combatants. theThe results from ANOVA show that 2008elections. 2002to fromthe supportthe increased electoral with itsThis strategic overlaps 2011. DPA's 2002and 2011. 6.7%to 10%between almost support rangesbetween electoral DPA's group ofMPs from alsoDPA. split DPA's electionsin legislative next in national the votes decreased out. kicked Rexhepiwas party –Leka the and Daut left already with.Mahmuti Bardulj to reconcile A Menduh this point ofDPA, becamepresident Thaci observershe isa that difficult and most note person and government inDPA response, DUI in them replaced (Balkanalysis,2011). boycotted parliament At DPA 2008; however, elections in lost the again and MPs more to compared 2006. got votes even they services for and healthcare institutions infrastructure,educational activities, Albanians. of defense. Usage forcultural money public given ensuredandwas more was language Albanian bodies.administrative to 1,000positions for close created They and of theministry Albanians army in Interview with MPs from RDK, Skopje, 24.02.2014. MPsRDK, Interview Skopje, with from 306 Notwithstanding the counter-factual, the Notwithstanding 205 CEU eTD Collection 307 abruptly in because 1997was histerm him thought owe Gostivarin 2009.People they elections in 2009.Some in argue Gostivar in Osmaniindependent candidate to win forRufi expected was “it that electedan as he was formany ofthat people among years 2009).Because (Balkanalysis, the resonated from rejectedcourt.1997 actions but was byHis the Courthisappeal ofHumanEuropean Rights, between deal political DPAVMRO-DPMNE and to appealed the form a government.Osmani to His year part after months. was ofthe amnesty and toone three pardoned prison,butsentenced was arrested killed.Osmani was and twodemonstrators was were seriouslypoliceman and wounded in 1997. intervenedin Gostivar The One police with groups. local fire They and exchanged clashed to and organize started and medicine. weapons includinggathering forresistance, people the country. ofthe and calledforregionalization not Courtheobey will that Constitutional the informed He forever”. …the are ourterritories Macedonia “our territoriesthat in territories flagflyAlbanian will over these Inresponse organized down. be thetaken Osmani Court flags to ordered said a protest wherehe rally and Albanian Turkish in Gostivar. ofMacedonia the along flag flagswith to fly The Constitutional mayor2009. Rufielected ofGostivarDPA's as Osmani was 1996. candidate in yearThe the next he put in Gostivar isthe ofRufiin victory Osmani example One candidates. tocompeting connected their electionsin 2009. racesDUI in local lost mayoral to idiosyncrasies local mainlyThis due was patronage. paribus diminished. significantly success itspatronage, electoral ofDPAThe example shows that also yupress.com/mkforum/mkforum3.html Forum. “European Court – Osmani vs Macedonia. Rufi Loses”, 28.12.2001(availableat –OsmaniLoses”, Forum. vsMacedonia. Court Rufi “European institutionalization of conflict's legacies is more important for harnessing voter support than supportthan important forharnessingvoter ismore legacies ofconflict's institutionalization 307 He proclaimed Gostivar to be an Gostivar to proclaimed He disobey the to government town,askedpeople Albanian last accessed on4 accessed last April, 2014). http://www.ex- ceteris ceteris 206 CEU eTD Collection 309 308 confidence”. only bridges forconstructing ofmutual “is possibility government the in participation 1990. from government 1992to in 1998. the partner They coalition werejunior their believed that They PDP moderateparties. as ethnic They appealed was first the in party in Macedonia Albanian formed Prosperity New DUIParty (PDP) (ND)ondifferent forDemocratic Democracy and challenged basis. DUI's timeandcapital. war networks symbolic supportfrom conflict. DPA ofthe legacies some included NLA match did combatants,but not it and commanders than patronage DUI's;extend however, the institutionalized because it DUI leverage had greater timeHowever, war networks. in 2002and lowsupportfrom in 2008DPA to had more possibilities argue DUI. andcan lostOne incumbent to party DPA that patronage to limitedextend possibilities had This argument ofDPA defeat forthe least electoral holdsat DPA cases in 2002and 2008.Inboth was patronage. importantare than more patronage. coupled with ofconflict's legacies institutionalization conflict's seemsthat legacies it And (e.g. However, DUA, NDU, and NA). matchedDUI's strategies none ofthe competing usedby thestrategy other networks which had time supportofwar includingparties parties, Albanian (e.g. PDP, parties whilepatronage, other wasmost frequent Outbidding the ND) weremoderate. had different with partiesDUI Albanian competing DPA strategies. on party relied incumbent as IV.4.2.Why other Albanianparties didn'twin? support”. got He plebiscite chance. giveanother wantedhim ended. to People April, 2014). May, 1996(availableat Puls. Interview with Abdurahman Aliti. perspective. “Albanian Discusses ReshuffleAliti Cabinet 15 Macedonia”, in interview MPs RDK,24.02.2014. with Skopje, Author's from https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/alt.news.macedonia/jv55yb75tNA 308 last accessed on9 accessed last 309 207

CEU eTD Collection 312 311 310 preferred 2002elections(Balkanalysis,2003d).PDP the join governmentafter partyAlbanian the to community, international 2002.ItSeptember forthe seems that US, mainly the PDP the was most in the until government elections unity May2001.It remainedin in governmentofnational part ofthe support ofthe populationAlbanian party losing 2000.ForofPDP's the the was signthat aelections in thisclear some senior members was PDP to government DPA lost itsin place thelocal following supportin in 1998and had lowelectoral form DPA. PDP splittwofactions. in stayed moderates PDP,The within went radicalfaction onto more while the wideramong the party butthe itself. alsoAlbanian within population, congress 1994, party in At the inoutvoted parliament manner,peaceful majority were byproposals the and their werenot accepted butdemands their rights. largely inPDP's governmentwas participation ineffective seenas in regardsto improving Albanian diversity, and compromise. tolerance 152). PDP’s of wasthe rights goal to main secure cultural to respect but in also Macedonia, Albanians 2011: (Kadriu, intolerance” and ideological religious form ofracial,national, and every totalitarianism, as every orleft, right any andextremism, and“rejected partycenter party ofthe Albanian 2006: (Friedman, 16).PDP ofMacedonia” multiethnic reality the which reflects structure itself defined 2011:level” (Aliti, 30). ofPDP fundamentaldemand political The and institutional state to have was “a PDP Macedonians and have ofthe orto concept “to state wanted a either civic sameAlbanians onthe Interview within157 2008: Imeri Interview Imer Menaj, Skopje, interview Rizvan Sulejmani, with Author's 08.07.2013 AIM “Are Skopje. Parliament”, 24.01.1996 and Albanians the Government Leaving 310

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During the conflict PDPDuring the conflict was and inbecame opposition a party 208 CEU eTD Collection 314 313 patronage. to extend had nopossibilities andresources therefore the conflict. symbolic not they have Therefore, capital. did PDPAfter the conflict didn't public control PDP elections. orparliamentary for local not organize did to events dedicated commemorative orattend orafter conflict. the from prior timenetworks, war have NLA did not They lists ontheir commanders PDP such as and remained after. the party conflict was before a moderate PDP support not have did and electionsin had marginal2011. legislative in 2009and national support in elections local broke off MPs, DUI,twooutstayed ofthree who butPDP with lost the DUI. coalition alone ran switched from in DPAbut subsequent elections then PDP DUIpartners. in coalition 2005to 2006as strength ofPDP. diminishedthe changes further PDP in 2002, elections parliamentary in ranthe alone ofyearscouple PDP leadership struggles power and Internal frequent presidents. changed several 2011: 31).Shortlysigning OFA, after next forpersonal Inthe down, reasons. health stepped Imeri conflict PDPAfter the to continued supportOFA, itbe(Aliti, improved that but could also considered ofPDP, president Imer the Imeri, and wasofthe co-signersofOFA. signedDeclaration theone Prizren followed. more DUI and many and Rizvan like 2003d). Others, Sulejmani fromAziz twoprominentPDP MPs, Polozhani switched to with Rafiz the case of NLA commander Commandant M'suesi, aka Aliti, 115th (Balkanalysis, brigade internal conflicts”. the and leadership However, PDP 1990s,in many in government the upin with changes coalition was weak,“used seenas the hadat visitedmeetings US, 2002. delegation the and electionsin before the House, White a-2002-07-17-1-1-86453902/444646.html interview with Author's 17.06.2013 Skopje, Pollozhani, Aziz Voice of withAmerica. “Interview Abdurahman Aliti”, 2002 (availableat 17July 314 last accessed on9 accessed last April, 2014).

Some PDP NLA joined members conflict. during the This was http://mk.voanews.com/content/a-42- 313

209 CEU eTD Collection 317 316 315 strongly by opposed DUI and Ali Ahmeti. of minister and leader Gruevski,prime Selmani and Nikola VMRO-DPMNE. ofImer close tocooperation the coalition due join governing may the ND even expectations that the second party.Albanian with DUI. ND cooperation Inseveral established municipalities, were There personsmany in different council 2009. in municipalities was ofvotes, theND According number to first forany ethnic (Balkanalysis,in 2009).ND mayor also candidate” won Albanian and Arachinovo 40,000Macedonians, a –includingvotes from vote “aboutgeneral won finished He 15%ofthe third. affiliation” andethnic religious (Gaber-Damjanovska first 2009:roundhe and Jovevska, 37).Inthe their they language speak, regardless ofthe president “vowed to citizens beAlbanians, a ofall and few are very where there cities he visited in 2009.Duringhiscampaign ND's candidate presidential and DPA, indisappointed DUI communities. membersethnic but ofother also family,citizens, the issues”. business,the national the and ND supposedbe a “center-right was to party. will and it onthe partyfocus new be modern will The him. followed –Leka, and Daut Rexhepi seats NDin hadparliament. wasfive When it formed, 2008:Jovevska, 43).NLA DPA, joined who commanders, suchas Ruzhdi Matoshi Abedin Zimberi, successful party ND to ofhim wasbe(Gaber-Damjanovska a minister Because ofhealth. expected and position. memberofPDP as career political to DPA inswitched 1992,but then party he got a senior where DPA Selmani,from New ledsplintered by (ND), Imer Democracy his Selmani started in 2008.Imer a0201027501 http://www.thefreelibrary.com/BDI+does+not+want+Selmani+in+government%3a+Ahmeti%27s+party+opposes...- coalition”, 21.05.2009 (availableat government http://micnews.com.mk/node/14966 2014). Macedonian Information Centre. “BDI does not want Selmani government: Centre.does want in MacedonianInformation not “BDI partyAhmeti's of opposes expansion at party”, Selmani new Centre. form MacedonianInformation to 02.09.2008(available “Imer a for 12.11.2011 Koha. clue leader”, “No (availableat 315 He was a popular mayor in Saraj, waspopularin He Saraj, mayor a Skopje, and capital in the majorityAlbanian municipality last accessed on26 accessed last April, 2014). last accessed on20 accessed last April, 2014). http://www.koha.mk/aktuale/8968.html 316

ND wanted to attract toND attract wanted who were Albanians 317 Imer Selmani ran as Imer Selmani However, this was last accessed on20 accessed last April, 210 CEU eTD Collection 318 together. all NDleft, disappeared from 2009to 2011, in 2011. elections parliamentary weakresults in NDthe had Selmani After Imer and formercomrades, NLA members. ofappeal and the shift sudden As ofinternal discord a result difficult Itfor NDwas in ofhisparty legacy 2009elections. ofSelmani with appeal the reconcile the to past positions conflict. in and the nointerests had results very moderate limited delivered This strategy to appealed He different ofNLA. legacy from the opposite elections, werecompletely groups, ethnic However,capital. the party, positions ofthe presidential ofSelmaniduring appeal the electoral and the with him. symbolic support from NDtimeand war networks some Therefore, had potentially some NLA by several joined was He politician. on a very charismatic who commanders DPA left together ND winany MPs did in not 2011 twodays afterelections. Selmani resigned the and Imer DUI. cooperation with the governmentwith in participation but possibilitiesforcloser VMRO-DPMNE, also precluded of2011. beginning inboycotted the parliament negativeby wereseenas the which governmentpolicies, contentious population,ND Albanian radicalposition. a more and undertook to criticism nationalistic succumbed a seriesof After minister, which forsome of was arm ND an extended that meant media Albanian VMRO-DPMNE. ND by criticized ofthe close as prime partner often Selmani was seen Albanian politicians. nationalist NLA among hisformer well didn't views resonate His federalization. was partyand he comrades, inter-ethnic had moderateconcerning of views Albanians. to Selmani ideas and relations objected supportedND OFA fully of rights and status demandsthe concerning make and did orradical not new http://www.makdenes.org/content/article/2336347.html by derogatory Selmani”. –Imer 13.03.2011 Free (formore Radio “Interview see Europe. Albanians at available “Skopje buildings 2014”,and project erectingmonuments new celebrating sponsored seenAncient Macedonia new2011 thetoin the failure boycottto wascensus Selmani a Imer According have to due government and the 318 toDUI's morecriticize gaveThis it move space last accessed on26 accessed last April, 2014). ND wasND built 211 CEU eTD Collection 322 321 320 319 in ofhisinvolvement because over timein war networks Macedonia had certaininfluence Mahmuti 153-154). DUA constitution for the to change a petition started equalAlbanians tocitizens. be that redistributionsubsidiesso offarming equitable 2011: (Kadriu, not discriminated Albanians are and DUA offamilies ofNLA's veterans, members organization territorial new demanded also and ofNLAa lawstatus forlegal and theiremploying homes families, rebuilding and their members OFA, representation of proportionaland adequate institutions, state employment their in Albanians and as itself third defined the of implementation andfull indemanded Macedonia option political Albanian forignoring government the accused DUA, infounding their declaration, demands. Albanian points. negative political DPA, ofDPA critical equally and was him flip-floppingbrought them. believethat left Some he when DPAand now that”. like a man not does need DPAengagement in ofDUI, rating elections,to the beforediminish the only and oneonly function had 2007. A local 2006because “his electionsin the sawlogical step analyst after Albanian this a as and National from Mahmuti, DPA ofBardulj leadership DUA, under splintered Alternative the (NA). in demands. Unionof werethe Democratic These Union (NDU) (DUA),Democratic National Albanians by DUI also challenged was radical and timenetworks made whichwar included parties Albanian

ItemID=8A30E9BEFC4BF34D8580471B9E735EBB last on26 accessed ItemID=8A30E9BEFC4BF34D8580471B9E735EBB April, 2014). 20.11.2007 go in can't divisions Europe”, we (availableat http://www.globusmagazin.com.mk/? mId=37&eventId=26878&egId=13 http://star.kanal5.com.mk/%28S%281xlhnb45xy2kximdfaw1xemt%29%29/default.aspx? 2014). http://www.bbc.co.uk/macedonian/news/story/2007/04/printable/070402_mac_beqiri.shtml Globus Magazin. Interview with Bardulj Mahmuti, Bardulj Interview DUA with GlobusMagazin. leader of KLA, and spokespersonof “With murders and 5 Kanal TV. Mahmuti official “Bardulj makes his Unionof Democratic at Albanians”, 09.09.2007(available Bujar InterviewOsmani,16.05.2013. with Skopje, the02.04.2007(available at Minister for onMacedonian.“Resignationof BBC Culture”, 320 last accessed on20 accessed last April, 2014). 319

Mahmuti was very critical ofDUIin he critical when was wasMahmuti very

last accessed on20 accessed last April, 321 322 DUA

212 CEU eTD Collection 327 326 325 324 323 Union(NDU) who was byelected HisniShaqiri, MP started was Democratic National a party from 2008 and 2011 success. significant didelectoral cases not and inhave both patronage. to extend have andpossibilities resources did not They against politically discriminating parties. political Albanian voterin registry, the and accused He DUI to vote. notright have andthe thusdid VMRO-DPMNE for had done forNDP in 2002.However, was He constraints. not institutional faced time Shaqiri some this DUAjoined in 2011. the elections before he district,as He secondelectoral DUA's in the headed list DUAFor and pressures. raids werea signofdictatorship the Mahmuti, and Bardulj of the repression be jeopardized. security may stability warnedthat ofMacedonia and Albanians and 2007. ofBrodec in in the raid police village DPAminister from forinterior the second ofarrestedafter persons responsible was formistreatment secondtime, DPA2006a). Inthe was in power, the to left form deputy and Mahmuti DUA.accused He wasMahmuti ofDPA, part (Balkanalysis, government coalition in wasthe partner and DUI a junior target timewerethe war networks raids ofpolice twotimes. in timeMarch2006when was The first same”.is not the It in UCK andMacedonia. isnot in important activein Kosovo, he “was Because well Macedonia. into DPA timetoon war networks, join 2006. in KLA in Kosovo. DPA he entered When branches ofsmaller he influencedlocal Albanian built parties, 2014). http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Commander+Hoxha+not+allowed+to+vote.-a0259080030 http://kiss.com.mk/mak/novosti1.asp?id=2087 last on26 accessed ItemID=8A30E9BEFC4BF34D8580471B9E735EBB April, 2014). 20.11.2007 go in can't divisions Europe”, we (availableat http://www.globusmagazin.com.mk/? on 20 April, 2014). Macedonian Information Centre. “Commander Hoxha not allowed not vote”, to Centre. Hoxha 02.06.2011 MacedonianInformation “Commander (availableat Kiss TV. Mahmuti”,24.11.2007 Bardulj the party helpof “Foreigners–demands to (availableat Mahmuti, Bardulj InterviewDUA with GlobusMagazin. leader of KLA, and spokespersonof “With murders and interview Debar, G'zim with Ostreni, Author's 14.07.2013. shrinks”, Dnevnik. 18.03.2006(availableat “NDS 324 Furthermore, his war time networks were purposefully diminished.Mahmuti's local timewerepurposefully hiswar networks Furthermore, last accessed on20 accessed last April, 2014). 323 325 However, from KLA capital hissymbolic not transfer did Mahmuti requested international representatives to stop representatives international requested Mahmuti http://star.dnevnik.com.mk/?pBroj=3015&stID=75335 327

DUA control notof have political did ran in parliamentary elections in inelections parliamentary ran last accessed on20 accessed last April, Xhezair Shaqiri Xhezair last accessed accessed last 213 326

CEU eTD Collection 329 328 to Kosovo. fledallegedly He Macedonia, May2010. the ain shootoutpolice with killedin Aliu was ofseveral policemen. was murder significant and support.InJanuary foundguiltyforthe 2008,he tried conflict. during the which had casualties Therefore, did not stoodin formedget electionsbut NA, Aliu status ofNLA benefitsfamilies and social forthe compensation institutional and to secure veterans DUI. importantly, More solution social to forthe find a DUIpolitical that not failed hesatisfied was Fazli Veliu conflict (Veliu, during the ofNLA position with not the satisfied was 2008).He in members known Kushtrim also memberofKLA and was Commandant as inwith relations Kosovo. had He close Harun National the Aliu started aofNLA, member was 2006elections.He before the (NA) Alternative patronage. was the conflict finished”. after volunteer. him.just did we another when notwas He joined need “Hisni Shaqiri that claims joined He was under thequestion. ofHisni Shaqiri conflict also put from capital A NLA high level commander networks. NDU had any supportfrom uncertainwhether time war from isquite DUI. It symbolic The marginal by the end of2013. actors in 2008and 2011. elections national legislative politically seenas and hisparty HisniShaqiri were forequality. wouldprovide unsuccessful and only federalization marginal NDU received supportin the OFA dominance. ethnic unsuccessfulfavors because it proved character ofMacedonia was (Kadriu, 2011: isfederalization” and that state, in the building 154). unitary to NDU, the According 2006elections.NDU’s before the aparty DUI new to form brandconcept wasnew goal “a policy main elected ofDUI.MPmember was He as left DUI He speaker andofParliament. served from deputy DPA NLA. to join inParliament 2001,he 1998.Duringthe left conflict, in was conflict he After the ItemID=DB296A9186474A4AB03D1B1BF6B2DA01 interviewDebar, G'zim with Ostreni, Author's 14.07.2013. famous now Dnevnik.radicals, marginals”, “Once at 28.10.2013 (available 329 NDU did not have political control of resources and could not extend and ofresources could control NDUpolitical did not have 328

NDU has some structural lineageto NLANDU some has structural wassplinter and a party last accessed on20 accessed last April, 2014). http://www.dnevnik.mk/default-mk.asp?

214 CEU eTD Collection 330 making, an official to be Albanian territorial new allocation, proportionalbudget language, (DPA, 2009: 1).DPA's consensual decision to have elements, forexample: projectentailed federal June2009 to ofsociety” furtherin development andan isoutdated become impediment meaning, it for more rights DPAAlbanians. claiming OFA that project, apolitical proposed new “haslost its DPA programs which forwardpolitical demanded (RDK) Revival put the Democratic National and Other example, For wereunsuccessful. triedoutbidbut they DUI, to also parties political Albanian circumstances. underpolice unclear 2006. NDU. This weakened Harun not last,least, And but NAAliu formed who shootout with in a died DPA time to onwar networks, built join influencedNDU's Mahmuti branches, other local hand, in was it believedthat the Mahmuti the raids. On was who the ministerofinterior behind deputy Albanian part ofDPA. DPA left Mahmuti ofthe secondraid, At the time it DPA was and in government. was who weretargetedpresident, raids. in twopolice time DUIinThe governmentandwas was Mahmuti first Mahmuti, ofBardulj Supporters purposefully DUA's from was timenetworks war diminished. ofDUA, NDU andIn theNA case notHowever, work. the did outbidding that itsupport their seems poor.were rather results and hisfirst patronage, electoral not but extent he could andnetworks, somecapital, symbolic DUI andpossible from threat Ali that, Notwithstanding Ahmeti. time war had some supportfrom Aliu waysposition. orto change success findsocial other their electoral to a seenas he was Therefore, NLA over former significant influence his increase wasto support,either veteranstheir and mobilizing NLA assassination. waspolitical it believethat a members claimed that The police some smugglingformerAliu while to was from Macedonia, weapons Kosovo http://www.nikolajnielsen.com/?p=63 theHarun mysterious “Macedoniadeath and of The Bulletin. Aliu”, November, at 2010(available last accessed on26 accessed last April, 2014). 330 view, to their According Aliu had 215 CEU eTD Collection 336 335 334 333 332 331 and state ofMacedonians isa state “will Macedonia that Albanians”. OFA (Osmani, 2011: term transitionalwith expired solution a as aagreement proposed new 15).He theof met aspiration final it whilenot so. Macedonia, forRDK was Albanians in other communities”. ethnic Albanians and of “rebirth dignity,Albanian and freedoms the improving of rights country and ofthe democratization were pillars main ofpower”, three while the decentralization in content andmechanisms with more country, ofthe federalization RDK to “non-territorial create was and consensual with democratic aspects all with D.T]Macedonians”. [ethnic, and toin people be equal realized” werenot aspirations “collective Albanian 2011. electionsin inoftheRDK foundedGostivarparliamentary byupcoming Rufiin was Osmani view electionsin 2013. the local in 2009.in 2011 national elections supportin the their to managed increase They in it and to stabilize 2011.elections in DPA the elections belowlocal 40,000 votes, in result, receiving its achieved weakest parliamentary 2009and in the electionsin and local presidential in the program and electoral political to allocated speaker wouldbe ofparliament) Albanians. wascore ofDPA's the The project political reorganization ministeror prime positions political (president, leading one ofthe that and guarantees last accessed on9 accessed last April, 2014). Macedonian 21.04.2009(availableat Dnevnik writes”, daily politics, http://www.makdenes.org/content/article/3552358.html osmani-osnovashe-partijata http://www.makdenes.org/content/article/3552358.html FOCUS News Agency. “Skopje. Osmanireturns the municipality winin Rufi ofAfter the local to Gostivar election Osmani”. –Rufi Free 10.04.2011 Radio “Interview Europe. at (available 27.03.2011 party”, Press 24.“Rufo a Osmani founded at (available interview MPs RDK,24.02.2014. with Skopje, Author's from Osmani”. –Rufi Free 10.04.2011 Radio “Interview Europe. at (available interview MPs RDK,24.02.2014. with Skopje, Author's from 331 Osmani considered that there is a need for a new isa needof there fora that party Osmani considered because in Macedonia Albanians last accessed on9 accessed last April, 2014)

334

RDK and DUIRDK had diverging onOFA. views DUI For OFA last accessed on9 accessed last April, 2014). on9 accessed last April, 2014). 332 and that means “Albanians to be a constituent be a constituent to means and that “Albanians http://star.press24.mk/story/makedonija/rufi- http://www.focus-fen.net/index.php?id=n178501 333 of goal The political main 336

335 Rufi Osmani saw Rufi 216

CEU eTD Collection in 2011. whereRufimayor. forRDKThe Osmani was from bulkcame ofvotes Gostivar DUI.defeat and secured twomandates thehighest 30,000votes, which wonwas third score, They over Gostivar. for more made programdemands they political Intheir Albanians. was sufficientThis not to of a as mayor hisfirst term Osmani andfrom hislegacy RDK ontheofRufi built charisma was 217 CEU eTD Collection in the post-conflict period?in the ones.to most recent isthis? Why successfulminority parties ethnic the most parties makesWhat these majorityand DUI the of wins the first elections,from inpost-conflict in all Albanian Macedonia, votes example,SDSSmajorityCroatia, For wins competition. ofSerbvotes in the post-conflict dominate in parties to appeared minority Inboth conflicts. countries, the after andconflicts, some appeared prior to existed the minority parties inSome wasbothethnic Minority countries. reconstructed politics minority parties. forminorityinstruments integration. prejudicefor weredoneorpreference without The changes politics. institutional introduced rights their and ofminorities, position increased They the improved power arrangements. prescribed sharing forminority environment institutional They the changed and Croatia OFA Erdut in ended agreements, withcountries peace in Macedonia. agreements peace The size ofthe population. over constitutes 25%ofthe minority which inAlbania both The conflicts intact. was infrastructure overall wasbut the destroyed, property affectprivate conflict did not The the Some casualties. few infrastructure. there monthswere and forseveral conflictlasted in Macedonia The to 4.5%. thedropped from conflict 12%before property hugeand devastationto was There reintegrated. peacefully forces,and one was by theovertaken Serbminority Croatian size ofthe The parts. ofSrpskawhich had three a'Republic so-called Krajina' proclaimed Two weremilitarily was Serbs under Serbcontrol. ofthe third territory One casualties. four yearsweremany and there The inter-ethnic weredifferent. and Croatia Macedonia in conflicts lasted for conflict in Croatia The V.COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS 218 CEU eTD Collection comes to control institutions and instruments for inclusion and integration of minorities, then it has thenhas it ofminorities, and institutionsintegration andforinclusion control instruments comes to However, parties. political orprejudices toorfuture existing preferences party political if a minority administration. public quotasminorities, in employment are like done without These changes sharing arrangements. integration instruments of and institutionsfor inclusion introduce and They power often prescribe Peace agreements period. in the redesigned post-conflict politics becomes group. ethnic and 'private'tooftheir goods members forminority Also, environment institutional the target the has ofgoods, possibilityto it the then distribution 'club' orinfluence thesechannel activities, efforts and reconstruction relief minority party post-conflict regions.can minoritiesIfa to in aid are there post-conflict settings nationalexample, government.For in not theyin included even are if possibilitiespatronage to can extend have parties settings, minority Inpost-conflict to advantage. their useit forminority they politics and how environment institutional to the adapt minority parties political understand better how can One cases. to iswider andmore applies causalIn this waymechanism the not only in oninclusion government. and possibilitiespatronage shouldtofocus also beextend onthe in national government. to notparticipation settingsonly are related inpatronage post-conflict The to distributespoils.Iargue a as pathway government forminorityto thatextend parties possibilities national only pointsto in competition, out inclusion parties in onminority The literature, current group. ethnic their votes within to likely winmajority wouldbe networks most strongest clientelistic mostthe orcreate extend patronage which can minority wouldmeanparty ethnic the elections. It that to win party ethnic conditionforany isaminority minimal patronage and Extending clientelism. forpatronage conducive environment isespecially and socioeconomic political thethat post-conflict Iholdsettings. post-conflict environment. to are the sensitive and context local are basedonthe They post-conflict I argue in ofminority parties ethnic whichsuccess explain factors are three there that V.1.Legacies inofconflict conjunction patronagewith 219 CEU eTD Collection several parties.several post-conflict period. in the competitors All become ofthem symbolic theyAnd have all rise notone but only give to supporters.Rebel to and timenetworksmay groups their war groups and ornew, groups the conflict, formed during paramilitary rebel from which derive forexample, parties networks. with time war have continuity which structural forexample parties can be old, parties These orsupporting groups organizations, conflict, through in armed tookthe Parties members part whose Table V.1. thepartiesconflicts linksand Conceptualizing armed political between below. table in the ispresented parties and political groups formerlinks armed between based onwidertime rebels,war networks. orare former include ofthe possible The conceptualization directly and others from groups Somederive rebel oftheparties conflict. legacies be onstructural built wider. the are networks then there overlap, issmall dense, and if way, Either can minority parties ethnic organization but not overlap, necessarily. may are networks thenmore big Ifthereoverlap, the isa organizations. and political social and in groups inaffiliated armed Membership and political social networks. War ofaffiliated, combatantsand members offormer are networks made supporting, time factor.the first some minorityare time period, onwar built inparties that, the post-conflict This means conflict cases. legacies. to connected conflict's factors conflict are is These ofthe legacy structural The in post- parties ethnic ofminority performance relevantforthe factors which are twoother There possibilities patronage. to extend conflict the armed before party The existed No Yes Party members participated in the armed conflict armed in the members participated Party Actors in the conflict inActors the Former rebels and Former rebels supporters Yes New parties New Old parties No 220 CEU eTD Collection weakness. weakness. their and for thenot parties, continuity new isstrength timenetworks ofwar period. Structural post-conflict in the forparties resources symboliccapital valuable become and Structural legacies in beconsideration. taken need legacies to conflict's settings, inthen post-conflict parties ethnic minorities the between one tocompetition wants analyze transformationHowever, issuccessful. under which the conditions to wants set the justified if one if toparties. political how transform groups in rebel itself. isa worthyThat endeavor The is focus period. the parties post-conflict in on and minorityfocuses political literature guerrilla-to-party The thegroups armed between the possible links not does conceptualize literature The guerrilla-to-party parties. than other higher capital to symbolic likely have are networks more ofthe thetime include war core Parties which consequences. presentconflict and the the which and (e.g.discourses commemorations) conflict period post- in practices the ofsocial the development ispreserved, with and enhanced, Symbolic capital However, during thecapital conflict. ofsymboliccapital. highest have concentration the leaders Different exclusive. isnot will be.capital appropriatesymbolic capital Symbolic come to individuals community, ethnic to their bringing seenas goodorbenefit are and activities symbolic their the higher ofthe activities individuals. actions from the and It comes reconstruction period. their more actions The ofthe memory conflict. post-conflictfrom and in the the conflict isappropriatedduring The capital and discourses. also bepractices foundin social can of individuals,butderives it capital symbolic The attributes to can be ascribed capital Symbolic ofthe secondlegacy conflict. isthe The symbolic capital from thecapital conflict. My argument about structural legacies is not about the centralization of power within theMy within ofpower argument isnot centralization about the legacies structural about 221 CEU eTD Collection institutionalization of conflict's legacies provides competitive advantage for some parties in the post- forsomein the parties provides advantage competitive ofconflict's legacies institutionalization support. for harnessingvoter legacies to utilizationofthe points legacies out conflict's The legacies. institutionalization ofconflict's of same which Ilabel phenomenon institutionalization The to gotogether. are very likely Structural andlegacies symbolic manifestations ofthe are distinct They from the ofsymboliccapital conflict. the utilization rather mobilization ofidentities, political isnot the causal but mechanism the would be identity-based, support for creatingpolitical Sucha strategy ofparties. appeals theshould electoral be mostin visible support within harnessgroup. their combatants to political symbolic influenceofthe legacies The serveformer it divisions. ethnic wouldalso But politicsand strengthen identity-based increase events, ordirges monuments conflict. to the dedicated After an inter-ethnic wouldserveto conflict, this commemorative ofmemories, through institutionalization and sustaincapital They that wouldtranslate constantlyreaffirm groupthrough with which their they have capital. contacts symbolic intensive their they socialif their capital increase maintain networks onwar built and support.Parties time political to aggregate can capital symbolic use group.Former withinethnic combatants the capital form ofsocial support. forelectoral also be utilized conflict can The symboliccapital ofthe symboliclegacy isa The distributing patronage. them. to mobilize voters and withcommunicate the instrumental for timeare war networks also And ofinterests. community, local facilitate aggregation in the usedtoThey party represent are to legitimacy. forthe party. penetration deep providesocial networks Also, wide and time war They and credibility party theythe higher post-conflict period wouldgive in the conflict, then during the timenetworks. utilization ofwar party, a more this efficient notwithstandingthat makes organization. My argument the isabout

If the networks provided social services or humanitarian assistance orhumanitarian providedservices networks social If the 222 CEU eTD Collection patronage to voters, then it will be the most successful minority party in the post-conflict period. period. in the successfulminority party post-conflict the will most it to be patronage voters, then extend and usescan party capital symbolic time networksand isbasedonwar If a minority ethnic several hypotheses. Iformulated frameworktable, inBased onthe was main The that: Table V.2. post-conflictsettings ethnic ofcompetition parties in minority between Factors settings. in post-conflict ofminorityparties ethnic the betoperformance used analyze framework can successful minority party. ethnic summaryThe ofmy argument below. table in the isgiven The be the thenwill most patronage, it extend possibilities has to additionally Iftheconflict party period. the topost- likely it winin then ismost ofsymboliccapital, timeandwar networks high concentration wide has supportfrom a minority was party ethnic expectation if main that My minority parties. ethnic nucleus for electoral form the timeandcapital, war networks symbolic ofthe conflict, The legacies period. the post-conflict within groupin toethnic winmosttheir parties ethnic votes forminority main isthe legacies condition ofconflict's period.the Institutionalization post-conflict parties in supportforminority ethnic electoral the creates highest time andcapital networks symbolic symboliccapital. Iargue and networks which onwarhave built which are time utilizationofwar that field. are favored. ofthe legacies conflict the institutionalize The that parties parties are the these And playing settingslevel inisnot minoritypost-conflict a parties between Competition conflict period. capital andnetworks symbolic utilizestime war Party No Yes Party can extend patronage to patronage voters can extend Party Less likely to succeed likelyLess to Highest chances for Highest chances success Yes More likely toMore likely succeed Lowest chances for Lowest success No 223 CEU eTD Collection 337 DUI emerged SDSS in minoritycontinued and Macedonia. existing parties in while to Croatia, exist opposedthegroups. armed parties ceased whichin functioned RSK parties conflict, minority After the conflict. However, during forthem the apoint groups sortofgravitational became minority some thegroups. members, armed ortheir supported parties, ofexistingsubstantial part minority Armed The and Croatia Macedonia. conflict-affectedparties in minority political V.2.Empirical evidence fromCroatia Macedoniaand forsuccess. lowest chances tohave votersthe will extendcannot patronage or symbolic capital based timeand onwar networks donot are have partiesnot Minority which ethnic parties. ethnic ofminority forsuccess necessaryconditions indeed are conflicts from legacies the the whether utilizing than patronage. important to be more for time andcapital networks symbolic crucialtest This isa usetheand capital. will symbolic war Iexpected patronage. relyThe mostly onextending secondwill minority party. ethnic networks wart time through willthe mainlyThe onsupportmobilized rely first an incumbent competing against comers new fromand rebels whereparties are couldThere be cases be most will successful. patronage extend and possibilitiesto ofstructures, capital symbolic highest conjunction whichthe has the party party then timenetworks, thanonwar built one ismore that:Ifthere Iexpected it. but wouldconfirm time war networks. derivesparty orincludes which to my beexpectation, contradictory This wouldnot dynamicsofthe competition. I alsoconsiderationthe took minority into than beone more could There Time the process,are found the appendix. in presenting graphically lines, 337 During the conflict Duringthe conflict 224 CEU eTD Collection at all. NLA wereparty joined who there members conflict in take the conflict.did DAAM part during not the opposed the in Serbs RSK. The ofNDP, leadership DPA PDP and conflict, but notin involved the were SRS RSK in organized and the part notconflict side, SNS take in the On did other paramilitarygroups. groups formationofarmed and SDSthe in helped involved the inconflict. and SRS RSK, wereheavily SDS Somein like Croatia, Serbparties others werenot. involvedthe conflict, in wereactively parties ofthese and Some Croatia in conflictMacedonia. both to in the parties prior Minority existed ethnic Table V.4. in Macedonia and ethnicThe conflict parties minority Table V.3. in Croatia and ethnicThe conflict parties minority 3and 4. are tables shown countries in ingroups minority both parties ethnic and becamedominant. networks Parties time restructured. onwar built former links armed between The wasparties. representation ofminorities and minoritypolitical parties between competition The anew. and ones some werestarted existing ethnic forminority juncture a critical conflict was The from Later, timenetworks. war the some from appeared, splintered ofminority parties a third wave The party The existed conflict the armed before party The existed conflict the armed before No Yes No Yes Party members directly participated in theconflict armed in participated members directly Party theconflict armed in participated members directly Party DUI, (NDU), NA, NDS SDSS, PPS, NS, NSS, (SDS), (SRS RSK) in NDP, DPA, PDP DUA, ND DPS Yes Yes ZSH, ZSRZSH, DAAM RDK SNS No No 225 CEU eTD Collection with the transformation of NLA. transformation ofNLA. with the The ofNLA leadership and local the ofDUI leadership became DUI InMacedonia, appeared whotime in ofwar networks RSK. orreturnees werepart party cadres by werebuilt old SDS the old between SDSS. SDS new branches Local the and continuity structural organized SDS,on the which supported old and Serbarmed in groups Croatia. substantial was There in leadership Croatia. ofSerb political helm to came the largelyStanimirović the built party new They led moderates by reintegration, Duringthe Slavonia. inpeaceful networks Eastern Vojislav SDSS andtime DUI.onwar built transformation timenetworksin SDSS ofwar InCroatia, was and the groups formationofarmed at Ifirst the Ilooked Inthe chapters empirical capital. and networks had symbolic whichtime werebasedonwar minorityparties ethnic wereseveral There Macedonia. theconflict in armed whichnorelation has to newcomer electionsCroatia. a legislative RDK armedisalso in to national the conflict. have norelation They different andin ZSH ZSR participated commandants and combatants. electionsforSerbrepresentatives NLA members oftheir were Some timenetworks. basedonwar werepartially These parties fournew went to NDP and DPA. NDS (NDU) and NA Later splitDUI, and DUA from and NDfrom DPA. split ofNLA theIn Macedonia, core to DUI. transformed However, commandantsand combatants some from networks onwar waswhile DPS mainlytime based Western Slavonia. stayedSDSS. Slavonia NS inbasednetworks Eastern in onparts andofthese NSS networks, were splitit. SDSS.the from Later others to together form time joined networks time war core ofthe The varying degree. SDSS, DPS,These NSS. are NS and it only beginning was SDSS.At the war All ofthe timeto basedonwar networks which are ofSRS. appeared minoritycontinuation parties New ethnic However, SRSto exist. inceased and Croatia theSDS banned conflict after was PPSlarge to a is extent 226 CEU eTD Collection memory and sponsored erection of memorial monuments in Croatia. DUI opened a museum dedicated dedicated opened a in museum monuments DUI Croatia. erectionofmemorial and sponsored memory role. SNV, passive and secondary havethen a they ofSDSS, under control issuedstatements of parties, other minority representativesfrom are events. at Ifthere these DUI speeches political deliver dirges, HighrepresentativesofSDSS and post-conflict period. in the the capital symbolic to preserve SDSS their and DUI, affiliated and organizations, organized and commemorations social practices, groups. ethnic to their party.benefits oftheir the capital symbolic contributedThis to again and Croatia OFA Erdut in oftheagreements, peace implementation which in brought Macedonia, and, theyprobably,networks, transferred pushedhard for Both leaders symboliccapital. their increased other parties. time war partymost ofthe ofthe which integrated they presidents became When leewaygave to a Vojislav and StanimirovićCroatia in Ali of to compared leaders Macedonia in Ahmeti orwereNLACroatia over overall, others. advantage, a competitive have in members Macedonia This in activein whoRSK period. thePeople were post-conflict in acareer plusfora political considered ofNLA journal war and in the time was wrong at right Beingthe definitely onthe side leaders. in RSK parties ofSerb political announcementsand letters foundin the appointments. are Examples and forpolitical representation forpolitical higher credentials gaveParticipation individuals structures. in armed with it associated participation point was that conflict andduring at the was capital Symbolic created post-conflict period. supportin the toelectoral was harness translated and the formed showssymboliccapitalconflict andhow was during Croatia Macedonia The from data stronger effect. timegave ofwar networks a inclusion support.Greater and mobilize interests aggregate withto the mechanisms parties new provided level socialona micro functioning ofthese units and widegrouplive. organizationalethnic penetration oftheir wheremembers in places branches The organizedcommanders party branches. the local War networks SDSS social and DUI time gave deep 227 CEU eTD Collection representation of minorities in public administration was used as an instrument to create patron-client patron-client create an as instrument used to was inadministration public representation ofminorities party loyalist. forother OFA's patronage as in administration public employment principle forequitable DUItargeting beginning was families. Inthe NLA to former benefits then extended combatants,but and resources. offeredThey and their former their combatants employment positionsto political and supply) during theand water conflict. accessto they was government spoils When got DUI in included rebuilding priorities. War roads goods building 'club' in wereinvolved providing (e.g. timestructures they consentwerechoosing waswith and their Rebuildingofhouses reconstruction process. done wasBefore NLA DUI formed, the post-conflict groundwerechanneling structures onthe through organizations and (e.g.SNV). ZVO controls it possibilities to target and secured Serbs.goods donations direct to SDSS also has given benefits water supply, gave sub-nationalgovernment SDSS housing).ofnational Beingand part and (e.g. rebuilding ofroads, forSerbreturnees ofthesecuredgoods 'club' governmentthey became part citizens. Croatian as wereentitled to which benefits, they andSDSS pensions social to get When assistance. pushing SDSS forSerbs was donorsupportand international humanitarian was channeling Slavonia. in possibilities forSerbs Eastern employment public ofthecontrol sector whole SDSSAlso, and judiciary, serviceshad to political public fromIna Croatia. way RSK they enterprises public and police including SDSStransferadministration, brokeredofpublic the of post-conflict reconstruction. extend possibilitiespatronage. to acquire wereable In addition,they period. theparty post-conflict in strategy their was legacies main ofconflict's symboliccapital. Institutionalization their topractices preserve in social invested and conflicts have ofthe legacies structural Both have SDSS utilized and DUI to NLA organized with NLA'sofveterans association and events. together regular commemorative SDSS wasprocess the handling 228 CEU eTD Collection Some parties could rely only on war time network's rely oronly onpatronage. could onlysupportandSome symbolic capital time parties onwar extendhad possibilities patronage. to and Croatia DPA wereDPS in These NDP and Macedonia. in and also hadcapital them, symbolic timeorincluded basedonwar networks other which were parties However, possibilitiespatronage. to acquired extend over time they of symboliccapital and were there concentration the leadershighest networks their had SDSS ofthe andtime and DUIwar most included votesgroup. fromethnic why their ofthe explains winthe SDSS andmajority DUI settings. in post-conflict minorityparties ethnic between forcompetition successful strategy This most was patronage in the conjunction indeed with legacies shows institutionalizationofconflict's that extend had possibilitiespatronage. to symbolic capital and and Croatia Macedonia analysis in The mainSDSS and DUImy hypothesis. confirm timeused onwar networks, built They wereboth Macedonia). ofmunicipalities control in political competencesand has in whereZVO Croatia municipalities extend with(i.e. SDSS' possibilitiespatronage DUI'sto support ispositivelycorrelated and voter that Correlation results showed in conflict regions. wide and dense time which networks, weremore support from war institutionalized SDSS indicator that and DUI thisyears an as Itake in Macedonia. inpost-conflict elections. all and Croatia 10 municipalities ended in This the is16years conflict after support in conflict-affected retainedhigh ItsurprisingtoSDSS isquite seethat andparties. DUI than in non-affected.municipalities minority other higher than supportismuch electoral mean Their support forSDSS in and electoral DUIconflict-affectedsupport mean showedishigher the that the finding. corroborates data analysis ofelectoral The analysis quantitative in The ofvariance withrelations the electorate. Albanian 229 CEU eTD Collection Daut Rexhepi (aka Commander Leka) became head ofDPA's Leka) became (akaDaut Commander Rexhepi samewhere he in party the region branch the prominent positionsparty. them in period the and gave post-conflict combatants in example, For 2002.Further, wina listmandate in fromwas their onlyto one the DPA purposefully NLA attracted period. the NDP post-conflict reconstructionin was channeling and best he scorewith hadShaqiri the led Hoxha) NLA (aka Commandant where Shaqiri region and in this hadcapital He symbolic actions. Macedonia in North-East unit the list position electoral in lead party ontheir Shaqiri gave Xhezair through SDF. in resultAs DPSelections sub-national a won Western 2013.NDP in Slavonia 2009and to target possibilities conflict and fromgained the to capital symbolic goods Serbs retained their innetworks Western by led Slavonia Veljko Grozdanić. Đakula and Miroslav and transferred They and DPA was period. theDPS time onwar built post-conflict weremostin challengers successful NDPDPS in and Croatia DPA and SDSS as aandNDP similarstrategy DUI. DPS, had in Macedonia Table V.6. Analyzing the competition between Albanian Macedonia parties in Table V.5. CroatiaAnalyzing the competition Serbparties between in patronage. Tables different 5and 6present in and Croatia Macedonia. in minority competition parties noron could timeand onwar networks symboliccapital not rely which And wereparties there capital andnetworks symbolic utilizestime war Party symbolic capital symbolic andnetworks uses utilizestime war Party No Yes No Yes Party can extend patronage to voters extendParty patronage can to voters extendParty patronage can DUI, NDP, DPA SDSS, DPS RDK SNS Yes Yes DUA, NDS (NDU), NA, NS, NSS,NS, PPS PDP, DAAM ZSH, ZSRZSH, ND No No 230 CEU eTD Collection results. However, DPA myhypothesis, that third namely confirms case that also presentsa crucial DPA limited has networks ofwar inclusion shows limited that that time isanother Macedonia case in and DUI. (NS). results to compared SDSS electoral much parties lower and failed the had strategies All ofthe and DUA, NDS (NDU) and NA party their program in clientelism ethnic promoting and in Macedonia) Croatia (PPS radicaloutbidding NDin (NSS to in in Macedonia) and from Croatia moderation ethnic the finding. corroborate additionally possibilities patronage to extend They different tried strategies (NS,capital NSShad inno DUA,and andCroatia, NDSND PPS (NDU),but NA, in Macedonia), successful. some symbolic and timenetworks had basedonwar which werepartially parties The other be most will possibilitiespatronage to extend symboliccapital and conjunction ofstructures, the highest one timethen with onwar networks, built the parties are ifsecond hypothesis: several there onnational level. patronage andmore to extend andnetworks symboliccapital confirms myThis time war more ofthe utilize hand,able SDSS the and On DUIto other good results there. were in (e.g. level DPS on local Western and NDP Slavonia Macedonia). in North-East iswhy had This they However, DPS and NDP only patronage and extended timeandcapital war networks symbolic utilized settings. infor minority post-conflict parties ethnic successfulstrategy isthe patronage most in conjunction with ofconflict's legacies institutionalization NDPof DPS in and Croatia DPA and argument ofmy corroboration another as in Macedonia that DPA and lost NLA strategy their changed the Itake cases support decreased. electoral their combatants, conflict-affected 2008,foremost results fromin 2002to electoral However,their municipalities. once other to loyalists and extend patronage Following thisDPAAlbanians. strategy improved consistently NLA as operated commander. DPA party employ started into government 2006and in included the was 231 CEU eTD Collection hence one cannot judge the electoral performance of that party. ofthat performance electoral judge one cannot the hence The results ofPDP confirm and RDK different are a Macedonia the cut, from cases clear but story. DAAM not in stand elections; alone did andPDPCroatia DAAM, confirmexpectation. Macedonia and RDK my in The are cases Croatian successful. be least will and nopossibilitiespatronage to extend capital results and ofZSH ZSRThe in have symbolic nottimenetworksdo onwar built My thewhich are hypothesisthat parties was last resources. access to spoilsand RDKwhen in in power was Gostivar, had greater in governmentand DUIjuniorpartner was coalition towithdemands. werewilling comply their goods'club' Serbsif authorities Croatian to only Also, throughwhile ZVO, supply SNS Eastern could mainly Slavonia, in possibilities patronage to extend electionsin 2013.However,to the DUI local in had cut.Croatia clear SDSS as in are not they to party inSDSS, 2003and lost RDK lost incumbent as elections national legislative incumbent in point. SNS this was alsocorroborate inpartly inMacedonia andThe Croatia RDK ofSNS cases settings. to winin parties ethnic post-conflict DUI. forminority symboliccapital isnecessary time ofwar structures and This utilization shows that However,from and timenetworks symboliccapital. war 2002and 2008,DPA onboth occasions, lost to than patronage DPA, extend had fewerpossibilitiesto during mandate.DUI their more support but Albanian. to extended testimonyofthe they patronage in 2008isa program electoral Their Albanians targeting loyalists, and theyemploying party were and supplying'club' 'private'to goods other 2006and DUI2008.DPA between than possibilities forpatronage werelaying off cadres and DUI inhad more patronage 2002,and toit extend 2002and 2008.Itpossibilities had limited elections in DPA timeandcapital. war networks symbolic forthe government partner coalition in a junior was utilize successfulparties as which not party be will mainly relying onpatronage incumbent minority 232 CEU eTD Collection local elections.However,local differences these in dynamics minority politics. donot forthe account and seats in Macedonia in national and parties and themselves other competebetween parties Albanian in Croatia. parties and themselves other competebetween are wherethey noguaranteed level There different. quite minority compete are parties and sub-national Serbs seatsonnational guaranteed have persons. displaced werefewerinternally and there not in impacted which regimes The electoral Serbin displaced Croatia. internally weremany and number there theThe of conflict Albanians was period. the inpost-conflict politicsin involvement diminishedafter numberThe ofSerbsubstantially persuaded NLAMacedonia about their but resolution, wereskeptical disarm and supportpeaceful to representativesin politics.International in involvement and facilitatedtheir Slavonia Eastern the OFA. timein war networks weresupportive Croatia offormer representativesin International implemented state while institutions keeping peace competences, EU mission which had weredeployed NATO InMacedonia, Slavonia. ofEastern reintegration peaceful and the the agreement Erdut and the was peacefully. theMacedonia, conflict resolved A missiondeployed to Croatia was implement UN in control as other.serves forthe In defeated. the weremilitarily Serbs after conflict ended the InCroatia, However, are minoritysimilar, parties between ofcompetition in terms outcomes since the one country werevery different. ofminorities participation and electoral groups ethnic size ofthe involvement, and international resolution in Macedonia terms ofconflict in and conditions Croatia The post-conflict V.3.Differences, similarities limitsand framework. theoretical next in discussed section. the limits are The NDS (NDU) and NA). PDP ofmy explanatorypower to the are show limits there and RDK that DUA, (e.g. had nopossibilitiespatronage to extend but whichtimenetworks werebasedonwar parties However,my expectation. PDP onaverage other most ofthe results than better and RDK had Albanian 233 CEU eTD Collection the international community and Croatian authorities. In Macedonia, the consent of war time networks consent time ofwar the authorities. Croatian InMacedonia, community and the international to processwerea partner reintegration and the handled peaceful they InCroatia, reconstruction process. post-conflict in wereincluded the onthe control had groundand political they isthat and Macedonia mobilization. voters and their with communication Another similarity units in social charge becamemicro networks war countries time branches. local Inboth of NLA NLA to DUI transformed and werein commanders charge local local upDUI's ofsetting InMacedonia party new branches. SDSS, to onSDS mainlyrelying open cadres,Serbreturnees used municipalities. branches local inhome their establish helped Some returnees, to process. as ofthem, ofthis ofresourcesto werepart form Slavonia base andSDSS.in pool SerbIDPsEastern residing RSK,SDSS. structures formed political in opportunity, provided the The reintegration peaceful voter groups weremainly armed from membershipinbut overlapping former time wheresome networks had However, the left country. leadership Serbmilitary most said that ofthe it shouldbe war The remaining similarfor SDSS and fromwas DUI. timenetworks minoritywar parties The ofcreating process process distribution ofgoods. the and/or rebuilding could if influence patronage they extend to possibilities forminority openedparties process additional post-conflict reconstruction extend possibilitiespatronage. minorityto ofminoritiesparties and inclusion gave integration theAlso, for ofinstruments control quotasPolitical inadministration. and employment public cultural rights forexampleusageofminority languages, Macedonia, and Croatia in Some weresimilar instruments in RSKadministration. to public Croatian in weretransferred workinginadministration and public people Some weredifferent, a ZVOas established was forexample, forminority parties. prejudicesand preferences without wereintroduced and integration inclusion and OFAThe agreement Erdut forminority sharing power introduced arrangements.Instruments sui generis for war time networks in Croatia Croatia timenetworksin for war minority institution in Croatia, institution in minority 234 CEU eTD Collection for participation in RSK in structures. for participation to has be covert. capital symbolic utilizationofthe the Therefore, ofaffiliatedmembers organizations, and harassed publicly shamed verbally still are areSerbs defamed. groups, ofSerbarmed members or Inthe discourseformer public theCroatian conflict. in participating conflict. in defeated Serbs the were of Thousands is one key difference to symboliccapital. comes it when group.However, toethnic their which appeals and its oftheconsequences understanding conflict there symbolic their tocapital. commemorations) preserve also, similarly,They supported a discourseand (e.g. practices groupssocial asimilar symbolicburden.investedarmed SDSS and got DUI in politiciansthe opposed who period.hand, theminority theOn other post-conflict in career a political plusfor regarded conflict a was as armed in group.Participation the ethnic forthe positive were seenas period which to post-conflict roles andin then the theconflict, armed to in participation accredited was It in first wasand Croatia Macedonia. the ofsymboliccapitalconflict similar during The formation within group. ethnic their capital 2002. havesymbolic parties. major Both importantinrespective brokers thepower their They most are ofSDSS since leader 1997and been period. has Stanimirović since beenofDUI has leader Ahmeti the post-conflict groupin ethnic respective rights theoftheir improving status and restoring and peace agreements, peace the provisionsofthe in forces.Both implementing wereinstrumental armed in the membership and had overlapping the leaders conflict political during Both inAhmeti were Macedonia. party leaders. oftheresolution became conflicts, These are Vojislav in and Stanimirović Croatia Ali A forpeaceful important keyleaders, isthat political and Croatia Macedonia in crucialsimilarity goon. reconstructionto forthe acquired post-conflict had to be secret prosecutions against Serbs were raised for against were raised Serbs prosecutions secret 235 CEU eTD Collection DUI to extend patronage when they were in government; However, werein government; they DUI when patronage to extend forDPA was the same they when public ofminorities. controls employment government partner possibilitiescoalition in toThis gave to spoilsand local resources. controls access which isinlevel onlocal power The junior Albanian forminorities. more employment public representation meant and equitable minority party ethnic The and budget ofmunicipalities competences the Decentralization increased isin Croatia. elaborate it as isnot in as Macedonia environment forminority politics post-conflict institutional hand, the the other institutions forminority misuse toward politics.On SDSS ofthe toward isoriented the criticism main such possibilities and their donot Croatia Serbpartieshave in Other possibilities patronage. to extend gives them control political Having andlevel. local onnational, county for minority protection, organization of SDSS officials reintegration. peaceful also control start SDSS from controlled ofthe ZVO the forminority politicsin Croatia. environment institutional However, relations. patron-client create difference. isone key there SDSS elaborate controls the to and provisionsforminority integration inclusion the use institutional Minority similarly parties countries. supportin issimilar both electoral symbolic capital forharnessing DUI officials this difference toDespite aNLA. museum dedicated opened Iargue utilizationof the that glorify these NLA events Speeches at NLA's madecontinue struggle. and battles, commitmentsare to DUIand exclusive. oraffiliated organizations to NLA payfallen respect events holdto regular fighters. public the are andsymboliclegacy sustaining forutilizing practices social discourse. InMacedonia, Croatia. followsthe long as it appropriate as them, canorjoin initiate party Serbpolitical Any to sustainmemory. that serve declarations ofmemory in are not exclusive practices These social wasand who events and not. not. Commemorative latter are and the politically preferred first are The Within was RSK meaningwho the did in “who what” conflict, Serbcommunityisknown during it the Vijeca Manjine Nacionalne Srpske . SDSS has almost corporate control over the system over the control . SDSScorporate system almost has Srpsko NarodnoSrpsko Vijece which is an umbrella which isan umbrella 236 CEU eTD Collection 2009 and went to form 2011. RDK2009 and went to in was hisvictory that largely reveal Interviews the of legacy due to in an Gostivaras independentcandidate race Rufiin the Macedonia Osmani won mayoral example, in For leaders. orcharismatic does idiosyncrasies forlocal account framework also not The explanatory paribus parties. then sameregulations, under the electoral compete minority parties ethnic When political forother rulesthan are favorable less electoral if notforthe work will party patronage is verySDSS likely that wouldwin. conjunction with conflict in ofthe legacies This the shows that votes to win.Counter-factually, unit,it electoral then led Stanimirović the SDSS'list Serbminority in if and SNSto of get only to SDSSmajority gethad hadaMilan to5%threshold mandates pass Đukić. unitby wide electoral led nation SNS the voteslist than unitSerbminority more in electoral 5won ofminorities. led SDSS list by representation rules conditionthe Vojislav in general Stanimirović Electoral one Serbseat limitation. out in to forthe2000point guaranteed ofthe elections The results mechanisms. existing infrastructure leaders, party and orcharismatic idiosyncrasies period. theHowever, topost-conflict bein successful parties allow minority rules, local electoral which mechanisms causal main are patronage the in conjunction with andnetworks symboliccapital, My time sayutilizationofwar argument which legacies, isto ofconflict's institutionalization isthat support.electoral and harness patronage to extend had most,most been has it possibilities insince the power DUI with SDSSthe in case Croatia. isin ornot. thepower However, party whether control political The were in (2006-2008). power is it politicsas institution forminority the capture Albanian cannot parties the conjunction of three factors will yield strongest results. will strongest yield factors conjunction ofthree the limit the influence of the causal influenceofthe the limit ceteris ceteris 237 CEU eTD Collection idiosyncrasies and personal charisma can probably explain these outcomes better. these outcomes probably explain and can personalidiosyncrasies charisma than moreothers. Local some why gain votes ofthese isunclear framework parties from it the NS, PPSnetworks. NSand DUA, issimilarto ND NA orDPS issimilar to (NDU). However, orNDS time war partially Macedonia andincluded Croatia ND example,PPS For in parties. in ethnic smaller forthe does ofsupportbetween variance fully framework also not account The explanatory splits. developmentsand 'old' and forintra-party parties support of for electoral account fully framework butcannot ofthepower showsthe framework, that DPA joined that gotoformed DUIparties. didnew not but notThis affect dynamic did explanatory the PDP why isalso unclear hand, it On other the time war networks DUI, while cadres to lost party twice the organizationaladvantage. to worked early their ofthe parties 'old' and mobilization development structures Part merged oftheir voter Before networks. warthat base. time which withincluded parties elections. and aparliamentary had party the infrastructure priorconflict whichto existed parties The NDP, DUA, NDS (NDU), orNA. the SNSPPS 2003 hadresults better than in inAlso, Croatia PDP in For Macedonia explanatory framework. example, than success and had more didwell, fairly forthe challenge are another the priorconflict ofthe minoritywhichto existed 'old' The parties results parties. ethnic fortheofsome minority account success orpersonal can idiosyncrasies charisma, in 2009. in elections local but secondbest other came local that conditions, These show examples left DPA.who bywhich sometimenetworks joined war was DUI, NDhave results better than did not Imer Selmani, wascharismatic Macedonia by the ND lead but goodresults. Similarly in had reasonably not win, conflict.did He usingfrom symboliclegacies timeandthe ofwar networks without inclusion leader. 1997.Osmani wasa charismatic his firstin mayoralalso term RDK without formed He 238 CEU eTD Collection rebels have popular support and if the leadership of the rebels is not challenged. Even though many Even though of isnot ofthe challenged. leadership rebels if the popularrebels support and have Transformation offers theagreement peace to beif successful incentives,if institutional isalso likely successful. will the be actors, transformation then and supportedprocess by international stability, isregime there example,conjunction For if ofall. the peace are in included if rebels and environment, international or orthe thegroups environment, local within rebel the factors within is successful. of a ismodeledas function transformation ofguerrilla-to-party The orfailures success process the transformation the under mainlywhich conditions looksat literature The guerrilla-to-party minority parties. between competition influencethe conditions which post-conflict specific about the argument and raisesawareness from ofparties rebels performance about the explanation improves the My competition. parties in and minority ethnic studiestransformation ofguerrilla-to-party look at To settings I in ofminority performance post-conflict parties the explanationsabout deduce competing V.4.Competing explanations ofSDSSin inMacedonia. success and Croatia DUI in accountsthe patronage more extend and possibilities instruments to ofinstitutional run,control Inthe long probably dilutedover time. get period. However, mobility, individual party and thewith cadresparty new enter if the networks relevantforlonger remain mobilization probably units foraggregationand social time as networks that. conflictcapital. show ten the Macedonia years after in villagers ofthe negativereactions WarThe influencefadesaway, time their Over post-conflict elections. ofsymbolic the influence and especially changes over time. War the importantfirstof arein cycles more and networks symboliccapital time satisfying. results are However,elections and the likely most mechanisms ofthe power causal the different it sensitive. to framework isnotIapplied time my notnational Last, least, theoretical but 239 CEU eTD Collection revoking violence being the first and performing as party the second, then guerrilla-to-party literature is literature second, then the guerrilla-to-party performing firstparty being as and the revoking violence in goes ofcombatants totwophases, parties the one that assumes transformation Nonetheless, if groups. from rebel transformed SDSSparty than Therefore, ismoretime networks onwar built a SDSS Slavonia. networks. activein was Eastern timewhich onRSK'swar networks remained built RSK the orboth ofparties time groups in make war groups RSK.weremembers orarmed who Serbs in and armed parties political membershipbetween overlapping was corroborates there sources) that afterconflict. the fled Croatia Triangulation and media archival (personal interviews, data ofthe however, transformation; case ofguerrilla-to-party clear SDSS isnotclear. that Serbmilitary leadership DUI isa not party challenged. wasonce andtothe leadership SDSS DUI function, started formed toorders withdraw from Tetovo and was ofcommand Arachinovo), NLA's so chain dubious.However, second roundofvoting. in the president Ali (e.g. conflictAhmeti's werechallenged during orders the unchallenged. elected party assembly was At the moderate Stanimirović founding ofSDSS the popular support; Rebels however, had incentivesfortransformation. served as not go the did leadership Macedonia. than in The Erdut OFA and Agreement which sharing power arrangements introduced weresupported byorganizations, andinternational they process peace Croatia inincluded more the in and Croatia Macedonia. bothapplied rebels in were the wasconflict, after There stability regime Most process. outlinedconditions the ofthe transformation successfulin isquite explaining literature guerrilla-to-party show formationofSDSS the and DUI that the tracing The chapters empirical se. per from rebels ofparties performance at notthe does look literature theTherefore, guerrilla-to-party party. any as partiesother new function will transformationthe ends, once that the assumption implicit showcontinuity,the studies organizational, especially isan there to fromgroups parties, rebel 240 CEU eTD Collection population. Since Serb military leadership fled Croatia, SDSS' war time networks were not very fled timewerenot leadership SDSS' war networks Croatia, very Serb military population. Since local oraforthe threat provider were a whether security they isunclear and it provide service social did not they conflict parthad 300-500members, ofthe branches, and fora greater many did not have providers. However,security fromand NLA NLA, DUIdirectly derived NLA wasof the above. none and were argue services one can social branches, local extended had many conflict they during that the and networks, notgroup, a rebel though period. from SDSS time the Even derived war post-conflict in parties successful than they be more other cadres, then will party alsonew include experience and have if past political armedthey to the group,and similar and coherent, centralized rebels are other more parties. willthan successful they be conflict,during then a prolonged Also, parties from if providers and security werelocal services branchessocial whichgroups, extended many with local from derive larger example,if For parties ofthegroups. rebel characteristics looking the rebel at from rebels ofparties the explains performance literature hand, theOn guerrilla-to-party other the minorityparties. ethnic over other advantage to gain and networks symboliccapital competitive warcause. utilized SDSS time and DUI provisions. institutional the main and not victory electoral spoilswas oftheir a to consequence Access voters; however, of and not theybecause in in won elections governmentbecause they wereincluded offered in they SDSSgovernment when and that DUIminority It wereincluded istrue parties. spoilsto timewar networks. other provisionsforSDSS same DUIforthe as The werethe institutional and support. However, and OFA theagreement Erdut rebels or provisionsforformer did special not make get spoilstovoters and cantheir then provide they in included fromgovernment, rebelsparties are and successful if they be rebels,more parties then will from post-conflict institutions favor example, if For post-conflictenvironment. institutional to the onone hand relate from rebels ofparties performance however, the firs; successful in explaining the explain fails second. it to explanationsforthe The 241 CEU eTD Collection years after the conflict testifies to that. In addition, the symbolic capital becomes transferred and isused transferred and becomes the capital symbolic toInaddition, testifies that. theyears conflict after support. haveparty strongsocial to regions, 10-16 former conflict supportin higher electoral the And community. local in embedded the which are timeallows ofwar networks the institutionalization The party. new timeisstrengthon war networks forthe War social micro become networks units time continuitybuilt ofparties explanations.Structural provides better approach regions. My former conflict to organizational weight in electionsand give groups first ofrebel at post-conflict the characteristics in Macedonia. municipalities previous studies that look only This given isaand new surprisingfinding, in conflict-affected afterconflict DUI continuousthe has and similarly supportfor10years conflict-affected conflict in SDSS continuousthat has the supportfor16years after Croatia regions in ones. recent electionsto most first frompost-conflict the elections national results legislative show The how andin effect whichforall way and isthe sub-national results the Itested electoral mitigated. party's performance; important however, forthe ofthegroupto be rebel capital ideational it isunclear long. even isnotforhow though clear it conflict regions, or forthe history expectation thereAlso, isan support getin former will more from expects parties rebels that further literature Guerrilla-to-party period. the post-conflict dominance in ofconflict's legacies. their institutionalization explains patronage in conjunction with strategy This of theya similarprocess successfulwent minoritybecause through DUI parties were most period. theSDSS and networks symboliccapitalpost-conflict in time utilizationofwar about the is conflict. groupsIt timeduring war networks rebel the orthe ofthe characteristics aboutit the isnot However, ofSDSS performance and DUI. electoral fullycannot forthe account my argument can. And networks ofrebel time groups/war varying the characteristics Itthat isclear party new included cadres. NLA experience,while group. MembersofSDSS had previous political had none and members both and coherent. centralized Also, NLA armed and centralized coherent wasofabunch rowdy than more a 242 CEU eTD Collection moderate strategy depending on the conditions. For example, if minority ethnic parties compete in ifcompete minority parties ethnic ontheexample, For depending conditions. moderate strategy or chosefrom a radical to expected parties are then competition, minority isintra-group If there competition. there hence isintra-group are permissive, rules and electoral territoriallyconcentrated are in Macedonia in and Serbs Croatia radicalactions. engaged but in werenot radicaldemands, were making Albanians splinters DUI, from and networks, notonly again war SDSS necessarily and other from time parties and OFA However, post-conflict period. in the inducedDUI to SDSS moderate and long interm, the Erdut from Incentives the these expectations. confirm and Macedonia findings in Croatia Agreement My competition. be intra-group thenwill permissible, there rules are and electoral concentrated, will territorially showsif parties moderate. that minorities are also onminority The literature literature. guerrilla-to-party partas offer ofthe agreements is,ifThat peace radical incentives,then a similarargument make Northern groupspartiesIreland in atand paramilitary Some look studies that and minority formergroups parties. rebel between the notdoes make connection ofsupport. theexplore variance settings, and minorityin itpost-conflict parties Also, looksat rarely to radicalize. ofminorityandnot does strategies fully parties, the looksprimarily literature at The or choseto moderate underwill which minority conditions parties isto ofthisset focus main literature competition. parties in minority ethnic hand,about myto contributes literature TheOn work other the argument capital. ofthat formationand ofagencyutilization role in Ispecify the better group. capital. toHowever, history/ideational which Iput issimilar The forward capital symbolic my in members ethnic which isappealingto oftheir DUIsymbolic capital. supported SDSSa discourse and ofthe appeal party. electoral as regular, and reiterative Social, to preserve the are practices initiated 243 CEU eTD Collection the argument ofminority however, success parties; accounts for the clientelism that specify Ibetter the parties. winning and dominant werethe most and timenetworks symboliccapital war in ismerit There the utilized that the and Macedonia parties playing field. isnot InCroatia, apost-conflict level settings timeand capital. ofwar networks symbolic partiesthe in utilization minority The between competition some only minority areparties. to available settings which in resources specific post-conflict are These not in included government. elections and were yetMyAnd won. they argument are there that explains However, SDSS done andnone DUIofthat. have first werenot inpost-conflict outbidding the They other, and,outbidding onthe and government offering in inclusion support. get electoral spoilsto onone hand, are, ofminority parties ethnic explanationsforsuccess main farwith So the patronage. post-conflict settings. in legacies conjunction conflict's institutionalize isthe that possibilityto And However, in only winningwhich isavailable specific strategy distinction isthe the reasonfora main in competition. parties about minority the literature in subset a as specific shouldbe inconsidered post-conflictwhy settings competition strategies. ofminority parties' maychoice conflictconditionthe ended which the This isone reason check. areality servedas harsh has post-conflict period, terms indiscriminated the on the Therefore, andharassed some being conflict, in thedefeat inSerbs, For military Croatia. Serb parties DPA, DUA, and NDP). than to likely radicalize are more oppositionMacedonia Albanian in parties moderate and(e.g. somePDP parties choseto with other (e.g. to radicalize while andothers ND), chose PPS). others donotInMacedonia, moderate, (e.g. while arenas the same compete in parties Albanian however, arenas; various electoral and SDSS) with(e.g.and SNS various parties some cooperate in in compete Croatia Serbparties Mysupport these donot expectations. fully will findings radicalize. then in opposition, they are moderate. Ifminority parties will ethnic ismore they it likely that therefore parties and with cooperate thatvarious will ismore they it likely arenas, then various electoral 244 CEU eTD Collection SDSS came to such position as a consequence of their development in the post-conflict period. the development post-conflict oftheir in a as consequence SDSS to came position such patronage. to extend to have possibilities doesbein included government it need that to extent not And the integration hasto system throughSDSS forminority patronage them. inofthe Croatia control institutions and (e.g.organizations ZVO) (e.g. SNV and ofNLAAssociation and extended veterans) spoils throughgot governance. sub-national access to minority tospecific came control They goods. andSDSS 'club' 'private' toand DUI extend post-conflict period and in distribution ofgoods the possibilities patronage. to extend War reconstruction influencedthe ofSDSS timenetworks and DUI the for only necessarily avenue settings.in governmentisnot inInclusion conditions post-conflict 245 CEU eTD Collection successful minority parties in the post-conflict period. post-conflict period. insuccessful minority the parties appeared. networks SDSSin Macedonia. These and Croatia DUI are in most were the These parties differentended in time war whichmost included ofthe parties ethnic ways. countries minority Inboth were different. and gravity duration conflict, the in different started conflicts The circumstancesand in both However, cases. the contested ofminoritygovernment members made ofthe characteristics the both partThey offormer were Yugoslavia and had inter-ethnic Opposition conflicts. organizations countries. democratizing are ofpost-conflict Macedonia twocases example,and For Croatia context. post-conflict in and operate the post-conflict new environment to Minority the adapt parties. parties ethnic to may minority groups transform Rebel politicsisreconstructed. environment forminority ofminorities. integration inclusion forhigher and designed which provide institutions are The After inter-ethnic sharingNew power arrangements. introduce agreementsusually peace conflicts, the address actors,gap. but donot islittle there onlocal focus that acknowledge and building democratization. peace actors to sustain ofinternational design and actions Authors the institutional explores literature post-conflict democratization most ofthe transformation, while conflict period. emergingAn guerrilla-to-party and explores the conceptualizes sub-field the post- hazards, andin security moral dilemmas,as such suchdevelopments bring that point forth out Others building. ofrebels,inclusion arguingpeace isneeded forsustainable anapproach inclusive that welcomes the research Some ofthe elected representatives. become inThey electionsand stand parties. transformpolitical former groups inprocesses. into political rebel actively participate They that it ends, often theisquite showconflict cases once that in post-conflict Studies ofdemocratization CONCLUSIONVI. 246 CEU eTD Collection patronage. patronage. environmentfor isconducive post-conflict socioeconomic and the are noexception parties ethnic gains under different electoral to usepatronage attract parties Minority Political conditions. patronage. studiesand ofclientelism look at settings. Ialso politics in post-conflict beto applied minority this can and Ithink psychocultural that consequences and structural leave conflicts that Itpatronage. isclaimed and ofthe conflict basedonlegacies approach an Iproposed alternative former groups. armed to relations without the any conflict after which appeared and networks, parties groups time orwar from rebel the conflict after which appeared parties in it, did not conflictparticipate but before the which existed parties the wereactorsconflict, who in from parties possibilities ranging are several My there shows that period. in conceptualization the parties post-conflict groupspolitical armed and betweenpolitics. Iarguedtheformer links properly researchconceptualize not does current the that forminority and context environment the post-conflict actorsto local and issensitive focused onthe argument my theoretical develop own framework.approachI thento My is proceeded and explanatory and Croatia in performed Macedonia. parties in ethnic how and second,to minority see parties political how into the timenetworkstransformed conflict, war after see what happened first,decided to I ofliterature, twostrands Following success. the electoral fortheir account ofthestrategies parties they ormoderate. regardstoradicalize whether in The ofminority parties strategies electoral at the inminority but competition. cases, parties looks ethnic notforpost-conflict does account literature The about literature at rebels. the Ialso look from ofthe performance parties the expectationsdraw about However, parties. transformpolitical groups underinto whichconditions rebel to alsoit use one can research.guided my To mainlylooksat the It literature. guerrilla-to-party at the Ilooked find answers parties most minority aresuccessful SDSSin why the The inMacedonia and Croatia DUI question 247 CEU eTD Collection as successful as institutionalization of conflict's legacies in conjunction with patronage. In the second Inthe patronage. insecond conjunction with legacies successfulinstitutionalization ofconflict's as only werenot patronage and results,Moderation, their and others orimprove lost. radicalization them, to defeat wereable why competing where Ishowed parties cases Ialso some presented patronage. extend possibilities to and gained ofthe legacies conflict theythe how DUI utilized wereformed, afterconflict. what happened the answer question chapters the empirical show SDSSThey how and ofSDSS and DUI. the Itraced formation chapters empirical partIn the ofthe ofthe first These parts and argumentmy both analysis theycountries. that cover countrybut arespecific, not forthe countrycontrol One as other. serves in similar both. are outcomes the electoral shows thatThis ofcomparison. level valid country in isthe each areparties different, conditions The post-conflict but at in but Croatia, also Serb parties Macedonia. partiesAlbanian in ethnic The ofminority performance Ilooked post-conflict at parties settings. in minority ofanalysissetbetween level oncompetition was With fordifferent designperiod. Icontrolled the research post-conflict in explanatoryvariables The condition. isa minimal win,while parties patronage extending to conditionforminority main ethnic conflict isthe ofthe legacies the utilizing Iclaim that post-conflict period. in the successful minority party ethnic most be the and thenwill it extend andpatronage, can ofthe conflict theparty legacies utilizes a minority was ethnic expectation if main tospoilsthat andMy control resources. party ability ofthe support. electoral from the It patronage. comes extend party isthe possibilityofthe to The factor third to attract conflict's legacies parties Minority institutionalize the derived ethnic conflict. from capital together. timenetworks. utilizationofwar first isthe The ofsymbolic secondisthe utilization The mechanisms. causal conjunction ofthree Two go and usually the conflict from legacies as come settings on rests in ofminority post-conflict parties success ethnic frameworkMy forthe explanatory 248 CEU eTD Collection conflict's legacies (war time networks and symbolic capital) is the main condition forminority ethnic isthe condition main timeandcapital) (war networks symbolic legacies conflict's ofthe Utilization minority parties. successfulthanethnic more incumbent symbolic capital are which networks have onwar built parties time most New willsuccessful. most be capital symbolic ofthe includes and networks,networks has most one which which aretime the onwar built parties in and Croatia between parties minority ethnic several Ifthere Macedonia. are Albanian in parties Serb sub-nationalelectionsbetween in results national and byoftheis confirmed the competition parties. rival winelectionsagainst most likely to are and possibilitiespatronage This to extend capital, symbolic have timenetworks whichwar include parties ethnic Minority wereconfirmed. I drew to besuited. better whichseem mechanisms Ipropose My causal and the The approach hypotheses that satisfactorily, settings. in post-conflict ofminorityparties ethnic the performance minorityHowever, competition. forintra-group conditions explain, explanationscouldn't competing ofrebel and groups the fortransformation inconditions confirmed, regardsto expectations were ofthe Some in literature. competition parties ethnic and guerrilla-to-party minority from the the competing explanations differences, the Ialso limitationsofmychecked approach. and similarities and both discussed countries findings from empirical Ibrought the together In theanalysis comparative hypothesis argument. and supportmy patronage. extend have possibilities to wherethey with municipalities my findings confirm The support iscorrelated electoral their and that and DUI(SDSS the for16years10years) conflict after countries. conflict regions supportin former electoral show have SDSSThey continuous that and DUI both in countries. cycles, both consistent analysis electoral forall are ofthe quantitative The results to in mostones recent post-conflict elections the first and sub-nationalelectionsfrom in national all minority forall parties ethnic analysisdata ofelectoral Idid quantitative chapters empirical part of the 249 CEU eTD Collection patronage. bemore partyto will extend isverythe strategy likely that it then legacies, utilization ofconflict's votes than bringsmore Ifpatronage advantage. electoral them preservewhich resources gave invest to Minority parties ethnic influence. to their developed retain are practices social notwithstanding that off wears capital mobilization symbolic and their units social foraggregationand as in time; timenetworks ofwar the Itthat importance isvery probable explanation. limitation to another my sets waywhich framework. isbeyond in ofminoritymy a parties ethnic explanatory the performance Time leaders. orcharismatic idiosyncrasies local can under theconditions, affect oftheseAny right factors, for conflict, and before the whichinfrastructure had established parties, supportof'old' for the electoral My notaccount does fully samearena. in explanation the electoral rules and same electoral under the causal to mechanisms. the are compete someThere limits parties ethnic only function if minority They higher symboliccapital. DPA thethey elections. lost and networks had war more included buttime patronage, DUI had more suchstrategy2008 elections.Following DPA's however, from support2002to increased 2008; electoral effort than DUI more forthe definitelyextend patronage more include could timenetworksand war to DPA Macedonia hand, in the On other possibilitiespatronage. to extend and level had local the made symboliccapital onthe which networks, had warhigher was2013, because DPS time basedonlocal to DPS example,SDSS For in lost elections Macedonia. sub-national Western in Slavonia 2009and and Croatia won electionsin ofthefactors three hadconjunction a greater ever party Which minimal toisa condition. win.Extendingpatronage parties 250 CEU eTD Collection performance of parties from rebels in comparison to other competing parties. In the guerrilla-to-party guerrilla-to-party Inthe competing parties. to in other comparison from rebels ofparties performance ofthis literature. extension it in analyzing the isan contribution theoretical makesThe a framework Ina way literature. guerrilla-to-party to the an originalcontribution framework isalso The explanatory its but limit. points explanatoryframework, out notthe does negate voters. goodenough to but win. not This post-conflict theygoodresultsperiod, iswhy in the show This organization had established conflict probably of the existed anda created pool Parties before which explanatoryframework. forthe set a andchallenge Croatia Macedonia conflict in before the existed and NDP and DPA Some parties good,yetresults of'old' canresults. which have Macedonia limited in shows why It ofSDSSin also Croatia inMacedonia. theandDPS Croatia DUI dominance in explains framework isbuilt. onwhichmechanisms the successfully contribution. It framework isan original The causal the extend are and possibilitiespatronage to ofconflict's legacies conflict Utilization context. in post- parties ethnic minority foranalyzingbetween competition an originalframework I developed means. political most preferred the become ofwhatballots happenswhen understanding own to contributes My greater inparties. networks research ofwarpolitical ofinclusion process time wider ofthe to contributes understanding better andIt conflicts. parties political interplay between at theall. toconflict timeorhavewar networks, dowith nothing shows the conceptualization The orbeon built can include parties orstaypost-conflict period, aside. inInthe violentconflict engage can choseto parties political internal conflict, Ifthere isan goals. to political achieve violent means options. ofpossible variance the categorizes cycle isaofoptions life forusingviolentornon- There parties and armed and political between groups the Itcontinuity acknowledges contribution. theoretical novel isa and minorityparties groups political ofthe armed links between The conceptualization Theoretical VI.1. implications 251 CEU eTD Collection what accounts for it. My research shows that when parties from rebels are formed, they utilize the utilize formed, rebelsthey parties showswhen are forit. that from what research accounts My conflict-affected and explained thisperiod that holdsin But oftime prolonged Ialso show regions. supportin higher former electoral get from parties rebels My that alsoparties. confirmed research dropgunsform political will right, and Ifthe rebels are groups. conditions transformation ofrebel in regardsto literature from the guerrilla-to-party expectations the My confirmed research from rebels parties have. which resources are specific other party. to from beany rebelsequal parties will that there that transitionassumes Guerrilla-to-party performance. electoral useinmost their likely to With assume isnoneed to there understanding such rebels parties are the from hintswhich resources at appropriate.It transitionismore guerrilla-to-party period. comes conflict from from the rebels parties political legitimacy Iargue ofthe Therefore, that party. the serveas base ofthe power and institutionalized conflict become ofthe legacies The and continuity. ofstructural symbolic isa lot there performance, their parties,functioning ofthe in The However, chance. democracya and to give peacebuilding to start change is an essential in the bullets. replace Ballots one crucialchange. goals. to political achieve This usageofmeans isinThat the transition. guerrilla-to-party Transformation and implies concept various changes. isa loaded is There should be process seenas the isthat transformation literature forthe guerrilla-to-party The implication post-conflict period. in the nationalelections level all positionparties predictedthe in ofmost and successfully competition results foranalyzing their satisfactorily It andshowed Macedonia. inminority Croatia parties ethnic phase. the second contribution for enlighten and created tested framework was The explanatory phase.My and isthe performance process,second research the phaseofthe thewhile seen as first shouldbe from formationofparties rebels outthe some2007)pointed that authors (Kovacs, literature, 252 CEU eTD Collection makes Serb political parties less prone to radicalization. prone less to makes parties Serbpolitical suffered the conflict. after ofwartimeleaders, heavily exodus well as the realityas check, The fearsand and in weredefeated Croatia Serbs onhow conflict ended. also depend the post-conflict can cases in orradicalization Moderation ofminority parties. formoderation account orradicalization arenas, to in different in governmentorparticipation inclusion/exclusion reasons, be other besides electoral Ialsocan showed patronage. there extend thethat possibilities to specify Ibetter post-conflict settings. in support forminority parties ethnic in variance accounts forthe research also Butconfirmed. my was competition be intra-group will permissive,there rulesthen are electoral and if the concentrated and offerscompetition some improvements. are territorially if that minorities The expectation in onminority parties ethnic literature in the ofthe expectations some My confirmed research Macedonia. in and competition Croatia ethnic important forminority was created was equally theenvironment. environment institutional How institutional only to sensitive the and context, not about sensitive the shouldbe more competition minority parties. between competition in onminority parties ethnic literature isthat The implication mind issomethingto bear analyzing in when ofminority andinstitutions legacies control of conflict's cases. minority in groups post-conflict tobetween competition which apply conditions The utilization Ihighlight specific competition. in studies ofminority parties ethnic to My contributes research literature. to guerrilla-to-party formed. from rebelsparties are and literature to post-conflict democratization finding contributes This ofminorities. integration conflict and how the ofwhat happensafter aunderstanding better This gives and forinclusion instruments ofinstitutional control political conflict and assume ofthe legacies 253 CEU eTD Collection Once this model was in place, it reached equilibrium. equilibrium. reached init place, Once thiswas got model model a chance The whichthe owned parties conflict period. post- patronage. inextend the ofminorityparties ethnic the performance The factors modeled three to more was order to possibilities have ofminority institutions soughtin sustained. control Political and wereinitiated tocapital symbolic retain Social enhanced. practices werepreservednetworks and support. the electoral to them retain and reinforce to utilize PartiesWarestablished. continued time legitimized. from rebelswere parties were victory provided electoral fortheir factors which The and Croatia Macedonia. elections.New first post-conflict the was path after There dependency some minorityin parties between moment forcompetition werea formative post-conflict elections The first post-conflict elections. win in the reconstruction. most factors likely was to three conjunction the partyofthese highest The which had post-conflict during possibilitiespatronage the to them extend ongroundwhich gave control political support. appeal. electoral oftheir and becamepart transferred symbolicThey was Their had capital Macedonia. and mobilization of units foraggregationofinterest social The provided timenetworks war timeon war networks. and Croatia in post-conflict advantages hadThese competitive parties built whichorare include playing field.appear minority parties New toona level operate parties ethnic same areforall. conditions the institutional and intentisforminority The assumption electoral The and minority parties. ethnic to prejudice and towithout preferences isexpected function environment which ainstitutional new bring agreements conflict. Peace the after politicsisreconstructed politics. Minority consideration. role in forminority closer of agency juncture seena as critical conflict shouldbe The and ofthe conflict take politicsneed legacies to party politics.Studies ofpost-conflict conflict party forpost- and especially democratization forstudiesMy implications ofpost-conflict has research 254 CEU eTD Collection networks, symbolic capital and patronage. patronage. symboliccapitalnetworks, settings and in post-conflict parties resultsThe ofmain electoral different time war shouldbe mechanisms present: casual But and the Croatia Macedonia. than in and thesome same wouldbe post-conflict conditions Some in ofthe post-conflict settings. parties main between be usedto frameworkanalyzecompetition can the explanatory to seewhether be interesting and and different have both similar It which andwouldalsoAsia) Macedonia. than conditions Croatia foundin different can be parties ethnic the world(e.g. Latin in post-conflict countries America, Africa, post-conflict countries. in minorityother parties between Variation supportforminority in electoral To should beto myapplied cases, competition hold explanation formore my check findings whether unit the wholegroupas foranalysis. ethnic sole the treat organizations shouldalso One lookcaution. at violence,and not ofmobilization analyzeand patterns to during inter-ethnic mobilization, and especially withhomogeneity and shouldbe conflicts, treated in wasRSK. parties there between strongcompetition ethnic This about showsclaims that and DPA SNS suchdevelopments,as such in wereadversaries Croatia to parties Macedonia. in Also, different However, Macedonia. in and groups Croatia the minorityjoined armed parties some minority the homogeneityconflict. during mobilizationof ethnic and members conflict started, the When claims especially to forstudiesconflict ofethnic and an has implication my notLast least, research but in elections. success sub-national However,success. electoral and sub-nationallevel have the onthe it possiblemodel to was copy forelectoral had fewerchances therefore extend and orhad fewerpossibilitiespatronage to capital fewertimeand war networks hadsymbolic less included either parties ornew national Splinter level. thedifficult It model. was to copy needed minorityona parties ethnic dothat dominated, other to competitors. ethnic dominanceamong electoral their to perpetuate To party the which defeat 255 CEU eTD Collection Another policy implication is that parties from rebels emerged from parties implication parties. Another isthat ethnic policy the as minority main The only forinter-ethnic and not post-conflict period violencein the forintra-group conditions violence. period. the post-conflict in implemented favorable and otherAccess weapons present resources to should be thoroughly and disarmament demobilization exampleis that implicationofthis policy did to not inter-ethnic lead theIt minoritybetween parties. and inter-ethnic conflict violence. The was the within competition ofthe andaheightened wasas result community ethnic instigated Albanian tensions ethnic to diffuse.helped However, case ofMacedonia. violencein the electoral was There it group. ethnic the which represented majority parties with timecooperated war networks Thisincluded which parties ethnic Minority maintained. better inwas politics,security with involvement their Macedonia. caseand ofCroatia found in the With parties and rebels in political offormer inclusion the valid;however, Moral building. hazards are peace supports former rebels werenot concerns security showsinclusion that research of My implications. policy fromhave myseveral The research results Policy VI.2. implications power. a stronger explanatory which have other point orit factors mechanisms to can casual causal point mechanisms. out and validityvoter mayofthe preferences the comparison confirm The between inferences test comparison the can assessSucha datavoter preferences. which individual level todifferent compared can be theexplanatoryframework world.Furthermore, results ofthe parts ofthe and also samein inregion anthe forsuch extension an opportunity which present are countries There a wider territory. competein and parties Voters territoriallyconcentrated. are not dispersed. They are isdifferentoperate parties. ethnic one than forminority considerations the other institutional are There explanatoryvariables. to additional mainwould merit attention in playingfield which parties level The 256 CEU eTD Collection investigated and prosecuted. However, and prosecuted. investigated raising numerous charges keeping crimes, forwar them and period. they overlooked, should be shouldnotbut be crimes war that isalso awareness There post-conflict in the forcombatantsisneeded amnesty that policy are aware Peacebuilding makers conclusion point. onthat satisfactorily differently. wouldoperate minority parties ethnic offer research not does inThe my data empirical a other Itwhether advantage. isunclear usetheir forminority in the politicsand them institutions to came control Macedonia and Croatia DUI group,SDSSin ethnic thein fortheir improve conditions ofOFAimplementation and rights of the forimproving status and Albanians in Macedonia. Working to forthe credit rightsin DUI ofSerbs Croatia. positionsdeserves and refugees, andthe improving of return in supporting Serbs Croatia, the SDSSforretaining credit the deserves the agreements. peace of supported the implementation strongly Both parties countries. respective in their rights ofminorities period. the forminorities post-conflict accomplishments in and the improved positions actions Their positiveimportant condemnDUI. and cynical Bothbe SDSS simplistic to had and and would It time networks. whichwar include parties side,harshly one shouldnotthe On judge other the radicalization. spoilers toand peace alsodeterrent periodserveas early inmay the post-conflict parties minority Inclusion process. ofother to the value bring approachan added can links withSuchan them. and new,minority both old parties, which ones donot have timenetworksand whichwar ones include parties. ethnic other minority A shouldall include process post-conflict democratization comprehensive However, process. post-conflict democratization inincluded the marginalization to this lead ofthe and they importance were their acknowledged andactors local International post-conflict period. SDSS and DUI. the early ongroundin control becausepolitical oftheir Also, to rose prominence they becamemarginalized. war duringmoderates off the the timepaid onthesidewrong at right Being for 257 CEU eTD Collection which provide for greater inclusion and integration of minorities. and integration inclusion forgreater which provide accessto they spoilswhich Then have However, parties. ethnic prejudice for minority orpreference the control comeinstitutions parties to forminority politics. the reconstruct institutions sharing and arrangements withoutThis isdone agreements. ofpeace implementation concerns the power remark often policy The prescribe They last process. justice transitional fullhave post-conflict a not appropriateto the minimumare conditions at commission if a and reconciliation a truth initiate closer. communities ethnic options policy wouldbe to other post-conflict conditions, Depending onthe ofwar, casualties Paying forall respect differentiation, forethnic ofallowing instead bring help to can activities. early in the post-conflict forremembrance and practices events commemorative joint initiate Efforts possible.to as solution One early as wouldbe situationshould be made a tosuch overcome remain. gapethnic will the and the groups thatbetween distrust thenisvery likely theit symbolism conflict, from deriving of maintains a discourse party ethnic and creates Ifa forsymboliclegacies. minority holds in particular reconciliation. hamperpost-conflict may the but forminority it parties, ethnic beneficial Thiswill be conflict's ofthe legacies Utilization the capital. symbolic to established sustain become will practices support. and mobilization ofelectoral followinterests and will social transfer capital ofsymbolic The of asunit networks usesocial foraggregation will from time a war very parties rebels likely that timeIt ofwar networks. is leeway amnesty that forutilization gives Policy shouldbe aware makers post-conflict period. in the andreconciliation prevents full transitional justice impedes Macedonia, was as cases, case crime in war the alleged hand, failingtoall address On other the group. ofthe minority and instrumentsintimidation creates forfear as case insecret, Croatia, the was 258 CEU eTD Collection within group. the elite forsmall than work wholegroup,rather ofminoritiesethnic to forthe and integration inclusion differentrepresentatives from minority parties). ethnic institutions for have the The wouldbe to point and (e.g. governmentrepresentatives andstakeholders domestic relevantinternational all oftheagreement. peace forimplementation should include competences The committee have executive which would mixed to a committee optioncreate policy One wouldbe agreementsisneeded. peace period. post-conflict in the unforeseen consequence To inof this,implementation oversight remedy extendthey patronage. to use closed off. becomes minority parties between competition The This isan 259 CEU eTD Collection 7: 342-370]. 370 [Bašić, P. 1990.-1991.” and Miškulin, ofGrubisnopolje I.(2007).“Chronicles Bašić, P. Kronika 1990.-1991.”, and Miškulin, I.(2007).“Grubišnopoljska 227-243. among (2000).“Protractedtransitions Barkan, J.D. 7(3): democracies”, new Democratization Africa's part), (first Podunavlje” ofCroatian reintegration N. (2011). and Baranja Slavonia, East “Serb area West end Sremofpeaceful to –From “Storm” the dio), hrvatskog (prvi Podunavlja” dorvršetka reintegracije mirne N.Barić, (2011). do “Oluje” Srijem–Od IZapadni Baranja Slavonia, oblast “Srpska Istočna GoldenZagreb: marketing-Tehni Bari Press. Barany, and Moser, Z. R.G. (2005).(eds). Yugoslavia: Durieux. Zagreb: andconflicts]. nationalistic onnationalism essays I.(2001). Banac, Arian, (2005). A. 536. Democracy.” Rudy B.2000.“Consociational Anderweg, Party Politics”, Elections and Altier, B.,Martin, M. and S. Weinberg, on Issue Special B.(2013).“Introduction to the L. Violence, Terrorism on SpanishPolitics”, ETA: BombingsAlonso, andwith Negotiations Madrid R.(2013).“The A of Impact CaseStudy ofthe ComparativeStudies InternationalDevelopment, in of Legacy Allison, E. M. (2010).“The Violence onPost-Civil War Elections: Case ofElThe Salvador”, America”, Allison, E. M. (2006).“The Transition from Opposition in Central Armed Opposition to Electoral Aldrich, (1995). J. 2009. Foundation, Ebert 2November Friedrich Berlin, organized forDemocratization” orStumbling Block Electionsthe –Milestone by the “Risking Acka, F. ‘Elections S. After Internal Violent Conflict: at D’Ivoire’, paper presented CaseofCote The ć , N. (2005). Latin Latin andSociety,American Politics Raspad Jugoslavije: eseji o nacionalizmu i nacionalnim sukobima isukobima nacionalnim onacionalizmu Raspad Jugoslavije:eseji Srpska pobunauHrvatskoj1990-1995 Srpska Politics in Israel: The Second Republic in TheSecond Israel: Politics Why Parties? 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Negotiations for achieving the Ohrid agreement Ohrid Negotiationsforachievingthe Спречување војна во Македонија. Превентивна дипломатија 21.век, за [Menaj, P. (ed). (2008). Затишје пред бура? Влијанието прекуграничните на мрежи, корупцијата и Сведоштвото Генералот на Преговорите постигнување за надоговор, Охридскиот , Skopje: FOSIM]. , Skopje: ОНА порака инадеж -Том 1 Selection of texts about the conflict in the 2001, conflict about of texts Selection Research Study,Research ISPPI]. Skopje: Tetovo: ArbëriaDesign]. Конфликтот во Република Македонија 2001: Тероризам или борба за борба или Тероризам 2001: Македонија Република во Конфликтот Preventing War Pre-Emptive in Macedonia. forthe 21 Diplomacy saosi . (08. (2008). S. Ismanovski, Calm Before of Storm? cross the Influence border networks,corruption Избор текстови за конфликтот во 2001 година 2001 во конфликтот за текстови Избор , Skopje: FIOOM [Ismanovski, S. (2008). (2008). S. [Ismanovski, FIOOM Skopje: , NLA mesaageandhope –Volume 1andVolume 2,Diary Skopje: FIOOM]. Skopje: , Тетово: Арбериа Дизајн ofit ë Rpbië aeoië 2001: Maqedonisë e Republikën Në Konflikti и оиикт дниеи в Република во идентитети Политичките Том :документи 2,Дневник [Kadriu, B. (2011). “Participation of Albanian of “Participation (2011). B. [Kadriu, , Skopje: FOSIM]. Skopje: FIOOM]. Skopje: Skopje: FIOOM]. Skopje: [Ostreni, G. (2011).[Ostreni, Conflict in Republic of Republic in Conflict Скопје: ФИООМ Political Identities in Identities Political , Скопје: ФИООМ Скопје: , Скопје: и белешки, белешки, st Скопје:

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Integration for Union Democratic Declaration, Foundation [Party 2002 Founding Qershor, UnionforIntegration-DUI, Assembly ofDemocratic Tetovo, 5May2002]. 5 Tetovë, Integrim-BDI, për Demokratik Bashkimit Kuvendi ePartise, e I 2002. Deklarate Themelimit (DUI).Themelues Integration Union for Democratic of Democratic Party (DPA).Albanians 2009.Project (Political Agreement June2009. Agreement), Elections 2008]. Program, [Program: Electoral Jungjatjeta! of Democratic Party (DPA).Albanians Programi Jungjatjeta! Zgjedhor, 2008.Programi: 2008 Zgjedhjet MACEDONIA Knin, January1994]. in ofSerbKrajina. Republic Elections andParliamentary Informatics. BureauRepublic forStatistics уРепублициизбори Српска Крајина. јануар Книн, 1994године. Република Српска Крајина. Републички завод статистику за и информатику. Парламентарни in (undated). exile] parliament DocumentsKrajina. ofgovernmentand Република Српска Крајина. Документи владе и скупштине упрогонству. July 1994], 1994, Бр.1, ИнформаривниОтаџбина, општинског часопис одбора СДС Земаља Српских Глина, Глина јули 2014. accessed on6February (Plan of OperationalPlan ofMunicipalities, Council Work) for2013], ZVO, 2013. ZVO, 2011. for2011, Financial report ZVO, at available

Document from Document Archive. copy.Author's Заједничко веће Оперативвни општина, (План2013годину рада), план за [Joint [Fatherland, Information Journal of municipality boards ofSDS boards of InformationJournal[Fatherland, ofmunicipality Serb Lands, Glina, All www.zvo.hr [Republic of Serb Krajina. ofSerbKrajina. [Republic last accessed on 6 February 2014. accessed on6February last available at at available [Republic ofSerb [Republic www.zvo.hr last last 294 CEU eTD Collection Serb Party] 1. Representatives ofSamostalna Srpska Demokratska Stranka (SDSS) [Independent Democratic 12) 11) 10) 9) 8) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) županije, 16.10.2013 in županije, 16.10.2013in Vukovar of ofSerbnational minority ofCouncil Miodrag Nedeljković,President Vukovarsko-Srijemske 14.10.2013 in Osijek Osijek,Boško ofSDSS ofSDSS' Main branch Board, President in Member Gvero, party Osijek županije, 09.10.2013in Stanislav Vukosavljević, ofOsječko-Baranjske ofSerbnational minority ofCouncil President 01.10.2013in Knin Mayor (2013to present), Predrag Burza, municipality ofErvenik 01.10.2013in Knin to present), Presidentin Knin,deputy ofSDSSŽeljko Đepina, branch Mayor ofKnin(2011-2013, 2013– CityKnin in the ofKnin,01.10.2013in national minority of Serb županijeand ofŠibensko-Kninske memberCouncil of Serbnational minority President županije(2009-2013,2013to Šibensko-Kninske present), ofCouncil Deputy Župan ofSDSS organizationMirko Rašković,regional President in županije, Šibensko-Kninske (1997-2001),09.10.2013in in council Osijek Erdut municipal ofSDSS, member Mayor ofErdut2013, 2013-present), founding (2005-2009),President (2009- Member Županžupanije Jovan Jelić, ofSDSSOsječko-Baranjske Main Board, Deputy Osijek present), 14.10.2013in Presidentin Srđan Mlaković, ofSDSS branch Vukovar, Deputy Mayor of Vukovar, (2013- 16.10.2013 in Osijek mayorSrijemske županije(2009-2013,2013-present), of Trpenja (2001-2005,2005-2009), Čurčić, Ðorđe Vice President ofGeneral Župan Assembly ofSDSS, Deputy Vukovarsko- General Secretary ofSDSS, Nikolić, 15.10.2013in Danko Vukovar 21.10.2013in (2005toJoint present), ofMunicipalities, Council Vukovar Dragan Crnogorac, Vice President ofSDSS, MP from SDSS (2011 President to present), of Krajina”,15.10.2013in of“RepublicSrpska government Vukovar Vojislav President Stanimirović, Mayor of ofSDSS (1997-present), Vukovar Minister in and LIST OF INTERVIEWS OF LIST CROATIA 295 CEU eTD Collection 2. Serbrepresentatives from other parties, independents NGO and political 15) 14) 13) 12) 11) 10) 9) 8) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 15) 14) 13) Čedomir Čedomir Višnjić, ofSKD 23.02.2011 “Prosvjeta”, President Zagreb in (2001-2005),30.09.2013 in council Knin of Knincity in Knin,Member ofSDSS ofSKD in “Prosvjeta” Knin,foundingDragoljub President member branch Čupković, Forum in SDP,16.02.2011 in Zagreb Senior's (SDP), Headofthe Democratic Party FoundingofSocial member Duško Plečaš, 21.10.2013 in Vukovar Member in ofcouncil Stevan Grbatinić, Vukovarsko-Srijemska županija(2009-2013), Požega županije, 22.10.2013in Tihomir of Požeško-Slavonske ofSerbnational minority ofCouncil Secretary Aleksić, 22.10.2013 in Požega the ofPožega, minoritycity ofCouncil in and ofSerbnational Member ofPožeško-Slavonske županije Member ofSerbnational minority Gojko Nenadović, ofCouncil mayor 22.10.2013in during Požega RSK, ofPakrac županije(2009-2013,2013-present), Požeško-Slavonske DeputyMiroslav Župan Grozdanić, 09.10.2013 in Osijek of Osijek, city minority in the President ofSerbnational Milorad ofCouncil Mišković, 07.10.2013 in Osijek Branislav Vorkapić, ofSNS in head Osijek, memberofCroatian former Army (1991-1995), Veljko Forum (SDF), President 01.03.2011 ofSerbDemocratic Đakula, in Zagreb PartijaSrba(DPS), 02.03.2011 ofDemokratska Mitar President Kojadinovac, in Zagreb in Skopje Veselin MP ofSNS Pejnović,formerpresident (1991-1996)and vice (1992-2000),23.12.2013 Stranka ofSrpska(SNS), 01.03.2011 President Milan Nacionalna Rodić, in Zagreb (2001-2005)and ofMunicipalities Council Vice ofSDSS, 17.10.2013in president Vukovar Jovan President Stranka/ ofNaša Ajduković, Anonymous, ofSDSS, 18.02.2013in Zagreb Member Anonymous, ofSDSS, 18.02.2013in Zagreb Member 18.02.2013in Zagreb MinorityZagreb, ofSerbNational ofCouncil in and President ofSDSS Board, Member Aleksandar Milošević, Main Vice Council ofSerbNational President Наша СтранкаНаша (NS), former President ofJointformer President 296 CEU eTD Collection 4. Expertsand journalists 3. Other representatives political 2. 1. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Eastern Slavonia, 12.10.2013 Slavonia, Eastern reporter rights in in Council Osijek forhuman and head Helsinki of Croatian Jaroslav Pecnik, 15.10.2013in Slavonia), Osijek Eastern in building reconstruction and peace Miljenko Turšinski, (NGO workingonpost-conflict Agency Democracy forLocal Vukovar Member of Biljana Gaća, Vukovar (2011-2013, council city present),17.10.2013 in 2013to Vukovar Member Buljan, Darko of Vukovar's 17.10.2013in (2009-2013,2013to council present), city (2013),03.03.2011Mayor ofZagreb in Zagreb Margareta (2005-2009,2009-2013),Candidatefor CouncilZagreb ofCity in Mađerić, Member present) 21.02.2011 in Zagreb (2012-present), MP Parliament ofCroatian Josip President Leko, (2003-2007,2007-2011, 2011- Pančić,of Ivica Minister Veteran's Affairs (2000-2003),MP (2003-2008), 28.02.2011 Zagreb in 24.02.2011 Zagreb in 2006), MP (2003-2005,2007-2011), Croatian the lead ofSisak(1991-1993) Army defense Davorko Vidović, (2000-2003),Mayor ofLaborSisak(2005- Policy and Social Minister 2003), MP (2003-2007,2007-2011, 2011-present) 17.02.2011 in Zagreb Antun Vujić, (SDH), ofCroatia Minister (2000- ofCulture Party founder ofSocialdemocratic 09.07.2013in Skopjeof Macedonia, MayorZlatko Kramarić, ofOsijek (1990-2005), to of Croatia ofRepublic Ambassador units) (1991-1993),23.10.2013in Osijek ofHOS paramilitary (Croatian inCommander Chief (1992–2011), ofHSP, leader and founders (1993-2009),one rightofthe party radical (2013-),Member inParliament council ofCroatian Osijek ofcity Anto Đapić, President ofUNTAES Klein, Jacques Gen. Head (1995-1998),24.10.2013in Osijek mission ofRt. withfrom Krajina”under Serbs “Srpska auspices governmentinCroatian cooperation Ivan Vrkić, of onbehalf reintegration process the Mayor ofOsijekpeaceful (2013-),lead 297 CEU eTD Collection 4. 3. 2. 1. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. Rafiz Aliti, aka Commander M'susi in NLA, vice president of DUI (2002-2012), MP (2002- MP (2002-2012), DUI of president vice NLA, in M'susi Commander aka Aliti, Rafiz in 14.07.2013 (2004-2006), speaker deputy Debar and (2002-2011) MP (2005-), DUI of president vice (2002-2005) DUI of secretary general (2001), Staff of Chief General NLA Ostreni, G'zim for Secretariat of charge in minister prime ofOhridFramework Implementation (2011-),Agreement 22.07.2013in Skopje deputy (2008-2011), self-government local for minister (2002-2006), Minister Prime deputy (2001), NLA affairs liaison Xhaferi, Musa foreign Ali ofNLA leader Ahmeti, political Mala ofDUI Rechica (2001),leader (2002-),22.07.2013in 07.03.2011Zagreb, Zagreb in Mirko Mlakar, of University Science, in Political Doctoral Journalist Candidate and Freelance in Zagreb Tomislav 23.02.2011 columnist for24Sata, regular and analyst, commentator Klauški, Political 26.02.2011 portal, news leading Croatian Jasna Babić,IndexHR, Journalist, Zagreb in 07.03.2011 Zagreb in history, ofCroatian Ivo Goldstein, Professor ofPhilosophy, Faculty University ofZagreb, 21.02.2011 portal, Journalist, news leading Malić, Croatian Gordan IndexHR, Zagreb in 22.02.2011 Zagreb in Čular,Goran Associate Professor, University Science, ofZagreb, ofPolitical Faculty and Director,Zagreb, Research, 18.02.2011 forPolitical Centre in Zagreb Researcher,Anđeljko Milardović, University andof InstituteEthnicStudies, forMigration (phone interview) Knin's HUKnet, news andin07.10.2013 Editor Chief portal, Doctoral Šimić, Candidate Ivica Mihajlo Kragulj, 30.09.2013in urban culture, Knin Association forpromotionofhumanity and 27.09.2013in Zagreb Journalism, Saša Journalist,forInvestigative Leković, Center Defence National Academy, Austrian Zagreb Armed 28.09.2013in Forces, Senior Researcher,Predrag Jureković, Management, Support and Conflict InstituteforPeace 21.10.2013 in Vukovar Researcher,Sandra Cvikić, Centre Regional “Ivo Pilar”, Sciences InstituteofSocial Vukovar, MACEDONIA 298 CEU eTD Collection 21. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. Flamure Demiri – Kreci, Demiri MPFlamure (2011-2014), from RDK Skopje 24.02.2014in Naxhi Xhelili,MP RDK (2011-2014), from 24.02.2014in Skopje ofNATO Blease,Denis Head Skopje (2003-2005), 16.09.2011 in in Skopje of President and 2002-2004) and (1992-1998 (2004-2009),05.09.2011Macedonia Skopje in Minister Prime former Crvenkovski, Branko of Minister and (1992-1995) Interior of Foreign Minister Affairs Skopje (1995-1998),24.01.2013in former professor, Frchkovski, Ljubomir (1996- Justice for Minister 1998), 11.07.2013 Skopje in former (1998-2002), SDSM of secretary general Spasov, Gjorgji (2001-2009),07.09.2011the President to Security Adviser National (200-2001), spokesperson Interior of Ministry Pendarovski, Stevo Harald Schenker, forinter-ethnic expert OSCE (2001-2013),19.12.2010 Macedonia in relations ofDUI, 15.12.2010in oftheSkopje member Board Central Rexhepi, Bekim Skopje in 20.12.2010 Governance, Good and Research Policy for Institute of Director Bakiu, Bashkim on17.07.2013 responsesMinister received (2004-2006),e-mail Prime to adviser security national PDP, of and MPmember (1998-2002) former Biljali, Merselj (2002-2004),08.07.2013in forDefense deputy Skopje Minister and (2004-2006) Self-government Local for Minister former member, DUI Sulejmani, Rizvan in 17.06.2013 (2002-2006), Education for Minister Skopje. former member, DUI Pollozhani, Aziz Skopje. (2008-2011), for Health Minister former and of DUI spokesperson 16.05.2013 in Osmani, Bujar NLABesim former Hoda, Commander, 26.05.2013in Tetovo. in 16.07.2013 (2008-2014), MP and Skopje DUI of member NLA, of spokesperson Misini, Hajrula (2009-2013), Skopje of city the in person 18.12.2012 in Skopje. council DUI and combatant NLA Limani, Raim 2011) ofParliament deputy (2008-2011), speaker and 20.12.2012. 299 CEU eTD Collection 23. 22. Slobodan Kovachevski, MayorSlobodan (2000-2009),01.03.2014in Kovachevski, Kumanovo ofKumanovo Anonymous –UNDP reconstruction,25.07.2013in Skopje forpost-conflict projectleader 300 CEU eTD Collection Red: Croats, blue: Serbs, brown: Czechs, purple: Hungarians, black: Italian. Hungarians, black: Serbs,purple: blue: Red: brown: Czechs, Croats, to 2001census in according Croatia, I.2.Ethnicgroupconcentration Map I.1.ConflictzonesinMap Croatia APPENDIX. 301 CEU eTD Collection Purple: ethnic Macedonians, dark red: Macedonians, dark Purple: ethnic yellow: Albanians, Serbs, blue: Turks. to according 2002census Macedonia I.4.Ethnicgroups'in Map concentration I.3.ConflictzonesinMap Macedonia 302 CEU eTD Collection Table One way III.14.2003elections. ANOVA: support forof and location candidates parties. voter Serb conflict during municipality's the under municipalities and municipalities conflict-affected to relation in elections parliamentary in competencesof in ZVO, percents parenthesis voters Serb III.13. Table TableIII.12. voters parliamentary Serb in elections relation control in to of during (1991-1995),percents territory conflict in parenthesis Turnout% census of Turnout census) (2001 of Number Serbs municipalities2007 Turnout% census of Turnout census) of (2001 Number Serbs municipalities2003 Turnout% of census Turnout (2011 census) of Number Serbs 2011 Turnout% of census Turnout census) (2001 of Number Serbs 2007 Turnout% of census Turnout census) (2001 of Number Serbs 2003 Turnout% census of Turnout (2011 census) of Number Serbs 2011 municipalities 10,703 (46.62) 38,570 (23.62) 10,659 (42.82) 43,679 (24.74) 16,370 (36.75) 43,586 (24.48) 28 (12.22) 28 (12.61) 27 (11.44) SAO East conflict-affected 139,772 (78.9) 139,734 (79.2) 140,120 (78.7) 19, (84.7)19, 440 (85.4)21, 271 (87.2)38, 822 27.75 37.56 24.4 138 (62.2) 143 (60.3) 143 (62.4) 13.9 15.2 27.7 2, (1.73)2, 825 (1.83)3, 225 (1.81)3, 225 SAO West 490 (2.13)490 (1.43)635 449 (1.8) 6 (2.62)6 6 (2.7) 6 (2.5) 13.92 19.69 17.35 37,353 (21.1) 36,800 (20.8) 37,935 (21.3) 3, (15.3)3, 520 (14.6)3, 624 (12.8)5, 713 Not affected 86 (37.6) 84 (37.8) 93 (39.2) 15.1 9.4 9.8 40,307 (24.69) 35,969 (20.38) 13,459 (30.22) 36,126 (20.29) 3, (17.15)3, 937 (21.72)5, 408 SAO Krajina SAO 35 (15.28) 34 (15.32) 36 (15.25) 15.04 37.26 9.77 12,338 (53.7) 59,799 (33.8) 12,498 (50.2) 59,915 (33.9) 19,460 (43.7) 60,041 (33.7) ZVO control 48 (21.6) 49 (20.7) 48 (21) 20.6 20.9 32.4 81,489 (49.91) 93,631 (53.04) 14,071 (31.59) Croatia Proper 8, (33.66)8, 379 (53.4)95, 088 7,830 (34.1) 160 (69.87)160 (69.37)154 (70.76)167 8.95 14.8 9.61 Non ZVO Non control 10,622 (46.3)2 117,125 (66.2) 116,622 (66.1) 118,014 (66.3) 12, (49.8)12, 397 (56.3)25, 080 174 (78.4) 188 (79.3) 181 (79) 181 10.6 21.3 9.1 176, 176, 534 163,262 178,055 22, 22, 960 24, 895 44, 540 25.01 14.06 Total 14.1 229 222 236 303 CEU eTD Collection Table III.17.Cross-tabs: Votes 2003parliamentary by countieselections Serb in for parties 0.05.Standard 0.01.*Significant parenthesis. at 0.001.**.Significantdeviationin ***. Significant at at Table III.16.2011 One way elections. ANOVA: support forof and locationcandidates parties voter Serb conflict during municipality's 0.05.Standard 0.01.*Significantparenthesis. at 0.001.**.Significantdeviationin ***. Significant at at Table One way III.15.2007elections. ANOVA: support forof and locationcandidates parties voter Serb conflict during municipality's 0.05.Standard 0.01.*Significantparenthesis. at 0.001.**.Significantdeviationin ***. Significant at at F Levene proper Croatia SAO K SAO W SAO E F Levene proper Croatia SAO K SAO W SAO E F Levene proper Croatia SAO K SAO W SAO E 167 154 36 27 34 28 N N 6 6 160 35 28 N 6 15.98*** 19.76*** (121.87) (372.23) (233.27) (577.36) (71.58) (45.02) (87.97) (42.83) 243.86 183.86 377.89 36.51 30.29 90.68 44.67 .000' .000' 41 1 1 17.74*** (104.51) (385.02) (69.73) (49.72) 256.14 30.17 61.06 .000' 41 1 22.42*** (107.45) (392.14) (227.78) (748.06) 19.4*** (55.53) (32.43) (86.61) (38.84) 256.57 166.81 487.74 SDSS SDSS 19.58 66.76 28.21 32.83 .000' .000' 32.5 2 2 19.73*** (427.75) (103.91) (41.29) 280.86 (62.8) 25.24 57.23 .000' 18.17*** SDSS (309.25) (245.73) (403.88) 20.7*** 260.56 (36.18) (94.74) (20.84) (12.37) 32 (36.11) 192.64 154.75 2 54.76 19.33 14.89 .000' .000' 13.3 11.5 3 3 13.15*** 10.04*** (150.46) (145.93) (22.43) (79.64) (48.12) 130.36 (9.78) (2.61) 18.53 38.36 105.3 .000' (6.9) .000' 20.15*** 4.25 4.93 45.5 (421.13) (26.69) (54.94) (89.44) 268.21 2 1 1 19.14 42.43 23.67 .000' 3 13.59*** 10.77*** (21.39) (14.43) (11.55) (6.42) (19.6) (97.1) (6.94) (3.62) 10.13 59.19 15.96 12.59 .000' .000' SNS SNS 4.75 13.5 3.55 4.67 2 2 11.48*** (137.93) (22.66) (31.87) (27.57) 10.42 24.97 18.83 73.96 .000' 1 12.69*** (17.41) (74.54) (8.45) (9.91) (81.5) (6.82) (7.29) (2.83) 47.83 44.59 3.57* .000' .075' 5.57 7.91 9.17 3.09 7.12 3 3 3 Srpska slogaSrpska 8.04*** (18.31) (34.48) (51.78) (66.08) 12.15*** 11.97*** (247.15) (20.416) 27.51 32.67 34.04 .000' (23.65) (87.75) (28.75) (27.61) (14.03) 8.56 (8.69) 21.78 10.33 52.37 12.45 31.47 .000' .000' 8.92 11.5 2 124 1 1 14.17*** 7.82*** (73.21) (15.34) (21.56) (9.83) (53.3) (5.47) (2.25) (4.11) 27.71 7.09*** .000' .000' (10.77) (25.99) (17.07) (47.39) 6.83 1.85 4.88 1.67 PPS PPS 16.26 10.33 22.82 36 27 .000' 4.98 2 6 2 3 11.51*** 7.95*** (63.03) (13.44) (19.36) (14.41) (37.87) (3.59) (4.11) 23.86 20.19 26.37 11.83 .000' .000' (1.6) 6.96 1.42 3.71 1.83 3 3 (11.65) 5.42** (5.12) (7.31) .008' (5.2) 2.68 7.43 5.33 5.43 1 (18.52) (10.07) (10.96) (21.29) (19.77) (15.48) 3.95** 10.33 (5.13) 10.43 0.066 18.71 (9.9) .825' 4.28 4.33 7.48 2.39 8.23 9.67 1 1 4.91** (5.16) (4.54) (6.84) .002' (3.6) 1.99 3.23 4.17 5.25 2 SP (15.225) 6.41*** (23.99) (12.25) (23.94) (31.59) (5.78) (7.64) 13.29 3.67* 0.055 21.06 (8.1) .002' 8.86 5.83 5.37 7.07 ZSH 3.6 ZSR 22 2 2 (2.17) (3.34) (2.81) (3.58) 4.31* .002' 8.84*** 6.55*** 1.05 2.57 (14.22) 2.2 2.5 (5.96) (6.53) (5.26) 0.000' (6.56) (6.04) (4.11) 3 .000' (3.6) 1.75 6.12 4.33 3.57 3.05 6.44 3.83 9.52 304 3 3 CEU eTD Collection Table III.18.Cross-tabs: Votes 2007parliamentary by countieselections Serb in for parties Primorsko-goranska Karlovacka Sisacko-maslovacka Vukovarsko-srijemska Brodsko-posavska Pozesko-slavonska Osjecko-baranjska Viroviticko-podravska Medjimurska Varazdinska Bjelovarsko-bilogorska Koprivicko-krizevacka Zagrebacka Zadarska Licko-senjska Istarska Primorsko-goranska Karlovacka Sisacko-maslovacka Vukovarsko-srijemska Brodsko-posavska Pozesko-slavonska Osjecko-baranjska Viroviticko-podravska Medjimurska Varazdinska Bjelovarsko-bilogorska Koprivicko-krizevacka Zagrebacka TOTAL Grad Zagreb Dubrovacko-neretvanska Splitsko-dalmatinska Sibensko-kninska Zadarska Licko-senjska Istarska 20, 804 SDSS SDSS 3270 3020 1790 6822 4628 1040 1327 4135 1138 181 178 704 465 578 150 353 173 236 185 292 203 204 106 246 163 226 17 50 53 40 83 14 62 64 2 3 7, 704 1042 1096 1009 SNS SNS 875 376 147 556 712 148 205 199 290 214 101 482 311 115 112 13 65 52 91 91 24 65 21 21 28 37 13 35 86 11 5 1 1 3, 280 PPS PPS 105 181 236 312 918 555 123 151 342 187 160 167 211 111 48 63 87 71 28 19 66 83 32 84 46 88 55 69 13 17 12 25 3 5 1 2 1, 146 1394 ZSH ZSR 104 102 181 134 163 146 253 416 71 34 52 34 26 42 29 48 62 82 31 84 33 48 50 54 13 15 79 10 13 11 11 0 2 1 1 305 CEU eTD Collection Tables III.19.Cross-tabs: Votes for in parties 2011 by Serb counties parliamentary elections Varazdinska Bjelovarsko-bilogorska Koprivicko-krizevacka Zagrebacka TOTAL Grad Zagreb Dubrovacko-neretvanska Splitsko-dalmatinska Sibensko-kninska TOTAL Grad Zagreb Dubrovacko-neretvanska Splitsko-dalmatinska Sibensko-kninska Zadarska Licko-senjska Istarska Primorsko-goranska Karlovacka Sisacko-maslovacka Vukovarsko-srijemska Brodsko-posavska Pozesko-slavonska Osjecko-baranjska Viroviticko-podravska Medjimurska 12, 310 562 250 30 66 13, 560 SDSS 1067 4983 3541 1194 616 235 386 150 257 355 262 110 40 68 97 81 21 59 33 4 1, 154 114 21 66 7 Srpska SlogaSrpska 3, 424 172 392 239 103 160 371 414 998 75 98 25 19 15 30 88 74 74 69 1 7 1, 722 230 19 69 7 603 103 SP 30 74 24 22 56 20 17 21 20 27 53 90 23 0 1 4 4 4 9 2, 930 146 24 68 9 306 CEU eTD Collection parenthesis Table IV.16. 2006,2008and andin2011 parliamentary elections voters Municipalities relation to affected in DUI, theand of percents control conflict in Table IV.15. affected in relation to andin 2002parliamentarycontrol elections conflict voters DPA, in and the of Municipalities parenthesis percents in Number of Number of Albanians Population 2006 municipalities Turnout in % Turnout Voters Number of Albanians Population 2002 municipalities Turnout in % Turnout Voters Number of Albanians Population 2011 municipalities Turnout in % Turnout Voters Number of Albanians Population 2008 municipalities Turnout in % Turnout Voters 269, 649(28.61) 373, 159(73.38) 572, 623(33.84) 251, 058(30.18) 490, 293(32.98) 373, 159(73.38) 572, 623(33.84) 239, 698(24.92) 472, 498(27.61) 373, 159(73.35) 572, 623(28.56) 361, 352(29.16) 373, 159(73.38) 572, 623(33.92) conflict-affected conflict-affected 512, 810(33.6) 301, 736(32.3) 18 (27.3) 18 (27.3) 18 (27.7) 18 (22) 52.58 51.21 50.73 83.5 1, 239,017(72.39) 1, 432,333(71.44) 1, 119, 502 (66.16) 1, 119, 502 (66.16) 1, 115, 358(66.08) 1, 013,233(66.4) 672, 994(71.39) 135, 400(26.62) 580, 723(69.82) 996, 428(67.02) 135, 400(26.62) 722, 133(75.08) 135, 570(26.65) 878, 045(70.84) 135, 400(26.62) 632, 558(67.7) Not affected Not affected 48 (72.7) 48 (72.7) 47 (72.3) 64 (78) 66.42 58.28 58.28 72.04 192, 878(20.05) 408, 339(23.86) 346, 889(68.19) 485, 944(24.24) 167, 308(17.75) 277, 709(54.61) 371, 068(21.93) 209, 289(25.16) 423, 421(28.48) 346, 889(68.21) 485, 944(28.72) 204, 044(21.84) 239, 586(19.33) 289, 174(56.86) 332, 602(21.8) 388, 281(23) DUI control DPA control 14 (17.1) 14 (21.2) 14 (21.2) 12 (18.5) 47.23 49.43 85.17 50.3 1, 303,176(76.14) 1, 519,012(75.76) 1, 321,057(78.07) 1, 063,300(71.52) 1, 206,181(71.28) 1, 193,441(78.2) Non DPANon control Non DUINon control 768, 953(79.95) 161, 840(31.81) 775, 335(82.25) 230, 850(45.39) 622, 492(74.84) 161, 670(31.79) 730, 250(78.16) 219, 385(43.14) 999, 811 (80.67) 1, 299,700(77) 68 (82.9) 52 (78.8) 52 (78.8) 53 (81.5) 59.01 64.97 58.54 73.04 2, 004,956 1, 239,397 1, 687,981 1, 526,043 1, 692,125 1, 486,721 1, 692,125 1, 711, 515 934, 294 508, 559 961, 831 508, 729 942, 643 508, 559 831, 781 508, 559 Total Total 65 66 66 82 307 CEU eTD Collection Table IV.18. relation elections to 2009and affected andin local 2013in conflict DUI, voters inparenthesis and the of percents control Municipalities Table IV.17. to affected elections 2005in andinrelation local of voters control conflict inDPA, Municipalities and the in parenthesis percents Number of Number of Albanians Population 2009 municipalities Turnout in % Turnout Voters Number of Albanians Population 2005 municipalities Turnout in % Turnout Voters Number of Albanians Population 2013 municipalities Turnout in % Turnout Voters 503, 129(44.77) 351, 599(72.69) 550, 598(43.69) 232, 667(37.68) 498, 369(41.65) 373, 159(73.77) 572, 623(42.62) 244, 001(44.31) 461, 609(44.22) 373, 159(74.12) 572, 623(46.19) conflict-affected conflict-affected 290, 055(41.4) 16 (43.24) 18 (45) 18 (45) 57.65 46.69 52.86 410, 446(58.59) 620, 720(55.23) 132, 106(27.31) 709, 529(56.31) 384, 814(62.32) 698, 190(58.35) 132, 710(26.23) 770, 794(57.38) 306, 662(55.69) 582, 310(55.78) 130, 272(25.88) 667, 203(53.81) Not affected Not affected 21 (56.76) 22 (55) 22 (55) 66.12 55.12 52.66 198,122(32.09) 428, 495(35.81) 485, 944(36.17) 166, 913(23.83) 302, 695(26.93) 256, 149(52.96) 171, 777(31.19) 309, 307(29.63) 289, 174(57.44) 388, 281(31.32) 346, 889(68.6) 349, 043(27.7) DUI control DPA control 12 (32.4) 14 (35) 12 (30) 46.24 55.14 55.54 Non DPANon control Non DUINon control 227,556(47.04) 419, 359(67.91) 768, 064(64.19) 158, 980(31.44) 857, 473(63.83) 533, 588(76.17) 821, 154(73.07) 378, 886(68.81) 734, 612(70.37) 214, 257(42.56) 851, 545(68.68) 911, 084(72.3) 25 (67.6) 26 (65) 28 (70) 64.98 51.58 54.6 1, 043,919 1, 239,826 1, 196,559 1, 343,417 1, 123,849 1, 260,127 550, 663 503, 431 617, 481 505, 689 700, 501 483, 705 Total Total 40 37 40 308 CEU eTD Collection '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 '11 '12'13 PDP government in Graph V.2. Time Conflictand lineMacedonia: in parties political Albanian '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 '11 '12'13 SRSin RSK SNS SDS Graph V.1. Time parties and Serbpolitical lineCroatia: Conflict in C N O F L I C T

SSS DPA government in NLA SDSS PPS CONFLICT

NDP

NDS (NDU) government in DUI in governmentin NA govt. in ND DUA DPS NSS governmentin NS NS RDK 309