International Journal of Political Science ISSN: 2228-6217 Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2019, (pp.65-78)

The Emergence and Evolution of Political Parties of the Constitution: The First and Second Periods

Ghaffar Zarei * Department of Political Science, Lamerd Branch, Islamic Azad University, Lamerd, Iran

Received: 2 July 2018 ; Accepted: 20 June 2019

Abstract: The evolution of studies of political parties of constitution: The first and second periods show that the evolution of parties indicates that researchers' attitude to political pheno- mena also coincide with the evolution of political realities has been transformed, and the consideration of ideologies in the analysis of the parties have replaced with religious perspectives and anti-authoritarian and constitutionalism. Contrary to the first studies conducted about parties that had deep attention to party organizations and their ideolo- gies, over time, the methods of achieving political power and achieving constitutional constitution in the first phase of examining a brief overview of different perspectives on parties separate from that is a way to get acquainted with the most important aspects of the life of the parties illustrates the fact that in the political sciences can refer to a new knowledge called "sociology of political parties"; a knowledge, which has placed a set of coherent insights and in practice undergone significant changes. The purpose of this paper is an overview on the emergence and development of political parties of the con- stitution, focusing on the first and second periods. Instead of examining the theory of all the authors that is about political parties of the constitution, it might be better to ex- amine the evolution of views in this regard, and only to analyze the views of scholars who have specialized studies on the emergence and evolution of political parties in con- stitution specially the first and second periods.

Keywords: Political Parties, The Constitution, National Consultative Assembly, Consti- tutional Revolution, Interregnum

Introduction The 19- year periods of the Constitutional it. Under the influence of this political com- Revolution (1305-1285 AD) is the first expe- petition, the stability of the political system rience of political forces' rivalry with each of Iran has undergone various fluctuations. In other to achieve political power and preserve this paper, these fluctuations have been stu-

* Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected] 66

The Emergence and Evolution of Political Parties of the Constitution: The…

died with regard to various indicators of po- against the Shah's regime formed and the rea- litical stability in the form of the emergence son of hiding of the constitution of the asso- and evolution of political parties of constitu- ciations was the fear of the government and tion in the first and second periods, and the the fear of imprisonment and murder, to the overall conclusion is that: Instead of political extent that even causes the formation of the competition to be an effective factor in con- secret association accompanied with great solidating the political stability of the system concern. (Kermani, 1992: 178). led to its weakening. In other words, between After the secret association, the National the political competition and political stabili- Association was secretly constituted in Mu- ty during this 19- year period, the adverse harram 1943 with 60 members. The goals of ratio has been established. the National Association had a revolutionary Therefore, it can be said that the period of nature, and its members played an effective constitutional revolution (1305-1285 AD), role in the constitutional revolution (Union, based on various criteria and criteria, can be 2002: 119). The activity of the secret associa- converted into smaller periods of time, and tions that had more organized form in the according to these criteria, several divisions period of Muzaffar al-Din Shah than before have been done. For example, government the era of Mohammad Ali Shah and several cabinets or different periods of the National associations were created. Associations Consultative Assembly or the ups and downs played a major role against Mohammad Ali of the press, etc., can be used in this division. Shah until he was dismissed. In the month of Safar 1944 (May 1904), fifty seven progres- 1. The first period of the formation of par- sive intellectuals who went to the National ties in Iran (constitution) Library, were invited to a secret meeting in 1-1-Associations in constitution Tehran, where they formed the Revolutionary The secret associations can be considered as Committee. Malik Al-Mutakalemin and influential factors in the formation of the Seyyed Jamalodin Vae'z lectured at that constitutional revolution (Haeri, 1981: 54, meeting (Afari, 2006: 65). In the conditions 55). Their emergence time dates back to the of the conflict between Mohammad Ali Shah late Nasser al-Din Shah monarchy and the and the Assembly, the associations began to early of the rule of Muzaffar al-Din Shah. form armed groups. The activity of these as- The similarity of the secret associations that sociations became more important with the grew during the middle ages of Islam or the government's resistance to the parliament. literary associations that grew during the After the Constitution victory, many new reign of Fath Ali Shah was far more similar associations were created and the activity of to Western political parties. But these associ- associations was expanding. Although the ations gradually used the new nationalist early associations were secret, and in particu- elements to overthrow despotism (Lampton, lar some associations with pseudo-Marxist 1996: 393). These associations were demand- tendencies concealed their identity, after the ing reforms, and they tried to get together Constitution victory, most of the associations different groups, especially scholars and were formed publicly and semi-publicly, and businessmen, and their desire caused succeed were often engaged in explicit activities with in the revolution. (Union, 2002: 117) All as- charter and statute (Adamit, 1991: 133-131). sociations in the hidden space of the struggle In this period, during a short period, the phe-

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International Journal of Political Science, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2019 nomenon of association was motivated by ri, 2006: 61). These two judgments are not in any incentive. According to Kasravi, if at the contradiction with each other, and there are beginning of the Constitutional Revolution, indications in confirming both patterns for night letter writing was common and hun- the political structure of Iranian societies dur- dreds of people did that and everything they ing the constitutional era. Among the forums, wanted, they wrote on paper and distributed, from the nucleus of resistance and armed op- this habit replaced by play association at this erations and assassination to circles without stage. (Kasravi, 1991: 265). The associations constitutions was found for dialogue and that were most active in Tehran and Tabriz, close contact between people. had a radical and opposite effect on the first A year after the establishment of the first parliament. They acted as primary political constitution assembly in August 1286 (Au- parties and primary political tools to encour- gust 1907), the first major political murder age popular participation. In other provincial took place by a member of secret association. centers such as Mashhad, Rasht, Esfahan, Amin al-Sultan was shot and murdered by a Shiraz, Kerman and later smaller cities, a young man and a member of political associ- range of associations often emerged with the ations called Abbas Agha. In the pocket of least organizational experience. In some ci- the killer, a paper was found containing this ties, they served as local associations with writing: (Abbas Agha, Sarraf Azarbaijani, responsibilities in security, judicial and ex- member of the association, Fedation of the ecutive matters that they themselves estab- nation, grade 41). At that time, it was not lished them (Yarshater, 1949: 68). clear which association he belonged to, but In a relatively comprehensive study about the emergence of the term (Fadaei) and that constitutionalist associations, Kharabi has at least forty other members in this forum listed the name of 502 official and informal were ready of the exchange of life against life associations by extracting the names of the could have had a profound effect since then, Association from various sources, and espe- no one dared to openly oppose the assembly cially the constitutional press, (Kharabi, (Brown, 2001: 153). Heydar Khan Amu Og- 2007: 544-518). Kharabi examines these as- hli later wrote in his memoir that the secret sociations in a split into three groups: party of the Social Party of Tehran members The first category is the unofficial asso- voted for the execution of Atabak, and the ciations that have been formed since the con- executive committee had notified the verdict stitutional movement's struggles and are con- to the delegation headed by him (Ajudani, stantly increasing; the second category are 2005: 426 and 427). This assassination, official associations that have apparently be- which apparently was done by Marxist gun their activity after the adoption of the groups, was in fact the beginning of terrorist law of provincial associations; And the third acts by groups and parties; an activity that is the opposition and active associations con- early expanded in a large number of areas. trary to constitution that has been gradually 2.1 Important criticisms to procedures of created since Mohammad Ali Shah. (Lamp- forums ton, 1996: 393). Some scholars also consider The first criticism was the involvement of these popular councils to be the head of the associations in the work of the parliament "Savitos of Russia," the peasants' councils and the judiciary. The associations allowed and workers of the Russian Revolution (Afa- themselves to interfere in everything from the

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price of alfalfa to collecting taxes, dismissing clergy and the court doubted his activities. and installing ministers and rulers of judicial Eventually, in 1275 Lunar (1236 AD), Naser trials. al-Din Shah prohibited Freemasonry activity, The second criticism was in the form of sev- and Malekom was banished from Iran (Un- eral extremist associations and their followers ion, 2002: 120 and 121). who set up a hideous conspiracy against the The role of Malekom Khan in shaping the oppositions and the use of the means of constitutionality and constitutionalism is in a community provocation and violence, and form that the less writing in this regard can consider themselves separate from consider- be found and not mentions Malekom. There ing rituals with democratic dignity. are a lot of debates about the real impact of In this period, the spokesman about the Malekom and his relationship with Freema- association says: "There are numerous asso- sonry. He is confirmed and criticized from ciations in the city, each of which interferes different angles. Some have identified him as with the management of the affairs of the a dishonest person and consider a great rela- state. What is the right of them to write paper tion between his personal interests and his and pressure? It is close that the National As- political behavior. The story of the licensing sembly is low in the midst of these pressures. of the Lottery Institute in Iran, and then his (Adamit, 1991: 142-131) fraud from forgery of the document and the vulgar sale of the revoked license to an En- 3-1Freemasonry glishman is, including the narrated stories Although the secret associations of Mozaffa- about his fraud. Ajudani who portrays a kind roddin Shah Era and after him are considered of fraud in the political behavior of Malekom the first modern political institutions, it can- Khan believes that he has lavished in oppose not be ignored the theory that the first secret with the government and for attracting the political institutions in Iran in have been attention of the Shiite authorities of the era to Freemasonry and quasi-Freemasonry institu- the extent that he expressed their direct in- tions. The first secret and semi-secret official volvement in government matters as a neces- forum created in Iran is the Mirza Mokalem sity and by designing that the country must Khan's Freemasonry organization at the time play a leading role in the constitutional revo- of Naser al-Din Shah that is considered a lution with the spirituality in the administra- structure adapted from the French Freemaso- tion of the political system and the customary nry legislations. Malekom Khan was an Ar- system (Ajudani, 2004: Section 16, Male- menian and educated in France, claiming that kom's Myth). his father, Ya'qub Khan, became a Muslim, Shajiei in his research on the history of and he is also a Muslim. When he returned political activity of the members of the Ira- from France to Iran, he set up a Freemasonry nian governments over a period of more than station to use the term by his own claim. Ap- seventy years from the beginning of the con- parently, the Freemasonry had no connection stitution in the fall of the Pahlavi regime, with European legislation, but Malekom was concluded that, during this relatively long a member of the French legislation (real period, Freemasonry more than any national friendship). It was considered a branch of the party has had influence in Iran and the most grand legislation Orion. The activity of this history of membership of political personalities organization lasted for two years, but the in Iran has been related to their membership in

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Freemasonry. According to this study, minis- the Social-Democratic Party. This association ters of the first constitutional government (1285 did not publicly promote its program, and to the reign of Reza Shah), 42 percent were therefore most of its members remained un- members of the Freemasonry. This figure com- known (Union, 2002: 140). In the first year prised 5.37 percent of the ministers during the of the founding of this association-1905, its reign of Reza Shah (1925-1978), 5.23 percent branches first established in Tabriz and later of the ministers during the reign of Mohammad in other cities. After the establishment of the Reza Shah (1941 to 1978). (Shajei, 1372: 452 office in Tehran, the first measures of social and 453) party of public was bombing to Alaa al- Dowle's house, which Heidarkhan Amu Og- 4.1 Socialist parties hli, the most important leader of the move- Parties originated from the communist ment, carried out it (Ajudani, 2005: 413-411). movement were among the first political or- Although in the new history of Iran, the polit- ganizations that formed in Iran. The com- ical assassination office was opened by Mirza munist movement in Iran did not have a so- Raza Kermani and by the assassination of cial and classical origin. There was no prac- Naser al-Din Shah, political assassination in tical relationship between the Iranian elites new meaning and by organizational orga- and this school of thought. Group activity, nized way and its ideology is a legacy that called Justice, from Iranian workers and from social organization of the people of Iran Azerbaijani and Baku residents is mentioned and the Caucasus led to political culture of as the first attempt to create a political party Iran in this age (ibid., P. 426). Assassinations based on Marxist principles (Nozari, 2001: such as the assassination of Amin al-Sultan, 28-24). It seems that the Tehran Revolutio- the assassination of Muhammad Ali Shah and nary Committee, affiliated with the National the assassination of Ayatollah Behbahani Associations that activated for the Consolida- were among the assassinations of this group. tion of the Constitutional and Assembly, was Ten years after the proclamation of constitu- a branch of the public who was associated tion, Ibrahim Monshi Zadeh, a leftist consti- with the Russian Social Democrats and his tutionalist, created the Penal Committee party. The organizations of the Mujahideen along with others. The purpose of the com- of Tabriz were created by Ali Messiou and mittee was to assassinate and punish those his accomplices, in the ardor of Constitution, who, according to the members of the com- translated the statutes and social provisions mittee, were considered traitors to the inter- of the Caucasus. In fact, the secret committee ests of the nation (ibid., P. 429). Heidar Khan of the Mujahideen Party of Tabriz was the became the first secretary of the Communist secret center. The center, through Russia, Party of Iran. As executive secretary of the secretly imported weapons into Iran, and for organization, he linked the Democrats of Te- a short time, armed many people. (Rafiee, hran with the Social Democrats of Baku, or- 1947: 42-39) The Social-Democratic Com- ganized the armed volunteers and helped to mittee of Iran or the people of Iran were su- form the first labor unions. The Armenian perior to other organizations and associa- Dashnak Party did also coalition with the tions, both in terms of opinion and in terms acknowledgment that Iran's Democrats are of clear goals and regular membership. And progressive forces (Abrahamian, 1997: 93- this was owed to relations with Russia and 95). Although the activity of Democratic Par-

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ty did not play a destructive role in the Sec- related to association's activities, rather than ondary Assembly as much as the Social the product of parliamentary fractions. Initial Democrats, they demanded the concentration steps in the formation of the Democratic Par- of power and the separation of religion from ty that was product of the Social sect of Ta- politics, simultaneously engaging with scholars. briz and Baku were taken before the forma- Although prestigious clerics originally be- tion of Second Parliament. Taghizadeh longed to the Democratic Party, the party li- formed the Democratic Party in Tehran and mited the entry of the scholars to the party and the Iranian provinces in 1949 to succeed in was subject their membership to the approval the second parliamentary elections and the of the central committee of the party. Strong creation of a majority of liberal and left- emphasis on non-religious politics, which con- leaning intellectuals. Many young radicals tradicted the constitution, led to a lot of criti- and high school students joined the party. But cism against the Democratic Party, and the op- in the election, representatives of the Demo- positions called them atheists and non- cratic Party did not achieve the majority in Muslims. (Afari, 2006: 347 to 349) parliament and became a strong minority. The old Social Democrats formed the par- The Democratic Party had a Social Demo- ty in 1906 (1285 AD). In 1299, the party was crats program and a large number of Social renamed to (the communist sector of Iran) its Democrats were member of it. They chose first major congress, whose members con- the title (Democrats) instead of (Social Dem- sisted of Azeris and Armenians, and a few ocrats) from fear of reaction. Most of them in months after Heydar Khan Amu Oghli, with the parliament became known as public crit- the slogan of the National Revolution, as- ics of constitutional rule. In this period, the sumed the secretary-general of the party . Democratic Party also had several clerics. The party's preparations were previously pro- The Moderate party was the second im- vided in Tashkent (Turkestan Soviet Union). portant party and major rival of Democratic (Nozari, 2001: 28) Party in the second Assembly. The time of the formation of the Moderate Party is not 2. Parties in the second constitutional as- clear, but some writers have said they have sembly and assassination established it at the same time with the for- By forming the second constitutional assem- mation of parliament. The goal of establish- bly, the parties were apparently formed in a ing this party was merely opposition to the normal and desirable manner of fractions Democratic Party, and its leaders did not within the parliament. In the second parlia- have a specific agenda. Instead of introducing ment, many considered the political solution a particular policy, they instead intended to of the country to form parties that expressed deny the policies and programs of the Demo- and defended their positions explicitly. How- crats, and the plan they had prepared was ever, during this period, the real government more in response to their attacks (Union, of party was not firmly established, and party 2004: 344-340). The party politicians had structures were not institutionalized by par- controversial arguments, and their goal was liamentary fractions (Azghandi, 2004: 302- merely to attract popular support that sup- 303). But with a little more reflection, it ported Democrats in the first months of the seems that the parties in the second parlia- second parliament. They accused the Demo- ment seem to be the result of the processes crats to revolutionizing, anarchism, and even

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International Journal of Political Science, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2019 espionage, and referring to the Caucasian killed by Mujahideen Mouz al-Sultan. Sub- activists of the party (Afari 2006: 338-352). sequently, they also killed one of Heidar Thus, party activities in the second par- Khan's relatives. These assassinations caused liament more than is the result of the parlia- the climate of terror among the people to be mentary factions were the continuation of the ruled. (Admit, 1984: 147) secret associations activity; and although the parties' moderate routines were led to the 3. Parties in the third, fourth and fifth pe- formation of Western-like parties and peace- riods of the National Consultative Assem- ful rivalries, hardliners did not accompany bly of the Constitutional period this flow, and these parties were practically In terms of the institutionalization of the par- exposed and concealed against each other, ties, the third assembly did not differ signifi- they were led to press conflicts and destroy- cantly from the second one. The Third as- ing each other, and eventually they took up sembly was opened during the First World arms in 1949 and subsequent years. The War. The Democrats and Moderation was Democrats believed in the assassination of member in assembly, and there was disa- his opponents, and some of his leaders sub- greement and seizure among them. Although sequently set up a penal committee. But this the smaller parties of the second assembly was not limited to the Democratic Party. Be- were not in this period, the division remained tween the heads of the other parties, some between the two main parties. This time, the tended to physical elimination of the rival. Democrats were more numerous, and the Political parties accused each other after each moderates were divided into two categories: political assassination. (Abadian, 2004: 359- the Freedom Party and the clergy. The dis- 358) Assassination of Ayatollah Seyyed Ab- cussion of reaction and revolution was not dullah Behbahani- The clergy of Constitu- discussed in this period, but there were dif- tional Revolutionary in Rajab, (1909), and ferences in other forms. The allies' pressure the accusation of the Democratic Party and and the mobility of the Allies caused the Mujahedin of Heidarkhan Amu Oghli and thoughts divided into two categories: the Taghizadeh caused contributed to the market allies' supporters and axis's supporters. and the clergy against this party. This situa- The Democrats and the majority of the tion was generally effective in exacerbating moderates were pro-Allies (Spring, 1982: 2, space against parties. The assassination of p. 41); and the minority of Moderates to Ayatollah Behbahani, which was carried out Democrats in the third assembly demonstrat- by Mojahedin Haydar Khan, weakened the ed that the process of functioning of the par- Democrats' party and people condemned Ta- ties without strong organization and proper qizadeh who were the most prominent person organization and of course it does not suc- in the party. He saw the danger close to him- ceed with open and transparent action, and self, he immediately went from Iran. In re- vice versa, the process of party activities is sponse to this assassination, the moderate more successful with authoritarian tendencies front of flow revenge against Democrats. and the organization of closed and operational Mirza Ali Mohammad Khan Tabrizi- parties perhaps for this reason and because of Taghizadeh's nephew and Mirza Abdul Ra- the concern of the clergy from approaching to zagh Khan Hamadani, who were known as majority have had parliamentary socialist ten- Democratic revolutionary elements, were dencies which went toward establishing an ex-

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clusive monopoly. During this period, the cleri- remaining lawyers of the Democratic Party cal group of the parliament, by creating a fac- and the Moderates and a group of young poli- tion under the name of the faculty, separated ticians such as Teimur, Firoz and later also their account practically from the customary the late Hassan Modarres entered the parlia- elites and formed a radical and right-wing mi- ment (Spring, 1982: 1, p. 57). During this nority. In response to this action, the customary parliamentary period, the press did not attack and non-religious elites in the Democratic and the foreigners, but brought the conflict to the Moderates parties acted to the creation of a internal front. On the one hand, the criticism joint faction against the conservative academic and protest of the press and the self-defense council, which, of course, was not lasting of directors of press in the parliament is at (Takmil Homayoun, 2008: 17). Apart from King Abdul Azim and the Soviet Embassy. these important and influential conflicts, al- On the other hand, threats, betrayal, seizure, though the international environment and the beating, landing, hand and foot and teeth conditions of the global war on the situation in broking of directors of press. Following the Iran and the functioning of the third assembly coup of Reza Khan, the dissatisfaction of the were not affected, moreover, the function of the parliament, the government and the press third assembly was weaker compared to the with the minister of war was sharply exacer- two preceding parliamentary (Kasravi, 1992: bated, but with Reza Khan's tricks, this did 326-336). The gradual collapse of political par- not have any effect; on the contrary, the mili- ties, the struggle between parties and political tary officials were threatening, and the minis- figures, and the chaos resulting from it, and the ter of war were encouraged to attack the par- lack of a powerful political institution to govern liament and closing it and closing press. the country provided the conditions for the in- (Zaker Hossein, 2005: 36-65) tervention of foreigners and militaries. In the In the fifth parliamentary elections, the re- midst of this turmoil, the 1919 agreement be- formists and Democrats had vote, especially tween Wosugh al-Dowleh-President Al- in Tehran and Reza Khan and others couldn't Wozara and the British ambassador secretly in do anything. But with the intervention of the Tehran, which was revealed two weeks later, militaries under the leadership of Reza Khan virtually dominated Iran under British rule, and in other cities of Iran, the elections were tak- then, at the height of Iran's chaos, the coup en by the Ministry of War, and the involve- without resistance of March 1299, Reza Khan ment of the head of the armies ruined the and 2000 Cossacks, supported by the British election. government, provided conditions for the com- Representatives of the Iranian states in plete collapse of democracy in Iran. Following the fifth assembly formed the Party of the this coup, about 200 prominent personalities Modernist, and this party took the majority of were arrested, including the leaders of promi- the assembly (Spring, 1982: 2, p. 27 and 28). nent parliamentary parties and representatives But the power of Reza Khan was not limited (Behnoud, 2007: 10-23). to this party. The organization of the forces With the formation of the Fourth Assem- inside and outside the parliament, including bly (1922-1921), the Qawam al-Saltanah the armed forces under his command, had Cabinet occupied the government with mem- made him powerful against rivals who lacked bership of Sardar Sepah on the side of the a strong organization. The fifth parliament Ministry of War. In the fourth parliament, the was the peak of the political struggle of Reza

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Khan and Modarres. Despite the fact that Khan not was in peace and co-operation with Modarres had a minority faction in the par- him. He went to the deceased Moddares's liament, continued his struggle with Reza house twice and repeatedly tried to demon- Khan. In this assembly, there was no power strate with Ayatollah Modares that he would for the minority parties in the extent of last then act on Moddares's opinion and abandons periods. In the fifth parliament, the intention his past procedure. In these meetings, while of Reza Khan was obvious to extinct the Qa- expressing his services in the field of creating jar dynasty and the deceased Modaress also order and security in the country, he claimed was concerned about the dictatorship of Reza he not trusts the king, and at any time king Khan without giving credit to the Qajar king, could be dismissed him. He had asked that and so he fought in any way possible with Modarres to be agreed that he would take up this effort. Sardar Sepah announced that he the general command of the Shah in accor- would be elected President of Iran before the dance with the constitution, with the parlia- start of the New Year of the last March 21, mentary vote on the prime minister's side. 192). This announcement and the action of With the consent of Ayatollah Moddares, the Reza Khan caused the Qajar crown prince's National Consultative Assembly in the 20th greetings in Norouz not held (Avri, 1993: Rajab 1340 during the single unit assigned 507). Ayatollah Moddarres strongly rebelled the commanding of all force to Reza Khan against this demand of Reza Khan and ulti- (Makki, 1980: 670-666). Interestingly, even mately prevented the changing of the royal the legal constitution of the single Article system to republic system. Perhaps if an or- adopted by parliament provided the minority ganization and a coherent organization w for faction and Dr. Mosaddegh, as a lawyer, al- the full consideration of this phenomenon lowed Reza Khan by interpreting the consti- was in authority of Moddares, all the condi- tution to be appointed Commander-in-Chief. tions were properly considered, and in anoth- Dr. Mossadegh stated that the constitution er way, with the suggestion of Reza Khan allowed the Assembly to assign the com- contacted and exploited, but Modarres mander-in-chief, in some circumstances, to seemed by preventing of being Presidency of the person considered (Avri, 1994: 507). Re- Reza Khan is able to prevent his misuse of za Khan was very important for his next steps the power of the organization and the military towards the support of constitutional clergy- under his command, he prevented the change. men-and Sayyed Abu al-Hasan Isfahani-from Although defeat of Reza Khan against the the influential clergymen of Najaf. Reza resistance of Moddares, the great victory of Khan, who had long been in good communi- the opposition factions of Ayatollah Madrass cation with these prominent clerics, went to with the presidency of Reza Khan led to the meet Naieni, Esfahani, and several other extinction of the Qajar dynasty and the reign scholars of Najaf after the extinction of event of Reza Khan, and the correctness of this of Sheikh Khaz Al in the south. During his thought of Moddares was seriously suspected meeting with the scholars, Reza Khan inter- and as one of the mistakes of Modares was viewed them about the removal of the Qajar considered. However, the story did not end king and the reign of the kingdom, and prom- with the failure of President Reza Khan's ised them to execute the second principle of plan, and he continued to work. After this the constitutional amendment about observ- important defeat against Moddares, Reza ing scholars on the approval of the constitu-

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tion (Haeri, 1981: 195 -190) These develop- Saturday evening of July 13, 1909, two ments were the beginning of the complete weeks after the removal of Mohammad Ali rebellion of Reza Shah and the fall of consti- Shah and the constitutional remorse, in a tutionalism in Iran. Reza Khan, with authori- public on Tupkhane square of Tehran, for the ty, controlled and continued the work of the issue of the fatwa of murder of Constitutio- Fifth parliament. For parliamentarians, the nalists are the most shocking events of the attendance of a minority of the parliament constitutional era. He was accused with a became more difficult each day, and the ac- number of others to use all his effort in work tive supporters with Moddarres became less with the Shah of Qajar to abolish the consti- and less every day. The fifth parliament in a tution and, according to a document sealed significant period of time did nothing but by him issued a fatwa for the murder of con- approve the actions that Reza Khan had al- stitutionalists in the shrine of Hazrat Abdul ready decided. Al-Azim (Brawn, 2001: 312). Sheikh Ibrahim And eventually one day it was time to ap- Zanjani, a close friend of Behbahani, who prove Reza Shah's reign. Ahmad Shah was later became the representative of the second discarded from monarchy on October 13, assembly and joined the Democratic Party, 1925, and on Dec. 12, 1925, the Constituent was the prosecutor. He counted different rela- Assembly voted for the reign of Reza Khan. tions of Nuri with anti-constitutional forces, The directive had four opposite votes, nearly and the jury strongly rejected Nuri. Nuri de- 30 people gave abstained vote and 115 gave fended his actions and said that due to his consenting vote. (Avri, 1994: 509) privileged religious position, he has had the 4. The role of the clergy in the party or- right to protect Islamic principles in any way ganizations of constitutional period that he considers correct. The execution of Certainly, the clergy played a decisive role in Nuri were apparently executed without a mobilizing the people in the Constitutional dramatic reaction and opposition, and said Movement. The presence of the clergy that one of the sons of Sheikh Fazlullah among the Mojahedin of the Movement, gave named Mahdi who was constitutionalist, sup- them the religious constitution to their ported the execution of his father. (Afari, movement and increased their confidence in 2006: 335) This strange phenomenon was the the process of work. The role of the clergy result of the conflicts that peaked during this and its related institutions, including the constitutional era, and during hundred years mosques and monarchs of preaching and after it in a variety of forms occurred in the speeches, was decisive for the mobilization elite community of Iran. Sheikh Fazlullah's of the people. At the outset, the role of the beliefs were not in conflict with intellectuals, clergy in the formation of modern political and practically his jurisprudential beliefs institutions was also significant. The mem- were often rejected by prominent clerics like bers of the secret societies were formed by Na'ini and Akhund Khorasani. According to a the middle classes of the scholars. They en- Kasravi's narration, his shaking execution for couraged people through pulpits to moderni- committing the murder of the Muslims" was zation to fight despotism and aggression confirmed by the authorities of Najaf. The (Lampton, 1996: 395-393). constitutional scholars confirmed the allega- Execution of Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri-e- tions against Nuri and confirmed their con- Mujtahid, opponent of the Constitution, on demnation. The telegraph lines between Te-

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International Journal of Political Science, Vol 9, No 2, Summer 2019 hran and Najaf were announced the day be- Abdullah Behbahani, revolutionary, political fore the execution, so that anyone can seek clergy and constitutional advocate, and critic Najaf scholars' point of view without paying of Sheikh Fazlullah and his associates-who the money about the death sentence of Nu- played an active role in customary proce- ri"(Kasravi, 1992: 66). There are doubts dures of the constitution was assassinated. about such explicit positions against Sheikh Famous people associated with leftist par- Fazlullah among the scholars of Najaf; how- ties and intellectuals like Taghizadeh and ever, there has not been recorded a sign of Heidar Khan Amu Oghli were accused this opposition or sharp reaction of Shiite clerics assassination. This assassination was another to oppose this execution. heavy blow that intensified the distance be- The controversy of Sheikh Fazlullah with tween clerics and non-religious intellectuals. the constitution was related to his beliefs If the execution of Sheikh Fazlullah not led about the relation between democratic free- to many reactions and differences, the assas- doms and religiosity, and he has had signifi- sination of Behbahani had a profound impact cant reasons for himself. Naturally, extremist on the beliefs of the elites about the parties, positions in defense of these beliefs led to and in particular the Democratic Party, as proximity of the prominent clergy to opposi- well as the people's beliefs about these kinds tions and enemies of constitution, and his of activities. The chaos within the political positions and actions may have been abused, groups and associations, the accusations and but other personal reasons for his positions- destructive struggles of the political groups such as his intense rivalry and other promi- were all in a way that removed a large part of nent clergymen, especially Ayatollah Behba- the clergy from the customary political insti- hani, his livelihood and his relationship with tutions and the secular parties of the constitu- the court, his intense persistence against all tional revolution. Constitutional scholars, in manifestations of modernity, including new this context, found Iran's new system con- schools and foreign language lessons and trary to their expectations against their wait- physical chemistry, and so on, opposition to ing in many respects. Khorasani and Mazan- Taxation (Kermani, 1992: 262-255) and darani's telegram to Nasser al-Molk, chair- things like that are controversial and there is man of the second parliament, shows the serious doubt. Meanwhile, over time, not on- scholars' unhappiness to the constitutionalists ly the other charges, but also the serious mis- and the manner of the second parliament as takes of Sheikh Fazlullah and the various well. In that telegram, the scholars with ref- views of other Shiite clerics and authorities erence to the freedom of the press, com- about his performance were faded and execu- plained about lack of control over publishing tion of this powerful publicly cleric, merely material related to religious issues. They also changed to the apparent manifestation of the expressed their unhappiness about the non- contradiction between the traditional clergy religious political figures, heavy taxes, the of Shiites in Iran and customary intellectuals. non-release of political prisoners and other But the struggles during the Constitutional cases. (Haeri, 1981: 159) Revolution not restricted the execution of Sheikh Fazlullah Noori. Just one year after Conclusion the execution of Sheikh Fazlullah Noori, in The study of the emergence and evolution of the month of August 1910, Ayatollah Seyyed the political parties of constitutionalism dur-

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ing the first and second periods during the tation of politics - led to change in ex- constitution periods reaches us to the follow- ecutive authorities and minority poli- ing results: cies. 1. Instead of during the 19 years constitu- tion revolution, 10 two-year parliamen- References tary periods to be formed and 19 years, Abadian, Hossein, (2004), Crisis of Constitu- assembly to be established, parlia- tionalism in Iran, Tehran: Institute ment's life reduced to 7 years and for for Political Studies and Research 12 years, one of the main components Abrahamyan, Yervand, (1997), Iran between of the constitution was off. A 12-year- two revolutions (from Constitutional old closure of part of constitution com- Revolution to Islamic Revolution). pared to its 7-year setting shows a ma- Translated by Kazem Firouzmand, jor political instability. Hassan Shams Avari, Mohsen, Modir 2. During the first and second periods of Shaneh Chi. First Edition. Tehran: constitution, 30 short-lived cabins were Center publishing established, and perhaps in total, the Adamiyat, Fereydoon, (1961), Thought of number of three times of the number of Freedom, Introduction to Constitu- cabinets (90 times) was restored, so tional Movement. Tehran: Sokhan that the first 13 people during the pe- Publications riod, forty times reached the ministry's Adamiyat, Fereydoon, (1984), the Thought official position. This indicates a rapid of Social Democracy in the Constitu- and unprecedented shift in key execu- tional Movement of Iran. Third print tive authorities, shows a major indica- Tehran: Press of Payam tor of instability. Adamiyat, Fereydoon, (1991), the ideology 3. In addition to the interregnum, two of constitutional movement, Volume coups occurred during this period, II: The First Assembly and the Free- which led to a change in the norm of dom Crisis, Tehran: Roshangaran the rule. Publishing 4. During the Constitutional Revolution, Afari, Janet, (2006), Constitutional Revolu- there were countless number of tion in Iran, translation by Reza Re- speeches, writings, conciliation, strike, zaii. Third edition. Tehran: Bisotoon violent conflict and demonstrations Publication against the government. Ajudani, Lotfollah. (2004), scholars and 5. All of these cases are mainly affected Revolution of Constitution of Iran by two types of competition: identity Ajudani, Lotfollah. (2005), Iranian constitu- and non-identity. Political identity tion, Sixth Edition, Tehran: Sokhan competition (such as attempt to reject Publications monarchy, the elimination and dismis- Avri, Peter, (1994), Contemporary Tehran sal of scholars from the field of poli- (from the establishment to the extinc- tics) led to severe instability (from war tion of the Qajar dynasty). Translated and massacre); non-identity political by Mohammad Rafiee Mehrabadi, competition – ie competition over the Third print Tehran: Ataee Publishing conduct of the state and the implemen-

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Azghandi, Seyed Alireza, (2004), the History Makki, Hassan, (1980), Modarres, Freedom of Political and Social Developments Hero, Second part, Tehran: Transla- in Iran (1941-1970). Second edition, tion firm and Publishing of book Tehran: Publication of Samt Modarresi, Ali, (1987), Modarres, Volume II, Bahar, Malik al-Shoa'ra, (1982), a Brief His- Tehran: Islamic Revolution History tory of Iran's Political Parties (Qajar Foundation of Iran, Tehran: Akhtaran Extinction), Volume I First Edition, Publishing Tehran: Amir Kabir Publications Mousavi Hejazi, Amir Sa'id, (1999), the Fun- Bahar, Malik al-Shoa'ra, (1984), a brief histo- damental Concepts of Freelance So- ry of the political parties of Iran, Vo- cieties, an article from the Book of lume II First Edition, Tehran: Amir Religion and Government, Tehran: Kabir Publications Rasa Publications Behnood, Masoud, (1989), From Seyed Zia Nezam Mafi, Mansoureh, (2002), the emer- to Bakhtiar, Tehran: Nima Publishing gence and transformation of constitu- Brown, Edward, (2001), Constitutional Revo- tional political parties, Tehran Sia- lution in Iran, Translation by Mehri mak book Ghazvini. Second edition, Tehran: Nozari, Ezatollah, (2001), History of political Kavir Publishing parties in Iran, Shiraz: Navid Shiraz Gholam Reza Kashi, Mohammad Javad, Publications. (2004), the Order and the Transfor- Qazvini, Mohammad, (1963), Qazvin Notes. mation of the Speech of Democracy Seventh volume, with the efforts of in Iran, Tehran: Publishing of Gam- Iraj Afshar, Tehran: Tehran Universi- e-No ty Press Kadivar, Mohsen, (2006), Khorasani's Politi- Rafiee, Mansoureh. (1983), Association, or- cal Letter, Political Parts in Mullah gan of the State Association of Azer- Mohammad Kazem Khorasani's baijan, Tehran: Center for Iranian Works, Tehran: Kavir Publishing History Publishing Kasravi, Ahmad, (1992), the 18th anniver- Raiyn, Ismail, (1977), the secret associations sary of Azerbaijan. Print tenth Te- in the Constitutional Revolution of hran: Amir Kabir Publications Iran, Tehran Second Printing: Javi- Kasravi, Ahmad, (1991), History of Iranian dan Publishing Company Constitutional Revolution. 16th edi- Shajee, Zahra, (1993), Iranian political elite tion, Tehran: Amir Kabir Publications from Constitutional Revolution to Is- Kermani, Nazem al-Islam, (1992), History of lamic Revolution of Iran, Volume Iranian Perspectives, Fourth edition, Two: Prime Ministers and Ministers Tehran: Amir Kabir Publications of Iran, Tehran: Sokhan Publications Kharabi, Farooq, (2007), Constitutions of the Takmil Homayoun, Nasser, (2008), "A Look Constitutional Revolution, Tehran: at the Formation of Political Parties Institute for the Research and Devel- and Political Organizations in Iran", opment of Humanities Political Destruction and Develop- Lampton, Ann, K, S (1996), Iran Qajar era. ment (Volume II: Destruction in Translated by Simin Fasihi, Tehran: Iran), by the Office of Political Stu- publications of Javidan Kherad dies and Research of the Ministry of

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the Interior, Tehran: Amir Kabir Publications Yarshater, Ehsan, (2003), the Constitutional Revolution (from the series of ar- ticles of the Encyclopedia of Iranica), Translated by Peyman Matin, Te- hran: Amir Kabir Publications Zaker Hussein, Abdul Rahim, (2005), Iranian Political Press during Constitutional Revolution, Fourth edition, Tehran, Tehran University Press