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Chapter 17. Soils and Palaeosols in Glacial Environments

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Chapter 17. Soils and Palaeosols in Glacial Environments CHAPTER SOILS AND PALAEOSOLS IN GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS 17 J.A. Mason1 and P.M. Jacobs2 1University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States, 2University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Whitewater, WI, United States 17.1 INTRODUCTION In 1873, the geologist Amos Henry Worthen recognized two buried soils within the Quaternary stratigraphy of Sangamon County, Illinois, USA (Worthen, 1873; Follmer, 1978). One of these sep- arated the surficial loess mantle from the underlying ‘boulder clay’ or till and the other occurred below the same till. The upper soil was later named the Sangamon Soil by Frank Leverett (1898), separating sediments of the last glacial cycle from those of the penultimate glaciation, Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6 (Fig. 17.1), and still recognized as one of the most important Quaternary stratigraphic markers of the central United States (Follmer, 1983). At roughly the same time in the late 19th century, Albrecht Penck and Eduard Bru¨ckner noted the stratigraphic and geomorphic evi- dence for several glaciations in the foreland of the Alps, including—in modern terms—the contrast- ing degree of soil development on the surface of terraces correlated with each glaciation. In particular, the reddish clay-rich weathering profiles on the terraces attributed to aggradation during the Mindel glaciation were seen as evidence of a ‘great interglacial’ before the subsequent Riss gla- ciation (Penck and Bru¨ckner, 1909; Kukla, 2005). Thus, by the late 19th century, two of the most important ways in which soils can help interpret gla- cial stratigraphy were widely recognized. Buried palaeosols form stratigraphic markers representing a significant interval of nondeposition and surface exposure of the sediments they are formed in. Surface soils, through their degree of morphological development and weathering, can be used as evidence of the relative age of glacial landforms. Two other types of evidence available from palaeosols are now also well-established. First, the preservation of a palaeosol at a particular stratigraphic boundary demon- strates the lack of substantial erosion when the overlying sediment was deposited. If the overlying sedi- ment is till, that observation may be relevant to interpretations of glacial processes. Conversely, local or widespread truncation of palaeosols may be important evidence in interpreting postglacial landscape evolution. Second, palaeosols in glacial deposits can also potentially be sources of evidence on past cli- mate and vegetation. All of these interpretations of palaeosols depend heavily on a large body of research on surface soils and practical soil surveys, which provide essential information on how soils vary with environmental factors at the global and local scale, and how they develop over time. This chapter first reviews the chronosequence approach that has often been applied in studies of sur- face soils in glacial sediments, and the many insights it has provided on processes and rates of soil Past Glacial Environments. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100524-8.00018-X © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 587 588 CHAPTER 17 SOILS AND PALAEOSOLS IN GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS FIGURE 17.1 Sangamon soil in Illinois. (A) Stratigraphic section from Thomas Quarry, Illinois (39 310 N, 90 400 W), illustrating Sangamon soil as key stratigraphic marker between sediments of last glaciation and penultimate glaciation. Section also includes an older palaeosol (Yarmouth soil). (B) Sangamon soil profile at Thomas Quarry. (C) Pedocomplex consisting of Sangamon soil and overlying Farmdale soil at site in northern Illinois (41 510 N, 88 280 W) described by Jacobs et al. (2009). Sangamon soil formed in Illinoian (MIS 6) glacial diamicton and was buried by aeolian and colluvial Robein silt during MIS 3; Farmdale soil developed in Robein silt. See Fig. 17.4 for site stratigraphy. formation over time. We then discuss the continued value of this information in glacial geomorphic map- ping and stratigraphy, and the importance of recognizing how soils vary across glaciated landscapes and how those patterns change with ongoing postglacial landscape evolution. Finally, we turn to key issues that have arisen in the recognition and interpretation of palaeosols in glacial settings, as stratigraphic markers and as indicators of past environments (and in some cases, past geomorphic processes). 17.2 SURFACE SOILS IN GLACIATED LANDSCAPES 17.2.1 CHRONOSEQUENCE STUDIES OF SOIL DEVELOPMENT IN GLACIAL SETTINGS In Hans Jenny’s well-known model of pedogenesis, the present state of a soil is a function of fac- tors including climate, organisms, relief (more accurately described as geomorphic setting), parent material, and time since the start of pedogenesis (Jenny, 1941). While alternatives to Jenny’s model 17.2 SURFACE SOILS IN GLACIATED LANDSCAPES 589 have been proposed (e.g., Simonson, 1959; Runge, 1973; Johnson et al., 1990), a large proportion of all subsequent pedological research has followed research designs compatible with Jenny’s model. Essentially, a sequence of soils in which one factor varies much more substantially than the others is used to assess the effects of that factor. Chronosequences of soils formed in glacigenic sediments and loess of similar lithology but vary- ing age are especially common and relevant to this chapter (Fig. 17.2). In most cases, a quantitative model, or chronofunction, is fit to the observed data from a chronosequence study. While chronose- quences clearly provide insight on rates and processes of soil formation, chronosequence research has also been motivated by the goal of inferring the age of sediments and landforms from the soils formed on them. Many early, groundbreaking chronosequence studies emphasized relative ages or broadly estimated numerical ages of the soils that were compared (e.g., Birkeland, 1964). More recent chronosequence studies have taken advantage of major advances in glacial chronology, and are based on numerical ages from cosmogenic radionuclide (CRN) analysis or other methods (e.g., Douglass and Bockheim, 2006; Dahms et al., 2012). Few if any chronosequences do not involve at least minor violations of the assumption that only one factor—soil age—varies across the soils studied. Minor variations in parent material or vegetation history are difficult to avoid; more importantly, older soils FIGURE 17.2 Soils in glacial sediment of three ages in the Wind River Mountains, Wyoming. (A) Soil formed in Alice Lake till (middle to early Holocene) above modern treeline at B3380 m elevation (soil BFL-7 in Dahms, 2002). (B) Soil formed in Late Pinedale till (15À16 ka) at modern treeline, B3260 m (soil WL-1 in Dahms, 2002). (C) Soil formed in Middle Pleistocene till at B2030 m (HR-1 in Dahms, 2004). Soil age is the primary factor in the increasing soil depth and reddish-brown B horizon development from (A)À(C), though the soils also differ in climate and vegetation history because of elevation. Scales in centimeters. Photos by Dennis Dahms, used with permission. 590 CHAPTER 17 SOILS AND PALAEOSOLS IN GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS developed over one or more full glacial cycles will have experienced a different range of climatic conditions than those formed since the last glaciation. The degree to which the assumptions of a chronosequence can be relaxed is essentially a philosophical issue, and it is clear that chronose- quences provide important information on the broad patterns of soil development in glacial settings, in spite of obvious variation in other factors. Early soil development in glacial sediments is especially well understood from chronosequences of soils developed on surfaces deglaciated within the past few centuries, often with excellent age control from historical observations. Soil pH declines quickly in some cases, and organic matter (and organic nitrogen) accumulation is initially rapid but quickly decreases as an approximately steady state is approached (Crocker and Major, 1955; Jacobson and Birks, 1980; James, 1988; Burt and Alexander, 1996; Egli et al., 2006b). Silicate mineral weathering is detectable in the first 150 years of pedogenesis in granitic tills in the Alps, consistent with high initial rates of that process as well (Mavris et al., 2010). Studies of older soils on alpine glacial moraines and glaciofluvial terraces have revealed trends in soil morphology that are common to long-term chronosequences in a wide range of glacial and nonglacial settings (Bockheim, 1980; Harden and Taylor, 1983; Birkeland, 1990; Vidic, 1998; Sauer et al., 2015). In subhumid to semiarid climates (e.g., those characterizing glaciated parts of many mountain ranges of the western United States), the most important field-observed morpholog- ical changes over 10,000 years or longer timescales involve B (subsoil) horizons that thicken, develop stronger structure, become redder, and accumulate clay and sometimes silt (e.g., Birkeland, 1964; Mahaney, 1978; Burke and Birkeland, 1979; Hall and Shroba, 1993). Pedogenic carbonate accumulation, a process well-known from chronosequences in non-glacial settings (Machette, 1985), becomes progressively more important in drier climates (e.g., Hall and Shroba, 1993; Douglass and Bockheim, 2006). Podzolization (translocation of iron, aluminium, and organic matter to the B horizon) predominates over clay translocation in some humid settings (Stevens and Walker, 1970; Birkeland, 1984). In the cold climate of Yukon, Canada, soils in a long-term chrono- sequence in glacial deposits do not display reddening or evidence of clay
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