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From Millenarians to Christians: the History of Christian Bureaucracy in Ahmao (Miao/Hmong) Society, 1850S-2012 by Shu-Li Huang

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From Millenarians to Christians: the History of Christian Bureaucracy in Ahmao (Miao/Hmong) Society, 1850S-2012 by Shu-Li Huang From Millenarians to Christians: The History of Christian Bureaucracy in Ahmao (Miao/Hmong) Society, 1850s-2012 by Shu-Li Huang A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in the University of Michigan 2014 Doctoral Committee: Professor Erik A. Mueggler, Chair Associate Professor Christian de Pee Professor Webb Keane Professor Bruce Mannheim Acknowledgements I began working on this dissertation project in 2008, but the seed was planted in 1999, when I first encountered a former Ahmao teacher-pastor in a village near Kunming. He showed me three manuscripts written in the Pollard Ahmao Hmong script that recorded details of ceremonies specific to the Long clan. With his permission, I brought the manuscripts back to Kunming, made three photocopies, and returned to him the original text and the three photocopies. Teacher Long was pleased. I then asked for his permission to keep one of the photocopies and promised him that I would eventually learn to read the Pollard script. When I returned to formally start my dissertation project, I learned from the villagers that Teacher Long had passed away the year after we met. I will not have the opportunity to personally thank Teacher Long and tell him that I have kept my promise. This experience and countless others across the dissertation project have taught me that anthropologists do not do ethnography. It is rather the other way around. I accumulated many other debts over the course of my dissertation research and writing. One debt is to the Department of Anthropology at the University of Michigan. Another is to Academia Sinica in Taipei. I am grateful for the opportunities that both sources of funding provided me during my dissertation project. Also, many faculty contributed substantially to my dissertation project. Erik Mueggler, my dissertation chair, patiently coached me in writing and in better understanding the art of ethnography. Bruce Mannheim, a committee member, inspired me to see the dialectic relation between ii society and state. His thoughts on the dialogic emergence of culture that he introduced in the seminar class of 2004 continue to fascinate and inspire me. Webb Keane, another committee member, introduced me to the matrix of the semiotic. As signs never stop creating new meanings, an anthropologist’s work never ends. I never had the privilege of being in the classroom of the remaining committee member, Christian de Pee. His insights as a historian contributed vitally as I gradually came to understand the importance of bureaucracy for my dissertation. My appreciation of the contributions of the Michigan faculty to my training is not just personal, but also collective. Michigan anthropologists provided me with what for me was the perfect environment my doctoral training in anthropology. Ethnography always includes cooperation that goes beyond the limits of any single society. My initial anthropological training was in Taiwan at the Institute of Anthropology, National Tsing Hua University. The anthropology faculty at Tsing Hua collectively provided me with a background in anthropology and the personal confidence that allowed me to survive the rigors of Michigan anthropology. In particular, many thanks go to Lin Shurong and Huang Shuming, who introduced me to ethnographical fieldwork in Southwest China. My MA advisor, James Wilkerson, stimulated my willingness to entertain novel ideas and has since then provided years of moral support when the going got tough. One of my MA committee members, Ho Ts’uiping, shared with me both her knowledge of Southwest China and her enthusiasm for anthropology. Classmates and friends at National Tsing Hua have continuously offered their generous support both socially and intellectually. I can never repay the Ahmao people in Southwest China for their help during my iii dissertation project. Over the years of learning their language and carrying out my dissertation research, we have developed an intimacy and trust without which this dissertation would not have been possible. My wholehearted gratitude goes to my language teacher, Tao Shaohu, whose knowledge of the Ahmao language and its literacy has provided to be a never-ending source of insight and inspiration. His commitment to the Ahmao literacy campaign is happily beginning to make real difference in the Ahmao community. Finally, family has always been and still remains the most important part of my life. Words cannot express my appreciation. This dissertation is dedicated to my husband Frank, my son James, and to my parents and parents-in-law. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………….ii List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables .................................................................................................................... viii List of Abbreviations.......................................................................................................... ix Abstract ............................................................................................................................... x Chapter 1 Introduction: Christianity and Bureaucracy .................................................. 1 Chapter 2 Contextualizing Christianity ....................................................................... 20 The Qian Rebellion (1854–1873) and Millenarianism .............................................. 24 Miao Millenarians and the Zhugongqing Revolt (豬拱箐事件), 1860–1867 ........... 36 Protestant Missions and Anti-Foreignism, 1870s–1900s .......................................... 50 Christianity against Millenarianism, 1905–1915 ...................................................... 66 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 76 Chapter 3 Literacy as Value ......................................................................................... 80 The Crisis of Republic Orthography ......................................................................... 81 Ahmao Orthography and the Classification of Miao Languages in the 1950s ...... 84 The Development of Miao Orthographies in the “Contact Zone” ......................... 86 The Ahmao Elites and the Crisis (or Future) of Ahmao Literacy........................... 96 The Shimenkan Center ............................................................................................ 103 The Crisis of the Republic Church .......................................................................... 108 The Collapsed Center (or Future) .............................................................................116 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 123 Chapter 4 Bureaucratizing Ahmao Converts ............................................................. 124 The Sapushan Parish ............................................................................................... 126 The Schisms, 1920s–1940s ..................................................................................... 138 Dividing the Parish .................................................................................................. 155 The Church School Boom, 1930s–1940s ................................................................ 161 Denominational Reform, 1940s .............................................................................. 168 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 180 Chapter 5 Nationalizing Christianity ......................................................................... 185 v Persecution, 1960s–1970s ....................................................................................... 190 Resuming Congregation, 1980s–1990s ................................................................... 205 Exhibiting Sub-Bureaucracy ................................................................................... 214 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 227 Chapter 6 An Identity Effect ...................................................................................... 229 The Protest in Zhaotong (昭通), 2008 ..................................................................... 234 The Elderly of Shimenkan ....................................................................................... 245 The Ahmao Renaissance ......................................................................................... 253 Christian Literacy .................................................................................................... 264 Ahmao Evangelicalism ............................................................................................ 276 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 288 Chapter 7 Literacy and Illiteracy ............................................................................... 290 The Schism of the Dongshan Church ...................................................................... 290 Seminary Students, the Two Associations, and the “Regime of Preaching” ........... 296 Time, Holy Spirit, and Sermons .............................................................................
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