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Geochemistry and Noble Gases of Permafrost Groundwater and Ground Ice in Yukon and the Northwest Territories, Canada

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Geochemistry and Noble Gases of Permafrost Groundwater and Ground Ice in Yukon and the Northwest Territories, Canada GEOCHEMISTRY AND NOBLE GASES OF PERMAFROST GROUNDWATER AND GROUND ICE IN YUKON AND THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, CANADA NICHOLAS CHARLES UTTING Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate & Postdoctoral Studies University of Ottawa in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in Earth Sciences Ottawa-Carleton Geoscience Centre and University of Ottawa Ottawa, Canada Thèse soumise à Faculté des etudes supérieures et postdoctorales Université d’Ottawa en vue d’obtention du doctorate en Sciences de la Terre Centre Géoscientifique d’Ottawa-Carleton et Université d’Ottawa Ottawa, Canada © NICHOLAS CHARLES UTTING, OTTAWA, CANADA, 2012 ABSTRACT: ................................................................................................................................................... IV RÉSUMÉ ......................................................................................................................................................... VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: ....................................................................................................................... VIII CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PERMAFROST ......................................................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Hydrology: Active Layer and Runoff .......................................................................................... 4 1.2.2 Groundwater and Talik ............................................................................................................... 6 1.2.3 Ground Ice and Cave Ice ............................................................................................................ 9 1.3 KNOWLEDGE GAPS .............................................................................................................................. 11 1.4 OBJECTIVES......................................................................................................................................... 14 1.5 STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION .......................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER 2: METHODS ............................................................................................................................. 16 2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 16 2.2 PHYSICAL METHODS ........................................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1 River Flow................................................................................................................................. 16 2.2.2 Traditional Cryostratigraphic Methods .................................................................................... 16 2.3 GEOCHEMICAL AND ISOTOPIC METHODS ............................................................................................ 17 2.3.1 Gases in Geochemistry ............................................................................................................. 19 2.3.2 Entrapped Gases in Ground Ice ................................................................................................ 19 2.4 NOBLE GASES ..................................................................................................................................... 20 2.4.1 Noble gases: Recharge temperature ......................................................................................... 22 2.4.2 Noble Gases: Groundwater Dating .......................................................................................... 25 2.4.3 Sample Collection ..................................................................................................................... 27 2.4.4 Sample Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 28 2.5 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... 29 CHAPTER 3: GROUNDWATER CONTRIBUTION TO DISCHARGE IN PERMAFROST WATERSHEDS: TRIBUTARIES OF THE NORTHERN MACKENZIE RIVER, NWT, CANADA .. 30 3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 30 3.2 BACKGROUND ..................................................................................................................................... 30 3.3 SAMPLING SITES ................................................................................................................................. 32 3.4 METHODS ............................................................................................................................................ 47 3.5 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION: ......................................................................................................... 50 3.5.1 Major Ion Geochemistry ........................................................................................................... 50 3.5.2 Determining Groundwater Contributions Using Major Ion Chemistry .................................... 61 13 3.5.3 Groundwater Recharge: DIC, Calcite Saturation Index and C ............................................. 73 3.5.4 Groundwater Recharge: Oxygen and Deuterium ..................................................................... 75 3.5.5 Groundwater Recharge and Residence Time: Noble Gases ..................................................... 80 3.6 DISCUSSION: ....................................................................................................................................... 84 3.6.1 Groundwater Recharge ............................................................................................................. 84 3.6.2 Groundwater Flow .................................................................................................................... 86 3.6.3 Groundwater Discharge ........................................................................................................... 89 3.6.4 Conceptual Model of Groundwater Discharge ......................................................................... 91 3.7 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 95 CHAPTER 4: ORIGIN AND FLOW DYNAMICS OF PERENNIAL GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE IN CONTINUOUS PERMAFROST TERRAIN ON THE FISHING BRANCH RIVER BASIN, NORTHERN YUKON, CANADA: A CASE STUDY USING ISOTOPES AND NOBLE GASES ........ 98 4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 99 4.2 STUDY AREA ..................................................................................................................................... 101 4.3 STUDIED SITES AND FIELD SAMPLING ................................................................................................ 103 4.4 ANALYTICAL METHODS ..................................................................................................................... 105 ii 4.4.1 Major Ion Chemistry and Isotopes .......................................................................................... 105 4.4.2 Noble gases ............................................................................................................................. 106 4.5 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION ........................................................................................................ 108 4.5.1 Discharge Measurements ........................................................................................................ 108 4.5.2 Temperature Loggers .............................................................................................................. 109 4.5.3 Major Ion Chemistry and Isotopes .......................................................................................... 110 4.5.4 Noble Gases ............................................................................................................................ 118 4.5.5 Estimation of Baseflow ........................................................................................................... 125 4.6 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................................... 128 4.7 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................... 131 CHAPTER 5: USING NOBLE GAS RATIOS TO DETERMINE THE ORIGIN OF SUBSURFACE ICE IN PERMAFROST ............................................................................................................................... 132 5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 133 5.2 PRINCIPLES IN USING NOBLE GASES TO DETERMINE SUBSURFACE ICE TYPES ................................. 135 5.3 SITE DESCRIPTIONS ..........................................................................................................................
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