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Shiite Quietism and Activism in the Middle East

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Shiite Quietism and Activism in the Middle East Power of Association: Shiite Quietism and Activism in the Middle East Mohammadreza Kalantari Thesis submitted to the Department of Politics and International Relations at Royal Holloway University of London, for the completion of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, September 2015 Declaration of Authorship The title page should be followed by a signed declaration that the work presented in the thesis is the candidate’s own. Please note that there is no set wording for this but an example is provided below: Declaration of Authorship I Mohammadreza Kalantari . (please insert name) hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: ______________________Mohammadreza Kalantari Date: ______________________10 September 2015 __ Abstract At a time in which Shi’ism is in the ascendance in the Middle East, this study challenges much recent research and writing on contemporary regional politics by questioning the notion that a meaningful distinction can be drawn between quietism and activism among Shiite clerical elites. In challenging the nature of this supposed difference, this research tries to explore Shiite clerical political responses to, and involvement in, three key political events: Iran’s Islamic Revolution in 1979, Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003, and the Israel-Hezbollah war in 2006. It draws on archival material including personal letters, telegrams, newspaper reports, records of political statements delivered by Shiite clerics at the commencement of their daily lectures in religious seminaries, and public manifestos of key clerics and groups relating to these three events; as well as over 300 hours of recorded interviews with key Shiite religious leaders and those closely associated with them from all three countries. In explanation of when, where, and why clerical elites assume an active role in the political arena, this thesis makes a contribution, not only to the understanding of Shiite clerical elite activism; it also employs a framework that contributes to social movement theory by employing a notion of ‘political opportunity structure’ that captures the interaction between perception and objective factors. Its main finding is that the responses of clerical elites to key political events arise not from doctrinal differences, but from contextual factors and the perceptions that those clerics formed of them. To Homadokht When the rose is gone and the garden faded You will no longer hear the nightingale's song. Rumi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study would not have been possible without the support of many people. I wish to express the deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Sandra Halperin who was abundantly helpful and offered treasured assistance, support and guidance. Sincere gratitude is due to the members of my review committee, especially Professor Francis Robinson. Thanks are also extended to my examiners, Professor Charles R.H. Tripp of SOAS University of London and Dr. Laurence Louër, from Sciences Po, Paris. I cannot forget friends who went through hard times together with me, cheered me on, and celebrated each accomplishment, Amir H. Jaberansari, Mehdi Mohaghegh Damad, Hussein Rouhani and Mohammad H. Saeed. I am highly indebted to them for their fraternal support. I especially thank my mother and father, who have taught me much about the mysterious ways of life, how to value life, how to care for others unconditionally. I love them so much, and I would not have made it this far without them. Last but by no means least, I gratefully thank my wife, Leila, whose dedication and love has taken the load off my shoulders during the last five years. I owe Leila for her generosity in not letting her passions, and ambitions collide with mine. How thrilled I am that the submission of this thesis coincided with the birth of our beloved daughter, Asma. There are no words to convey how much I adore their company. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................................................................................... IV GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................................................. V CHAPTER ONE – SHIITE CLERICAL ELITES AND THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST .................. 1 THE LITERATURE .......................................................................................................................................... 3 THE ARGUMENT AND ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK ...................................................................................... 8 The Shiite Clerical Elite .................................................................................................................... 8 Political Opportunity Structures ..................................................................................................... 10 Perception (ijtihad) ......................................................................................................................... 11 The Argument and Hypothesis ......................................................................................................... 12 THE METHODOLOGY, DATA, AND SOURCES .............................................................................................. 16 The Islamic Revolution of Iran, 1979 .............................................................................................. 17 Operation Iraqi Freedom, 2003 ...................................................................................................... 18 The Israel-Hezbollah War, 2006 ..................................................................................................... 18 Data and Sources ............................................................................................................................. 21 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................................. 24 CHAPTER TWO – SHIITE DOCTRINE AND THE CLERICAL AUTHORITY ............................... 26 SHIITE POLITICAL THOUGHT DURING THE ERA OF THE PROPHET AND THE INFALLIBLE IMAMS ................ 29 THE CONSOLIDATION OF SHIITE CLERICAL AUTHORITY DURING THE OCCULTATION ERA ....................... 35 MARJA’ TAQLID: THE HIGHEST SHIITE CLERICAL ELITE AUTHORITY DURING THE OCCULTATION ERA .. 40 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................................. 45 CHAPTER THREE – SHIITE ACTIVISM: A HISTORICAL REVIEW .............................................. 48 THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE MAJOR OCCULTATION: THE EMERGENCE OF THE EARLY MUJTAHIDS ....... 52 The Fall of Baghdad: A Permissive Context for Shiite Clerical Elites Activism ............................. 54 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SHIITE SAFAVID DYNASTY: SEIZING THE ADVANTAGES OF AN OPEN POLITICAL OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURE ...................................................................................................... 59 Shiite Clerical Elite Activism in Safavid Persia: Clerical Elites and a Perceptibly Open Political Opportunity Structure ....................................................................................................... 60 The Solidarity of Shiite Clerical Elites in Safavid Persia ............................................................... 64 Shah Abbas and the Decline of Shiite Mujtahids’ Authority in Persia ............................................ 66 SHIITE CLERICAL ELITES AND THE POLITICS OF THE POST-SAFAVID ERA ................................................. 69 The Russo-Persian Wars: The Shiite Clergy and Jihad Against the Colonial Powers .................. 72 The Tobacco Protest: Early Formation of a Trans-National Shiite Clerical Elites Network ........ 75 Shiite Clerical Elites and the Persian Constitutional Revolution: Different Perceptions of the Existing Political Opportunity Structure ......................................................................................... 81 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................................. 93 i CHAPTER FOUR – IRAN 1979: THE FIRST SHIITE STATE IN THE MIDDLE EAST ................. 96 THE RISE OF THE PAHLAVI: PRELUDE TO THE SHIITE CLERICAL ELITE’S POLITICAL ACTIVISM IN MODERN IRAN ......................................................................................................................................... 101 Reza Shah and the Qom Seminary: The Political Posture of Grand Ayatollah Hairi in Confronting a Closed Opportunity Structure ............................................................................... 102 Young Mohammadreza Shah and the Interregnum Era: An Open Structure for Clerical Activism .......................................................................................................................................... 111 Grand Ayatollah Broujerdi and the Revival of Shiite Clerical Authority in Iran ......................... 112 The Shiite Clerical Elite and the Iranian National Movement ...................................................... 114 SHIITE CLERICAL ELITES AND THE CONSOLIDATION OF MOHAMMADREZA PAHLAVI’S POWER ............. 123 The 1963 Uprising in Iran: The Foundations of Contemporary Shiite Activism in Iran .............. 124 The Political Posture of the Leader: Ayatollah Khomeini at the Path to becoming the
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