Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland: Preliminary Benefits Assessment Developed by: Kate Ballantine, Mount Holyoke College Sarah Klionsky, University of Connecticut Glorianna Davenport, Living Observatory Brian Mayton, Living Observatory and MIT Media Lab Linda Deegan, Woodwell Climate Research Center Chris Neill, Woodwell Climate Research Center Elizabeth Gladfelter, Town of Falmouth Thilina Surasinghe, Bridgewater State University Christine Hatch, University of Massachusetts – Amherst Naomi Valentine, SWCA Environmental Consultants Casey Kennedy, USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS)

With input from: Brian Howes, University of Massachusetts – Dartmouth Gene Albanese, MassAudubon Steve Hurley, Massachusetts Division of Fish and Wildlife Jason Andras, Mount Holyoke College Erika Ito, University of Massachusetts – Amherst Nia Bartolucci, Mount Holyoke College Cyndi Jackson, Living Observatory Steve Balogh, Environmental Protection Agency Rose Martin, Environmental Protection Agency David Boutt, University of Massachusetts – Amherst Marie Maxwell, Amherst College Martin Briggs, US Geological Survey Sean McCanty, University of Massachusetts – Boston Julia Casey, University of Massachusetts – Amherst Luke McInnis, University of Massachusetts – Amherst Alan Christian, Clarkson University Marty Melchoir, InterFluve, Inc. Mike Cosh, USDA-ARS Félix Michaud, University of Lemans, France Gershon Dublon, Slow Immediate Kate Mulvaney, Environmental Protection Agency Clément Jean-Baptiste Duhart, Nick Nelson, InterFluve Inc. De Vinci Innovation Center, France Jessica Norriss, UpstreamTech and Living Observatory Ed Eichner, University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth Joe Paradiso, MIT Media Lab Morgyn Ellis, Mass Audubon Erin Pierce, Mount Holyoke College Edgar Franck, University of Massachusetts – Boston Tony Pham, NOAA David Gould, Town of Plymouth Rachel Rubin, Mount Holyoke College Sara Grady, MassBays, North and South Rivers Spencer Russell, MIT Media Lab Watershed Association Kim Tower, Town of Plymouth Lauren Kras, Mass Audubon Evan Schulman, Tidmarsh Farms Irina Kadis, Salicicola.com Rob Vincent, MIT Sea Grant Alex Hackman, MA Fish and Game, Lyn Watts, University of Massachusetts – Amherst Division of Ecological Restoration Paul Wetzel, Smith College Danielle Hare, University of Connecticut Cathleen Wigand, Environmental Protection Agency Mark Harvey, US Geological Services Brian Yellen, University of Massachusetts – Amherst Benjamin Hoekstra, University of Massachusetts – Amherst Alexey Zinovjev, Salicicola.com

Conservation, Restoration, and Learning Partners: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) The 300 Committee Land Trust Massachusetts Department of Fish and Game, Wildlands Trust, Inc. Division of Ecological Restoration (DER), Division of Charter Construction Fisheries and Wildlife, Division of Marine Fisheries Gateway National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) Stimson Studios US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Tighe and Bond US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Tidmarsh Farms Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment Bridgewater State University Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection Manomet Center for Conservation Science Massachusetts Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Massachusetts Environmental Trust (MET) (MIT Media Lab and SeaGrant) Town of Falmouth, MA MassBays Town of Plymouth, MA Mount Holyoke College American Rivers North and South Rivers Watershed Association Association to Preserve Cape Cod Smith College Cape Cod Conservation District University of Connecticut Ducks Unlimited University of Massachusetts – Amherst The Coonamessett River Trust University of Massachusetts – Boston Falmouth Rod & Gun Club Upstream Tech FishAmerica Foundation USDA ARS Living Observatory, Inc. (LO) Woodwell Climate Research Center, LLH-LHM Foundation Inter-Fluve, Inc. Massachusetts Audubon Society (Mass Audubon) SumCo Eco-Contracting, Inc. National Fish and Wildlife Foundation Luciano’s Excavating The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland: Preliminary Benefits Assessment

Authored by: Living Observatory

For: Massachusetts Division of Ecological Restoration, Cranberry Bog Program

December 2020 CONTENTS

Preface...... 5 1. Learning from 10 Years of Wetland Restoration of Cranberry Farms...... 6 Cranberry farms provide an important opportunity for Massachusetts to restore and conserve coastal wetlands, which in turn provide important ecological services. Long-term research at these sites will advance ecological theory and help advance restoration practice. What are wetlands and why are they important?...... 7 Cultivation of the native cranberry plant: reconfiguring wetlands...... 9 Wetland restoration of retired cranberry farms: building political will...... 12 Principles for ecological wetland restoration of cranberry farms...... 14 What follows: lenses through which to evaluate the impacts and benefits of restoration...... 14

2. Four Wetland Restorations of Cranberry Farms...... 16 A first wave of completed projects provide ‘proof of concept’ for regional scaling and the basis for future learning. Eel River...... 18 Tidmarsh...... 19 Foothills Preserve...... 20 Coonamessett...... 21

3. Glacial Geology Provides Hydrologic Opportunity...... 22 Ecological restoration of cranberry farms in Southeastern Massachusetts has the potential to be successful because these farms were built on former wetlands that developed within the region’s underlying glacial geology. Hydric soils of these wetlands may help jumpstart recovery. Glacial retreat created conditions for wetland formation...... 23 Topographical and geomorphology define regional hydrology and groundwater flowpaths...... 24 Groundwater dominates wetland hydrology and streamflow...... 26 Cranberry farming drains the swamp (and that's not a good thing)...... 26 Restoring wetland hydrology to a cranberry farm...... 29 Restoration actions: slow the flow of water off the site...... 29

4. Measuring Soil Moisture on Restored Wetlands and Riparian Floodplains...... 30 Soil moisture is a critical early indicator of conditions that will support a restored and self-sustaining wetland. Measuring soil moisture across a restored site...... 31 Making the site wetter: predicting and quantifying change in water depth and soil moisture...... 32 Microtopography increases moisture diversity and soil moisture at Tidmarsh...... 34 Increasing soil moisture retention: observations from remote nodes over time...... 35

5. Wetland Soil is a Primary Driver of Ecosystem Function...... 38 Restoration of cranberry farms to wetlands has an overall desirable long-term impact on soil-based ecosystem functions. What we've learned from soil research—and what we still want to know...... 40 Restoration increases soil organic matter...... 41 Ecological restoration alters the soil microbial community and improves the function of wetland soils...... 42 Conclusions...... 43 . 6. Greenhouse Gases: Are Restored Cranberry Bogs Contributors or Ameliorators of Climate Change?...... 44 Cranberry farms in Massachusetts are particularly promising for long-term carbon storage because they were often developed on historic peat bogs. Wetlands store carbon...... 45 Wetlands emit carbon...... 46 So what's the balance?...... 46 Conclusions...... 47 7. How Does Restoration of Cranberry Farms Improve Water Quality?...... 48 Restored wetlands on former cranberry farmland may contribute to nitrogen removal and potentially help solve regional water quality problems. More research is required to determine removal rates and inform local and regional decision-making. Restoration contributes to lower water temperature in streams that benefits trout and other wildlife...... 49 Active cranberry farms contribute nitrogen and phosphorus to surface waters...... 50 Wetlands and river restoration can reduce nutrient inputs to watersheds...... 52

8. Wetland Hydrology Creates Conditions for Wetland Plants...... 58 The post- wetland restoration plant community is essential to generating wetland ecosystem services including water quality improvement, nitrogen removal, and carbon storage. Plants also contribute to increased biodiversity at restored sites, including creating habitat for wildlife and helping to support a more varied microbial community. Active cranberry farm restoration projects help test wetland restoration theory and inform restoration practice...... 60 Restoration results in a more diverse plant community...... 60 Occurrences of sphagnum moss, an important component of peat, increase after restoration...... 61 Disturbance caused by construction during restoration can provide an opportunity for non-native and invasive species to establish...... 62 Restoration changes the trajectory of the plant community...... 62

9. Fauna Diversity in Restored Active Cranberry Farms...... 64 Wetland restoration of cranberry farms can help boost fauna diversity. Restoring ocean to headwaters connectivity supports migratory and game fish...... 66 Restoration supports river herring runs...... 67 Rapid colonization of aquatic macroinvertebrates in restored stream channels...... 67 Threatened and rare birds frequent restored cranberry farms...... 68 Restored wetlands are home for several native amphibians and reptiles, including wide-ranging and long-lived species...... 68 Automated recording and analyses of biological sounds and visual imagery help document faunal communities...... 71 The establishment of faunal populations takes time...... 71

10. Building Stewardship: A Community Commitment...... 72 The conversion of private farmland to protected and restored open space provides significant opportunities for public use and experience. Fostering community engagement requires patience, flexibility, planning and communication. Every interaction is an opportunity to promote a sense stewardship that will sustain the land for generations to come. Eel River: partnerships formed around clean water and the importance of fish passage...... 73 Tidmarsh: garnering support through education and outreach...... 74 Coonamessett: leveraging local partnerships to form lasting relationships...... 74 Early connection with stakeholders fosters long-term appreciation...... 75 How public use informs design...... 76 Public education and research...... 77 Management and stewardship post construction...... 78

11. Future Learning...... 80 Incorporating learning into restoration projects will help improve underlying science and this emerging restoration practice. Value in numbers: studying multiple sites that are similar and different...... 82 DATA, DATA, DATA: documenting change across restoration and comparison sites...... 82 Long-term studies illuminate our understanding of how sites develop and change...... 84 Alternative futures: what are the consequences of a management decision to restore vs. to simply retire a cranberry farm?...... 85 Alternative restoration methodologies: what strategies can improve restoration outcomes?...... 85 Alternative monitoring methodologies: tools to add value to the monitoring toolbox...... 86 Growing the research community: getting the word out and engaging specific researchers...... 86 Conclusions:...... 86

Notes and References...... 87 Glossary...... 94

Restoring Beaver Dam Brook headwaters channel, Tidmarsh, January 2016. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 4 PREFACE

iving Observatory (LO) has prepared this Preliminary As an increasing number of cranberry farms are retired, L Benefits Assessment Report for the Massachusetts there is a need and an opportunity to learn from these Department of Fish and Game’s Division of Ecological restoration projects. While ecological processes, biological Restoration (DER). Living Observatory, a public interest complexity and habitat diversity may take decades to fully learning community, is focused on understanding the develop, the early research and management findings chemical, biological, physical, and social outcomes of contained in this report indicate how wetland function wetland restoration projects on cranberry farms. The is evolving at these restoration sites. This knowledge can organization is committed to long-term monitoring and help advance the theory and practice of future ecological research that will advance ecologically based restoration restoration of cranberry farms. science and improve restoration practice for the benefit The following are the main findings that are of people and the planet. substantiated in the body of this report: Over the past ten years, DER has been the lead • Wetland restoration of cranberry farmland contributes Massachusetts agency working with willing landowners to climate change preparedness by restoring stream and partners including USDA NRCS, municipalities in connectivity to adjacent floodplains, marshes, and Southeastern Massachusetts, land trusts, engineers, uplands, dissipating floodwater, mitigating sea level rise contractors, LO, and the Cape Cod Cranberry Growers and coastal storm surge, and supporting animal migration. Association (CCCGA), among others, to conserve and • Wetland restoration of cranberry farmland has a desirable ecologically restore cranberry farmland. This emerging long-term impact on soil-based ecosystem functions such practice aims to assist in the recovery of self-sustaining as long-term carbon sequestration. wetlands that have been degraded by long-term agricultural • Restoration of stream channels and wetlands creates manipulation related to cranberry production. conditions that favor microbially-driven ecosystem To date, four wetland restorations of cranberry farms functions of denitrification, thus improving water have been or are close to completion: Eel River Headwaters quality in comparison to actively farmed and retired Restoration (Eel River) in Plymouth was completed but unrestored sites. 2010; Tidmarsh Farms Wetland Restoration (Tidmarsh) in • Microbial populations on restored wetlands tend to Plymouth was completed 2016; and the Coonamessett River become more similar to reference natural wetlands Restoration Project (Coonamessett) in Falmouth, where over time. the restoration of Lower Bog was completed 2018, and the • Wetland restoration of cranberry farmland changes the Middle and Upper bogs were completed in 2020. Today, succession of plant communities resulting in an increase the wetland restoration of Foothills Preserve, formerly in richness and abundance of wetland species over time. known as Tidmarsh West, along with the western tributary • Restoration of stream channels and elimination of barriers to Beaver Dam Brook at Mass Audubon’s Tidmarsh Wildlife that form water impoundments associated with farming Sanctuary (West Beaver Dam Brook), is nearing completion. can lower water temperatures thus favoring cold-water These pioneering projects have been used by restoration fish species, including regionally threatened brook trout. specialists at NRCS, DER, and project partners to iterate • Removal of water control structures and other in-stream on an innovative, scientifically informed, process-based barriers provides unrestricted passage for river herring, approach to restoring cranberry farmland to self-sustaining American eels and other fish that migrate between the wetlands. The findings in this report draw on studies at ocean and fresh water. these restored sites as well as data collected from active • Restored stream and wetland habitats of restored cranberry farms, retired but not restored farms, retired cranberry farms become more complex over time, leading flooded farms, and natural reference sites in Southeastern to more diverse animal communities and food webs. Massachusetts. • Wetland restoration of cranberry farmland often In April 2020, the USDA NRCS announced that it was includes permanently protected open space for public investing $10 million through its Regional Conservation engagement, recreation, learning, and long-term Partnership Program (RCPP) to expand this work in stewardship. southeastern Massachusetts. DER submitted its proposal • Standardized monitoring across all sites, combined with along with 17 partnering organizations. This funding will long-term studies on specific sites, will improve future facilitate the restoration and conservation of another 20 restoration practice. projects on cranberry farmland in Massachusetts over the next five years. It is expected that these projects will generate hundreds of acres of protected open space and self-sustaining wetlands using the restoration approaches developed in the earlier projects.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 5 TAKE HOME MESSAGE:

Cranberry farms provide an important opportunity for Massachusetts to restore and conserve coastal wetlands, which in turn provide important ecological services. Long term research at these sites will advance ecological theory and help advance restoration practice.

Atlantic white cedar swamp adjacent to Stewart Bogs, Falmouth, MA. Credit C. Neill

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 6 1.

Learning from 10 Years of Wetland Restoration on Cranberry Farms

“When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched to everything else in the Universe.” – John Muir

cosystems are defined yb the community of living organisms that are linked E together with nonliving elements of their environment. These biotic and abiotic elements interact as an integral system through nutrient cycles and energy In order to scale ecological flows. When these natural cycles are disrupted or damaged, the trajectory of restoration of cranberry farms, the ecosystem may be changed, sometimes degraded beyond repair. three conditions need to In the 2004 Primer published by the Society of Ecological Restoration, be met: ecological restoration is defined as “the process of assisting in the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed.” Increasingly i Political will must be practitioners recognize the importance of using an ecosystem-scale, process-based generated by federal, approach that is informed by science. Countless ecological restoration projects state and non-profit partners, are underway around the world in virtually all ecosystem types and at scales and farmers, as well as the public ranging from small community projects to multibillion-dollar international efforts. as represented by advocates, Unfortunately, many of these restoration projects lack the mandate and the funding educators, abutters and other to adequately monitor and study the outcome of restoration over the long term. visitors. The lack of rigorous study and evaluation means that no one can verify to what i A scientifically informed extent the restoration met the goals identified prior to restoration actions or identify how specific actions might be improved in future projects. approach to the design of the Both restoration practice and science benefit from continual long-term wetland restoration must be observation and data collection. To maximize the learning potential, restoration articulated, and one or more projects need to capture adequate baseline data prior to an intervention and prototypes based on the underlying systematically monitor the site for many years post restoration. Because an design must be implemented. individual site may only be restored once, studies that seek to understand i Early results from long term landscape-scale change following an intervention may benefit from comparison studies must indicate that these between sites that have a similar land use history, where the decision to restore restorations are moving toward has not been made, where restoration has occurred, and, if possible, natural sites self-sustaining wetlands. These that have never been altered or damaged. studies should encompass pre and post restoration data and seek to What are wetlands and why are they important? advance both ecological science and One of the most frequently restored ecosystem types is wetlands. Specifically, wetland restoration methods. for a wetland to become functional and self-sustaining over time, adequate water must be present in the soil for a sustained period of time during the growing season for the soil to favor “water-loving” or hydrophytic plants and animals. Self-sustaining wetlands are valued because they perform numerous essential ecosystem functions. Large connected wetland complexes serve to buffer water and land temperatures. When rivers and streams are properly connected to the functional riparian floodplain, they are able to receive, spread out, and store excess water from snowmelt and large storm events. As climate change modeling suggests that there will be more variability in storm events as the climate warms, the availability of more wetland areas that can receive water from these events improves local climate change preparedness. Because wetland soils are oxygen

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 7 How Wetlands Work

Stream energy and floodwater Critical habitat is provided are dissipated for birds, amphibians, fish, and other wildlife

Outflowing water is cleaner Sediments are captured and filtered Bacteria break down pollutants Retained water is from the water released slowly, abating floods Water is stored in soil Climate-warming carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere and Groundwater flow stored as organic matter in the soil

Why Restore Wetlands?

Water Purification Biodiversity b The unique plants and soils of wetlands can filter, absorb, b Wetlands improve biodiversity by providing critical habitat, and remove sediment and pollutants from the water. breeding grounds, and sources of food for many types of animals and plants that cannot survive without them, Flood Resilience including dragonflies, frogs, birds, and other wildlife b The sponge-like nature of wetland plants that eat mosquitoes! and soils helps prevent floods by giving floodwater a place to go and releasing it back into streams and Recreation groundwater slowly. b Wetlands are ideal places to enjoy time in nature for hiking, birdwatching, photography, and relaxing. Climate Benefits Exploration & Learning b Wetlands help moderate global climate conditions by storing large amounts of carbon and water. b Wetlands are excellent places to learn about how nature works, including how to improve the practice of ecosystem restoration.

How Wetlands Work. Illustration: RavenMark

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 8 deficient (or anaerobic), water-loving plants that grow Proportion of Massachusetts in them are uniquely able to filter and absorb pollutants, cranberry bogs planted to thus helping to clean water. In heavily populated areas 100% native, first-generation and along ocean coastlines, the removal of excess nitrogen second-generation hybrid 80% by the process of denitrification is a valuable service that cultivars. While the area of natural streams and wetlands have been shown to provide. Massachusetts bogs planted 60% Carbon, deposited in fallen logs, plant litter, sphagnum and with the older, lower-yielding other root systems, breaks down very slowly in saturated, 40% native varieties is declining, anaerobic wetland soils. By accumulating carbon, wetlands all Wisconsin bogs are 2nd Gen become a carbon sink. The associated reduction in the of Area Percentage 20% planted with first and second- 1st Gen release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere make generation hybrids. Hoekstra Native wetlands a net benefit to the climate. Wetlands also provide 0% et al., 2019. a range of habitat and food supplies that support a diversity of plant, animal and insect species. Restored and protected coastal wetlands are particularly valuable during times of MA OS 2012MA OS 2015MA OS 2017WI OS 2015OS = Ocean Spray sea level rise. As the dynamic interface between the ocean and fresh-water systems moves to a higher elevation, the inundated lower areas are able to transition to a tidal marsh. While the services associated with these functions have wild berry was used in rituals and commerce. These been valued at more than US $70 billion annually, over traditions still endure today in Cranberry Day, the half of the world’s wetlands have been lost to agriculture annual Aquinnah Wampanoag cranberry harvest festival on or development, and a substantial portion of the remaining present day Martha’s Vineyard. Early colonists recognized wetlands are badly degraded. the medicinal properties of the berry and it was used as a dietary staple on the long journey between America and Europe. Despite the popularity of the berry, some Retained water is Cultivation of the native cranberry plant: innovation was required before commercial cultivation released slowly, reconfiguring wetlands could flourish. abating floods Indigenous to the wetlands of North America, Around 1810, Captain Henry Hall, a Revolutionary War the American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) veteran and resident of Dennis, Massachusetts, discovered was integral to the culture and commerce of many that the native cranberry plants grew better when sand indigenous tribes long before the colonists arrived from blew over them. Sand combined with acidic soils (low pH) Europe. An important source of food and medicine, the and plentiful water was needed for winter vine protection

The cranberry industry arrives in Manomet. Town of Plymouth survey, 1885.

Operating cranberry farms in Massachusetts, 2016. Credit: Cape Cod Cranberry Growers’ Association

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 9 built on the riparian flood plain on either side of the stream channel. Some newer bogs are “upland” bogs built on areas not designated as wetlands but connected to adjacent surface waters or wells. In wetland farms, the farmed area is broken into bogs by large earthen berms with water control structures that allow the farmer to intentionally control the flow of water into the farm cells for winter flood protection and water harvests. Sand berms can also be used to create reservoirs. Typically, each of the farm cells sits on top of a kettle hole that has filled with peat over millennia. These underlying peat deposits along with a plentiful supply of ground water create the unique growing conditions that, from the mid In the early days, cranberry picking was a family affair. Pickers at Swift’s Bog, 1800’s onward, supported the transformation of many acres Falmouth, 1911. Lewis Wickes Hine (1874-1940) photograph. National Child Labor of natural wetlands into cranberry farms in Massachusetts. Committee collection, Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division As Captain Henry Hall discovered, cranberry vines grow better in sand. On most farms, sand is plentiful. Sand and summer irrigation and harvesting. Following Hall’s is mined from pits cut into the uplands of the farm and discovery, many landowners eagerly converted their applied across the growing surface before planting and wetlands into cranberry bogs and “cranberry fever” took every three to four years thereafter as the vine develops. off. Between 1780-1980, Massachusetts lost 28% of its Over years, this incremental application of sand can raise wetlands due to anthropogenic activity including cranberry the growing surface 35-50 cm (18 to 24 inches) above farming. the groundwater levels, essentially transforming a natural The goal of cranberry farming is to bring to harvest the wetland into a manipulated, artificially elevated agricultural largest possible number of cranberries year after year. In field. Once the vine is planted, fertilizer, herbicides, and order to do this efficiently, a monoculture of cranberry vine pesticides are applied directly or using the irrigation system. needs to be planted and maintained across as large and Today, cranberry bogs in southeastern Massachusetts flat a growing surface as the site allows. In preparation, the occupy 13,500 acres; few kettle hole bogs or riparian land surface is deforested, flattened, drained, ditched and wetlands exist in the region that are not managed for, or dammed. influenced by, cranberry production. Wetland restoration Most Massachusetts cranberry bogs are situated in small that will occur on some of these farms may help allay a coastal valleys. The majority of these farms are separated portion of the earlier wetland loss. from direct connection with stream channels. A smaller number are flow-through farms where the bog cells were

RANK CHARACTERISTICS PERCENT OF AREA AREA IN THE AREA IN WAREHAM RIVER MASSACHUSETTS WATERSHED (ha) (ha)

I. High Flow-through, traditional 20% 133 1,077 construction, native cultivars

II. Moderate Non-flow-through, traditional 35% 235 1,913 construction, native cultivars

III. Low Non-flow-through, hybrid 45% 307 2,496 cultivars

Total 100% 675 5,486 : Ranking of potential for retirement and restoration of cranberry bogs based on current bog status for the Wareham Watershed and estimates for the entire Massachusetts cranberry industry based on similar proportions. Source Hoekstra et al. 2019.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 10 7000000 Total Production (1962-2017)

6000000 Total cranberry 5000000 production in five US r ea states. Production 4000000 in Wisconsin first

3000000 exceeded that of Barrels/Y Massachusetts in 1990 2000000 and is now 2.8 times greater. Source USDA 1000000 NASS.

0 14 16 18 10 12 72 74 76 94 84 78 70 64 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 86 88 90 92 80 82 66 68 62 19 19 19 20 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 19 19 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 Massachusetts New Jersey Oregon Washington Wisconsin

Yield/Acre (1967-2017) 350.0

300.0

250.0 Yield of cranberries in Massachusetts and 200.0 Wisconsin. Since 1990, cranberry yield in Wisconsin

Yield/Acre 150.0 has increased faster than 100.0 that in Massachusetts. Source: Hoekstra et al., 50 .0 2019

0.0 11 13 15 77 71 91 81 97 87 79 73 75 67 93 95 99 83 85 69 89 001 007 19 19 003 005 009 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 19 19 19 2 19 2 2 2 2

Year Massachusetts Wisconsin USA

25000 Bog Acreage (1967-2017) Area of cranberry bogs in five 20000 US states. Massachusetts and Wisconsin make up most of 15000 the US cranberry acreage. re Cranberry growing area has Ac 10000 been increasing in Wisconsin for five decades but has declined

50 00 since 1999 in Massachusetts. Source: Hoekstra et al., 2019

0 14 74 10 12 16 70 72 76 78 64 84 94 60 62 66 68 80 82 86 88 90 92 96 98 19 002 004 006 008 19 19 19 19 000 19 19 19 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 2 2 2 2 2 Year Massachusetts New Jersey Oregon Washington Wisconsin

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 11 Wetland restoration of cranberry farms: subject to wetland regulation, the value Active wetland restoration is building political will of the farm for a required on retired cranberry While cranberries remain the highest value agricultural developer of house farmland to achieve healthy food crop in Massachusetts with an economic footprint of lots, solar, wind or $1.4 billion, modern farming methods have resulted in the gravel operations is wetlands. Simply abandoning development of more efficient upland farms in Wisconsin tied to the uplands. farmland will not result in and Quebec. Planted with hybrid cranberry cultivars Further, once the that typically produce four to five times the fruit of older bog area is no historical wetland conditions. varieties, the increased productivity of these new farms longer flooded and has been accompanied by falling prices, making many of irrigated, the groundwater recedes. As the once-farmed, the older Massachusetts farms unprofitable. The Cape Cod sand-dominated surface dries out, it becomes occupied Cranberry Growers’ Association (CCCGA), along with the by upland plant species. In a few years, one can only Massachusetts legislative Cranberry Revitalization Task Force recognize this as a former cranberry farm by the edge and (Task Force), estimates that up to 40% of the cranberry bogs lateral ditches that surround and traverse it. Therefore, in Massachusetts may be retired from production over the active wetland restoration is required on cranberry farmland next 10 to 15 years (MA DAR). This creates a challenge and to achieve healthy wetlands. Simply abandoning farmland a significant opportunity. will not result in historical wetland conditions. For farmers needing to retire their farms, few options The need to develop a conservation and restoration Sand Berm exist. Because farmed areas are classified as wetlands and approach for cranberry farmers who wish to retire their

Cranberry Bog Cross-Section: Existing water conditions on active and retired bogs

Lateral Ditch

Edge Ditch

Layered Sand — Growing Surface

Main Channel Normal Underlying Peat Layer MHW* on water table MHW* with abandoned bogs level flooding on active bogs

*MHW = Mean High Water

Before and After Restoration. Illustration: Ravenmark

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 12 farms was recognized as early as 2003 when the CCCGA With the recent $10 million award through the NRCS encouraged NRCS officials to allocate more money for Regional Conservation Partnership Program (RCPP), more the Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) in Massachusetts to cranberry farmers who are looking to retire their farms help cranberry growers retire bog acreage that is difficult will be able to choose the conservation and wetland to manage or is located in environmentally sensitive areas. restoration path. Expanded wetland restoration may allow This approach was reinforced by the Task Force with the Massachusetts to regain valuable coastal wetlands and recommendation that Massachusetts promote the restoration benefit the Massachusetts cranberry industry by reducing of cranberry bogs to natural wetlands as an exit strategy for overproduction and stabilizing prices. This option will allow willing cranberry farmers. By the time the Task Force was some farmers to obtain value for their land and provide convened in 2016, the Eel River Headwaters Restoration them with an additional option for navigating today’s (Eel River) in Plymouth had been completed, excavators increasingly challenging business landscape. were on the ground implementing the Tidmarsh Farms The success of wetland restoration as a corrective Wetland Restoration (Tidmarsh) in Plymouth, and strategy requires evaluation. Did the restoration actions Coonamessett River Restoration Project (Coonamessett) in jumpstart self-sustaining wetlands? Commitment to learning Falmouth was in design. All of these completed restorations takes many forms: focused studies can not only advance have taken place on cranberry farms that were built on ecological theory, but, with some allocation of management the riparian floodplain on both sides of a stream channel. and financial resources, can be used to improve methods Known as flow-through farms, these farms are the most and reduce costs of restoration. difficult to farm efficiently and therefore the most likely to be retired and the best candidates for wetland restoration.

Cranberry Bog Cross-Section: Restored conditions

6 3 4

5

2

1 1. Removed earthern berm 4. Microtopography 2. Raised groundwater table 5. Large woody debris providing diverse habitat 3. Sinuous stream channel 6. Wetland vegetation from old seed bank Before and After Restoration. Illustration: Ravenmark

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 13 Principles for ecological wetland restoration • Habitat complexity. Physical and biotic of cranberry farms simplicity are Cranberry farming drastically alters wetland hallmarks of an hydrology, biogeochemistry, and biota, on each farm and efficient farming potentially across the watershed. The good news is that operation. Restoration the construction template for most cranberry farms in actions that are Southeastern Massachusetts is similar, and therefore the designed to jumpstart ways in which the farm stresses natural wetland function is habitat complexity similar. Theoretically, this similarity suggests that a similar include: breaking up suite of actions can be used to reset the ecological wetland the cranberry root trajectory on these farms. mat, roughening the The approach to wetland restoration of cranberry growing surface with farms draws on ecological science as well as practice. microtopography, The primary goal of the restoration is to reset the hydrology installing of the landscape to support the development of self- large woody debris sustaining wetlands. Additional goals include realizing across the site and, Green heron, Tidmarsh, 2017. Credit: C. Jackson unimpeded passage for fish and wildlife, improved water depending on quality, carbon sequestration, and permanent conservation the stakeholder group, planting Atlantic white cedar or with public access. Three general objectives have guided other species to jumpstart reforestation. the design and construction of these early restorations. • Raise the groundwater level and reconstruct the What follows: lenses through which to evaluate surface of the wetland. A primary challenge to wetland the impacts and benefits of restoration. restoration of cranberry farms is the sand layer that was applied during farming. The incremental additions of sand Restoration interventions on cranberry farmland are over one hundred plus years may raise the cranberry designed to lay the foundation for conditions that will growing surface as much as 35-50 cm (18 to 24 inches) allow the compromised farmland to transition, within some above groundwater levels. Restoration actions that help acceptable limits, to an ecologically functional, self-sustaining raise the groundwater level include filling ditches; and, in wetland. Effective learning inquiry requires the framing of the case of flow-through farms, reconstructing a sinuous specific questions that can help answer how and to what stream channel with occasional riffles and the addition extent restoration actions lead to desired outcomes. These of large woody debris. These actions also serve to slow questions must be accompanied by rigorous data collection, down water flow, thereby keeping water on the site for beginning several years prior to restoration implementation, longer. Raising the water table has been used to date over and the interpretation of those findings. The chapters that the alternative sand removal for a number of reasons, follow provide an introduction to early wetland restorations including high cost of moving sand to another location on on four cranberry farms, and initial findings related to the site. While legacy pesticides in the sand are bound to wetland indicators and benefits. A final chapter focuses on a organic matter, removing sand from the site is prohibited. proposed standard monitoring approach for new restoration sites, as well as future learning topics aimed at developing • Create connectivity for water and wildlife. In addition our understanding of how cranberry farms respond to to making the site wet, restoration actions seek to repair restoration actions. This is followed by Notes and References passage for aquatic and terrestrial wildlife across the site and a Glossary. It is hoped that these findings will help and beyond. Specific restoration actions that support improve restoration practice as new opportunities for land connectivity include removing berms and water control protection and wetland restoration emerge in the region. structures, implementing a new sinuous stream channel, filling ditches and grading banks to create a graceful meeting between the wetland surface and upland forest.

Site Terminology Used Throughout This Report Site Type Description Active Farm Cranberry farm that is currently in production Retired Cranberry farm that has been taken out of production and has not been flooded or restored Retired Flooded Cranberry farm that has been taken out of production and intentionally flooded Restored Cranberry farms that have been ecologically restored Natural Reference Analogous natural freshwater wetlands that have no known agricultural legacy

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 14 Tidmarsh a few months after restoration, October, 2016. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 15 TAKE HOME MESSAGE: A first wave of completed projects provide ‘proof of concept’ for regional scaling and the basis for future learning.

Beaver Dam Brook, Tidmarsh, January 5, 2016. Credit: E. Heller

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 16 2.

Four Wetland Restorations of Cranberry Farms

low-through cranberry farms are constructed on riparian floodplains that flank Some restoration actions F a natural stream channel. Prior to farming, the flood plain would likely have been classified as fresh-water marsh, wet meadow, fen, or forested wetland. In may be suitable for most converting these wetlands for cranberry production, the land was deforested, sites, while other sites the growing surface flattened, and the stream channel widened and dammed. Lateral and perimeter ditches were implemented to create a more even moisture may require different regime. In addition to the initial layer of sand applied as the planting medium, interventions. Learning an additional half inch of sand was added every three plus years to stimulate the growth of the root system of the cranberry vine and to bury leaf drop and bugs. from these completed However, this sand also raised the growing surface well above groundwater levels. projects will help guide If a farm is retired and no action is taken, this raised growing surface will dry out the next wave of wetland and upland plants will tend to colonize the site. Wetland restoration seeks to reset this manipulated hydrology. Restoration restorations on cranberry actions focus on raising the water level and keeping the surface of the wetland as farmland. wet as possible, restoring continuity for water and wildlife, and creating conditions for habitat complexity. Early projects are essential for evaluating restoration methodology and understanding wetland trajectory. Four ecological restoration projects have been completed on cranberry farmland in Massachusetts, all since 2010: Eel River Headwaters Project (Eel River) in Plymouth was completed in 2010; Tidmarsh Farms Wetland Restoration Project (Tidmarsh), also in Plymouth, was completed in 2016; Coonamessett River Restoration Project (Coonamessett) located in Falmouth was completed in 2018 and 2020. Today, restoration is underway at Foothills Preserve and its downstream tributary, West Beaver Dam Brook. Both of these sites were formerly part of Tidmarsh Farms. For the authors of this report, these restorations have provided learning laboratories for early studies, the findings of which are contained in this report. While these projects are similar in many respects, there are also significant differences between the projects including: ownership/ management at the time of restoration, size of the property, position in the watershed, size of the drainage area, stream flow, valley width, underlying soils and geology, partner involvement, public access and educational mission. A brief introduction to each restoration property is provided here to help orient readers who are not familiar with these properties.

Restored sections of Coonamessett River, Sept 7, 2020. Credit: Adam Soule

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 17 Eel River The Eel River project was the first wetland restoration of a cranberry farm in Massachusetts. Eel River is a small, 3.9-mile-long spring fed stream that empties into Plymouth Bay. The project site encompasses approximately 40 acres of low-gradient, headwater farmland that was purchased by Town of Plymouth using Community Preservation Committee funds in 2003. The project site also encompassed a steeper, more energetic stream channel at the downstream end of the site that flows through another 20-acre conservation parcel. This parcel included the Sawmill Pond Dam, a stone dam built in the early 1800’s that prevented fish passage. Led by Plymouth’s Department of Marine and Environmental Affairs, the restoration was completed in 2010. In all, the project created 60 acres of improved habitat, reconstructed 1.7 miles of the headwaters stream channel, replaced two undersized culverts and removed the Sawmill Pond Dam. 17,000 Atlantic white cedars were planted on the southern bog areas in order to initiate the development of an Atlantic cedar swamp. In 2011, the project team was awarded the nationally prestigious Coastal America Partnership Award. Conservation, restoration and learning partners include: The Town of Plymouth, MA, USDA NRCS,, Massachusetts DER (a priority project), USFWS, Massachusetts EPA, Wildlands Trust, The Nature Conservancy, American Rivers, AECOM, Mt. Holyoke College, Massa, Woodwell Climate Eel River, Plymouth Atlas, 1830. This map documents the existence of several small Research Center. The project was engineered by Inter-Fluve, dams along the Eel River, including Sawmill Pond Dam, as well as the surrounding Inc. and constructed by SumCo Eco-Contracting, Inc. forest.

Eel River post restoration, 2010. The fence was installed to protect the 17,000 Atlantic white cedar from browsing by white-tailed deer. Credit: A. Hackman Inset: Atlantic white cedar plantings at Eel River, 2010 (fence in background). Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 18 Tidmarsh The Tidmarsh project, completed in 2016, is the largest freshwater wetland restoration to date in Massachusetts. Located in the low-lying headwaters of Beaver Dam Brook, the 225-acre restoration site occupies a significant portion of the 5.4 square mile Beaver Dam Brook watershed and includes approximately half of the Beaver Dam Brook stream channel. Fed by groundwater, this headwaters site includes tributaries from Fresh Pond, the Arm, the former Beaver Dam Pond (the main farm reservoir) as well as surface water flow from Little Island Pond (not itself part of the project). These sources flow into the main stem of Beaver Dam Brook that, after exiting the property, continues for 1.2 miles before emptying into Bartlett Pond and Cape Cod Bay. The property was taken out of production in 2010, as Tidmarsh Farms finalized an easement for conservation and restoration with NRCS. At that time, a 35-acre reservoir at the southern end of the site was drawn down, as the farm reservoir was no longer needed. Restoration actions included the removal of eight dams and water control structures, the replacement of one undersized culvert and the installation of a bridge just south of the red maple swamp. 3.5 miles of new stream channel were also constructed. Together these actions provided headwaters to the ocean passage for fish and wildlife. Prior to restoration the site was featureless. The restoration initiated complex habitat construction including over 100 acres of microtopography, the placement of more than 3,000 pieces of large woody debris in the stream channel and across the wetland surface, and the creation of two flow-through ponds and several off-channel depressions Map showing the Beaver Dam Brook watershed outlined in blue, Tidmarsh Farms that hold water throughout the year. Native plantings (now Tidmarsh Wildlife Sanctuary and Foothills Preserve) in red, and restoration included 20,000 wetland trees, shrubs and perennials, as disturbance area in green. Surface head water sources for Tidmarsh include Fresh well as 7,000 Atlantic white cedar trees. Pond, the Arm, Beaver Dam Pond (an impounded reservoir that was drained in In 2011, the owners established LO as a non-profit 2010) and Long Island Pond. From the headwaters, Beaver Brook flows north to collaborative research organization. LO attracted dedicated Bartlett Pond and into Cape Cod Bay. USGS Map developed in 2011 by A. Hackman, scientists, engineers and artists who wanted to learn about DER. long-term restoration outcomes. Today the LO community numbers over 30 scientists, artists, engineers and wetland restoration specialists. Following the decision to conserve and restore, Tidmarsh Farms, Inc. maintained responsibility for the oversight of restoration planning and construction. In 2017, the Tidmarsh Farms property located east of Beaver Dam Road, including the restored portion of the property, was sold to the Massachusetts Audubon Society who further protected the land and established the Tidmarsh Wildlife Sanctuary. Principal conservation, restoration, and learning partners include: USDA NRCS, MA DER (a priority project), USFWS, NOAA, EPA, MA Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, MA Division. of Marine Fisheries, Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment, MET, American Rivers, Mass Audubon, Tidmarsh Farms, Bridgewater State University, Manomet, LO, MIT Media Lab, MIT SeaGrant, MassBays, Mount Holyoke Tidmarsh, September 2020. 4 years after restoration actions, showing College, North and South Rivers Watershed Association, USDA microtopography with Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyparis thoides), Woolgrass ARS, University of Massachusetts—Amherst, University of (Scirpus cyperinus), Wrinkle-leaved goldenrod (Solidago rugosa), Steeplebush Massachusetts—Boston. The restoration was engineered by (Spiraea tomentosa), Pennsylvania smartweed (Persicaria pensylvanica). Inter-Fluve, Inc, and implemented by SumCo Eco-Contracting. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 19 Foothills Preserve ocean to headwaters passage for migratory fish and other Approximately 50 acres of the Tidmarsh Farms critters to the Foothills Preserve site. The restoration applied cranberry bogs were taken out of production in 2015, when microtopography to break up the cranberry root mat and Tidmarsh Farms finalized a conservation and restoration associated sand layer in order to expose the buried seed easement with the NRCS. In 2017, the Town of Plymouth bank. Large woody debris was used in the construction purchased these retired bogs, along with surrounding of the stream channel and scattered across the growing uplands, using Community Preservation funds to develop platform to provide habitat for wildlife across the site. the 128-acre Foothills Preserve. The bogs of the Foothills A number of native trees and shrubs were planted, Preserve include the low-gradient headwaters of the West including 500 Atlantic white cedar trees, in order to hasten Beaver Dam Brook, which flows south and east through the development of site complexity. the property, under Beaver Dam Road, and discharges Principal conservation, restoration, and learning into Beaver Dam Brook within Mass Audubon’s Tidmarsh partners include: Town of Plymouth, MA., Mass Wildlife Sanctuary. Audubon, USDA NRCS, MA DER (a priority project), The West Beaver Dam stream channel initiates at an USFWS, EPA, Ducks Unlimited, Living Observatory, Inc., elevation of approximately 24 feet above sea level and Mount Holyoke College, MIT Media Lab, MIT SeaGrant, descends to approximately 22 feet above sea level before Smith College, USDA ARS, University of Massachusetts— it crosses Beaver Dam Road. The restoration includes the Amherst, University of Massachusetts—Boston, University construction of a half-mile of meandering stream channel of Connecticut, Woodwell Climate Research Center. through the former bogs and the removal of two dams The restoration was engineered by Inter-Fluve, Inc. and downstream of Beaver Dam Road. The removal of these implemented by Luciano’s Excavation, Inc. dams, the last in the Beaver Dam Brook watershed, restored

Foothills Preserve, September 2020, during restoration. The filled-in straightened farm channel has been replaced by a meandering channel with large woody debris, and shows groundwater emergence where peat is exposed. Credit: L. Watts

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 20 Coonamessett The Coonamessett River is the third largest groundwater- fed system on Cape Cod. The river flows south from Coonamessett Pond three miles to Great Pond and an additional two miles into Vineyard Sound. This valley, and others adjacent to it, were formed by groundwater upwelling and spring-sapping processes during the glacial retreat almost 15,000 years ago. Together these valleys are known as the Spring Sapping Valleys of Falmouth. The Coonamessett restoration was completed in two phases and encompasses three cranberry bogs owned by the Town of Falmouth at the lower portion of the Coonamessett River. The completed project resulted in 33 acres of restored wetland with a mosaic of habitats, plus 23 acres of upland riverine habitat. New meanders increased the length of the existing stream channel by 33% (from 0.87 miles to 1.16 miles), and improved habitat diversity. By removing Lower and Middle dams, the restoration increased the length of the free-flowing stream channel from 0.25 miles to 2.2 miles and improved fish access to spawning areas of the 156-acre Coonamessett Pond and the 22-acre Flax Pond upstream of the restoration site. Lower and Middle dams were replaced by boardwalks to maintain pedestrian navigation around the site. In addition, the restoration replaced an undersized culvert at John Parker United States Geological Survey, US Department of the Interior. USGS 7.5 Minute Road. Series, Falmouth, MA Quadrangle, 1941, northwest corner. Showing the spring Unlike Eel River and Tidmarsh that were headwaters sapping valleys of Falmouth, including the Coonamessett River. projects, the Coonamessett restoration is situated on the downstream portion of the Coonamessett River, where the river is more energetic and already experiences some tidal influence. Wetland restorations at Eel and Tidmarsh utilized well-established restoration techniques that were relatively new to wetland restoration of cranberry farms in eastern Massachusetts. At Coonamessett, in addition to using similar techniques that are described above, logs driven vertically into the ground were used to help stabilize the large woody debris placed along the channel banks for bank stability and aquatic habitat. From the beginning, the Coonamessett River Restoration was driven by passion from a small but growing group of citizens who wanted to provide public access across the site and were adamant about enabling fish passage as well as the creation of habitat for river herring, American eel and brook trout. Principal conservation, restoration, and learning partners include: The Coonamesssett River Trust, the 300 Committee Land Trust, the Town of Falmouth, MA., USDA NRCS, Massachusetts DER (priority project), NOAA, MA Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, Division of Marine Fisheries, Association to Preserve Cape Cod, Cape Cod Conservation District, FishAmerica Foundation, Falmouth Rod and Gun Club, Gateway, Stimpson Studios, Tighe and Bond, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, MET, August, 2018, Coonamessett lower bog restoration. Large woody debris has been Massachusetts Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness installed vertically along the re-constructed stream channel to help stabilize Program, University of Connecticut, Woodwell Climate the constructed bank. Credit: LO Research Center. Both phases of the restoration were engineered by Inter-Fluve, Inc. and implemented by SumCo Eco-Contracting.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 21 TAKE HOME MESSAGE:

Ecological restoration of cranberry farms in Southeastern Massachusetts has the potential to be successful because these farms were built on former wetlands that developed within the region’s underlying glacial geology. Hydric soils of these wetlands may help jumpstart recovery.

Tidmarsh, May 2019. Credit: C. Jackson

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 22 3.

Glacial Geology Provides Hydrologic Opportunity

etlands form very slowly, in places that are simply too wet for everything W else. Wetlands form in topographically sunken or low places with A pivotal goal for restoration impermeable geologic materials underneath. Wetlands stay wet in regions of cranberry farms with a steady supply of groundwater flowing to them from near and far. is to re-create conditions These conditions don’t exist everywhere, but they are common in glaciated southeastern Massachusetts. In natural wetlands, obligate wetland plants for self-sustaining wetlands (plants that only grow in wetlands), including the native cranberry plant to develop. (Vaccinium macrocarpon), thrive. Cranberries, as they grew naturally, were enjoyed as sasumuneash for 12,000 years by the Wampanoag people. However, beginning in the mid-1800’s, cranberries were increasingly cultivated as a monoculture for commercial gain. The introduction of large-scale agricultural practices required alterations to the natural hydrologic regime of these wetlands in Massachusetts. Regional groundwater flow typically discharges large quantities of water to the land surface in wetland areas; however, cranberry farms with their dams, berms, and ditches significantly re-route these waters once they reach the land surface. A pivotal goal for restoration of cranberry farms is to re-create conditions for self-sustaining wetlands to develop. Understanding the hydrology of a retired farm site is a critical step in designing a restoration because groundwater- dependent wetland ecosystems require significant, predictable, and resilient inputs of groundwater to persist into the future.

Glacial retreat created conditions for wetland formation The last of several major glacial advances to cover this part of North America began to retreat from Cape Cod about 16,000 years ago. The melting ice created moving water that deposited sediments as large, well-sorted piles of sand and gravel, and as deltas in water bodies in front of the glacier, collectively referred to as glacial stratified drift and glacial outwash deposits. Smaller sediments like clays were transported further, and eventually settled to the bottom of meltwater lakes in front of the glaciers. Large moraines, comprised of glacial till, formed the tallest topography in the region. The Pine Hills in Plymouth, the tallest point along the Atlantic coast, rises 395 feet above sea level; and the highlands near Sandwich, MA, rise over 200 feet above sea level. The glaciers also left behind large chunks of ice buried in the sediments in front of and behind the terminal moraines. Proglacial lakes dried into broad, flat areas dominated by relatively impermeable clays and other fine-grained sediments, called outwash plains. Kettle holes pockmarking their surfaces, hence the term, “pitted plains.” As the ice melted, these kettle holes filled with water. Over time, some kettle holes dried out and slowly filled with peat. Peat might accumulate for upwards of 9,000 years, during which time the kettle hole might fill with water and dry out several times in response to wetter and drier cycles of the climate.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 23 Retreating, melting glaciers left behind a vast network Topography and geomorphology define regional of braided stream channels that crisscrossed these plains, and moved large amounts of sediment. Glacial Lake Cape hydrology and groundwater flowpaths Cod once filled Cape Cod Bay (15,000 to 14,500 years ago), The sustained weight of the last glaciers caused the and the large amounts of glacial outwash were deposited continental crust to sink into the soft mantle. After the ice as deltas into the lake. Millenia later, this outwash would melted, this crust began to uplift and rebound. Rivers that be sifted and applied as sand to the cranberry bogs. were once at elevations closer to sea level became higher Wherever lakes and depressions persisted long enough and water now cut down through the landscape to sea on the landscape, clays and low-permeability sediment level. Similarly, groundwater levels, once in equilibrium settled to the bottom. Wetlands formed on top of these low, with sea level, now drain down gradient. These slow, long- poorly drained depressions. Many of these with no outlet term geologic-scale processes created the topography of accumulated thick peat deposits over time. The oldest peat each site and influence the hydrology of the region, helping deposits in this region date to around 12,000 years ago, and to drive groundwater flow to the land surface. carbon dated cores from Foothills Preserve have identified Drainage basin area for surface water and landscape basal peat layers as old as 9,140 ±110 years. elevation affect groundwater accumulation and stream flow. The Eel River system flows through a finger-lake type of valley, likely carved by ice or water draining to the north post-glaciation. Of the completed wetland restorations, Eel River provides an example of a relatively steep, high energy channel that cuts through legacy sediments once trapped behind the Sawmill Pond dam. This dam, built in the 1800’s, was removed during restoration.

The Wetland Landscape The location of wetlands on the Southeastern Massachusetts landscape depends on our glacial geologic history. Depressions that formed in low-lying areas were underlain by relatively impermeable materials like peat and clay that hold water on the surface. Water to these wetlands flows underground through porous materials from within the wetland complex and local hills, as well as from great distances. Illustration: RavenMark

MORAINE SAND

BEDROCK GLACIAL DRIFT

GLACIAL CLAY or PEAT (BASAL) TILL

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 24 The Pine Hills moraine sits between the Eel River and the Foothills Preserve and Tidmarsh sites. Situated in the Beaver Dam Brook watershed, these sites are mid-elevation, 11 to 4.5 meters (36 feet to 15 feet) above sea level. They are situated on kettle hole depressions filled with peat and flanked by large outwash deposits. The Plymouth- Carver-Kingston-Duxbury (PCKD) groundwater aquifer sits beneath these three restorations in Plymouth. Recharge to this aquifer comes from five to ten kilometers (three to six miles) distance, beginning near the Myles Standish State Forest, and spans from Marshfield in the north, Middleborough and Plympton in the west, Buzzard’s Bay and the Atlantic Ocean on the south, and across Cape Cod to Cape Cod Bay to the east. Coonamessett, the lowest elevation of the restored sites, is situated midway along the gentle slope in front of the Sandwich highlands moraine. Fresh water in the Coonamessett region recharges the aquifer in the Sandwich highlands, forming the Sagamore freshwater lens that pushes out against the saltwater of Nantucket Sound. One of several finger lake valleys known as the spring sapping valleys of Falmouth, this erosional channel valley was carved into low-permeability unconsolidated fine clays and alluvium where terrestrial and marine clays are deposited. A digital elevation model (DEM) indicates the location of the four focus wetland The restored portion of the valley includes approximately restoration sites: Eel River, Tidmarsh, Foothills Preserve and Coonamessett. one-third of the down-stream end of the Coonamessett Mapped by the Massachusetts Geological Survey, Stephen B. Mabee. river, and already accommodates saline intrusion at high Republished by permission. tides. Because ground in this region is low-gradient, and groundwater is close to the ground surface (less than 1.5 meters (6.5 feet) of sea level rise. These newly restored meters or ~5 feet above sea level), saltwater influence will wetlands will provide a transition from freshwater to continue to migrate upstream, as much as a mile for two saltwater, thus providing a buffer along the coast.

Surface water (streamflow) and groundwater input at four wetland restoration sites ***

Site Surface Basin Area Average Streamflow Groundwater Mean Elevation g Tidal (% of Stream)

Foothills Preserve 2.71 km2 ~0.03 to 0.09 m3/s 50-100% c 58 m no (1.05 mi2) (1-3 cfs) 51% d (189 ft) Tidmarsh Beaver Dam Brook a 0.4 to 0.6 m3/s 75% e 28 m sometimes 12.1 km2 (4.66 mi2) (15-20 cfs) 86% d (92.9 ft) Eel River 38.6 km2 ~0.9 m3/s, (30 cfs) 54% d 41 m no (14.9 mi2) storms up to ~4 m3/s b (135 ft) (>100 cfs) Lower Coonamessett 39.4 km2 0.2 to 0.85 m3/s, 69% upstream 31 m yes (15.2 mi2) (7-30 cfs) + 28% wetlands f (103 ft) 1.27 m3/s (max 45 cfs) 53% d Notes: a – Beaver Dam Brook watershed, which drains Tidmarsh, includes the area and e – (Hare et al., 2017) streamflow from the tributary subbasin of West Beaver Dam Brook, that drains Foothills Preserve. f – from Coonamessett River Restoration Working Group b – USGS gage (USGS 01105876 EEL RIVER AT RT 3A NEAR PLYMOUTH, MA) Annual Report to the Falmouth Board of Selectmen, c – Calculated from measured streamflow gains (Hatch unpublished data) February 14, 2005 d – Approximated from average streamflow vs. basin area and precipitation (rainfall-runoff) g – Mean Basin Elevation and Basin Area from USGS Stream Stats (https://streamstats.usgs.gov/)

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 25 Groundwater dominates wetland hydrology Specific modifications to peatlands include: deforestation, surface flattening, vegetation conversion to a monoculture and streamflow of cranberries, application of sand layers, construction of The four sites constitute a continuum from uplands to large berms, water control structures, ditching, irrigation the coast along a topographical gradient. Each resulting piping, and channel widening and straightening. These wetland complex has unique features as a result of its modifications cause the groundwater level to sit well below geological and hydrologic setting. Because these wetland the land surface for most of the year. sites are more dependent on groundwater inflows than The application of sand at the initial planting and surface processes, streamflows are difficult to estimate. every two to three years significantly impacts the flow of The largest differences between the four sites are due to water in the growing surface. Sanding buries leaf drop and drainage basin area. The larger the drainage basin, the controls bugs, and fungal pathogens. With some external larger the flows coming into them from specific precipitation watering, sand also helps to keep the growing surface events; and the steeper the contributing areas, the flashier evenly moist. However, this layering of sand and leaf (quick increase in streamflow volume when it rains) those drop creates a system where water drains laterally very storm water inputs will be. Annual precipitation totals on efficiently, but does not percolate well vertically through average 130 centimeters (51 inches) per year, distributed the thin, compacted, poorly draining layers of organic soil. relatively evenly across the year, ranging from 7.6-12.7 This generates a vertical hydrologic disconnection, meaning centimeters (3-5 inches) per month. Human activities also that water moving along the very top layers are effectively influence surface water flows in significant ways. disconnected from water moving below, in the deeper Groundwater-dependent ecosystems require layers. This vertical separation created by the application groundwater for saturation, development, and maintenance of sand spans up to 35 cm at Foothills Preserve, and of wetland soils, thermal buffering, and habitat for wetland 50 cm at Tidmarsh. Cranberry plants, an obligate wetland plants and fauna. Groundwater temperatures are cooler species, are only able to overcome the disconnection from in the summer months and warmer in winter months— the groundwater through artificially controlled hydrologic providing critical temperature refugia for wetland organisms. manipulation as with irrigation and flooding. Without Wetland vegetation requires water to persist within ~25 this human intervention, the entire farmed surface would centimeters (1 foot) of the surface throughout the year to quickly drain to levels well below the former peat surface, produce conditions that favor wetland plants and soils, and leaving a thick, dry layer of sand-dominated sediment at this condition is maintained largely by groundwater. Water- the surface that is unlikely to support wetland plants if retention is promoted by underlying soils that are relatively left on its own. This is why, in a few years following farm impermeable (glaciofluvial clay, historical hydric soils, or retirement, most farmed surfaces appear hard, very dry, peat), allowing hydrophytic vegetation to flourish. Variation and are occupied by upland plant species. in periods of inundation from storms and seasonal flooding provide a mix of oxygen and oxygen-deprived conditions that support these species throughout the growing season.

Cranberry farming drains the swamp (and that’s not a good thing) Cranberries are a water-intensive crop: water is required for the harvest flood, frost protection, and summer temperature and moisture maintenance. Water use totaling 2.2 ±0.6 meters (10 feet, five inches ±2 feet) per acre per year is typical, almost twice annual precipitation. This intense water use significantly impacts local water storage and stream flows seasonally. Cessation of cranberry farming in small streams removes these large and rapid water manipulations and immediately returns stream flows to more natural conditions. Many cranberry farms across Massachusetts are created atop historic peat bogs, which have been altered and simplified from their natural peatland surface for the purpose of maintaining and harvesting a monoculture of cranberries. Hydrological modifications within cranberry farms allow farmers to very quickly flood or drain the wetland as needed, effectively disconnecting it from Foothills Preserve, 2020. Christine Hatch, working on weather station, natural flood events and tidal influence. Moreover, the with son, Jordi. Credit: LO flood manipulations impact normal downstream flows.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 26 Impacts of cranberry farming Harvest on stream hydrology 20000 600

1800 Water Releases Weweantic River Cranberry farming-related intensive water use is 500 evident in the comparison between the Weweantic 1600

River, which has the highest density of cranberry 1400 farms in Massachusetts, and the Mattapoisett 400 River, which has few. As water is routed to and from 1200 1000 bogs, the largest consequences are felt suddenly by 300 adjoining surface waters: lowering water levels in 800 streams and water ponds, and flooding streams during flood releases (on the order of minutes and hours) 600 200 compared with slower natural increases from storms 400 Weweantic River Discharge (L/s) Discharge River Weweantic or decreases with droughts (over many hours to days). (L/s) Discharge River Mattapoisett 100 200 Data from C. Kennedy Mattapoisett River 0 0 Water Withdrawals

10/7/16 10/17/16 10/27/16 11/6/16 11/16/16 11/26/16

These dramatic changes to stream flows can be Coonamessett River Discharge 2007-2018 especially significant in small streams, causing nearly dry stream channels or bank erosion during releases. 1200 Synchronous regional cranberry water management 1000 can be noted even in larger rivers of Southeastern Massachusetts, such as the Coonamessett. Patterns 800 changed abruptly from the period of cranberry growing 600 (2007 to 2012), when there were a high number of very low and very high flow events associated with floods 400 Discharge (liters/seconds) Discharge and flood releases, to after 2013, when cranberry 200 farming ceased. Data from C. Neill and L. Deegan 0 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Removal of small dams and water control structures 0.75 associated with cranberry farming near the mouths Coonamessett River Stage 2018 of rivers adjacent to estuaries can alter flow patterns 0.70 by allowing water to back up in lower river reaches during exceptionally high tides. A stage gage in the 0.65 Lower Coonamessett River began to record these surges associated with March and fall high tides and 0.60 nor’easters immediately after it was reinstalled after (m) Level the removal of the most downstream dam in January 2018. This water movement into low-lying restored 0.55 wetlands now provides a location for storm surges to move instead of backing up against the densely 0.50 populated downstream shoreline. Data from C. Neill and L. Deegan 0.45 MARCH MAY JULY SEPTEMBER NOVEMBER JANUARY

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 27 Identifying locations of groundwater discharge guides restoration: temperature and water isotopes as tools

Stable Isotopes of Water at Foothills Preserve (2017-2019)

Precipitation Global Mean Water Line Surface Water Samples Interior Seep Marginal Seep Groundwater Well Pond VSMOW oo / o

GROUND WATERS H, in water H, in water 2 d SURFACE WATERS Deuterium, Deuterium,

18 o Oxygen-18 in water, d O, in per million ( /oo) of the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW)

A Groundwater (red shaded area) and surface waters (blue shaded area) have distinct chemical signatures. Stable isotopes of water at Foothills Preserve can help identify where groundwater is already naturally reaching the surface of active cranberry farms, and can aid in restoration designs hoping to capitalize on natural water inputs.

SP22

TW-43 TW-44 TW-16 TW-17 PZ-07 TW-45

SP23 A On a cold winter day pre-restoration (February 2020), a thermal image of Foothills Preserve (UMassAir; Hatch, 2020) shows evidence of relatively warmer groundwater upwelling (bright flow white) versus cold, dark plants, as well as a potential former stream channel (blue dashed line). å During restoration (October 2020), the areas identified as groundwater (red dots) by isotopic analysis and thermal imagery, as well as areas where surface and groundwaters are connected (white dashed lines) show more abundant water pooling on the land surface, even in a drought.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 28 Restoring wetland hydrology to a cranberry farm The primary goal of the cranberry bog wetland restorations at Eel River, Tidmarsh, Foothills Preserve, and Coonamesset is to jumpstart a self-sustaining wetland. Restoration actions focus on removing the hydrologic alterations of farming practice with the goal of naturalizing the movement and storage of water and inviting the water to stay on the wetland for as long as possible. Ideally, “stream” channels within cranberry farms can be restored to their pre-farm channel position, shape and morphology, and located, if possible, where there are groundwater inputs. Adding length, sinuosity, and complexity (large woody debris, rocks, riffles) increases the overall residence time of water in the channel. These actions will also decrease the channel slope and erosion, promote sedimentation, and increase flooding and percolation of “The Frying Pan” bog at Foothills Preserve was taken out of production in 2000. water into adjacent banks. Together these modifications In the intervening 20 years prior to restoration, this bog became dominated by make the site wetter by increasing the amount of time upland species including pitch pines (Pinus rigida). Credit: C. Hatch water moves along the surface of the wetland.

Restoration actions: slow the flow of water off the site Another way to keep more water on the surface is to plug the holes which were added during the farming regime to help drain the bog. These actions include filling the ditches, breaking up the permeable sand layer, and removing irrigations systems. The peat deposits that are buried beneath the layers of cranberry farming soil at many of these sites add a critical component of hydric soil to the restoration. Peat is very resilient, able to effectively store water, modulate temperatures, and slow flow. Mixing the peat with sand and organics provides a mix of soil types (in grain size, porosity, water retention capacity, permeability, etc.), which is vital to wetland sites. Clay or peat substrate can also be used to block and fill ditches, allowing water to back up on the site Pre-restoration UMassAir UAV image from February 2020 shows that the frying pan and seep slowly into the ground, ideally raising the water vegetation closely matches adjacent upland vegetation, rather than the vegetation table to within ~25 centimeters (one foot) of the surface of more recently retired (2015) adjacent bogs. Orthomosaic: Ryan Wicks needed to support the wetland. Where material is removed, a diversity of wetland habitats is gained, including small ponds, depressions, microtopography (small-scale variation of hummocks and hollows), and diversity in soil permeability and moisture across the wetland. Different hydrologic conditions from flowing water, vernal pools of standing water, permanently inundated standing water, and variable moisture on the surface provide a variety of different habitats for different species of wetland vegetation, microbes, macroinvertebrates, insects, and wildlife. This diversity of wetland flora and fauna fed by temperature-buffering groundwater allows for a more resilient and sustainable wetland system, which can flourish in a variety of climatic conditions.

Built in 1983, a perched culvert and dam on West Beaver Dam Brook impounded water exiting from Foothills Preserve following winter and harvest floods. Situated over 9 feet above the lower stream channel, this culvert was a major barrier to fish passage. The dam and culvert were removed in the 2020 restoration of West Beaver Dam Brook, and the reconstructed channel now runs unimpeded through Foothills Preserve, under Beaver Dam Road, and through this steeper stream reach in the Tidmarsh Wildlife Sanctuary to meet up with the main stem of Beaver Dam Brook. Credit: C. Hatch

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 29 TAKE HOME MESSAGE:

Soil moisture is a critical early indicator of conditions that will support self-sustaining wetlands

Foothills Preserve microtpopgraphy, August 2020. Credit: C. Hatch

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 30 4.

Measuring Soil Moisture on Restored Wetlands and Riparian Floodplains

he goal of restoration is to create conditions for self-sustaining wetlands. Several monitoring T A primary focus of wetland restoration is to make the riparian flood plain and associated lands sufficiently wet for a long enough period of time during the year techniques —­ piezometers, to promote the development of hydric soils and the establishment of vegetation hand-held probes, and that is adapted to these saturated soil conditions. While wetland function will take years to develop, soil moisture provides an early indicator of restoration success. sensor nodes — are combined to help interpret Measuring soil moisture across a restored site the impact of restoration Soil moisture is an indicator of how much water is retained in the soil. Of on soil moisture. specific interest is the amount of water in the upper levels of a growing surface, or the root zone. While wetland restoration seeks to make this riparian floodplain much wetter than it was during farming, soil moisture is likely to be uneven across a site due to variations in elevation, distance from groundwater upwelling locations, distance from the stream channel or other surface water features as well as seasonal and yearly variations in precipitation and soil type. During farming, the goal is a uniformly medium-moisture soil that favors the monoculture cranberry crop’s water needs. In contrast, variable soil moisture across a restored site provides micro-habitat conditions for a much broader range of plants and animal species and promotes biodiversity. Water content in the soil can be assessed in a variety of ways. Generally, the standard against which all soil moisture values are compared is gravimetric percent water content, requiring extraction and analysis (weighing the wet sample, drying it, and weighing it again) of a known volume of soil. Other techniques can be calibrated to this standard, including: individual point measurements with probes or long-term sensors, large-scale remotely-sensing techniques, and geophysical techniques inferred from distributed temperature sensing, GPS, and cosmic ray measurements. Several monitoring techniques can be combined to help interpret the impact of restoration on soil moisture: • Piezometers containing water level loggers across the site provide a record of variations in groundwater levels over time. The depth to groundwater has a direct impact on surface soil moisture and plant communities that will thrive in a particular landscape. • Hand-held soil moisture readings can provide a broad assessment of surface soil moisture across the site. Probes generally reach 10-15 cm (four to six inches) into the ground, and can be efficiently collected once or twice a year. Baseline monitoring of groundwater levels and soil moisture variations pre- and post-restoration can indicate how these conditions change after the restoration. • Sensor nodes outfitted with soil moisture probes provide continuous measurements of soil moisture variation that, when paired with water level and weather data, give insight into soil moisture evolution through time. Because they are mobile and self-networking, sensor nodes can be installed as site-wide observation networks or can be tightly clustered to evaluate specific areas or surface treatments, such as pit and mound microtopography.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 31 While data are currently limited to a few years post restoration, some preliminary findings regarding the range of soil moisture variation across Tidmarsh and traversing a small sample of the pit and mound microtopography confirm that on average this site is wetter than it was prior to restoration and that breaking up the cranberry mat and mixing sand with peat effectively captures and stores more water on the wetland surface during intense precipitation events. These early findings can help restoration practitioners evaluate and improve restoration actions especially in terms of stream design, reconnecting the floodplain, plugging ditches and microtopography.

Making the site wetter: predicting and quantifying change in water depth and soil moisture Significant effort and cost are expended during the Microtopography at Foothills Preserve, 2020. Peat (black) is brought to the surface design and restoration process turning cranberry farms and mixed with sand (white) through this restoration action. Horizontal flowpaths into wetlands. Computer simulations of groundwater flow of water are blocked by the low permeability of peat allowing this surface provide methods that can be used to attempt to predict treatment to retain more moisture for longer. In this way, microtopography results some of the outcomes in soil moisture across small in wetter conditions on and near the surface over time to support the wetland (individual features such as constructed mounds) or large development. Credit: C. Hatch (an entire site) scales relatively inexpensively. Generally, these studies show that any mixing of fine-grained material,

Modeling changes in soil moisture in the root zone as groundwater rises post-restoration

å Groundwater models can be used to predict and optimize how the hydrologic system will respond to manipulations of the surface. Multiple surface geometries are modeled. Peat (shown in brown) is mixed randomly with sand (tan) and microtopography (sinusoidal surface) to explore how groundwater entering the system from below and precipitation minus evaporation and transpiration from above (squiggly arrows) move through the subsurface (turquoise lines) and drain out of a channel or ditch (dark blue square). Source: E. Ito

å A groundwater model geometry using peat (shown in black) mixed randomly with sand (white) and microtopography (sinusoidal surface) is explored in this scenario. Red arrows show the relative magnitude of groundwater flows, which are concentrated in the well- drained sand where they move horizontally until they are disrupted by less permeable peat. When horizontal flow is disrupted, water builds up in the soil and increases the soil moisture, sometimes creating standing water on the surface. Source: E. Ito

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 32 such as organic peat or remnant agricultural soils, and content, the higher the water table will rise. This difference or clays, with the thick, permeable sands on the tops of can be observed before restoration at Foothills Preserve in a cranberry farms, results in improved water retention on sand piezometer versus a peat piezometer. After restoration the site. at Tidmarsh, water levels stay within inches of the ground Organic material, such as peat, retains moisture much surface throughout the entire year. longer than pure mineral sand. Larger sand particles allow The top 15 cm of the growing surface represents the water to both drain and evaporate out from between the primary rooting depth of many plants: soil moisture in this grains more quickly than very small or tightly packed zone is especially critical for wetland plants and therefore organic or clay particles. The smaller the grainsize and the to wetland success. Research shows that for similar climate higher its organic content, the longer a material will retain conditions at the same time of year, repeat samples at moisture. In addition, groundwater can wick upwards observation locations across Tidmarsh show the entire site toward the ground surface and moisten the ground: in this became wetter after the restoration and soil moisture has case, the smaller the grainsize and the higher its organic increased over time.

Monitoring changes in groundwater level from pre- to post-restoration

0

-0.2

is above GS) is above -0.4 +

-0.6 (meters; (meters;

-0.8 depth to water depth below ground surface surface ground depth below depth to water

2018/June 2018/August 2018/October 2018/December 2019/February 2019/April 2018/2019/June Year/Month

A Groundwater levels in piezometers over time at Foothills Preserve, Plymouth, MA monitored after retirement and before restoration (2018-2019) show that the water pressure is higher in the peat (brown) than in the farm-surface sand (green). Groundwater levels at this location range between 10 cm (4 inches) and 45 cm (18 inches) below the ground surface, too deep to sustain wetland plants. Peat and other organic-rich soils hold more water for longer, and they also take longer to replenish. After a water sample was removed from a piezometer on April 1, it took the peat-aquifer piezometer over a month to return to the former water levels. Data from C. Hatch

0.12

20 0.1 Tidmarsh: water level

0.08 Post-Restoration Water Levels

temperature 0.06 15

0.04

0.02 10

0

-0.02 5

-0.04 water temperature (degrees C) (degrees temperature water -0.06 0 depth to water below ground surface (m) (m) surface ground below depth to water -0.08

-0.1 -5 A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J J M A M M J J A S O N D J F M Month (2017-2019)

A Groundwater levels and temperature in one piezometer over time at Tidmarsh monitored after restoration was completed in 2016-2017. Three years of data show that post-restoration water levels remain within 4-8 cm (1.5 - 3 inches) below the ground surface throughout the entire year. There is essentially no response to storm events and temperatures remain thermally buffered: both of which indicate the consistent influence of groundwater. Data from C. Hatch

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 33 Change in soil moisture at Tidmarsh, 2014 (pre-restoration) to 2018

-100% -60% -20% +20% +60% +100%

1000 feet

N

Root zone (top 10 cm) soil moisture was measured at thirty soil moisture monitoring locations at Tidmarsh before active restoration in 2014 and after restoration was completed in 2016-2017. Dots at each location are colored to show increases (blue), no change (white), or decreases (red) in moisture between the 2014 and 2018 measurements. From 2014 to 2018, 22 sites got wetter, while 7 became drier, with an average moisture increase of 18% across the site. Probe and gravimetric samples show consistent agreement. Google Earth basemap. Data from C. Hatch

Microtopography increases moisture diversity habitat diversity for a range of organisms. Although treeless immediately following restoration, the varied surface is and soil moisture at Tidmarsh reminiscent of hollows and hummocks found in natural First introduced at Tidmarsh and used extensively at Atlantic white cedar swamps, and as such provides nursery Coonamessett and Foothills Preserve, microtopography, habitat for seedling plantings. also called pit-and-mound or hummock-and-hollow Researchers measured soil moisture in the root zone topography, is a restoration technique used to remove the along several transects at Tidmarsh and Foothills at the relics of farming past. Microtopography serves to break up same time (and/or conditions) and in nearly the same the cranberry mat, bring the wetland seedbank along with location to document moisture variability. From average peat and other organic matter to the surface, and spread pre-restoration conditions in 2014 (average moisture, peat on top of sand. The technique generates a range of θ = 32%), Tidmarsh is significantly wetter everywhere as micro-environments that allow a diversity of plant species a result of the restoration (2017, θ = 54%; 2018, θ = 57%). to become established as well as wetland pools in which A comparison between land where the cranberry mat has amphibians reproduce. Microtopography is not intended been broken up and underlying sand has been mixed with to be regular and uniform, but instead provides various the organic materials in pits and mounds and adjacent depths and styles of the pit and mound. When Luciano’s land that has remained relatively undisturbed reveals Excavation, Inc. was first creating microtopography at a strong increase in moisture diversity. Over time, we Foothills Preserve, the excavators established a fairly expect this moisture diversity to produce plant community uniform checkerboard pattern. As the operators became diversity along these transects as well. It is worth noting familiar with the technique, they were able to realize that this trend has been particularly pronounced in 2020 pits and mounds that varied considerably in pool depth (undisturbed, θ = 56%, and microtopography (hummocks) and breadth, as well as mound height and girth. The end θ = 63%), even though Massachusetts has been under a result is an increase in surface complexity across what Stage 2 Drought declaration. By contrast, the unrestored, was a very flat growing surface. A range of pool depths abandoned cranberry surface at Foothills Preserve averages and mound heights will intersect with the water table at a mere 11% average moisture. different heights at different times of year and generate

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 34 Foothills Preserve and Tidmarsh soil moisture

2017 Foothills: 2020 Foothills: E BOG, E BOG, 2017, 2019, 2020, 2017, 2019, 2020, Cable path c, d Cable path c, d Hummocks e, f Hummocks e, f Hummocks e, f Undisturbed g Undisturbed g Undisturbed g (10 cm scale) (20 cm scale) (20 cm scale) (20 cm scale) (20 cm scale) (20 cm scale) (20 cm scale) (20 cm scale)

Mean Soil Moisture a, b 19% 11% 60% 59% 63% 59% 58% 56% Standard Deviation 9% 9% 32% 18% 17% 16% 11.8% 13% Variance 0.9% 0.9% 10.0% 3.1% 2.8% 2.5% 1% 2% Minimum 4% 0% 3% 20% 16% 37% 31% 12% Maximum 100% 85% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% No. Measurements 504 671 161 100 110 184 170 180 Total Length (cm) 50,400 13,400 3,200 2,000 2,200 3,660 3,400 3,600 Notes: a - Surveys conducted with a Dynamax TH2O electrical permittivity moisture probe. Values were converted from millivolt data to percent saturation by volume. b - Survey dates covered similar moisture conditions throughout, July-Aug, 2017, 2019 and 2020; and Mar 2019 c - Foothills Preserve is a fallow cranberry bog, last harvest 2015; restoration in 2019-2020. d - Three fiber optic cables were installed at Foothills Preserve to monitor soil moisture. Data were collected on 7/26, 7/31, 8/1 (2017) and 7/28 (2020) e - Tidmarsh Nature Sanctuary underwent restoration in 2016-2017. Data were collected on 8/2, 8/3 (2017), 3/31 (2019) and 8/2, 8/3 (2020). f - An experimental restoration technique at Tidmarsh involved creation of hummock and hollow topography by bringing large scoops of peat to the surface. g -Parts of Tidmarsh were left essentially undisturbed from their farmed state.

Monitoring changes in soil moisture across distance along microtopography

å Root zone (top 10 cm) soil moisture was Undisturbed cranberry Microtopography pit and mound measured every 20cm along two transects 100 to 180-meters long crossing an area where the cranberry mat was left intact during 0% restoration (left) at Tidmarsh (2016-2017), and 20% where microtopography, or pits and mounds 40% were built as part of the restoration process 60% (right). Dots along each transect are colored 80% to show volumetric soil moisture from wet 100% (blue = 100%) through dry (red = 0%) in moisture in 2017 and 2019. Google Earth basemap Data from C. Hatch

Increasing soil moisture retention; differences in moisture regime between three test locations: in a low spot in peat-rich organic soil (blue, 0x82ED), a observations from remote nodes over time 3x3-meter area where the cranberry mat was left intact A continuous record of change in soil moisture as a (burgundy, 0x8277), and at the top of a mound in sandy result of restoration practices provides insight into how soil. As expected, the soil is wetter deeper, the cranberry the soil moisture and microtopography respond to climatic mat substrate (θ5 = 26%, θ15 = 29%) is wetter than pure sand conditions throughout the season. Three representative (θ5 = 10%, θ15 = 19%), and peat (θ5 = 38%, θ15 = 53%) is sensor nodes, out of nearly 100, equipped with two soil wetter than cranberry, throughout the entire year. moisture probes, at 5-cm and 15-cm depths, each were The sand moisture record is very dry at the beginning deployed at Tidmarsh after the restoration (2019) to of the year and generally remains one of the driest locations assess moisture variability over time in different micro- measured. It shows a significant but short-lived response environments. These targeted observations reveal dramatic to precipitation events and dries out again quickly after a

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 35 mid-July storm event that brought approximately 11 cm (4.3 inches) of rainfall within a 24-hour period as measured by the weather station at Foothills Preserve, about 1 km (0.6 miles) away. The 5 and 15 cm probes track each other closely, showing the same response to precipitation and overall wetness, which is indicative of vertical flow within the mound. Moisture from the cranberry bog surface as it was left after farming, by design and management, remains relatively unchanged around 30% moisture throughout the year. There is some variability during the winter months, followed by periods of drying in the late spring/early summer. It is re-wet by precipitation in early June, then dries again. There is a sharp increase in wetness associated with the July storm. Other than the response to this large storm, which brings lasting wetness for the remainder of the year, the soil in the cranberry patch shows little response to individual smaller precipitation events and little evidence of vertical flow (a consequence of the layered sand and agricultural soils remaining intact under the surface). Peat is very wet. Peaks from precipitation events are clearly shown, likely due to liquid water reaching the probes, but the level quickly returns to its value prior to the event as the water drains away. The peat is slow to absorb moisture, instead showing a gradual wetting trend for the half of the year it was installed. This behavior is consistent with the water level in the Foothills peat piezometer, which took over a month to recover after a water sample was This map shows a portion of the sensor network at Tidmarsh. The central cluster removed. Peat is also slow to lose moisture; holding water represents the dense instrumentation of the microtopography with soil moisture through dry periods and dry months into wetter times. probes, including the three nodes represented in the data described here. Source: B. Mayton. Map: USDA NAIP with UAV layer from Inter-Fluve

6060 Preliminary soil moisture data 0x82ED (peat) from 2019. The probes selected 0x8277 (cranberry) for this chart are installed 5050 0x82BF (mound, sand) to measure variability of soil moisture in microtopography. Precipitation events highlight 4040 differences in how moisture ice travels depending on the position of the probes relative to the pit and mound of 3030 microtopography. Source: B. Mayton. Live data can ice ice be viewed at 2020 ice volumetric water content (%) water volumetric ice https://tidmarsh.media.mit.edu. volumetric water content (%) ice

ice 1010 ice ice ice

00 2019-JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 2019 / JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 36 PEAT CRANBERRY MOUND, SAND 0x82ED 0x8277 0x82BF

Images of sensor nodes installed at Tidmarsh to capture soil moisture variations of the pit-and-mound topography. Images of the vegetation context are paired with the corresponding image of soil moisture probes (bottom) at 5 cm and 15 cm depths. Source: B. Mayton

Time series of Tidmarsh soil moisture

Mound (sand)d Mound (sand) Cranberrye Cranberry Peat Peat 5cm depth 15cm depth 5cm depth 15cm depth 5cm depth 15cm depth

Mean Soil Moisture a, b, c 10% 19% 26% 29% 38% 53% Standard Deviation 4% 4% 4% 2% 2.4% 2% Variance 14.7% 14.1% 16.5% 2.5% 6% 4% Minimum 2% 12% 17% 24% 34% 50% Maximum 17% 29% 37% 38% 56% 66% No. Measurements 6,317 6,460 8,027 8,256 4,621 4,621 Total Length (time) Year Year Year Year 7 months 7 months

Notes: a - Data collected with METER EC5 probes (electrical permittivity) powered by MIT Media Lab Nodes designed by Brian Mayton. Values were converted from millivolt data to percent saturation by volume. b - Tidmarsh underwent restoration in 2016-2017. Data were collected throughout the entire calendar year of 2019. c - Periods where liquid water froze register as zero moisture and were removed from the record but are shown in the chart on Page 36. d - With an experimental restoration technique at Tidmarsh created pit and mound topography by bringing large scoops of peat to the surface. e - Parts of Tidmarsh were left essentially undisturbed from their farmed state.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 37 TAKE HOME MESSAGE:

Restoration of cranberry farms to wetland has an overall desirable long-term impact on soil-based ecosystem functions.

Tidmarsh, July 2018. Credit: C. Jackson

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 38 5.

Wetland Soil is a Primary Driver of Ecosystem Function

oils are fundamental to ecosystem structure and function, and therefore S are recognized as one of the key factors, which along with climate, organisms, Key desirable variables topography, time, and humans, determine the state of an ecosystem. Because soils will develop at are important drivers of ecosystem function, soil properties are often considered significantly different indicative of functional development. Wetland functions in particular are predominantly dependent on extensive interactions between water and wetland rates in farms that are soils. Therefore, the soil may be one of the most critical components in restoration retired versus those that of wetlands. This is because soils provide the foundation for surface water and groundwater filtration, which in turn are essential for water quality ecosystem are restored. Restored services. Likewise, wetland soils are habitat for the microbial populations that sites showed significant contribute to water quality by recycling significant nutrients and degrading increases toward natural organic pollutants. Wetland soils also improve water quality through their unique physical and chemical properties, such as negatively charged surface areas that wetland reference bind positively charged pollutants, including certain pesticides and metals, thereby conditions just three reducing the quantities being transferred into adjacent surface and groundwater. In addition to water quality improvement, wetland soils are responsible for years after restoration. removing carbon from the atmosphere and transferring it into long-term storage. Wetland soils contain 20-30% of global soil carbon despite occupying only 5-8% of its land surface. This is because oxygen diffuses through waterlogged soils at a much lower rate compared to dry soils, creating low oxygen conditions that in turn slow decomposition of organic matter and decrease the rate at which carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. As a result, wetlands accumulate large stores of carbon and can contain more than 40% soil carbon—far more than the 0.5-2% carbon commonly found in agricultural soils. For this reason, wetlands are highly valued for their role in global carbon storage and sequestration. Water quality improvement and long-term carbon storage are just two examples of soil-based wetland functions that are driven by the underlying physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the soil, such as water content, pH, density, carbon quality, nutrient content, and the community of microbes. The nature of these variables and how well they support wetland functions are all affected by how wet the soil is. This is why a fundamental wetland restoration strategy is to raise the water table and make the soil wet. Long-term monitoring of soils will be critical to understanding if this method is successful and how these systems develop and function over time, with particularly valuable insight possible from sites that have been studied before, during, and post-restoration.

Eel River, 2015, five years after active restoration. Credit: A. Hackman

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 39 What we’ve learned from soil research — influencing ecosystem functions are significantly affected by the development trajectory of cranberry bogs after they are and what we still want to know taken out of production. Key variables such as soil moisture Researchers have investigated the key physical, and organic matter reach higher levels at faster rates in chemical, and biological aspects of wetland soils that were restored bogs compared to those that are retired with no restored on former cranberry farms with a history of >100 restoration, and these soil properties influence key wetland years of intensive agriculture (Tidmarsh and Eel River). functions such as the improvement of water quality via Retired but unrestored cranberry farms of similar ages, removal of nitrate. active cranberry farms, and natural, undisturbed reference These findings suggest that eyk desirable variables wetlands that have not had direct human intervention will develop at significantly different rates in farms that were compared. This helped determine whether wetland are retired versus those that are restored. For example, restoration of retired cranberry farms influences soil-based extrapolation of the data suggests that the removal of wetland functions, and if these functions develop differently excess nitrogen via the process of denitrification in the over time in retired versus restored sites. Where possible, restored bog will reach natural levels in 54 years (2014- soil development and function of pre-, during, and post- 2068), but the retired bog will have attained only 7% of restoration sites were measured over time. natural levels at that point in time. Similarly, soil organic Results revealed that while retired and restored matter in the restored bog is predicted to accumulate to cranberry bogs show marked improvement in function over natural levels after 32 years (2014-2046), at which time the the active farms, restored sites showed more significant retired bog is predicted to have increased to just 18% of increases towards natural reference conditions just three natural levels. While further monitoring over the next 20+ years after restoration. Results also indicated that factors years and beyond is necessary to determine the actual

Natural Reference Wetlands Active Cranberry Farms

Soil-based functions among different site types Study design enables comparison of soil-based functions among different site types, including actively farmed cranberry bogs, young and old retired cranberry farms, young and old managed bogs, young and older Older & Younger Retired Farms Older & Younger Restored Farms restored bogs, and reference bogs.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 40 effectiveness of restoration on ecosystem functioning, these estimates suggest that retirement and restoration offer two distinct trajectories for ecosystem development in former cranberry bogs. Conceptually, the two trajectories can be summarized as follows. In restored bogs, hydrology has been reestablished to promote rewetting of the landscape, and, with that, these ecosystems are put on a course toward wetland development and improvement in function through the accumulation of soil organic matter and microbial biomass. Retired bogs have improved function over active cranberry bogs (attributed to succession), but retired bogs still retain their historic water control structures, ditches and intact fill and mat layers, all of which alter wetland hydrology. In this way, we may consider retirement without restoration to result in an upland ecosystem development trajectory rather than a wetland development trajectory. If the goal is to improve wetland ecosystem functions and to allow former cranberry farms to resemble their native pre-farmed characteristics, retirement will be insufficient to meet restoration goals.

Restoration increases soil organic matter Organic matter is a vital element of healthy soil. It 2017, Kate Ballantine extracts a soil sample from a reference wetland. directly influences ecosystem functions, contributing to Credit: J. Andras soil structure and promoting aeration, microbial habitat, root penetration, and water-holding capacity. Soil organic Researchers found that soil organic matter began matter controls hydrologic properties, such as bulk density accumulating in wetlands soils within a few years of and porosity, both of which influence water infiltration and cessation of farming and after restoration actions were flow rates. Soil organic matter is also important to plants, completed. While soil organic matter was significantly holding a large proportion of nutrients, cations, and trace lower in the retired and restored bogs compared to natural elements critical for their growth. Finally, soil organic matter undisturbed wetlands, retired sites tend to lose organic buffers soil from strong changes in pH and has also been matter over time, whereas restored sites tend to gain organic shown to control properties that remove contaminants from matter after only three years. Although soil development water, such as trace metal adsorption, nutrient sequestration, appears to be slow in restored sites, trajectories based on and denitrification, an important biogeochemical process short-term trends suggests that restoration is more likely to responsible for nitrate reduction in groundwater. For all of promote wetland development and functional equivalence these reasons, soil organic matter is widely acknowledged than retirement without restoration. as an indicator of wetland health. Wetlands are also highly valued for their role in global 80 carbon storage and sequestration. In the United States, more than half of the historical wetland area has been lost due to anthropogenic activities, which has resulted in a net transfer 70 of carbon from the soil to the atmosphere. This is because oxygen diffuses through waterlogged soils at a much slower 60 12 rate compared to dry soils. This creates anaerobic conditions 10

that in turn slow decomposition thereby increasing (%) Matter Soil Organic 8 accumulation of organic matter in the soil. Associated with 6 4 this is a decrease in the rate at which carbon dioxide is 2 released into the atmosphere. The role wetlands potentially 0 play in carbon sequestration is particularly valued for Active farm Younger Older Younger Older Natural freshwater inland wetlands that make up most wetland area, Retired Retired Restored Restored including 95% of all wetlands in the conterminous United The increase in soil organic matter from retired to restored bogs is due, in part, States. Many studies have focused on quantifying the carbon to the increase in water table. Rates of decomposition are much slower in wet soils held in terrestrial ecosystems (so-called green carbon) and, due to low oxygen levels, and as such, soil organic matter accumulates at a faster more recently, on the carbon held in tidal saline ecosystems, rate. Data from N. Bartolucci, T. Anderson, and K. Ballantine. often referred to as blue carbon.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 41 Ecological restoration “rewilds” soil microbial communities

å Ecological restoration “rewilds” soil microbial communities making them more similar to undisturbed natural bogs. This principle coordinates plot depicts the overall similarity of microbial communities living in 0.2 the soil. Each point represents a community of tens of thousands of microbial species from a single soil sample, and the proximity of the points on the plot indicates how similar they are. The communities of active cranberry farms (red) are very different from 0.0 those residing in natural bog soils (green). Axis 2 (14.3%) Axis Treatment Importantly, the communities of restored soils (blue) have shifted to become more similar to natural soils (green), while soils from retired cranberry farms (yellow) remain similar to active farms (red). -0.2 The soil microbial community is responsible for performing many of the desirable functions of natural wetlands, like removal of pollutants and storage of carbon. Data from J. Andras and K. Ballantine -0.25 0.00 0.25 Axis 1 (27.9%)

Ecological restoration alters the soil microbial been referred to as “microbiome rewilding.” These shifts happened quickly and were evident just five years after community and improves the function of wetland soils restoration. The changes in community structure were Soils are teeming with microbial life, home to billions of distributed across a wide range of microbial types, but individuals and tens of thousands of species per gram. This included significant differences in the microbes that vast community of microbes, known as the soil microbiome, contribute to both desirable functions like denitrification mediates numerous ecosystem functions that are essential (transformation of excess nitrate to nitrogen gas) and for healthy ecosystems and human welfare. Advances in methanotrophy (consumption of methane) as well as technology have opened the door to the vast complexity the undesirable function of methanogenesis (methane of the soil microbiome, and the evidence indicates that the production). Whether these restored soils will continue diversity and structure of the microbial community play an to shift toward the natural reference community, and the important role in governing soil function. Pioneering studies rate at which they may do so, are open questions for highlight the importance of considering the soil microbial continuing inquiry. community as a central part of ecological restoration efforts In short, ecological restoration of wetlands of former and suggest that ecological restoration has the potential cranberry farms resulted in desirable outcomes at the to favorably alter the soil microbiome, and that deliberate soil level, suggesting that the cost and effort of restoration manipulation of the soil microbiome may improve produces better ecosystem function outcomes than simple restoration outcomes. retirement. Soil samples from a wetland that had been restored after more than a century of cranberry farming revealed that restoration fostered a soil microbial community that is distinct from actively farmed and recently retired soils and similar to natural reference soils, an effect that has

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 42 Estimated functional profiles of key soil biogeochemical functions

0.0008 å Estimated functional profiles a a of key soil biogeochemical 0.0007 functions based on metagenomes inferred from 16S rDNA taxonomic 0.0006 composition. Y-axes depict fraction of inferred metagenome b 0.0005 composed of genes involved in the Denitrification b

Denitrification specified function. Letters indicate 0.0004 significant differences among site categories. Categories not sharing 0.0003 a letter in common are significantly 0.0060 different. Data from J. Andras and

K. Ballantine a 0.0055 a

0.0050 Methanotrophy

Methanotrophy b 0.0045 b

0.0040

a 0.006

a 0.005

0.004 Methanogenesis Methanogenesis b b 0.003

Farmed Retired Restored Natural

Conclusions Research findings indicate that cranberry farms that are retired and not restored develop as upland systems. In contrast, farms in which ecological restoration actions are completed develop as wetland ecosystems. Restoration has significant implications for water quality, carbon storage, greenhouse gas exchange, habitat continuity, and storm water management. For example, denitrification is driven primarily by site hydrology, and approaches natural wetland levels more quickly in restored sites than in retired sites. It is critical that scientists, restoration practitioners, landowners, and land managers work together to understand how these unique systems develop in the decades following retirement versus restoration. This knowledge will not only inform land management decisions following farm retirement, but also improve our understanding of the long-term development and function of restored agricultural wetlands. Tidmarsh, 2020. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 43 TAKE HOME MESSAGE: Cranberry farms in Massachusetts are particularly promising for long-term carbon storage because they were often developed on historic peat bogs.

Tidmarsh, 2020. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 44 6.

Greenhouse Gases: Are Restored Cranberry Bogs Contributors or Ameliorators of Climate Change?

n October 2018, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released a new Living Observatory I statement reporting that the planet could reach 1.5oC above pre-industrial times by 2030—just 10 years from now. Reaching or surpassing this temperature threshold is likely research indicates that to severely impact our planet through increased frequency and severity of droughts and restoration of wetlands extreme storm events, food shortages, and loss of biodiversity. The IPCC reports with 95% certainty that climate change is driven by anthropogenic activities that release greenhouse may play a role in gases through the burning of fossil fuels, land use change, and development. Greenhouse climate change gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) are considered long-lived and mitigation through persist in the atmosphere for tens to hundreds of years, greatly affecting the climate. Carbon dioxide comprises 76% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, followed their ability to store by methane at 16%. Concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane have carbon. increased by 40% and 150% respectively since 1750. Out of all greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide is considered the biggest driver of climate change due to its abundance and persistence in the environment. To remain below the 1.5oC threshold there will not only need to be a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, but also removal of atmospheric carbon. One method of sequestering carbon from the atmosphere is to utilize natural ecosystems such as wetlands to remove and store this carbon.

Wetlands store carbon Natural wetlands are typically net carbon sinks, as wetland vegetation actively removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. The carbon removed via photosynthesis is then stored in the soil as a large component of soil organic matter. Decomposition in wetlands occurs at far lower rates than decomposition in aerobic ecosystems because oxygen diffuses 10,000 times slower through water than air. As a result, carbon is stored in the waterlogged anaerobic soils of wetlands. Cranberry farms in Massachusetts are particularly promising for long-term carbon storage because they were often developed on historic peat bogs. Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed

Sphagnum moss at Eel River Signs that long-term carbon storage via the development of peat may be underway is already observable across the Eel River Restoration Site with the accumulation of sphagnum moss. Sphagnum moss, also known as peat moss, is one of the most common components of peat along with other types of mosses, sedges, and shrubs. Sphagnum moss actively promotes bog formation through secretion of tannins that preserve organic material as well as special water retaining cells that can release water, facilitating a consistently wet environment that promotes further peat production. Therefore, as peat accumulates it holds water, gradually facilitating the conditions that allow further peat accumulation and the associated large store of carbon. While most modern peat bogs formed in high latitudes 12,000 years ago after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age, we are encouraged to see signs of the slow but important process of peat accumulation beginning in restored cranberry bogs.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 45 vegetation or organic matter, and peat-rich bogs can be and in some cases may even reduce emission of some of the most efficient carbon sinks on the planet greenhouse gases. This depends on numerous factors, because the rate of biomass production is higher than including hydrology, where consistently flooded sites emit the rate of decomposition, which is relatively slow in the less methane than intermittently flooded sites. low oxygen conditions under water. We don’t know how greenhouse gas emissions of restored wetlands compare to historic wetlands that Wetlands emit carbon existed before the land was converted to cranberry farms. However, we do know from comparable systems, as well While the importance of wetland functions such as as from mesocosm studies, that draining and rewetting long-term carbon storage and water quality improvement leads to greater methane and carbon dioxide emissions is widely recognized, concerns have also been raised than continuously flooded soils. Cranberry farming regarding greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands. In involves periodic inundation and drying to support the particular, wetlands may simultaneously remove carbon cranberry crop, whereas restored wetlands experience more dioxide, while emitting significant sources of methane. consistent waterlogging, which should support carbon Specifically, wetlands are estimated to store 20-30% of sequestration over the long run. These studies also suggest the world’s carbon but currently emit between 15% and that restoration efforts to promote water retention (such as 40% of the world’s methane, a greenhouse gas twenty-five creation of pools or ponds) will likely produce co-benefits times more potent than carbon dioxide. This is because of enhanced carbon storage. in low-oxygen wetland systems, organic carbon is utilized by methanogens through the process of methanogenesis, So what’s the balance? and methane is released into the atmosphere. Wetlands also emit carbon dioxide. During drying periods, oxygen Studies investigating the potential tradeoffs between becomes readily available, aerobic decomposition can occur greenhouse gas emissions and desirable functions of and carbon dioxide is be released. wetlands suggest that over time, carbon sequestration and Predicting greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands is the other benefits of wetland restoration will outweigh complicated. For example, rice paddies and many types the risks from increased methane emissions. Only time of natural wetlands are known to emit high amounts and further study will illuminate the carbon balance over of methane, but converting aerobic agricultural soil to the long-term in restored cranberry bogs, but studies of wetlands does not always increase methane emissions. other sites are encouraging. For example, 36 years of A number of studies have shown that restored wetlands data from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta in California do not significantly increase greenhouse gas emissions, show that restoring subsided peat soils to wetlands effectively sequestered carbon and halted soil carbon loss

Rose Martin and Cathleen Wigand (EPA) and Rob Vincent (MIT Sea Grant) measure greenhouse gas emissions across Foothills Preserve prior to restoration using a Picarro-CRDS (cavity ring-down spectroscopy) gas analyzer. A wagon is used to hold the computer set-up. Inset: The cavity device that captures the gas from the growing surface. May 2016. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 46 7 ecological benefits, the restoration of wetlands may also 5 CO2 play a role in climate change mitigation through their ability ) -1 3 to store carbon over the long-term. s -2 1 Critical for interpreting the effect of wetland restoration

-1 on greenhouse gas emissions is understanding how a

-3 given site changes over time before, throughout, and flux (µmol m (µmol flux 2 2000 CH4 after restoration, and comparing this to nearby natural ) C0 ) -1 1500 h reference wetlands. Carbon dioxide and methane emissions -2

1000 were sampled in a retired cranberry farm scheduled for restoration in zones of increasing soil moisture and these 500 emissions were compared to a reference wetland. Results flux (µmol m (µmol flux 4 0

CH Transect A Transect B Transect C Reference showed that in the cranberry bog, carbon dioxide uptake Soil Moisture and methane emission increased with increasing soil moisture. Regardless of soil moisture, the natural reference Comparison of greenhouse gas transects in retired cranberry bog (Foothills Preserve) wetland had greater methane emissions than the retired versus a nearby natural reference wetland. As soil moisture increased, carbon dioxide cranberry bog sites. Determining how these trends will emissions decreased and methane emissions increased. Regardless of soil moisture, change over time will be critical for understanding long- the natural reference wetland had greater methane emissions than the retired term development and the balance of ecosystem functions cranberry bog sites. Data from Vincent et al. in restored wetlands.

Conclusions associated with former agricultural practices, including Restoring the hydrology of historically drained drainage. Many of these conversions from agriculture to agricultural fields, cranberry or otherwise, typically restored wetland resulted in emission reductions over a has the goal of restoring the functions of wetlands that 100-year timescale, with these wetlands becoming net were historically lost to agriculture and development, as sinks from the atmosphere after a century. Furthermore, mandated under the Clean Water Act. In addition to the studies from the Timberlake Restoration Project in coastal undesirable potential emission of methane, many of these plain North Carolina found that restoration of wetland functions are desirable, among them habitat provision, hydrology led to significant nitrate reduction, but did not flood abatement, water quality functions, and long-term increase greenhouse gas emissions. In comparing carbon carbon sequestration. Ongoing study will help determine sequestration and methane emissions from natural wetlands, whether restored cranberry bogs are net sources or sinks researchers concluded that, integrated over a 500-year time for carbon, how they compare to the periodically flooded horizon, natural wetlands will be sinks for greenhouse active cranberry farms, and what this means for the overall gas warming potential and therefore will attenuate the functioning of these ecosystems. greenhouse warming of the atmosphere. Furthermore, several studies have found that methane emissions can remain transient or low in periodically inundated restored wetlands. Other studies reveal that constructed wetlands receiving high, but naturally occurring nitrate inputs, such as those built to provide water quality functions, constrain the production of methane. Living Observatory research indicates that restoration of wetlands may play a role in climate change mitigation through their ability to store carbon. Specifically, greenhouse gas flux differed significantly by site type, with the studied restored systems functioning similarly to a natural reference wetland while studied retired sites had fluxes similar to an actively farmed site. The research suggested that emissions were driven by primarily soil moisture, with methane increasing and carbon dioxide decreasing with water content of the soil. The older restored site had significantly lower emissions of both methane and carbon dioxide than the newly restored site, indicating that over a larger time scale, restored systems may transition from net carbon dioxide sources to sinks while retired sites remain net sources. Overall, the results August 2017, Foothills Preserve. Credit: LO of this study suggest that in addition to the many other

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 47 TAKE HOME MESSAGE: Restored wetlands on former cranberry farmland can remove nitrogen and potentially help solve regional water quality problems. More research is required to determine removal rates and inform local and regional decision-making.

Tidmarsh, Beaver Dam Brook enters red maple swamp, November 2016. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 48 7.

How Does Restoration of Cranberry Farms Improve Water Quality?

ranberry farming and the restoration of cranberry bogs influence two key C aspects of water quality: water temperature, and nutrient runoff to Expanded retirement and watersheds. Water temperature is important because the predominance of wetland restoration of cranberry groundwater inputs to streams and rivers naturally results in cool water bogs has potential to reduce streams and cold water habitat. Many places in the Massachusetts cranberry growing region would maintain these cool water temperatures and cold water watershed nitrogen loading by habitats if streams did not heat up as they traverse open, relatively treeless both removing nitrogen- and bogs or pass through impoundments associated with cranberry farming. Today, stretches of cold water stream habitat are relatively uncommon in phosphorus-fertilized bogs as the region and are increasingly threatened by climate change. watershed nutrient sources and Nutrient runoff is important because it degrades habitat in streams, by creating natural wetlands rivers, downstream ponds, lakes and estuaries. Runoff of both nitrogen and phosphorus cause a cascading series of changes to downstream waters that act as locations of nutrient including excessive growth of algae that leads to lower water clarity, low removal in watersheds. levels of dissolved oxygen, unsightly conditions and odors, occasional toxic algae blooms, impoverishment of aquatic habitat for fish and other aquatic animals, and periodic fish kills. Because nitrogen typically strongly limits algae growth in saline waters, controlling nitrogen runoff is the primary concern for preserving water quality in coastal and estuarine waters. Because phosphorus typically most strongly limits algae growth in fresh waters, controlling phosphorus runoff is most important for preserving water quality in freshwater lakes and ponds. Recent studies indicate that the greatest declines in the quality of fresh waters occur when both nitrogen and phosphorus runoff increase. Fertilizers used in cranberry farming contain both nitrogen and phosphorus. Some portion of this fertilizer, typically applied in the late spring, washes into the water circulating through the farm and into the watershed. Because cranberry bogs in Massachusetts occur primarily in small coastal watersheds with high densities of ponds and freshwater impoundments, and because the distances that water travels to the coast are short, both nitrogen and phosphorus runoff are concerns for water quality.

Restoration contributes to lower water temperature in streams that benefits trout and other wildlife Cranberry bogs influence stream temperatures when stream channels run through or adjacent to treeless and unshaded bogs. Bogs also influence stream temperatures when streams pass through impoundments created for water management on cranberry farms. Negative effects on water temperature are greatest during the summer months. Warm temperatures lower the ability of water to contain dissolved oxygen and they increase the metabolism of aquatic organisms. This is a major stress for some aquatic animals, including trout. During summer, water temperatures are most likely to exceed temperature tolerances for cold water species. If these species cannot move and find refuges of cold water they will not survive.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 49 The effects of bogs and impoundments on water temperatures more slowly as trees grow along stream temperature are smaller in winter when the air is banks and provide shade. Regrowing trees along streams cooler. During these cooler months, stretches of streams within former impoundments will further reduce stream within impoundments have longer residence times and temperatures over time. may maintain lower temperatures than more natural stretches of stream channels. This occurs because Active cranberry farms contribute nitrogen and more nighttime cooling occurs in open channels and phosphorus to surface waters impoundments compared with natural channels, in which water temperatures remain closer to the warmer winter Cranberry cultivation requires application of nitrogen temperature of incoming groundwater. and phosphorus fertilizers, and because cranberry bogs use Within coastal watersheds, the presence of large ponds and rivers as water sources and discharge points, the numbers of cranberry bogs and bog-associated ponds runoff of nitrogen and phosphorus to surface waters from raises the temperature of entire small coastal rivers and cranberry farming is a concern for the quality of fresh and can largely eliminate cold water fish habitat. estuarine waters in watersheds where cranberry bogs occur. As the restored wetlands mature, the elevated summer Quantifying nutrient losses from cultivated cranberry temperatures experienced by streams during the farming bogs is challenging because cranberry farms typically occur regime will diminish. Removing impoundments reduces in flat, low-lying areas where groundwater and surface water temperatures immediately by minimizing the area water exchanges are hard to measure. Cranberry farms also of shallow and unshaded water that absorbs sunlight. use water for multiple phases of crop production. Farmers Restoring wetlands along stream channels reduces water flood bogs in September or October to facilitate fall berry

24 Seasonal temperature variation of the Coonamessett River 22 UPPER COONAMESSETT RIVER 20

18 Streams that run adjacent to treeless and unshaded bogs warm significantly in 16

summer, especially on hot, sunny days. In winter, this high exposure generally 14

reduces stream temperatures. The temperature increases in summer occur 12

despite the entry of groundwater that's always cool at about 6° C year-round. °C Temperature 10 Changes to stream temperature are most important in summer because high 8 water temperatures reduce dissolved oxygen in stream water and increase the 6 metabolism of temperature-sensitive aquatic animals like fish. Brook trout are 4 2 limited in water above 20°C. 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 10/1 11/1 12/1 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 30 28 LOWER COONAMESSETT RIVER 26 Measurements from two locations on the Coonamessett River in the mid 24 22 2000s when it was bordered by cranberry bogs clearly show this effect. Water 20 temperatures increased as the Coonamessett River channel ran through two 18 16 small and narrow bog units in the upper river system and two larger and wider 14 bog units in the lower river system. In both cases, running through bogs increased 12 Temperature °C Temperature stream water temperature in summer but decreased stream temperature in 10 8 winter. Summer temperatures were lower in the upper river before passage 6 through additional bogs. 4 2 0 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 10/1 11/1 12/1 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 30 The impoundments associated with cranberry farming also increase summer 28 COONAMESSETT RIVER stream temperatures. In the Coonamessett, a large impoundment called Pond 14 26 24 lies upstream of three bog units in the lower river. Water temperature increases 22 downstream of the impoundment in summer but is lower in the winter. The effect 20 18 of the impoundment in summer was larger than the effect of running through 16 bogs as solar radiation heated water in the impoundment. This reduced cold water 14 12 Temperature °C Temperature habitat in the entire river downstream of the impoundment. 10 8 6 4 Data from C. Neill and L. Deegan 2 0 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 10/1 11/1 12/1 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1

2005 2006

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 50 harvest and during cold periods in winter to protect vines from freezing and desiccation. Irrigation water is typically Daily maximum temperatures in the lower portions sprayed onto the bog surface through a sprinkler system of the Coonamessett and Quashnet Rivers during cold periods in spring to protect nascent buds from frost damage, and during dry periods in the growing season 30 to provide supplemental water. Nitrogen and phosphorus can be exported from bogs both in both surface water 25 outlets and seepage into groundwater. One recent study of three typical “wetland” style 20 cranberry bogs quantified movement of nitrogen

15 and phosphorus in surface and groundwaters during different phases of cranberry farm operation and annual

Temperature °C Temperature 10 contributions of nitrogen and phosphorus from bogs to the surface waters. The mean annual nitrogen export of 3.1 kg 5 N/ha. However, inflows of nitrogen were slightly greater than outflows in two bogs, and one had high nitrogen 0 export. The variation among bogs with similar management 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 10/1 11/1 12/1 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 made it difficult to determine a “typical” nitrogen exchange 2005 2006 for cranberry bogs. A The Coonamessett and Quashnet are two similar-sized, In all bogs, most of the nitrogen export occurred during groundwater-fed coastal rivers five kilometers apart in Falmouth non-flood surface water drainage during the growing and Mashpee on Cape Cod. The Coonamessett River in 2005- season. Nitrogen releases during harvest floods contained 2006 was bordered by cranberry bogs for most of its length and only 14 to 20% of annual nitrogen export to surface waters has a large cranberry-associated impoundment in the middle of and winter floods contained only 3 to 9%. Other recent its length. The Quashnet River was bordered by cranberry bogs studies of nitrogen export from actively farmed cranberry until they were abandoned after a hurricane in 1954. The former bogs found total annual export in a similar range of 3 to bogs in the lower Quashnet River have since reverted to wetlands 12 kg N/ha. and woodlands and the river channel has been restored by Export of phosphorus from bogs is much more volunteers working with Trout Unlimited and other organizations. consistent and in the range of about 2 to 4 kg P/ha. Like Temperature differences are large in summer and small in winter. nitrogen, most phosphorus is released in growing season Brook trout are limited by water temperatures above 20o C (68o F). non-flood drainage to surface waters. The Quashnet River has a healthy, reproducing native brook trout Nitrogen and phosphorus export from cultivated population and an active catch-and-release brook trout fishery. cranberry bogs varies by bog type. One detailed study of The Coonamessett did not support reproducing brook trout in a flow-through bog found total annual nitrogen export of 2005-2006. In the Quashnet River, reduction of elevated summer 25.8 kg N/ha and phosphorus export of 11.1 kg P/ha and stream water temperatures occurred gradually as the growth of indicates that nutrient export is higher from flow through trees along the river banks increased shading of the river channel. bogs because of their continuous connection to surface Data from C. Neill and L. Deegan waters. Newer style upland bogs often have drainage tiles and other water management features not present in traditional wetland bogs. Upland bogs are planted with Upper higher-yielding cranberry varieties that also require higher river system fertilizer application rates. The only study of nutrient export from this newer style of bog found higher annual nitrogen export of 9.3 to 16.3 kg N/yr but similar phosphorus export of 1.3 to 3.3 kg/ha. Even for modernized cranberry bogs planted with high-yielding varieties, the amount of nitrogen fertilizer used on cranberry bogs, and the amount of nitrogen exported per unit of land area from cranberry bogs, are typically lower than for other forms of crop agriculture. The recommended annual nitrogen fertilizer application rates for most Massachusetts cranberry varieties is 25 to 40 kg N/ha. In contrast, most intensive croplands in the central U.S. receive annual nitrogen applications typically in the range from about 50 to 100 kg N/ha/yr. Nitrogen export Lower from corn croplands ranges roughly 20 to 60 kg N/ha and river system export from wheat croplands can reach 29 kg N/ha. The

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 51 removal. Second, wetlands can also be locations of high nitrogen removal by the process of denitrification that converts nitrate dissolved in water to nitrogen in gaseous nitrogen that is released to the atmosphere. Denitrification occurs where there is the combination of a nitrate supply, flooded and therefore anoxic soils and sediments, and a supply of decomposable organic matter. Periodically flooded wetland soils provide good conditions for denitrification because they are high in organic matter, often receive nitrate from surrounding higher elevation portions of watersheds, and because nitrate produced when soils are not flooded can be denitrified when soil becomes anoxic after re-inundation. Gaseous nitrogen can be released either in the form of di-nitrogen gas (N2) when there is complete denitrification typically under highly anoxic conditions, or as nitrous oxide (N2O) when denitrification is incomplete, typically under conditions of less complete anoxia. Production of N2 gas is harmless; production of N2O is far 2018, Upper Coonamessett. Betsy Gladfelter confers with Chris Neill who has less desirable because it is a powerful greenhouse gas. paused to collect a water sample. Credit: LO In watersheds, nutrient removal will most likely occur in locations in which wetlands have contact either amount of phosphorus fertilizer applied to cranberries is with water arriving from upstream in river channels or more in line with the phosphorous applied to crops across with emerging groundwater. Most cranberry bogs—and much of the US and phosphorus export from cranberry hence restored wetlands—occur in low-lying areas that bogs is broadly similar to phosphorus export from other are locations of groundwater discharge, restored wetlands U.S. croplands. in these locations can intercept emerging groundwater. Southeastern Massachusetts coastal watersheds that Because this groundwater contains nutrients produced typically contain residential neighborhoods, the largest over large areas of watersheds, including residential areas sources of nitrogen to watersheds come in from wastewater in which wastewater is treated with on-site septic systems, from backyard septic systems, atmospheric deposition, this emerging groundwater can have high concentrations and lawn fertilizers. Major sources of phosphorus are of nitrate that is the primary and mobile form of dissolved wastewater, fertilizers, and urban runoff. While cranberry nitrogen that is produced in residential areas. While bogs are minor overall sources of nutrients in many wetlands restored in areas of groundwater discharge could watersheds that contain few acres of cranberry bogs, they have the potential to intercept phosphorus, phosphorus can be larger sources in watersheds with high numbers of delivered to these sites is much lower than nitrate because bogs. Watershed models indicate that agricultural fertilizers dissolved phosphate strongly adheres to iron and aluminum are important contributors to total watershed nitrogen loads within soils and groundwater aquifers. in the Weweantic and Wareham River watersheds where Nitrogen can also be retained within stream channels. cranberry bogs cover large areas. Fertilizer makes up 44% Stream channels, far from acting just as pipes that carry of the estimated watershed nitrogen load in the Wankinco materials downstream, can take up and transform nitrogen River sub-watershed of the Wareham River, where cranberry that arrives from the watershed. Like in wetlands, absorption farms make up more than half of the watershed area. can be by uptake in vegetation or by denitrification. While denitrification would permanently remove nitrogen Wetland and river restoration can reduce from the aquatic system, uptake by vegetation might not nutrient inputs to watersheds permanently remove nutrients if plant material ultimately Expanded retirement and wetland restoration of decomposes or is carried downstream. Because dissolved cranberry bogs has potential to reduce watershed nitrogen nutrients have more contact with the surface area of loading by both removing nitrogen- and phosphorus- sediments and vegetation, uptake within small stream fertilized bogs as watershed nutrient sources and by channels tends to be higher than in larger rivers. Also, as creating natural wetlands that act as locations of nutrient in regional groundwater, concentrations of nitrate in stream removal in watersheds. Two features of wetlands make channels can be high because of multiple nitrate sources in them good locations for nutrient removal. First, wetlands watersheds. Concentrations of dissolved phosphate tend to can be hotspots for nitrogen and phosphorus uptake into be lower because relatively little phosphate is delivered to plants because of their high plant growth and production most groundwater-fed streams. of large amounts of plant material. Burial of dead plant Watershed nutrient removal before and after restoration material, or biomass, in accumulating soil organic matter projects has not yet been quantified, but it could provide or peat will result in long-term nitrogen and phosphorus enormous benefits for coastal towns. The Clean Water Act

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 52 Denitrification in active, retired, and restored farms a and natural wetlands. 1000 The combination of high moisture, high organic matter, and a supply a,b of inorganic nitrogen in the form of nitrate combine to promote denitrification that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas and removes 500 b nitrogen from soils and waters. Potential N Removal b 0 Undisturbed natural wetlands have by far the wettest soils, the highest a levels of organic matter, and the highest denitrification potential per gram of soil. Yet restored cranberry bogs have wetter soils and higher 1000 denitrification potential per gram than active or retired cranberry farms. Moreover, because restored soils tend to be more densely packed than 500 natural bog soils, their nitrogen removal potential on a per acre basis b is estimated to be equal to or greater than that of natural soils. Letters c Potential Denitrification c above bars indicate significant differences among site categories; 0 categories not sharing a letter in common are significantly different. 60 a Low denitrification potential in soils of active bogs, retired bogs, and young restored wetlands is likely at least partly limited by low amounts 40 of nitrate. The acidic, sandy, and periodically drained soils of active cranberry bogs have consistently low concentrations of nitrate. This is 20

because the production of nitrate in soils by the process of nitrification Soil Organic Matter b b b is limited by low soil pH. Cranberries belong the family of ericaceous 0 shrubs that thrive in acid, and low nitrate soils. So nitrogen applied a as fertilizer to cranberries is applied in the form of urea and never as 80 nitrate. 60

Data from K. Ballantine, J. Andras, and R. Rubin 40 b

Soil Moisture c c (% wet weight)20 (% dry weight) (ng N/g soil /hr) (kg N/acre/year)

0 Farmed Retired Restored Natural

Turtle Pond, Lower Coonamessett, 2018. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 53 NO3 – (µM) Nitrate concentrations in Coonamessett River 0 10 20 30 40 Nitrate concentrations in Falmouth’s Coonamessett River 0 (right) increase from the river source at Coonamessett Pond in the north at the top of the map to the mouth at in the Great Pond estuary in the south at the bottom of the map. Nitrate is derived primarily from on-site septic systems and lawn fertilizers in the watersheds. The river also increases in 1000 flow below the former Reservoir Bog, and groundwater with high nitrate concentrations enter in the stretches of river now bordered by restored wetlands in the former Reservoir, Middle and Lower Bogs. This increases the potential for 2000 nitrogen removal. Lower Bog was restored in 2018 and Middle and Reservoir Bogs were restored in 2020.

3000

4000

5000 Coonamessett lower bog, dry microtopography, 2020. Credit: C. Neill Data from C. Neill, L. Deegan, and C. Kennedy mandates towns remove specific amounts of nitrogen from allows us to compare directionality and magnitude of coastal watersheds that drain to impaired estuarine waters. differences across different site types as restored and Many options for nitrogen removal, such as construction retired wetlands. and operation of municipal wastewater collection and Wetlands restored at locations where high amounts of treatment infrastructure, are expensive. Nature-based nitrate-rich groundwater emerges into stream channels have nitrogen removal options, such as bog retirement and high potential for nitrogen removal. These are typically wetland restoration, could cost-effectively substitute for in the lower reaches of river networks in Southeastern some amount of traditional engineering in some locations Massachusetts. For example, the concentrations of nitrate in some watersheds. increase with distance downstream in the Coonamessett The potential for denitrification in soils of cranberry River as the river picks up high-nitrate groundwater from bogs restored to wetlands is higher than in active or retired densely residential portions of the watershed. The State of farms. But this laboratory-measured denitrification potential Massachusetts Estuaries Program estimated that the annual is also much less than in naturally-occurring wetlands, load of nitrogen that moved through the Coonamessett which suggests that the conditions that lead to high River in the early 2000s was 9,493 kilograms of nitrogen denitrification in natural wetlands may take many decades per year. Wetlands recently restored on retired cranberry to develop. bogs along this portion of the river have a high potential Denitrification potential indicates whether the enzymes to contact—and then take up nitrate from—this arriving that carry out denitrification are present and active in groundwater. Watershed headwaters, and portions of soils. It is determined as the amount of easily measured watersheds that contain large areas of protected open nitrous oxide gas emitted when nitrate and glucose are space and low densities of residential housing, generally added to soil and acetylene is added to block conversion contribute less nitrogen to stream channels than do more to the more difficult to measure di-nitrogen gas. While developed areas. But the amount of nitrogen that could it likely overestimates actual denitrification, computing be intercepted by restored bogs even in these portions of denitrification potential provides a consistent method that watersheds is substantial. About 2,300 kilograms of nitrate

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 54 Stream channel storage and denitrification potential Studies of small streams show that nitrogen retention increases when 3500 streams contain areas of slow-moving water that contacts sediments )

-1 2800 h

and accumulations of organic matter. These areas are sometimes -1 technically called water "passive storage" zones, because water 2100 resides in these places for longer time periods.

1400 Urban streams show that the potential for denitrification is highest in stream habitats like debris dams that collect organic debris, mucky

ication potential (ųg N kg ication potential 700 gravel bars, and pools. It is lowest in gravel bars and riffles that have little organic matter. The creation of pools and meander bends Denitrif 0 in restored streams creates these types of habitats that promote 25 denitrification. 20 Restoring river channels can increase the proportion of passive storage areas. Comparison of the Coonamessett River when it was bordered by 15 cranberry bogs, the natural Mashpee River, and the Quashnet River that was gradually restored from cranberry bogs indicated that restoration 10 Organic Matter (%) Matter Organic can increase passive storage over time. 5 At the same time that restoration increases water passive storage that promotes nitrogen retention, measurements from these same three 0 Organic Gravel Pool Riffie Mucky Vegetated rivers show that river channel features that create passive storage debris dam bar gravel bar gravel bar provide fish habitat. Data from P. Groffman The pie chart compares habitat types in a reach of the Coonamessett River that passes through an active bog and a reach that passes though an adjacent reach that was retired and now naturally restored to woodland. The retired reach has less bare sandy sediment, greater Submersed aquatic veg habitat complexity, and more habitat types such as leaf packs and organic matter that promote nitrogen uptake. Leaf pack Submersed wood Organic matter

Data from H. Engel Root Bare sediment

0.6 Ratio of Storage Area to Channel Area 0.5

0.473 0.4

0.4 0.3

0.2

0.2 0.1

0.141 Area Area/Channel Storage Storage Area/Channel Area Area/Channel Storage 0.0

0.0 0.002 0 20 40 60 80 100

Mashpee Coonamesset Quashnet % Fish Cover (excluding depth)

Data from Groffman et. al

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 55 Seasonal nitrate 0.5 ) The concentrations of nitrate change -1 0.4 seasonally in streams and small rivers. Because concentrations of nitrate of 0.3 incoming groundwater are relatively constant, lower nitrate concentrations in the 0.2 - Concentration (mg N L N (mg Concentration -

summer and higher concentrations in winter 3 0.1 indicate that contact with growing plants NO

and soils in river channels and adjoining 0.0 riverbanks during the warm growing 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

season increase nitrogen uptake. These Year differences are dramatic in small streams 60 like the headwaters of Tidmarsh (above) and also important in larger streams like 50 Winter the lower Coonamessett River (below). In February 11 the Coonamesssett River, these patterns 40 suggest that restoration of the river channel and adjoining wetlands in the lower river will 30 Summer - (µM) - increase the nitrogen uptake that is already 3 July 30 occurring. NO 20

Data from C. Neill, L. Deegan, and C. Kennedy 10 Restored Wetlands

0 River Pond 14 Parker Swifts Dexters Route Bend Bypass Road Crossing Crossing 28

2310 3010 3430 3960 4340 4750

Distance From Coonamessett Pond (m)

per year are exported in the stream that drains the now groundwater enters the aquifer at widely varying distances, restored bogs at Tidmarsh. Only ~5% of this load is due to and therefore travel times, away from discharge points. This leaching of legacy fertilizer stored in the soils. Therefore, averages out most seasonal differences. Lower concentrations the majority of the nitrate load derives from watershed in stream water therefore largely reflect the nitrogen removal inputs of turf fertilizer and wastewater. Retention of a that occurs when nitrogen-containing groundwater comes portion of this load could greatly reduce nitrogen impacts in contact with vegetation and sediments. Higher uptake to surface waters downstream. in summer when plants are growing and temperatures are Evidence from studies of small streams indicate that the warmer shows that this contact increases nitrogen removal. naturalization of stream channels by the creation of pools These seasonal differences appear to be greater in small and additions of large woody debris—typical methods used streams where this contact with plants and sediments is in channel restoration on retired cranberry farms—and greater, compared with larger streams that have greater flows areas which accumulate leaves and other types of organic within channel, where contact is lower. matter increase hydrologic retention and are thought to For the same reasons, shallow impoundments or ponds be hotspots for denitrification. Stream channels that run within stream networks can retain nitrogen. Nitrogen through long-retired bogs develop more of these habitat concentrations in stream water exiting cranberry-associated types compared with channels that run through active bogs. impoundments are typically lower than concentrations of These features are also important components of habitat incoming stream water. This is because ponds increase for stream fishes, so restoration actions designed to improve water residence times, and residence in shallow, relatively fish habitat will likely lead to greater nitrogen uptake still waters exposes stream water to actively-growing aquatic and removal. vegetation and typically warmer water temperatures that Lower concentrations of nitrogen in stream water promote both plant nitrogen uptake and denitrification provide evidence of nitrogen removal. The concentrations in pond sediments. These same characteristics in some of nitrogen in the groundwater that enters streams impoundments receiving high nutrient loads can cause and wetlands varies little during the year. This arriving overgrowth of aquatic vegetation, reduced water clarity,

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 56 low oxygen, and noxious odors in the impoundments themselves. Because impoundments degrade habitat for cold water fishes and typically block or impair movements of aquatic animals and anadromous fishes, any nutrient removal benefits of retaining impoundments must be balanced against the habitat benefits of removing dams and impoundments. The creation of groundwater fed, open water features within restored stream-wetland complexes on retired cranberry farms is an emerging practice that may reduce some risks associated with artificial impoundments.

Blueback river herring spawning at Tidmarsh. Credit: C. Jackson

Coonamessett River restored. Credit: Adam Soule

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 57 TAKE HOME MESSAGE:

The post- wetland restoration plant community is essential to generating wetland ecosystem services including water quality improvement, nitrogen removal, and carbon storage. Plants also contribute to increased biodiversity at restored sites, including creating habitat for wildlife and helping to support a more varied microbial community.

Coonamessett restored river and floodplain hosting a diversity of wetland indicator species. Credit: C. Neill

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 58 8.

Wetland Hydrology Creates Conditions for Wetland Plants

etlands support a diverse community of plant species, and W vegetation is an important indicator of wetland hydrology. Examples of wetland plant adaptations Ecological restoration of retired cranberry farms aims to change the vegetation from a commercial monoculture to a diverse, native wetland plant community. The plant community is critical for establishing many of the essential wetland ecosystem services described in this report including water quality improvement, nitrogen removal, and carbon storage. Plants also contribute to increased biodiversity at restored sites, including creating habitat for wildlife and helping to support a more varied microbial community. Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) is a native, perennial, wetland species, but a cranberry monoculture planted on Credit: Dale A. Zimmerman Herbarium, WNMU (left), anthropogenically added sand does not function like a diverse Glen Mittelhauser (right) assemblage of wetland plant species. On cranberry farms that are retired but not restored, the sand layer and water control structures b Aerenchyma in Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani, remain, so the growing surface remains artificially raised. Over (sedge family) is spongy tissue in the roots, shoots, time, these retired but unrestored bogs often become wooded and and leaves of some wetland plants that has large, dominated by upland species. connected, intercellular spaces that allow for When wetland hydrology is restored in flow-through retired efficient exchange of gasses between plant organs. cranberry bogs, the soils are made wetter by reconnecting the river with its floodplain and by bringing the bog surface closer to the water table. Connectivity between rivers and floodplains is important for many reasons including water storage and flow rate reduction during flood events. The floodplain connectivity to the river and groundwater causes its soils to become wetter. Saturated soil contains much less oxygen than well-drained soil because water fills the spaces in between the soil particles, and oxygen moves very slowly through water. Soils that are saturated for some, or all, of the year support hydrophytic (water loving) vegetation that is adapted to growing in low oxygen (anoxic) conditions. While some plants can be found in both wetland and upland conditions, the adaptations that allow wetland plants to grow in an anoxic environment often cause them to be less competitive in drier conditions. The US Army Corps of Engineers makes regional determinations about the likelihood of finding plant species in wetlands. Those species with a strong Credit: from Salicicola.com (both) affinity for wetland environments can be considered wetland indicator b Toothed flat sedge (Cyperus dentatus), species, and wetland indicator species are essential for determining photographed at Tidmarsh, is an example whether a wetland has been created. of a species with rhizomes. Rhizomes are Because plants perform important roles in wetland formation, underground stems that can produce new shoots vegetation monitoring pre and, for many years, post restoration is and store nutrients. While not exclusively found critical to evaluating the success of restoration actions. in wetland plants, they help hydrophytic species survive winter and anoxic periods.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 59 Active cranberry farm restoration projects help test and second-year post restoration. There were also significantly more wetland indicator species per plot each wetland restoration theory and inform restoration year, and the percent cover of wetland indicator species practice increased significantly in the second-year post-restoration. The “self-design” theory in wetland restoration holds Mean species richness per plot at Eel River also increased that restoring the hydrology in former wetlands will in the three years following restoration. There were create the conditions necessary for pre-agricultural plant significantly more wetland indicator species per plot in the communities to re-establish. Commonly, though, species second and third year after restoration than in the first year, important for biodiversity and wetland function are missing but there was no difference in wetland species cover during from seed and propagule banks. Many species remain the first three post-restoration years. Unlike Coonamessett, viable in wetland soils drained for agriculture, but they non-woody wetland species were planted at Eel River often represent a subset of the species present in the during restoration, but these plants were not surveyed vegetation of reference wetlands. separately from those that established on their own. The four cranberry bog restoration projects completed Wetland restoration increases the number of plant to date in Massachusetts have included a range of densities species and wetland plant species richness relative to active of planting and seeding, so they do not fully test the farms and retired farms. While species richness on retired “self-design” theory. These sites do contain significant farms does increase in the first 20 years post-retirement, it areas that were not planted or seeded, however, and the then decreases with time. The number of species per plot plants that emerge in these areas indicate which species found at Coonamessett after restoration is much greater may regenerate on their own, even after 100+ years of than the number found at other farms that have been cranberry cultivation. The way that the vegetation responds retired for a similar amount of time but not restored. to restoration can aid in the evaluation of the restoration Along with metrics of richness and abundance, analysis practices used and can indicate the trajectory of current of the plot-level species composition at Coonamessett and future restoration sites. showed significant differences between the pre- and post- Studying the vegetation before and after restoration restoration plots. The group of the most common species, can help indicate whether the number of plant species by percent cover, at Coonamessett showed a shift towards (species richness), including wetland indicator species, wetland indicator species after restoration. Some species and their abundance increased following the retirement, were common both before and after restoration, but the and subsequent wetland restoration of cranberry farmland. species that were common pre-restoration but not post- Because the practice of wetland restoration of retired restoration tended to be upland or weedy species. cranberry farms is relatively new, gathering systematic The most common species after restoration were more pre- and post-restoration data at current and new commonly graminoids and indicative of wetland conditions. restoration sites will continue to be important in Several of the common post-restoration species at understanding the long-term impact of restoration. Coonamessett were also common at Eel River (Leersia oryzoides—rice cutgrass; Juncus effusus—common rush; Juncus canadensis—Canadian rush). Restoration results in a more diverse plant community At Eel River, two methods of gathering plant data were used: a pre-restoration botanical inventory that resulted in a list of species at the site and three years of post-restoration, and plot-based surveys, which included identity and abundance (percent cover) of each species in plots around the site. At Coonamessett, plot-based surveys were conducted for one year before and two years after restoration. The pre-restoration survey occurred 13 years after the bog had been retired. While the plot-based method may not capture every species at a site, the abundance data and ability to return year after year to the same plots make it easier to track the trajectory of the plant community over time. At both Eel River and Coonamessett, overall species richness and wetland indicator species richness increased after restoration. Assessing per plot metrics allowed additional comparisons between years and showed the importance of monitoring sites for multiple years post- Eel River, August 2018. Sphagnum moss is an ecological engineer that restoration. At Coonamessett, there was a significant thrives in acidic wetlands. As it grows, the lower portions of the roots die, increase in mean species richness per plot in the first- creating peat. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 60 Total and per plot species richness, wetland species richness, native species richness, wetland species percent cover, and native species percent cover at Eel River and Coonamessett

Eel River Eel River Eel River Eel River Eel River Coonamessett Coonamessett Coonamessett pre, 2007 post, post, 2010 post, 2011 post, 2012 pre, 2017 post, 2018 post, 2019 combined

Total species 120 146 72 96 95 81 105 119

Total wetland species 56 (46.7%) 76 (52%) 39 (55.17%) 55 (57.29%) 52 (54.74%) 45 (55.6%) 53 (50.5%) 66 (55.45%)

Per plot sp. richness NA NA 22.2 + 4.9 [a] 35.8 + 5.6 [b] 39.51 + 5.1 [b] 13.95 + 3.60 [x] 29.45 + 4.45 [y] 37.05 + 5.18 [z]

Per plot wetland species richness NA NA 12.91 + 2.30 [a] 21.6 + 2.67 [b] 23.91 + 1.97 [b] 7.22 + 2.76 [x] 18.4 + 2.69 [y] 22.8 + 3.65 [y]

Per plot wetland species % cover NA NA 127.14% [a] 144.10% [a] 145.55% [a] 42.4% [x] 42.3% [x] 67.2% [y]

Non-native species 10 (8.2%) 16 (11%) 4 (5.56%) 3 (3.13%) 4 (4.21%) 6 (7.45%) 11 (10.48%) 8 (6.72%)

Per plot non-native species cover NA NA 3.13% 6.75% 2.67% 9.1% 2.36% 2.65%

Bracketed letters represent significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) between years within each site. Values are reported ± one standard deviation. Eel River data: D. Schall; Coonamessett data: C. Neill

Occurrences of sphagnum moss, an important Non-metric multidimensional scaling plot based component of peat, increase after restoration on Bray-Curtis distance of plot level species Peat was a feature of many of the kettle holes in Southeastern Massachusetts where cranberry farms were composition (percent cover of each species created. Anoxic conditions are essential to the development present) at Coonamessett of peat. Peat is formed when organic matter from plants accumulates more quickly than it decomposes. Because oxygen is essential for decomposition, peat forms in 2 some, but not all, wetlands. Sphagnum moss is a common component of peat and an indicator that peat formation may resume post-restoration. Restoration has increased 1 the number of plots containing sphagnum moss. At Coonamessett and Eel River, sphagnum was found in almost all of the vegetation plots after restoration. NMDS2 0 Sphagnum moss is also the dominant ground cover of Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) swamps, which are imperiled communities in Massachusetts. Many 2017 -1 2018 retired cranberry bogs in southeast Massachusetts lie in 2019 areas that may have been historic Atlantic white cedar (AWC) swamps. All AWC swamps develop on a peat substrate and have standing water for at least half of the -2 -1 0 1 2 year; the soil of these swamps is acidic and nutrient poor. NMDS1 In addition, coastal AWC swamps in Massachusetts are generally restricted to elevations lower than 40ft above Points that are closer together represent plots that are more similar. sea level. Young AWC trees have been planted at the Pre-restoration plots (2017) are separated from post-restoration three completed cranberry bog restorations in a range of (2018, 2019) plots, indicating a distinct composition. Data: C. Neill densities, from 17,000 small trees at Eel River to 7,000 at Tidmarsh and a few hundred at Coonamessett.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 61 All the cranberry bog restoration projects to date have included some planting and seeding but monitoring of these plantings has been limited. Because one of the goals Surviving Atlantic white cedar: number, height, at Eel River was to jumpstart an AWC swam, monitoring has and reproduction in 2011 and 2015 at Eel River centered on these trees, the majority of which are surviving, growing, and reproducing. For the other species that were 2011 2015 planted, surveys did not differentiate between individuals that were planted and those that established on their own. % (#) surviving AWC 87% (573) 68% (391) Avg. AWC height 86.2cm ± 22.5 162.5cm ± 61.2 Disturbance caused by construction during % live trees with cones 26% (136) 89% (348) restoration can provide an opportunity for non-native and invasive species to establish Values are reported ± one standard deviation. Values are reported ± one Restoration requires heavy machinery, which causes standard deviation. A. Hackman, unpublished data. a lot of disturbance at the bog sites. The disturbance and large areas of bare soil provide an opportunity for plants, whose seeds and propagules are in the area, to restoration; these treatments continued post-restoration, establish. Disturbances are also an opportunity for non- at which time some upland invasive species were also native species to establish, and this can be a problem when treated. At Coonamessett, management of Polygonum those species become very weedy or invasive. Invasive cuspidatum (Japanese knotweed) along the border of species are species that are not native to a geographic the wetland is taking place. region, and that have certain advantages that allow them to monopolize the environment’s resources, such as a Restoration changes the trajectory of the lack of pests and diseases or a life cycle strategy. Once these species establish, they can outcompete many native plant community species and form areas of monoculture. Invasive species Evidence from the early cranberry bog restoration may also provide positive services to a system, Phragmites projects shows that restoration does change the australis has been shown to enhance denitrification composition and trajectory of the plant community. potential compared to some native species that emerge The post-restoration vegetation indicates that the sites after Phragmites australis removal, so trade-offs exist when are getting wetter, relative to their unrestored state, and considering invasive species management. are able to regenerate a diverse flora. Adding data from The pre- and post-restoration species composition additional sites with different physical characteristics and at both Eel River and Coonamessett was predominantly continuing to monitor and study vegetation at restored native. At Tidmarsh some invasive species management, sites is important to increase our understanding of how predominantly for Phragmites australis (common reed) the sites respond to restoration practices over time. and Salix cinerea (grey willow), was conducted before

Ana Pulak and Sarah Klionsky identify plant species and record their abundance. Quadrats are monitored at yearly or multi-year intervals to determine changes in plant communities. Credit: C. Neill

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 62 Experimentally seeded plots have a similar post-restoration species composition to unseeded plots

Another set of data comes from experimental plots at Coonamessett that were paired. One of each pair was seeded 1.0 with a native seed mix and the other was not. In those plots, no differences emerged between the plants that received a native 0.5 seed mix and those that did not in either 2018 or 2019. Not only do the plots have similar numbers of species, but the species compositions are similar. 0.0 NMDS2 At right: Non-metric multidimensional scaling plot based on -0.5 C Bray-Curtis distance of plot level species composition (percent 2017 cover of each species present) of the paired seeded (S) and S 2018 -1.0 unseeded (C) plots at Coonamessett. Points that are closer 2019 together represent plots that are more similar. No difference in composition between seeded and unseeded plots is evident. -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 Data: C. Neill NMDS1

Time lapse images of Coonamessett River lower bog over time after restoration Time lapse images of the Coonamessett River lower bog from May and July of 2018 (top) and 2019 (bottom) show the development of vegetation at the site after restoration, which was completed in early 2018. Credit: C. Neill

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 63 TAKE HOME MESSAGE:

Wetland restoration of cranberry farms can help boost fauna diversity.

Northern Harrier, Tidmarsh 2016. Credit: R. Johnson

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 64 9.

Fauna Diversity in Restored Active Cranberry Farms

etlands are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet, Restored wetlands have W supporting a myriad of birds, fish, amphibians, mammals, shellfish, and insects. Countless species depend on these unique ecosystems to provide critical a relatively high faunal habitat, food, and breeding grounds. In the US, 60-70% of vertebrates are wetland diversity at one-year post dependent at least for a part of their life cycle. Mammals, including the white- tailed deer and black bear, forage in wetlands as well as on higher ground. restoration compared Wetlands are also home to a wide variety of invertebrates, many of whom are to retired, unrestored also aquatic for part of their life cycle. cranberry farmland. Species richness and diversity of faunal communities found on wetlands reflect resource availability and distribution, habitat complexity and maturity, as well as functional integrity with respect to food webs, energy flow, nutrient dynamics, and ecosystem productivity. Dams and culverts installed on cranberry farms often act as barriers to wildlife; the biophysical simplicity of the cranberry monoculture provides limited resource diversity; and applications of herbicides and pesticides dramatically reduce the potential for food web development. Wetland restoration actions on cranberry farms seek to have a positive impact on fish and wildlife. Actions such as rebuilding a sinuous stream channel, removing barriers to instream passage for fish and wildlife, roughening the land surface and adding large woody debris across the site provide immediate habitat as well as some physical structural complexity. In the longer term, these actions should encourage the establishment of diverse plant communities that enhance the base food web, as well as the maturing of physical habitat. In turn, these changes are likely to produce discernable shifts in faunal communities, in part due to ecological succession. These shifts can be considered both a metric of restoration success and a proxy for healthy ecosystem functions of restored Black and white winged dragonfly, wetlands on cranberry farms. Tidmarsh. Credit: C. Jackson

Amphibians, reptiles, and fish documented at Tidmarsh Fish Amphibians Reptiles American eel pickerel frog eastern painted turtle banded killifish green frog * eastern hognose blue gill wood frog common musk turtle chain pickerel spring peepers common snapping turtle fallfish northern leopard frog * eastern box turtle fourspine sticklebacks grey tree frog spotted turtle golden shiner American toad black racer largemouth bass Fowler’s toad common garter snake pumpkinseed American bullfrog ribbon snake Credit: C. Jackson river herring spotted salamander ring-necked snake tessellated darter four-toed salamander yellow perch red-backed salamander * state endangered and threatened species

Fisheries surveys at Tidmarsh include some species, including emerald shiner, mimic shiner, and northern pikes. However, these species are not indigenous to coastal Massachusetts, and their identification is considered dubious. For that reason, these species are not included in this report. Source: Steve Hurley, Southeast District Fisheries Manager, Mass Wildlife and https://archive.org/details/inlandfishesofma00hart

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 65 Studies that have taken place at Eel River, Tidmarsh, and Coonamessett Lifecycle of the American Eel to date indicate that these restored wetlands have a relatively high faunal diversity at one-year post restoration compared to retired, unrestored cranberry farmland. The studies cover multiple taxa including fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and insects. While the studies vary in design and documentation format, they demonstrate collectively that both obligate and facultative wetland fauna have found habitat in the post-restoration mosaic of aquatic-wetland-upland habitat complexes. Additional studies that have focused on particular species, such as spotted turtles and river herring indicate the successful re-establishment of watershed-scale connectivity at local (stream channel occupancy of this migratory species in the restored portion connected with the floodplain) and landscape (headwaters of the river. Being a catadromous fish, the greater frequency connecting to the ocean) scales. In addition to field surveys, in the restored river channel also suggests that restoration automated media recordings have contributed to both was successful in reconnecting the freshwater river system expanding our knowledge of faunal inhabitants of restored with the ocean. cranberry farms and enhancing public engagement. American eels live in freshwater but spawn in the Sargasso Sea of the Atlantic Ocean. After hatching, the Restoring ocean-to-headwaters connectivity young eels arrive at Atlantic coast estuaries as glass eels. Their migration in the freshwater system may last from supports migratory and game fish three to 20 years and cover over 1,000 miles. Despite their Fish that migrate between the marine and freshwater broad distribution (Greenland to Venezuela) and ubiquitous environments to spawn play an important role in coastal occurrence along the eastern seaboard, the number ecology as well as in coastal commercial and recreational of American eels has declined due to climate change, fisheries. Anadromous and catadromous fish species that overfishing, loss and degradation of wetland and inland frequent coastal streams and rivers of the cranberry region aquatic habitats, barriers to stream migration, and pollution. in Massachusetts include: the American eel (Anguilla The cranberry industry in Massachusetts may have at least rostrata), two species of river herring—alewife (Alosa partly driven eel decline due to river impoundments, pseudoharengus) and blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis), agrochemical pollution, and alteration of natural wetland and in several coldwater streams, sea run brook trout structure. Cranberry bog restoration restitutes the freshwater (Salvelinus fontinalis). Fish surveys and fish counts are used passage for American eels while creating optimal habitats to verify presence and estimate quantity of these species in (deep-water ponds, slow-flowing channels, shallow-water riverine systems. Additional studies using Passive Integrated floodplain marshes) that are rich in biological resources Transponders (PIT tags) can provide more detailed that are critical for reaching sexual maturity. information about the migration path through a restored While opportunities may exist for migratory and wetland system. game fish to colonize retired unrestored cranberry farms In 2010-2011, following the restoration at Eel River, with flow-through stream channels, the higher number an electrofishing survey was conducted in the restored of American eel found in the restored section suggests stream channel. For comparison, surveys were conducted that restoration significantly improves habitat quality for both downstream of the restored section (where no active this species. Also, a lag time probably exists between restoration has taken place) and in an upstream tributary the recruitment of fish at a site and as well as for fish (which had not been directly impacted by cranberry assemblage to reach targeted community composition. farming). The survey revealed a greater abundance of For instance, over time the growth of large trees along anadromous fish in the restored stream reach compared the stream channel may lower stream temperature in to the downstream location, including American eel and the summer months, making the stream more suitable the rainbow trout. The rainbow trout is thought to have for species such as brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). been an escapee from a downstream hatchery. American Continued monitoring, possibly at 1, 5, and 10-year eels are listed Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Only a intervals, could help shed light on these colonization single American eel was recorded from the downstream processes. (Information regarding the source of rainbow unrestored location while 11 American eels were recorded trout documented at Eel River from email with Steve in the restored location, which indicates substantially higher Hurley, Southeast District Fisheries Manager, Mass Wildlife.)

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 66 Restoration supports Source: US Fish and Wildlife Service river herring runs Lifecycle of River Herring River herring are a species of special concern in Massachusetts and their restoration is a stated goal for all four restoration projects. The surveys at Eel River were not conducted during the herring run season and there is no formal volunteer herring count for this location, therefore findings below are limited to Tidmarsh and Coonamessett. River herring are a migratory fish that spend most of their life cycle in the marine environment but migrate as mature adults (four to five years) into freshwater stream and river systems along the Atlantic coast to spawn. Historically, river herring populations reached hundreds of millions, and as they returned to counts and the PIT tag study confirm that the restoration coastal rivers, these fish supported many of the oldest realized watershed-scale ocean to headwaters stream fisheries in the United States. However, in the 20th century, connectivity. these species experienced a serious decline in populations At Coonamessett, fish ladders had long enabled due to overfishing, trawl-fishing methods, physical river herring to navigate several dams installed as part of obstructions to migration like dams, poor water quality, cranberry farming. With the removal of three downstream and inadequate spawning habitat. In 2006, NOAA National dams more fish will be able to travel to and from their Marine Fisheries Service listed river herring as a species spawning habitat at Coonamessett Pond and Flax Pond. of special concern. Cranberry farms likely played a part In 2015, Coonamesset began a long- term study of the in their demise: the dams and culverts installed to control migratory habits of these fish using PIT tag technology. water on flow-through bogs, with or without fish ladders, With time, it is expected that stream restoration actions— generally impede the passage of river herring to their including dam removals, reconstructed stream channels spawning ponds. In addition, the agrochemicals applied with appropriate morphology and sinuosity, and to bogs negatively impact water quality. introduction of deadwood and species introductions— Improving passage for river herring has been a specific will lead to a transition in the fish community where goal for all completed cranberry farm restorations. lentic-preferring, warm-water generalists are replaced by Verifying the return of river herring to rivers and streams cold-water, fluvial species. Eastern brook trout (Salvelinus in Southeastern Massachusetts is largely dependent on fontinalis) have successfully been introduced at the fish counts by volunteers who observe at specific runs Coonamesset. Since stream restoration generates structural throughout April and May each year. Volunteer observations diversity in the stream channel as well as the floodplains, are reported back to the Massachusetts Department of the diversity among morphological and functional traits Marine Fisheries (DMF) at the end of this period, and DMF are also expected to increase among fish. then calculates the estimated number of fish for each run as well as the size of the state-wide run. While many locals Rapid colonization of aquatic macroinvertebrates remembered river herring being present at Tidmarsh in the 1950’s, prior to the construction of a dam just south of the in restored stream channels red maple swamp, only a few observations of river herring Macroinvertebrates are considered valuable biological were made in this system from 2010-2015. In 2017, just indicators of the health of a water body. These animals one year after the completion of the restoration, 20 LO serve several important functions within the aquatic volunteers participated in a count at the bridge that crosses environment, particularly in food webs and energy flow. Beaver Dam Brook, just south of the red maple swamp. The Because many macroinvertebrate species scavenge dead or estimated run size at Tidmarsh that year was calculated by decaying organic matter as well as microbes, they recycle the DMF to be 5,580 fish, with the peak run occurring in nutrients back into the system, thereby helping to purify the last week of April and first week of May. In addition to water. They are also an important source of food for fish, the 2017-2019 volunteer river herring counts, a PIT tag birds, amphibians and reptiles. Many species spend their study in 2017 confirmed that river herring were migrating whole life in water, while others like the mayfly reside in through the system and that alewives were able to access water during the egg and larval states, before emerging as their spawning habitat in Fresh Pond. Although the numbers beautiful and largely beneficial flying creatures. of river herring at Tidmarsh remain small, both the annual

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 67 Restoration of cranberry farms disrupts and resets vesper sparrow, northern parula, and blackpoll warbler) the landscape trajectory. Do the intervention actions and species of conservation concern (eastern whip-poor- impact the life cycle of these critters? In a recent study, will, peregrine falcon, common gallinule, common loon, family-level diversity of macroinvertebrates in the stream mourning warbler, bald eagle). channel increased relatively rapidly post-restoration at Tidmarsh. Specifically, at one-year post-restoration, two Restored wetlands are home for several native families that are tolerant of disturbance dominated; a year later 15 families were found in the newly restored stream amphibians and reptiles, including wide-ranging channel. Although this community composition did not and long-lived species resemble the unimpacted stream habitats that were studied Straddled between Narragansett/Bristol lowlands as a reference, the findings provide evidence that rapid and the Pine barrens of Cape Cod and the islands, colonization by aquatic macroinvertebrates can occur in Mass Audubon’s Tidmarsh Wildlife Sanctuary provides novel habitats such as reengineered stream channels. Other ideal conditions for the herpetofaunal communities indices of taxonomic diversity, including species richness, of the Northeastern coastal plains. A baseline survey showed increasing trends with time. These observations was conducted on this property from 2017-2019 and is suggest that faunal response to restoration may occur planned to continue over the long term to document across a longer temporal scale even for those with a species richness, abundance, and habitat associations shorter generation cycle. of herpetofauna. This baseline survey documented 12 species of amphibians and 11 species of reptiles. Five Threatened and rare birds frequent restored of these species are specialists (wood frogs, spotted cranberry farms salamanders, spotted turtles, eastern box turtles, and four-toed salamanders), with all but wood frogs being Aquatic birds and waterfowls in particular are an of regional conservation interest. The remaining 18 important component of wetland biota. Birds represent species are habitat generalists and are broadly distributed a diverse range of foraging guilds, including birds of throughout the northeastern US. An additional study prey, scavengers, insectivores, frugivores, nectivores, compared habitats with the restoration footprint to habitats and granivores. As such, they play a major role in food in unrestored former cranberry bogs at Tidmarsh as well webs, and thereby help nutrient circulation and energy as Foothills Preserve. This study revealed very subtle, yet flow. Through defecation, birds spread seeds throughout important differences in the structure and diversity of the wetlands and help recruit native flora while nectar-feeding herpetofaunal community. For instance, the total species birds help pollination. However, given wetland loss, richness and total abundance of amphibians and reptiles at poaching, lack of suitable nesting sites, competition with restored wetlands were marginally greater than that at the exotic species, agrochemical pollution, and subsidized retired, unrestored sites. predation, the population of wetland birds has declined. The increase in herpetofaunal diversity can be Cranberry farms are likely partially responsible, particularly attributed to habitat heterogeneity (structural diversity) that with respect to loss and deterioration of wetlands. was created by the restoration actions including channel Restoration of cranberry farms will provide opportunity for reconstruction, microtopography, the introduction of large conservation of native birds in Massachusetts by enhancing woody debris across the restored floodplain, construction of the wetland diversity and acreage. open water features, and the connectivity between uplands Bird occupancy at restored cranberry bogs reported and floodplain. Freshwater turtles and pond-breeding below was extracted from eBird, a citizen-science platform, amphibians are both known to show age-structured niche which enables birdwatchers to contribute their observations partitioning where they occupy different habitat types at into a global-scale database by making and submitting different life-history stages. This highlights the importance checklists of species and numbers that they observe on of heterogenous aquatic-wetland-upland landscapes; the a walk at a particular location. Tidmarsh began to collect upland woodland which normally surrounds cranberry eBird checklists in 2011. Today, according to eBird, 203 farms may provide critical habitat, once connectivity to species from 732 checklists are present at Tidmarsh. In these uplands are enhanced by restoration actions contrast, prior to restoration, only 152 species of birds were (e.g., the filling of ditches and the smoothing of steep documented at the same location. While this may reflect embankments at the edge of the farmed surface). numbers of eBirders, it also represents a significant increase The reptile community established in restored cranberry in species. At the Eel River Preserve, 78 bird species have bogs includes long-lived wide-ranging species such as been documented following restoration, where only 14 freshwater turtles. Although the current herpetofaunal species were reported from the same location prior to assemblage at Tidmarsh is lower than the regional restoration. Among species recorded at these restored amphibian and reptile species pool, Tidmarsh offers a sites, several birds of conservation interest have been diverse array of habitats suitable for amphibians and observed. This includes endangered species (short-eared reptiles. Numerous restoration activities—dam and culvert owl, American bittern), threatened species (northern harrier, removals, the introduction of stream channel complexity

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 68 Faunal associations in Atlantic white cedar swamps

g in urs Migration & n

Game fish

F o r a g in

g host plant & mating grounds Larval

gr ou nd s Nesting habitat

ents Amphi sid bia re n b nt r e ee n d a in m g r e Young thicket / Mature P

Young Atlantic White Cedar (AWC) thickets provide cover and foraging opportunities for white-tailed deer and several native rodents; AWC swamps provide nesting habitats for many bird species including northern waterthrush, veery, red-breasted nuthatch, brown creeper, black- and-white warbler, and black-capped chickadee. In late-winter and early spring, ACW swamps provide fish-free ephemeral habitats for amphibian breeding. Among rare and endangered species, the larvae of a rare butterfly, Hessel’s hairstreak, feed exclusively on ACW. Federally endangered ringed boghaunter dragonfly is found in open fens and bogs associated with AWC swamps for resting and mating.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 69 Channel complexity and habitat heterogeneity in restored cranberry bogs

Stream channels that run through flow-through cranberry bogs are degraded by years of sand deposition and clearing of vegetation on channel banks. Sandy and structurally simple stream bottoms provide little habitat for resident stream organisms and little cover for the anadromous fish alewives that migrate up streams to breeding ponds or blueback herring that reproduce in stream channels.

Restoration is designed to increase the complexity of stream channels, create combinations of deep pools, shallow gravelly riffles and sections of submersed aquatic vegetation that create different habitats and a diversity of stream depths to provide refuge for fishes and other organisms. Restoration also adds meanders that increase stream length and total stream habitat.

Å Sections of the lower Coonamessett River before restoration (left) showing a typical broad, uniform sandy bottom, and after restoration (right) after addition of wood, creation of bends and pools and riffle channel structure.

Great blue heron. Credit: C. Jackson

Credit: C. Neill

Two depth Before 2017 After 2019 profiles of 0 0 the lower Coonamessett -20 -20

River showing -40 -40 a uniformly shallow and wide -60 -60

channel before -80 -80 restoration (left) 240 M 240 M

Depth of Water (cm) Depth of Water -100 -100 and a deeper and 300 M 300 M narrower channel -120 -120 after restoration 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 (right). Distance across river (cm) Distance across river (cm)

Data from L. Deegan, C. Neill, and CRT volunteers

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 70 and sinuosity, the placement of woody debris and native The establishment of faunal populations takes time vegetation, the creation of microtopography and the Cranberry farms are designed and maintained to development of soil structure—generate a diverse array efficiently support a monoculture of the large-fruited of habitats suitable for native amphibians and reptiles at cranberry. Consequently, active cranberry farms provide Tidmarsh. These include wet meadows, broad floodplains limited structural habitat diversity. On these working connected with stream channels, open water perennial cranberry farms, habitat for wetland and aquatic species are lentic habitats, headwater bogs and marshes, shrub limited to irrigation canals, perimeter ditches, and reservoirs. swamps, fens, highly vegetated perennial ponds, and Given limited habitat complexity, faunal communities are small ephemeral ponds. Among vertebrate communities, species poor in retired cranberry bogs. amphibians and reptiles are reported to take a relatively While the completed cranberry farm wetland long time for colonization, which is particularly the case for restorations are designed to evolve a variety of habitat rare species and habitat specialists. Tidmarsh is still being types, end trajectories are likely to resemble either a coastal colonized by herpetofauna and the species accumulation Atlantic white cedar (AWC) swamp or a forested Red Maple will likely continue as both habitat structure and function wetland. 17,000 AWC were planted at the Eel River Preserve, develop. As both amphibians and reptiles (turtles in the first actively restored cranberry farm in Massachusetts; particular) are considered globally threatened taxa, restoring this preserve has been designated as both a core habitat and protecting habitats for these assemblages provide a and a Critical Natural Landscape by Massachusetts Natural critical benefit for global biodiversity conservation. Heritage Program. As the climax community develops at any of these restoration sites, community dynamics of fauna Automated recording and analyses of biological sounds as permanent or migratory residents of will also transition. and visual imagery help document faunal communities Faunal colonization is a time-dependent process that Video and audio streaming combined with deep manifests in response to changes in the physical habitat learning programs and human observation can be used to structure, which may take decades, particularly in northern identify species, providing another approach to monitoring latitudes. fauna diversity. Beginning in 2013, the Responsive Scientific investigations on faunal communities serve as Environments group at the MIT Media Lab partnered with a yardstick for restoration success and help inform future Living Observatory to develop an experimental real-time restoration efforts. Faunal communities in restored cranberry sensor system across Tidmarsh. Today this network of bogs vary in diversity, geographic scale, and population over 100 environmental sensor boxes, 20 microphones, growth patterns. As such, long-term documentation of and five cameras streams signals to servers at MIT. Video faunal community dynamics across multiple taxa is an cameras are strategically positioned with motion detectors, imperative scientific endeavor for understanding the impact and frequently capture the presence of wetland birds and of wetland restoration to the region, as well as highlighting mammals. Video movies featuring deer, river otters, a long term shifts in faunal populations due to climate variety of ducks and spring ducklings, great blue herons, change. as well as river herring have been captured and posted to social media. While these videos are monitored and annotated by humans, another deep learning program, Tidzam, scans the audio and video streams and detects, identifies, and geo-localizes acoustic events at the class and species level in near-real time. This platform continues to improve and already provides some daily and seasonal insight into variations of wildlife occupancy and activity on the landscape. The platform can be extended in various ways to accommodate use for scientific inquiry, education, and public engagement. For instance, a notation platform allows the system to learn, even as experts debate the source of an acoustic event. Tidzam is coupled to a novel sound listening system that extends auditive perception of the landscape. In the future, this type of system can help us gather baseline data and better understand long term change to species diversity and abundance across a restoration site. More recently, Coonamessett River Trust installed a camera at Swift’s Crossing. It has recorded mice, voles, Red fox with rodent, Tidmarsh, June 2018. Credit: C. Jackson rabbits, deer, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, muskrat to name a few.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 71 TAKE HOME MESSAGE:

The conversion of private farmland to protected and restored open space provides new opportunities for public use and experience. Fostering community engagement requires patience, flexibility, planning and communication. Every interaction is an opportunity to promote a sense stewardship that will sustain the land for generations to come.

Top: 2nd grade at Teaticket School, Falmouth welcome the river herring with Japanese herring kites, Coonamessett, May 2018. Credit: E. Gladfelter Bottom: Max Nelson’s pre-school class crosses Beaver Dam Brook with help from teachers and parents, Tidmarrsh, May 2018. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 72 10.

Building Stewardship: A Community Commitment

hange associated with farm retirement and planned ecological restoration C can generate complex and sometimes emotional reactions within the local community. For some, the project may face initial public dismay or opposition, i Foster community while for others it may stimulate the promise of new hiking or birdwatching involvement: the roots of opportunities. Cranberry bogs have been an important landscape feature of stewardship lie in long term Southeastern Massachusetts for over 150 years. People who frequent these areas engagement with the land. have been accustomed to the sweeping, open farmland, with a spectacular harvest season when the flooded bogs turn red with floating ripe berries, as i Design for the future well as rich memories of fishing, swimming, biking, skating and ice fishing, of wetlands and public even on land that is privately held. access to them: Incorporate Simply put, people do not like change. That is especially true of changes they do not understand, that happen quickly, and that disrupt what they have public access elements during become accustomed to their entire lives. Successful restoration projects, from wetland design. a social viewpoint, must cultivate community goodwill. Each of the completed i Stewardship is a long term restorations have experienced many examples of people who were opposed to commitment: the end of the project initially but became enthusiastic supporters in time as the benefits of restoration became evident. restoration construction is but In each case, the strategy for developing this good will occurred organically the beginning of the process as the vision for the project progressed. In the beginning, tours, public of ecological restoration. meetings, and some school visits allowed organizers to get early feedback. In time, local, state, and national news outlets began to pick up the story. Because these restorations were developed with public funding, public use and education were important touch stones in the project descriptions. The breadth of these encounters conveys an ethos of stewardship which over the long term increases community resiliency as well as the resiliency of the restored wetland ecosystem.

Eel River: partnerships formed around clean water and the importance of fish passage The restoration project at Eel River began as part of an effort by the Town of Plymouth to improve water quality in streams and in Plymouth Bay. It was a time—in the early 2000s—when the consequences of deteriorating water quality had become evident even to the casual observer. In 2003, the Town of Plymouth purchased two recently retired cranberry farms at the headwaters of Eel River. The retirement and permanent conservation protection of these farms insured that chemicals used in farming would no longer be applied. However, restoring fish passage for diadromous fish species, including river herring, became the impetus for ecological restoration of the property. In 2006, the idea of a wetland restoration of cranberry farmland was very new. Plymouth’s Department of Marine and Environmental Affairs hired Inter- Fluve, and worked with the Massachusetts Riverways and Wetlands Restoration Program (now both part of DER), to develop a concept design report for the restoration of the Eel River headwaters. This area encompassed not only the retired cranberry farmland, but also an adjacent, downstream parcel of town-

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 73 Classes from Mount Holyoke College and University of Massachusetts are introduced to the restoration, Tidmarsh 2015. Credit: LO owned conservation land on which the historic Sawmill a collaborating partner to DER as well as Mass Audubon, Pond Dam stood. At the time, Plymouth was also involved convened stake holders to participate in summits focused in dam removals along Town Brook. Partnerships formed on topics of special interest (such as denitrification), and around the importance of fish passage and clean water engaged in significant community outreach. served to cultivate a diverse group of partners for both During the years leading up to the construction projects. phase of Tidmarsh and beyond, the owners were also Following the restoration of 1.3 miles of stream actively seeking a partner who would be willing and able channel, as well as the removal of the Sawmill Pond Dam to conserve the land, transition it for public access and and two undersized culverts, 17,000 Atlantic white cedars enjoyment, and actively embrace the LO goal of learning (AWC) were planted in the headwaters area. A fence was for all ages. They found that partner in Mass Audubon, constructed to protect these young trees from browsing by which acquired the property in 2017. While Mass Audubon white-tailed deer. The fence was unpopular but tolerated. was at the time the largest landowner in Massachusetts, the By the time it was removed in 2015, diverse wetland acquisition of a restored property was a novelty. As a senior vegetation had become well established. Today, pillows of staff person eloquently phrased it: “Restoration is a new, sphagnum moss cover floodplain, the AWC are producing very powerful tool in our conservation toolbox.” new generations of trees, and the site is frequented by people who choose to walk with and without dogs. Coonamessett: leveraging local partnerships to form lasting relationships Tidmarsh: garnering support through education At the Coonamessett, several decades of background and outreach preparation and support of federal, state and local biologists Located about ten miles northwest of Tidmarsh, the led to formation of the Coonamessett River Trust (CRT), an Eel River project inspired the owners of Tidmarsh Farms to NGO whose mission was to promote improved fish passage work toward a similar conservation and ecological wetland along the river. Concurrently, Falmouth’s local land trust restoration for their farm. In parallel, the owners founded (The 300 Committee) was strategically acquiring a green LO in order to address a common problem associated corridor of buffering conservation lands (the town’s and with restorations, namely that many restorations do not their own) along the entire length of the river. Both groups have the bandwidth, financial and otherwise, for long-term supported the idea of a trail system the length of the river. monitoring and sustained public outreach. With these two key partners, the Falmouth Conservation Over four times the restoration footprint of Eel River, Commission led the effort to obtain grant funding and the Tidmarsh restoration together with the active presence coordinate a number of federal, state and local partners to of LO attracted many of the same federal, state, and begin restoration design in 2010. NGO partners that had been involved in Eel River. Living Local champions were a critical component of each Observatory expanded this support by attracting scientists, of these projects. People who became involved early engineers and artists from a range of institutions who generally stayed involved and brought with them the were interested in measuring restoration outcomes, and support of new partners, volunteers, and voters. in prototyping novel approaches to record and share the “arc of change” with the public. The faculty’s enthusiasm for these field studies was quickly transmitted to their students. As a result, Tidmarsh served as a training ground for a sizable and diverse community of students over LO’s nine years of operation. From its inception, LO served as

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 74 Early connection with stakeholders fosters long-term appreciation All wetland restorations must undergo permitting, including by federal and state agencies, and always by a local commission. If projects involve land purchase by the town, several other meetings may be needed. Before introducing a project that will change the look, feel and access to landscape at a local public meeting, it is always prudent to reach out to the community in other ways to explain the project and its benefits. The cranberry farms at Eel River were purchased with monies allocated by Plymouth’s Community Preservation Committee and voted on by town meeting members. Following this land acquisition phase, public meetings were held to share the restoration objectives and gain public feedback. Once the project was designed, the plan was put in front of the town’s Conservation Commission. The restoration plan saw some initial opposition from abutters; however, in time, all but one or two lent their support. Because Tidmarsh Farms was privately held and the owners could not engage personally with all of the 200+ abutters and other interested residents of Manomet, the project made extensive use of media avenues for community outreach, including three web sites and eight cable television shows (two interview programs and a six-part special series developed by PAC-TV). Two community meetings were held to introduce the design and set community expectations, and there were two Conservation Commission meetings. While public opinion was generally supportive, the project was challenged in the very early stages, following the drawdown of Beaver Dam Pond, the reservoir at the southern end of the property. Over the years, this artificial impoundment had provided some local residents with a swimming and fishing hole. While there were several compelling reasons for the drawdown, it left in its wake As a recipient of a “5 under 40” award from New England Home Magazine, architect a 35-acre temporary mud flat with a small stream running Thomas McNeill designed this rug that was realized by the weavers of Landry and through it, and throughout the winter and spring, the mud Accari, Boston. McNeill writes of his creation: flat lacked any perceivable vegetation. Nearby residents were concerned and brought their grievance to the Conservation “ This rug is a story of past, present and future, woven in Commission. Over time the mudflat greened up and fabric. The large form represents a spring-fed pond, local opposition lessened. Today, many residents have communicated to the former owners appreciation for the a place that I visited often to seek inspiration. Years later, decision to conserve and restore. the pond was drained and something that was once so vital Public engagement around the Coonamessett site began in the early 2000s. Initially the divergent opinions made for seemed to have transformed into a desolate wasteland. very contentious interactions between pro-farm and pro- Beneath the surface, however, the source of water was restoration voices that played out in numerous town meeting still feeding, and it has now developed into a creek, discussions and votes. Opposition to the project gradually diminished especially after the restoration of Phase 1 was forming its own path across the landscape. It is becoming completed in 2018. The successful restorations at Eel and something entirely new, unexpected and beautiful. Tidmarsh were instrumental in preparing the public for ” expected changes. “Have faith,” said one neighbor, “the ugly expanse of mud will soon transform into a lovely wetland meadow.” The 2019 Annual Town Report featured the restoration on its cover, highlighting the teamwork among the 40 partners required for such an achievement.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 75 Group of LO researchers and volunteers admire the Coonamessett River from new bridge at Dexter’s Mill Crossing, 2018. Credit: C. Neill

In Falmouth there were a minimum of two public How public use informs design meetings per year from 2009 onwards, as well as multiple Wetland restorations tend to preserve roadways along presentations to private groups and many field trips. The the edges of the bogs as trails to circumnavigate the project was covered extensively by both the Falmouth and restoration site. However, by removing dams that cross Cape Cod newspapers, and local FCTV and radio. Over the site, the projects remove trails the public have used the years, numerous videos were made to document the for many years and keep people away from the most project’s progress. interesting aspect of the restoration, the wetland surface. Devising the best strategy for public outreach requires This is a particular challenge in the restoration of flow- local knowledge and a sound communications plan. Public through bogs. Farms tend to be privately held and generally meetings that stress the positive benefits of restoration discourage visitors due to risks from heavy equipment, may be met with considerable opposition initially. People chemical applications, and other potential opportunities may worry about the loss of familiar landscape vistas and for people to unwittingly damage the crop. All four amenities that have been used by multiple generations; restored sites were permeable to entry from a number of perceived fears include the removal of seemingly “historic” neighboring areas, and many of these users unofficially structures, loss of jobs, loss of land value, the smell of claimed the land and reservoirs as “theirs.” In preparation swampy water and the potential increase in mosquito for design, thought must be given to future use by the populations. Patient listening and responsiveness can be public, particularly if public funding is used. Management reassuring. Ultimately, however, all four projects suggest needs to send clear signals concerning how and which that the most powerful tonic for the public occurs as pre-existing uses be maintained. If a use is to be eliminated, the restored site evolves post construction. With more how is that message best communicated in a way that completed projects, the potential for outreach and sharing generates buy-in and avoids friction? Do access points need expectations with concerned citizens will only increase, to be blocked and if so which ones? What modifications are facilitating the process of public engagement and support. needed to provide for safe parking, including bus access? At Eel River, the construction did not include an east- west stream crossing in the southern portion, leaving pedestrians with the need to walk the entire circumference or turn around and retrace their steps. Luckily, the headwaters stream is quite narrow in this portion of the site, and a stream crossing occurred organically, as

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 76 neighbors took it upon themselves to make a crossing the restored area for passive recreation can be learned with small stones and pieces of wood. This suggests that from prior use patterns. Bog roads are well-built and can on some sites, trail system designers should observe local serve the trail system, but the removal of earthen berms use patterns before making a trail that may never be used. can dramatically limit routes that the public find most It also speaks to the desire of the public to experience the convenient or desirable. Routes that cross the wetland and wetland surface, not just the perimeter farm roads. allow people to admire the stream channel also enhance Tidmarsh experienced a similar loss of east-west educational activities. Ideally, a source of funds can be crossings and, given the scale of the property, this loss identified prior to construction to build additional amenities, could not be solved by ad hoc crossings. In order to restore such as boardwalks, that allow the public to experience, the hydrology, five east-west berms were mostly removed admire and learn about wetlands close up. Moreover, and two north-south berms were completely removed future restoration designs may consider other alternatives during construction. Monies raised for construction covered including partial berm removal and retention of interior bog the manufacture of one east-west vehicular bridge towards crossings. It is useful early in design to envision continuity the northern end of the stream channel. In two other of flow between wetlands and uplands, both for ecological locations, large rocks were installed as stepping-stones to reasons, such as invasive plant control and wildlife provide some pedestrian navigation. However, stepping movements, and also for social reasons, such as providing stones are unreliable and can be dangerous: in the case accessible trails. of Tidmarsh, vegetation in the stream channel backs up water in the summer time, leaving some of the stones under Public education and research at least five inches of water from July through January. In our experience, much of the general public gives Because no funding was available for additional boardwalks little thought to the important functions that wetlands serve during construction, the 30,000+ visitors that the Tidmarsh in our communities. It is largely during natural disasters, Wildlife Sanctuary welcomed in its first year of operation when flooding overwhelms the built environment that (2018-9) were unable to experience the wetland surface the role wetlands play in providing flood storage capacity or restored stream channel close up. At present, Mass becomes obvious. Yet the restoration of cranberry farms Audubon is working to raise the necessary funding for presents an exciting opportunity not only to encourage boardwalks. the general public to experience the diverse plant and At the Coonamessett, boardwalks and bridges to animal communities of emerging wetlands, but also to learn replace the two dams/berms that were to be removed were about the myriad other benefits that wetlands provide. It is included in the initial restoration design. The designers important for the users of a restored area to recognize that recognized the berms as integral to the loops that many the end of restoration construction is but the beginning of residents were the restoration process. Mother Nature and Father Time will accustomed to play out a successional process and the public will have a using. Sequencing front row view. of the construction Interpretive signs can significantly enhance a visitor’s of the second experience and are sometimes required as part of an boardwalk issued state permit. Eel River has two informational panels, before phase 2 one at a historical mill site, the other by the restored bog, was specifically as well as some informational signage at the parking area. scheduled to Mass Audubon has installed an informational kiosk at the provide a safe main parking area off Beaver Dam Road at Tidmarsh, and one-mile loop trail is planning several additional kiosks, including one at a during wetland constructed overlook at the top of the meadow where construction the visitor is able to look out across and down the upstream; restored valley. fortuitously, it The Coonamessett Greenway Heritage Trail runs the provided a safe entire length of the river through conservation lands, and it front-row view of has a series of twelve interpretive stations. Together they tell the restoration. about the land use history and natural history of this typical Both boardwalks southeastern Massachusetts valley: its geology/hydrology, were built using history, ecology and the restoration story. The station at CPA funds from the main trailhead has school bus parking, an elevated the Town overlook boardwalk with sweeping views of the river valley, of Falmouth. and a path to the lower loop trail, both of which are fully Walker with a dog pauses to admire the In certain cases, accessable, which connects the river crossing boardwalks. Coonamessett River, 2020. Credit: E. Gladfelter potential use of A book, “Restoring the River, Revealing the Past,” contains all the panels and is available at Falmouth’s local bookstore.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 77 Turtle Pond at the Coonamessett There is a pond in the SW corner of the Coonamessett site that was dug by the farmer many years ago to supply irrigation water. The original design for the restoration called for filling the pond, but in 2010, at the first technical meeting for stakeholders, the local participants objected, pointing out that “Turtle Pond” as it was locally called was a favorite place for the public to view turtles, birds and other wildlife. The decision was made to incorporate the pond into the design. This proved to be prescient because CRT discovered that the pond was fed by strong groundwater springs that keep its waters at an even, moderate temperature throughout the year. Turtle Pond thus provides an additional refuge for cold water fish during the summer, supplementing the side channels that connect the main river stem to strong groundwater springs. The attention to cold groundwater sources supports the goal of restoring conditions that favor the salter trout population of the Coonamessett, Turtle Pond, Coonamessett, August 2020. Credit: E. Gladfelter which made the river a famous sport fishing destination in the early 1900s.

The restored sites are also suitable areas for more Finally, the restored sites are living laboratories that formal education, whether field trips by students invite long-term research projects. The LO at Tidmarsh (elementary to post-graduate) or restoration practitioners. develops curriculum materials that invite a range of class Other interested groups learning from tours include Town activities and offers individual field work opportunities committees, landowners interested in transitioning their for undergraduate and graduate research programs. farms, as well as a range of local organizations, such as conservation organizations, churches, garden clubs, rotary Management and stewardship post construction clubs, and NGOs. The topic for the field trip can be viewing The restoration team may help guide a project through nature (and there are ways to enhance this experience construction, but further long-term management is typically using technology, such as at Tidmarsh), or exploring the responsibility of the landowner. Many parties can restoration actions and the impact of these actions on contribute to a formal management structure that can be ecological processes, or learning about the history of the assisted, formally or informally, by volunteer stewards. area. At Tidmarsh, both in-school educational and an out- Eel River is managed by the Plymouth Department of of-school educational components are in development Marine and Environmental Services. Tidmarsh is now the by Mass Audubon, which has a coordinated educational Mass Audubon Tidmarsh Wildlife Sanctuary and its site program across their network of sanctuaries. At the and program management are by the parent organization. Coonamessett, a less formal structure exists in which most Living Observatory maintains an active research presence of the public field experiences are offerings of the Town on the site, and it has developed a number of enhanced partners, The 300 Committee and the Coonamessett River observational opportunities for public enjoyment that can Trust. They in turn coordinate with other groups in town, be incorporated into Mass Audubon programming. The which support educational activities, such as Falmouth Coonamessett site management is through a Memorandum STEM Boosters and WHOI Sea Grant, to develop activities of Understanding between the Town and The 300 at the river. Public access to a site can be as simple as a Committee; programmatic management is through the trail network with some informational signage or more offerings of the Coonamessett River Trust and The 300 formal as in an advertised learning program. Committee, under the overall supervision of the Falmouth Conservation Commission.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 78 All sites welcome informal and formal visitors. Public use can range from minimal to an extensive formal structure, and does not require a set program. Some, like Eel River support modest, relatively informal educational programing. The Coonamessett has an active program that evolved organically through the efforts of the local groups and individuals that worked to bring the restoration to fruition. Mass Audubon provides the most structured programmatic approach. This reflects the organization’s educational mission and funding sources. Programs at each of these sites will continue to evolve as each organization contributes activities that help people enjoy and learn about the natural world, even as they develop a sense of stewardship for the property.

Designer of HearThere, Gershon Dublon, observes Kate Ballantine as she listens to Tidmarsh through this smart head-worn experimental device that extends perception and amplifies attention, 2018. Credit: LO

Alex Hackman describes restoration actions at Eel River to a group of visitors from Mass Audubon, 2015. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 79 TAKE HOME MESSAGE:

Incorporating learning into restoration projects will help improve underlying science and this emerging restoration practice.

Students from the Responsive Environments Group at the MIT Media Lab spend a day installing sensors at Tidmarsh, May 2019. Credit: I. Wicaksono

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 80 11.

Future Learning

ow does the ecosystem evolve following the wetland restoration on a cranberry H farm? Does a self-sustaining wetland develop, and how do its characteristics DER’s cranberry bog change over time? How does it differ from an abandoned cranberry farm where no program has built strong active restoration occurs? Answering these and other questions will help advance both ties to LO and a network the discipline of restoration ecology and the practice of wetland restoration. Even the ostensibly simple question “Did the restoration actions make the site wet?” demands a of scientists in the region. nuanced response: “What do we mean by wet?” Without well-framed scientific studies, The linkage between we observe through foggy lenses: while our eyes and ears tell us that the landscape is changing, experiments are needed to quantify the drivers of wetland formation wetland restoration and the ecosystem functions that result. Although millions of acres of wetlands have projects, practitioners, and been restored in the United States and around the world, relatively few of these scientists provides a rich restored wetlands have been monitored and evaluated for long term success. Of the restored wetlands that have been examined, many do not meet specified functional or opportunity for learning. developmental goals. Better science will help restoration stakeholders and designers refine expectations, more accurately articulate restoration goals, and fine tune restoration actions. Typically, scientists wishing to document wetland development on restoration sites face significant challenges in realizing field studies including identifying appropriate and accessible projects, finding receptive project managers, attracting interested researchers, developing a robust study framework, and raising funds to realize a study of appropriate duration. Given these challenges, it is no wonder that many restoration ecologists worry that the field is not attracting a sufficient number of researchers to establish a sound theoretical base for restoration ecology. In this light, DER’s Cranberry Bog Program offers a unique and very promising opportunity. Through the program, many retired cranberry farms will be restored to wetlands in the coming years. Through past projects, the program has built strong ties to LO and a network of scientists in the region. The linkage between wetland restoration projects, practitioners, and scientists provides a rich opportunity for learning which in turn can inform innovations in practice. All DER Cranberry Bog projects share two important characteristics: namely, all sites were historically wetlands; and, while there are geological and hydrological differences, all sites are situated on a glacially influenced substrate. Given this baseline, stream and wetland restoration actions will be similar in that they seek to restore the movement and storage of water on the site by removing specific legacy artifacts that have been traditional to cranberry farm construction in Southeastern Massachusetts for over 100 years. At the same time, these projects will introduce innovations into the practice, reinforced by the learning agenda.

Mature swamp azalea (Rhododendron viscosum), Blue Hills Preserve, July 2016. Credit: LO

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 81 Value in numbers: studying multiple sites that are similar and different In the interests of maximizing learning potential afforded by DER’s Cranberry Bog Program, the LO community proposes the following three-pronged approach to future research. 1. DER and partners should adopt a standard monitoring package for all wetland restoration of cranberry farms. By standardizing monitoring protocols, pre- restoration and post-restoration data will enable comparisons between restoration sites. As these data sets grow, scientists and restoration specialists will be able to improve their understanding of how wetlands develop, and tailor design solutions to maximize specific outcomes such as denitrification. 2. DER and partners, including LO, should agree on a protocol for the review, coordination, and communication among long-term research projects proposed for restoration sites in DER’s Cranberry Bog Program. Formalizing a review process and sharing Anastasia Pulak samples plants at Eel River, 2020. Credit: C. Neill information about projects. 3. DER and the research community should develop as: What restoration strategies were consistently effective at an outreach strategy aimed at increasing and meeting restoration goals? What impact did the restoration diversifying research capacity. Research capacity have on water quality? How did plant communities is critical to implementing the standard monitoring transition during passive restoration? How long does it take package, maintaining current and expanding long-term for a particular restoration site to become a carbon sink? investigations, funding research, establishing systems and Does that trajectory occur differently on different sites protocols for archiving and data sharing, and developing and why? supporting activities and special projects that disseminate results and help build a robust research community.

DATA, DATA, DATA: documenting change across restoration and comparison sites A clear articulation of intended outcomes and baseline monitoring of pre-restoration and post-restoration conditions are critical components of learning how restoration actions impact wetland development. By applying a suite of standard, relatively low-cost monitoring protocols to all future wetland restorations of cranberry farms, researchers and practitioners will be able to monitor progress toward the stated outcomes and compare how different sites develop over time. The proposed standard package, as elaborated in the monitoring package, was developed in a discussion with LO researchers at the March 6, 2020 LO Learning Summit and is shaped by findings discussed in this report. In practice, a person or organization should be identified who will be responsible for coordinating the sampling/analysis according to the proposed schedule. All sampling parties need to agree on specified data sharing protocols. The goal of monitoring is to document the long- term trajectory of these restorations in order to improve Glorianna photographs the Responsive Environments team at Tidmarsh, restoration practice. As this multi-site monitoring database October 2017. Credit: Nataliastar grows over time, these data sets will help practitioners, scientists, educators and the public answer questions such

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 82 STANDARD MONITORING PACKAGE FOR WETLAND RESTORATION OF CRANBERRY FARMS

Indicator Monitor what? How? Temporal frequency Spatial distribution water quantity water level in channels pressure loggers continuous 2 per site; upstream and in piezometers downstream water quantity water temp in channels temp sensor ideal = continuous upstream and downstream extents; Selected lateral channels and upwellings water quantity groundwater levels pressure loggers continuous 3-5 per site under site in piezometers water quantity surface water public domain satellites weekly sitewide distribution water quality DO, pH, T, EC YSI Probe pre- and post- restoration key locations across site soils soil moisture probes 10 cm deep cores continuous 3 in plant plots soils nitrate and ammonium 2 M KCl pre- and post-restoration key locations across site (or 0.5 M K2SO4) geology soil core (up to 1 meter) hand gouge core/ hammer 1 time pre-restoration 1 per plant plot (soil mineralogy) geology peat core for carbon Vibracore 1 time pre-restoration 1-5 per site (soil mineralogy) dating peat radar imaging of ground penetrating 1 time pre-restoration transects subsurface radar (GPR) plants wetland plant plots in person field pre-restoration, 3 x 3 m -random evaluations 1, 2, 5, 10 year plants vegetation density satellite (NDVI) weekly sitewide (or key locations) plants vegetation type drones (RGB or other pre-restoration, sitewide (or key locations) specific bands 1, 2, 5, 10 year depending on need) sound fauna presence microphone continuous key locations across site

Overall progress ground stations phone camera minimally, 3 x /year each dam, both directions; perimeter stations selected for view

Overall progress landscape changes drones pre-, during and sitewide post-restoration; vary camera for water temp and vegetation

Overall progress landscape changes high resolution satellites pre- and post-restoration sitewide or public domain ongoing

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 83 Long-term studies illuminate our understanding To help answer these questions, a laboratory study of species germinating from soil and peat samples collected of how sites develop and change at Foothills, Childs and Coonamessett middle and Clearly framed, long-term investigations led by scientists upper bogs pre-restoration can be used to complement complement the standard monitoring data sets suggested ongoing field surveys. Quantifying the viability and above. These studies provide a deeper understanding of diversity of the underlying seed bank will contribute how particular wetland processes develop and interact to understanding the flora of the source wetlands and over time. In doing so, they help set ecological, social, and provide valuable guidance about planting and seeding economic expectations for future projects, and contribute to plans that are specified for these restorations. The study both ecological theory and restoration practice. A selection will also augment theoretical understanding of historical of studies that are proposed or currently underway are wetland composition and seed bank culture. described below; several other studies are currently in • How does the physical habitat structure change proposal status. across the wetland-aquatic-upland habitat complex of • How much does soil moisture vary across the site a restored cranberry farm over time? And how does over time? A primary goal of wetland restorations on this impact plant and animal assemblages? Wetland former cranberry farms is to make the site sufficiently restoration jumpstarts habitat heterogeneity across a wet to support vegetation and to develop wetland restored cranberry farm site. How does the physical soils and their associated ecosystem functions. At habitat structure change from microhabitat to landscape Foothills Preserve, a long-term study involves the use scale? How does species colonization transition? And of distributed temperature sensing (DTS) to quantify for certain focal species, how does the population soil moisture pre- and post-restoration at a high spatial/ structure change? A long-term study at Tidmarsh uses a temporal resolution. When correlated with the surveys combination of remote sensing and multi-species field of plant and soil communities, this study will help surveys to assess community dynamics in response practitioners better understand the inter-relationships to changing habitat structure. This study will advance between ground and surface water, soil moisture, and the understanding of how habitat complexity emerges the establishment of wetland plant and soil microbial following restoration and how this affects community communities. dynamics of a restored cranberry bog. In doing so, it • Do restored wetlands remove excess nutrient will contribute to ecological theory in the context of pollution? The cessation of farming reduces watershed cranberry bog restoration. nitrogen loading by removing both nitrogen and • How do restored wetlands impact insect populations? phosphorus as sources from these formerly fertilized bog Insects are a critical component of healthy ecosystems. areas. As the wetland develops, several ongoing studies While not currently underway, a long-term study of explore how these sites act as locations of additional insect populations at current and future restoration sites nutrient removal in the watershed. These findings are would be useful and timely. Because some mosquito significant as most cranberry farms were built in coastal species carry West Nile Virus (WNV) and Eastern Equine watersheds where nutrient run-off into saline waters Encephalitis (EEE or “Triple E”) virus in Southeastern contaminates and damages critical ecological processes of the shallow coastal shelf. • How diverse is the viable seedbank on a restored farm? How does the viable seed bank in the soils compare with the vegetation that regenerates on site post wetland restoration? Many plant species that colonize restored wetland sites emerge from a seedbank that has been preserved under the sand layer of the cranberry farm for many years. How many of these seeds and propagules are preserved in peat versus the sand layers? How many arrive from neighboring Dopplemarsh, a virtual reality (VR) experience which invites users to navigate a 3d model of the Tidmarsh terrain as locations? How diverse is this viable it is augmented with naturalistic renderings of vegetation, real time sensor data, and a menagerie of virtual critters seedbank on different properties? who respond to environmental conditions. Credit: Responsive Environments Group, MIT Media Lab. 2018

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 84 wetland that becomes conservation property increased by some 10%, the private sector would find it profitable to finance the restoration. While results would be relevant for all wetland restorations of former cranberry farms, they might be particularly enabling for a number of smaller bogs, 40 acres, which may be too small to attract federal and state funding.

Alternative futures: what are the consequences of a management decision to restore vs. to simply retire a cranberry farm? When first introduced to the idea of restoring a cranberry farm, many people ask, why bother? Why not just walk away and allow the retired area to rewild Monarch butterfly and caterpillar on common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), on its own? Research findings demonstrate that this July 2018. Credit: C. Jackson management decision has consequences. Actively restored bogs are wetter, develop healthier wetland soils, and Massachusetts, the impact of restoration on mosquito support a greater abundance and diversity of wetland populations is of particular concern. It is not known plants than unrestored counterparts. Extrapolating from at this time if and how mosquito population size and chronosequence of soil samples taken from restored, composition differ in wet areas of actively farmed sites retired, active farms and natural reference wetlands, compared with retired, restored, and natural sites. It is researchers are able to assess the impact of time on the known that mosquitos are an important species for the development of key ecosystem variables. This data shows food web, supporting dragon and damselflies as well as that soil moisture and organic matter reach higher levels at several bird species that abound on restored cranberry faster rates on restored farms compared to farms that are farms, all of whom consume mosquitos in large retired without restoration, and that these soil properties numbers. This habitat and predator/prey dynamic and influence key wetland functions including the improvement how it impacts the size and composition of mosquito of water quality via removal of nitrate. Continued evaluation populations might provide a focus for a multiphase of these sites and newly restored sites will improve our study. An initial phase of such a study might involve understanding of how management decisions influence key quantifying mosquito egg mass areas on a restored ecosystem functions. farm, a retired farm where ditches are still filled with water, and an active farm that is not treated for mosquito Alternative restoration methodologies: repression. A more sophisticated study could involve what strategies can improve restoration outcomes? identifying the sound of these particular species. Ecological restoration of cranberry farms is a new • How does wetland restoration of cranberry farms practice. Restoration designers and specialists are interested impact the local/regional economy? not only in learning what works well, but also in exploring Cranberries remain the highest value food crop in alternative strategies that could create better outcomes and Massachusetts with an economic footprint of $1.4 billion lower costs. Some strategies involving surface treatments per year. In the past, the colorful cranberry harvest in lend themselves to plot based experiments. Other strategies, October drew thousands of tourists to Massachusetts. such as restoration on smaller farms, may require agreement How does the transition from agricultural production to on a holistic approach associated with careful monitoring wetland restoration and conservation impact the local and documentation. and regional economy? • In agricultural systems, biochar has been shown • An initial study by researchers at the EPA Center for to revive depleted soils, improve crop growth, and Environmental Measurement and Modeling in Rhode reduce greenhouse gas emissions. An ongoing study Island focuses on how values shape decisions about that combines mesocosm experiments in the laboratory wetland restoration of former cranberry farms. Other with field experiments explores the potential impact of studies developed for Tidmarsh prior to purchase of biochar amendments on the structure and function of a the land by Mass Audubon and the Town of Plymouth restored wetland. In the mesocosm experiments, biochar explore the potential value of ecoservices associated significantly reduced nitrogen leaching and suppressed with wetland restoration of this property in the context greenhouse gas emissions (methane, carbon dioxide of climate change. More studies focusing on social and and nitrous oxide). If the field results are comparable, economic implications of these restorations can generate this may have implications for future restoration creative approaches to funding. Theoretically, if the methodology. value of properties surrounding an ecologically restored

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 85 • What is the most effective approach to jumpstarting granularity. A prototype low cost sensor network that an Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) collects and streams data has been developed to explore (AWC) swamp community at a wetland restoration the scientific and public learning benefits of collecting a site? Once common, AWC swamp communities are broad spectrum of environmental data; and audio and video now considered imperiled in Massachusetts. These recordings combined with deep learning analysis has been communities prefer acidic (5.5 pH), wet, lowland used to detect wildlife and use that data as a measure for conditions and in Massachusetts are located within the health of the landscape. 60 feet of sea level. Many cranberry farms were built With the advance of image and sound capture and on former swamp lands, which makes AWC an deep learning technologies, the potential to analyze appropriate target ecotype for restoration projects. change across the landscape is improving rapidly. Groups At Eel River, 17,000 three-year old Atlantic white cedar overseeing monitoring of new restoration properties should trees were planted. Today, 10 years post restoration, spend some time researching best current image processing many of these trees reach over 15 feet in height, and techniques to quantify surface water, soil moisture, thousands of young AWC seedlings are colonizing the vegetation and wildlife. Specific technologies can then be understory. A vegetation study at one, two, five, and selected and configured to meet the project goals based 10 years post restoration suggests dense planting of on available funding. AWC is a successful restoration strategy to jumpstart this community. However, planting 17,000 three-year Growing the research community: getting the word out old trees is expensive. The design for Foothills Preserve and engaging specific researchers specifies planting many one-year old AWC propagules (grown from cuttings). It will be important to monitor To maximize the learning potential afforded by DER’s the success of this strategy, since it could significantly Cranberry Bog Program, there is a need to both expand reduce the cost of jumpstarting an AWC swamp research capacity and to find funding to support on-going community. research. The current community of researchers can help recruit the next generation of researchers by contributing Alternative monitoring methodologies: papers and special sessions to conferences, particularly those that draw diverse participation, broadly distributing tools to add value to the monitoring toolbox Request for Proposals, and spending time with colleagues Technologies for measuring variables across a whose interests may be aligned. On-site visits, as well as landscape are advancing rapidly. Over the past few years on-line webinars, are extremely effective in introducing we have seen dramatic improvements in both satellite and senior and student researchers to cranberry farm practice drone technologies for aerial landscape imaging. Recently and the broad goals of the wetland restoration work. the use of infrared aerial imaging has shown promise to be Summer or school year internships can be crafted to engage able to detect cooler groundwater upwellings from surface high school and undergraduate students. Increasing number water; Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) cable has of publications about this research in professional journals been deployed to measure soil moisture at a fine temporal should help attract new faculty and qualified students. While much of the early research on these restorations was supported by the faculty members’ home institutions, collective consideration should be given to developing a more integrated proposal to a well-endowed outside funding organization. Developing a successful proposal will require shaping an umbrella focus that embraces a wide range of research efforts.

Conclusions Monitoring all cranberry farm properties before and after wetland restoration will be important to understanding how these restored cranberry farms develop and function over time and how differences between properties affect the development. Long-term studies will build on this data and quantify the delivery of ecological and social changes as they evolve over time. This knowledge will in turn Mike Cosh, Research Hydrologist with the USDA-ARS Hydrology and Remote Sensing advance ecological theory and improve restoration practice. Lab, completes the installation of a COSMOS (Cosmic-ray Soil Moisture Observing In order to effectively maximize the learning potential System) probe at Foothills Preserve, 2018. This stationary probe provides data to afforded by DER’s Cranberry Bog Program, a collaborative an national network of similar devices; the data will complement that collected by approach should be used to recruit new researchers and to Christine Hatch and her team from University of Massachusetts – Amherst. Credit: LO seek umbrella funding.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 86 Mass DER (Massachusetts Department of Ecological Restoration). Cranberry bog program, 2019. https://www.mass.gov/cranberry- Notes and References bog-program Massachusetts Cranberries, https://www.cranberries.org/history

1. Learning from 10 Years of Wetland Restoration Mitsch, Wiliam J. and James G. Gosselink, (2007). Wetalnds, John Wiley & Sons. An excellent introduction to all aspects of wetlands, on Cranberry Farms 2007.

Chapter 1 Notes 2. Page 8: “How wetlands work,” developed by Ravenmark, LLC Four Wetland Restorations of Cranberry Farms with input from Kate Ballantine. Chapter 2 Notes Page 9: Proportion of MA. cranberry bogs planted with first, rd Page 18: Eel River, Plymouth Atlas 1830. Survey and atlas maps second and 3 generation cultivars from Hoekstra et al, 2019. provide valuable insights into land use history. A local library or Page 9: Location of Cranberry farms in Massachusetts, 2016, historical society can help with this detective work. developed by Cape Cod Cranberry Growers’ Association. Information about the geological and geographic position of Inset: Survey map, Town of Plymouth, 1885. Atlases and Survey restoration properties in respective watersheds can be found maps provide valuable information regarding historical land. in design reports by Inter-Fluve, LLC. Additional information This survey map is the earliest we have found that documents was assembled by Professor Christine Hatch, Department cranberry companies in the village of Manomet, Plymouth MA. of Geosciencees, University of Massachusetts Amherst. Page 10: Ranking potential for retirement and restoration of Page 19: Map showing watershed and Tidmarsh Farms property cranberry farms, developed by Hoekstra et al. This predictive tool boundaries was developed by Alex Hackman, Massachusetts aims at helping stakeholders manage expectations regarding Department of Fish and Game, Division of Ecological Restoration. near-term retirement and restoration potential. Page 11: Charts: Cranberry industry: total production (1962-2017), Chapter 2 References yield/acre (1967-2017), bog acreage (1967-2017) from Hoekstra Deegan, et al., (n.d.). A Restoration Plan for et al. Massachusetts has become less competitive largely due the Coonamessett River: Options for the demonstration efficiencies related to new cultivars and the ability to build bogs project in the lower Coonamessett River. on uplands. The paper by Hoekstra et al provides the most up to date and detailed analysis of the situation. Hoekstra et al. Interfluve, Inc., (2011). Alternatives for Fish Passage and Habitat improvement in the Coonamesseett River, Falmouth, MA: Final Page 12-13: Before and after cranberry farm restoration cross Report, Prepared for the Town of Falmouth Conservation sections illustrations developed by Ravenmark, LLC. Commission, 2011. Chapter 1 References InterFluve, Inc., (2017). Coonamessett River Upper and Middle Bog Restoration Draft 75% Submittal, Falmouth, MA, August 4, 2017. Beechie, Timothy, David A. Sear, Julian D. Olden, George R. Pess, John M. Buffington, Hamish Moir, Philip Roni, and Michael InterFluve, Inc., (2007). Eel River, Ma: Restoration Project Pollock, (2010). “Process-based Principles for Restoring River Concept Design Report, Feb 8, 2007, as submitted to the Town of Ecosystems,” BioScience, March 2010, Vol60, No 3, pp 209-222. Plymouth. Dahl, Thomas, (1990). Wetland losses in the United States 1780’s InterFluve, Inc., (2017). Coonamessett River Restoration & Dam to 1980’s, Report to Congress, U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Removal, 75% Design Submittal, Falmouth MA, October 14, 2017. Wildlife Service, 1990. InterFluve, Inc., (2014). Tidmarsh Farms/Beaver Dam Brook: 90% Eck, Paul, (1990). The American Cranberry, Rutgers University Design Memorandum, July 29, 2014. Press, 1990. InterFluve, Inc., (2020). Foothills Preserve & West Beaver Dam Falk, Donald A., Margaret A. Palmer, and Job B. Zelder (ed), Brook Restoration Project, Town of Plymouth and Mass Audubon, (2006). Foundations of Restoration Ecology: Chapter 1: Ecological 100% Design, January 24, 2020. Theory and Restoration Ecology and Chapter 16: Integrating Manomet Center for Conservation Services, Eric Walberg, (2013). Restoration Ecology and Ecological Theory: A Synthesis, Society Tidmarsh Farms, Massachusetts, Climate Change Adaptation Plan, for Ecological Restoration International, Foundations of Restoration May 2013. Ecology, Island Press, 2006. Mass Audubon, Jeff Collins, (2014). A Conservation Assessment Hoekstra, Benjamin R., Christopher Neill, Casey Kennedy, and Wildlife Sanctuary Concept Plan for Tidmarsh Farms in (2019). “Trends in the Massachusetts cranberry industry create Plymouth Massachusetts, September 2014. opportunities for the restoration of cultivated riparian wetlands. Restoration Ecology, 2019. doi:10.111/rec.13037. A. Hackman, (2014, unpublished). Division of Ecological 3. Glacial Geology Provides Hydrologic Opportunity Restoration, Table of Restoration Actions. This one page summary provided the Tidmarsh team with a valuable communication tool, Chapter 3 Notes 2014. Page 24: Carbon dating of peat at Foothills Preserve, C. Hatch InterFluve, Inc., (2007). Eel River, Ma: Restoration Project Concept (unpublished data) Design Report, as submitted to the Town of Plymouth, Feb 8, 2007. Page 25: Lidar data available at https://docs.digital.mass.gov/ MassDAR (Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources) dataset/massgis-data-lidar-terrain-data 2016. The Massachusetts Cranberry Revitalization Task Force: Digital elevation model (https://mgs.geo.umass.edu), Stephen Final Report. pp.66. 2016. https://www.mass.gov/doc/cranberry- B. Mabee. Republished by permission. revitalization-task-force-report/download

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 87 Page 25: Surface water and groundwater input at restoration sites: Sandler, Hilary A.; DeMoranville, Carolyn J.; and Lampinen, Bruce, data assembled by C.Hatch “Cranberry Irrigation Management” (2004). Cranberry Station Fact Sheets. 12. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.umass.edu/ Page 27: Impacts of Cranberry Farming on Stream Hydrology. cranberry_factsheets/12 Data from Weweantic and Mattapoisett Rivers: C. Kennedy (unpublished); data from Coonamsessett, C.Neill and L. Deegan Stone, J.R., Stone, B.D., DiGiacomo-Cohen, M.L., and Mabee, S.B., (unpublishsed) comps., 2018, Surficial materials of Massachusetts—A 1:24,000-scale geologic map database: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Page 28: Using Temperature and Water Isotopes to identify Investigations Map 3402, 189 sheets, scale 1:24,000; index map, Locations of Groundwater (unpublished) Data sources: Isotope analysis conducted by the UMass IsoScape Project, Thermal UAS scale 1:250,000; 58-p. pamphlet; and geodatabase files, https://doi. data collection by Ryan Wicks, UMass Air and orthomosaic by Lyn org/10.3133/sim3402. Watts. Photo and analysis by Christine Hatch (unpublished). Walter, D.A., and Masterson, J.P., 2011, Estimated hydrologic budgets of kettle-hole ponds in coastal aquifers of southeastern Chapter 3 References Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Befus, K.M., Darhower, S., Liefert, D.T. and Shuman, B.N., 2019 Report 2011–5137, 72 p., at http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2011/5137/ (in press, corrected proof) Reconstructing the groundwater Walter, D.A., Masterson, J.P., and Hess, K.M., 2004, Ground-water recharge history for the Plymouth-Carver Aquifer Massachusetts, recharge areas and travel times to pumped wells, ponds, streams, USA: Quaternary International, p.1-12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. and coastal water bodies, Cape Cod, Massachusetts: quaint.2019.06.026 U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map I-2857, Hare, Danielle K., David F. Boutt, William P. Clement, Christine 1 sheet. https://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/2004/2857/ E. Hatch, Glorianna Davenport, and Alex Hackman. (2017) Williams, John R. and Tasker, Gary D., 1974. Water resources of the Hydroegological controls on patterns of groundwater discharge coastal drainage basins of Southeastern Massachusetts: Weir River, in peatlands, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 21(12), Hingham to Jones River, Kingston. Hydrologic Atlas 504. USGS 6031–6048, 2017. doi:10.5194/hess-21-6031-2017 Publications Warehouse. http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/ha504 Hatch Christine E. (2020) Earth Matters: Hunting groundwater in a frozen bog. Daily Hampshire Gazette. Earth Matters. Northampton, 4. Measuring Soil Moisture on Restored Wetlands MA. Mar 7, 2020. URL: https://www.gazettenet.com/Hunting- groundwater-in-a-winter-landscape-33123932 and Riparian Floodplains Hatch, Christine E. (2020) Restoring a wetland despite a drought. Chapter 4 Notes Daily Hampshire Gazette. Earth Matters. Northampton, MA. Nov 28, 2020. URL: https://www.gazettenet.com/Earth-Matters- Page 32: Diagrams from Erika Ito, “Testing the impact of a Wetlands-restoration-in-Plymouth-37493990 freshwater wetland restoration on water table elevation and soil moisture using a parametric groundwater modeling approach,” Hatch, Christine E. (2018) Don’t drain the swamp! A meditation Masters Thesis (expected 2020), University of Massachusetts on the meaning of wetlands. Daily Hampshire Gazette. Earth Amherst, Department of Geosciences. Matters. Northampton, MA. November 19, 2018. URL: https://www.gazettenet.com/Earth-Matters-21560966 Page 33-35: Soil moisture at Foothills preserve and Tidmarsh, C. Hatch unpublished data. Kennedy, Casey D., Peter Jeranyama, and Nickolas Alverson (2017) Agricultural water requirements for commercial production of Page 36-37: data and images from Brian Mayton, “Sensor Networks cranberries. Can. J. Soil Sci. 97: 38–45 (2017) dx.doi.org/10.1139/ for Experience and Ecology.” Ph.D. thesis. Massachusetts Institute cjss-2015-0095 of Technology, September 2020. Kennedy, Casey D.; Sophie Wilderotter, Maggie Payne, Anthony Chapter 4 References R. Buda, Peter J. A. Kleinman and Ray B. Bryant (2018) A geospatial model to quantify mean thickness of peat in cranberry Evett, S.R. 2008. Gravimetric and Volumetric Direct Measurements of bogs. Geoderma. Volume 319, 1 June 2018, Pages 122-131. Soil Water Content. Chapter 2 (pp. 23-37) In S.R. Evett, L.K. Heng, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.12.032 P. Moutonnet and M.L. Nguyen (eds.) Field Estimation of Soil Water Content: A Practical Guide to Methods, Instrumentation, and Sensor MassGIS (Bureau of Geographic Information) Data: LiDAR Terrain Technology. IAEA-TCS-30. International Atomic Energy Agency, Data (available at https://docs.digital.mass.gov/dataset/massgis- Vienna, Austria. ISSN 1018–5518. Available at: http://www-pub.iaea. data-lidar-terrain-data ) Mapped by the Massachusetts Geological org/mtcd/publications/PubDetails.asp?pubId=7801 Survey (https://mgs.geo.umass.edu), Stephen B. Mabee, personal http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/IAEABooks/7801/Field-Estimation- communication. of-Soil-Water-Content. Masterson, J.P., 2004, Simulated interaction between freshwater Ito, Erika T., “Testing the impact of a freshwater wetland restoration and saltwater and effects of ground-water pumping and sea-level on water table elevation and soil moisture using a parametric change, Lower Cape Cod aquifer system, Massachusetts: U.S. groundwater modeling approach” Master’s Thesis (expected 2020), Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5014, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Department of Geosciences. 78 p. https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2004/5014/ Mayton, Brian. “Sensor Networks for Experience and Ecology.” Masterson, J.P., and Walter, D.A., 2009, Hydrogeology and Ph.D. thesis. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, September groundwater resources of the coastal aquifers of southeastern 2020. Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1338, 16 p. https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/circ1338/ McInnis, Luke, and Hatch, Christine E. (2017) Soil Moisture in the Wetland Habitat. UMass Extension CAFÉ Summer Scholars Persky, S.H., 1993. Yield and water quality of stratified-drift Conference Poster Presentation. 13 September 2017, Amherst, MA. aquifers in the Southeast Coastal Basin, Cohasset to Kingston, Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Ochsner, T. E.; Cosh, M. H.; Cuenca, R. H.; Dorigo, W. A.; Draper, Investigations Report 91-4112. 47 p., 2 pl. https://pubs.usgs.gov/ C. S.; Hagimoto, Y.; Kerr, Y.; Larson, K. M.; Njoku, E. G.; Small, wri/1991/4112/report.pdf. E. E.; Zreda, M. (2013) State of the art in large-scale soil moisture

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 88 monitoring. Soil Science Society of America Journal 2013, Vol. 77 To learn more about greenhouse gas emissions and carbon No. 6, p. 1888-1919, doi:10.2136/sssaj2013.03.0093 sequestration in restored cranberry bogs, see Bartolucci et al. (in press), Rubin et al. (2020), and Vincent et al. (unpublished United States Environmental Protection Agency, “What is a data). Wetland?” Available at: https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/what- wetland Greenhouse gas emissions as measured at Foothills Preserve prior to restoration and referenece wetlands 5. Wetland Soil is a Primary Driver of Ecosystem Function Chapter 6 References Chapter 5 Notes Altor, A. E., and W. J. Mitsch. 2008. Pulsing hydrology, methane For information about soils and wetland functions, see Ballantine emissions and carbon dioxide fluxes in created marshes: a 2-year et al. 2009, Mitch and Gosselink 2015, and Yao et al. 2017 ecosystem study. Wetlands 28:423–438. For more information about soil development and carbon Ardón, M., J. L. Morse, M. W. Doyle, and E. S. Bernhardt. 2010. storage in restored cranberry bogs, see Ballantine et al. The Water Quality Consequences of Restoring Wetland Hydrology 2017, Ballantine et al. unpublished data, Andras et al. unpublished to a Large Agricultural Watershed in the Southeastern Coastal data, Bartolucci et al. (in press), Rubin et al. (2020). Plain. Ecosystems 13:1060–1078. For information about soil organic matter and its Bartolucci, N., T. Anderson, and K. Ballantine. Restoration of accumulation across site types and over time, see Ballantine et al. retired agricultural land to wetland mitigates greenhouse gas 2009, Ballantine et al., 2017, Noll et al. 2019. emissions. In Press: Restoration Ecology. For information about the soil microbial community, see Andras deKlein, J. J. M., A. K. van der Werf. 2014. Balancing carbon et al. (2020), Rubin et al. (in review), and Yarwood 2018. sequestration and GHG emissions in a constructed wetland. Ecological Engineering 66: 36-42. Chapter 5 References Hemes, K. S., S. D. Chamberlain, E. Eichelmann, T. Anthony, Andras, J. P., Rodriguez-Reillo, W. G., Truchon, A., Blanchard, J. L., A. Valach, K. Kasak, D. Szutu, J. Verfaillie, W. L. Silver, Pierce, E. A., & Ballantine, K. A. (2020). Rewilding the small stuff: D. D. Baldocchi. 2019. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology The effect of ecological restoration on prokaryotic communities of 268:202-214. peatland soils. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. doi:10.1093/femsec/ Mitch, W. J. and U. Mander. 2018. Wetlands and carbon revisited. fiaa144 Ecological Engineering 114:1-6. Ballantine, K. A. and R. L. Schneider. 2009. Fifty-five years Mitch, W. J., B. Bernal, A. M. Nahlik, U. Mander, L. Zhang, C. J. of soil development in restored freshwater depressional Anderson, S. E. Jorgensen, H. Brix. 2013. Wetlands, carbon, and wetlands. Ecological Applications 19:1467-1480. climate change. Landscape Ecology 28: 583-597. Ballantine, K. A., T. Anderson, E. Pierce, and P. Groffman. 2017. Morse, J. L., M. Ardón, and E. S. Bernhardt. 2012. Greenhouse gas Restoration of Denitrification in Agricultural Wetlands. Ecological fluxes in southeastern US coastal plain wetlands under contrasting Engineering 106:570-577. land uses. Ecological Applications 22:264–280. Mitch, W. J. and J. G. Gosselink. 2015. Wetlands (book). Jerman, V., M. Metje, I. Mandic-Mulec, and P. Frenzel. 2009. Noll, A., C. Mobilian, C. Craft. 2019. Five decades of wetland soil Wetland restoration and methanogenesis: the activity of development of a constructed tidal salt marsh, North Carolina, microbial populations and competition for substrates at different USA. Ecological Restoration 37:163-170. temperatures. Biogeosciences 6:1127–1138. Rubin, R., T. Anderson and K. A. Ballantine. 2020. Biochar Rubin, R., T. Anderson and K. A. Ballantine. 2020. Biochar simultaneously reduces nutrient leaching and greenhouse simultaneously reduces nutrient leaching and greenhouse gas gas emissions in restored wetland soils. Wetlands. https://doi. emissions in restored wetland soils. Wetlands. org/10.1007/s13157-020-01380-8 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-020-01380-8 Rubin, R., K. Ballantine, A. Hegberg, and J. Andras. If you flood Stadmark, J., and L. Leonardson. 2005. Emissions of greenhouse it, they will come: passive restoration of former cranberry farms gases from ponds constructed for nitrogen removal. Ecological approaches reference wetland prokaryote, microeukaryote, and Engineering 25:542–551. physicochemical characteristics. PLOS One (in review). Vincent, R., C. Wigand, R. Martin, M. Burns, T. Pham, L. Yao, S. Q., P. M. Groffman, C. Alewell, and K. Ballantine. 2 Webb. 2020. Carbon cycling in restored and reference wetlands (unpublished data). J. M. Waddington, and J. S. Price. 2013. Effect of peatland drainage, 6. Greenhouse Gases: Are Restored Cranberry Bogs Contributors harvesting, and restoration on atmospheric water and carbon or Ameliorators of Climate Change? exchange. Physical Geography 21:433-451. Chapter 6 Notes Whiting, G. J., and J. P. Chanton. 2001. Greenhouse carbon balance of wetlands: methane emission versus carbon sequestration. Tellus For more findings, references, and recommendations from Series B-Chemical and Physical Meteorology 53:521–528. the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, see the most recent IPCC report (https://www.ipcc.ch/reports/). For information about carbon balance in restored wetlands, see Whiting and Chanton 2001, Stadmark and Leonardson 2005, Altor and Mitsch 2008, Jerman et al. 2009, Ardón et al. 2010, Morse et al. 2012, Mitch et al. 2013, Waddington and Price 2013, deKlein and van der Werf 2014, Mitch and Mander 2018, and Hemes et al. 2019.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 89 • Kennedy, C. D., N. Alverson, P. Jeranyana and C. DeMoranville. 7. How Does Restoration of Cranberry Farms Improve 2018. Seasonal dynamics of water and nutrient fluxes in an Water Quality? agricultural peatland. Hydrological Processes. doi: 10.1002/ hyp.11436. Chapter 7 Notes and References • Kennedy, C. D., A. R. Buda and R. B. Bryant. 2020. Amounts, Page 49: An excellent regional explanation of the importance forms and management of nitrogen and phosphorus export and risks to cold water streams and fisheries is the Massachusetts from agricultural peatlands. Hydrological Processes DOI: Wildlife Climate Action Tool. https://climateactiontool.org/ 10.1002/hyp.13671. ecogroup/rivers-and-streams-coldwater-fisheries-resources-streams • Neill, C., L. Scott, C. Kennedy, C. DeMoranville and R. Jakuba. An excellent report on temperature effects on brook trout and Nitrogen balances in Southeastern Massachusetts cranberry brook trout vulnerability to summer warming in Massachusetts bogs. 2017. Report to the Buzzards Bay National Estuary are in Bassar, R. D., B. H. Letcher, K. H. Nislow and A. R. Whitely. Project. Changes in seasonal climate outpace compensatory density- dependence in eastern book trout. Global Change Biology 22(2): • DeMoranville, C. and B. Howes. 2005. Phosphorus dynamics 577-594. in cranberry production systems: Developing the information required for the TMDL process for 30S1 water bodies receiving A large body of work documents the importance and impacts of cranberry bog discharge. Final Project Report to Massachusetts nutrient runoff into freshwaters and coastal waters. These include: Department of Environmental Protection. Chislock, M. F. E. Doster, R. A. Zitomer and A. E. Wilson. • The Massachusetts Estuaries Program has quantified nitrogen https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/ exports from watersheds Southeastern Massachusetts. eutrophication-causes-consequences-and-controls-in- Completed watershed reports are available from the Mass aquatic-102364466/ Estuaries Project website. https://www.mass.gov/guides/the- Carpenter, S. R. et al. Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with massachusetts-estuaries-project-and-reports phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecological Applications 8, 559-568 Data on the sources in the Wankinco portion of the Wareham (1998). River Watershed come from the Wareham River report. Smith VH. Eutrophication of freshwater and coastal marine https://www.mass.gov/doc/linked-watershed-embayment-model- ecosystems— a global problem. Environ Sci Pollut Res. for-wareham-2014 2003;10(2):126–39. 2. Nixon SW, Ammerman JW, Atkinson Estimates of N and P applied to U.S. croplands from Lu, C. and LP, Berounsky VM, Billen G, B H. Tian. 2017. Global nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer use for Dodds, W. K. et al. Eutrophication of U.S. freshwaters: analysis agriculture production it the past half century: shifted hot spots of potential economic damages. Environmental Science and and nutrient imbalance. Earth System Science Data 9: 182-192. Technology 43, 12-19 (2009). N losses from U.S. croplands from: Valiela, I., C. Owens, E. Elmstron, J. Lloret (2016), Eutrophication Zhou, M. and K. Butterbach-Bahl. 2014. Assessment of nitrate loss of Cape Cod estuaries: Effect of decadal changes in global-driven on a yield-scaled basis from maize and wheat cropping systems. atmospheric and local-scale wastewater nutrient loads. Marine Plant and Soil 374:977-991 Pollution Bulletin, 110, 309-315. Sharma, S. and I. Chaubey. 2017. Surface and subsurface An excellent review provides evidence that the largest impacts transport of nitrate loss from selected bioenergy field crops: to freshwaters come from combined increases in nitrogen and systematic review, analysis and future directions. Agriculture 7, 27; phosphorus rather than increases in nitrogen or phosphorus alone. doi:10.3390/agriculture7030027. Elser, J. J., E. R. Marzolf, and C. R. Goldman. 1990. Phosphorus and P losses from U.S. cropland from NRCS: https://www.nrcs.usda. nitrogen limitation of phytoplankton growth in the freshwaters of gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/geo/?cid=nrcs143_014132 North America: a review and critique of experimental enrichments. A general overview of nitrogen cycling is found at: Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47:1468-1477. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-nitrogen- Background on disruption of global nitrogen cycles is provided in: cycle-processes-players-and-human-15644632/ Vitousek, P. M. et al. 1997. Human alteration of the global nitrogen A recent review of managing phosphorus in agriculture is found cycle: sources and consequences. Ecological Applications 7: 737– at: Sharpley, A., 2016. Managing agricultural phosphorus to 750 minimize water quality impacts. Scientia Agricola 73(1): 1-8. Page 50-51: Data on Coonamessett River and Quashnet River Many reviews of creation of wetlands for nitrogen and phosphorus temperatures come from measurements made by Chris Neill and removal have been conducted. One recent comprehensive one is: Linda Deegan. Land, M., W. Granéli, A. Grimvall, C. C. Hoffman, W. J. Mitsch, Information on the ongoing Quashnet River restoration can be K. S. Tonderski and J. T. A. Verhoeven. 2016. How effective found at: http://www.capecodtu.org/quashnet-restoration/ are created or restored wetlands for nitrogen and phosphorus removal? A systematic review. Environmental Evidence 5, 9 DOI Page 51-52: Information on the US Cranberry industry 10.1186/s13750-016-0060-0. are compiled by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and are available at: https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/New_ Excellent summaries of nitrogen removal in small streams are Jersey/Publications/Cranberry_Statistics/index.php found in: Peterson, B. J., et al. 2001. Control of nitrogen export The following papers and reports have quantified nutrient output from watersheds by headwater streams. Science 292:86-90. from active cranberry bogs. Mulholland, P. J. et al. 2008. Stream denitrification across biomes and its relation to anthropogenic nitrate loading. Nature 452: • Howes, B. L. and J. M. Teal. 1995. Nutrient balance of a 202-205. Massachusetts cranberry bog and relationships to coastal Page 53-55: Information on soil potential denitrification in eutrophication. Environmental Science and Technology 29: is from Ballentine, K. A., T. R. Anderson, E. A. Pierce and P. 960-974. M. Groffman. 2017. Restoration of denitrification in agricultural wetlands. Agricultural Engineering 106: 570-577.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 90 Page 56: Nitrate concentrations in the Coonamessett River are Galatowitsch, S. M. and A. G. van der Valk. 1996. The unpublished data from Chris Neill, Linda Deegan and Casey vegetation of restored and natural prairie wetlands. Ecological Kennedy. Applications 6:102–112. Page 56: Data on nitrogen discharged in the Coonamessett River Massachusetts Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program. are derived from the Massachusetts Estuaries Project report for 2007. NHESP Natural Community fact sheet: Atlantic White Cedar the Great/Perch Pond, Green Pond and Bournes Pond watershed Swamp. report. Available at: https://www.mass.gov/doc/great-perch-pond- Middleton, B. A. 2003. Soil seed banks and the potential green-pond-bournes-pond-falmouth-ma-2005 restoration of forested wetlands after farming. Journal of Applied Data on nitrogen discharged in Tidmarsh Farms through Beaver Ecology 40:1025–1034. Dam Brook are unpublished from Casey Kennedy. Mitsch, W. J. 1993. Ecological Engineering: A Cooperative Role Page 55: Data on nitrogen uptake in different stream habitats with the Planetary Life-Support System. Environmental Science and is from Groffman, P., \A. M. Dorsey and P. M. Meyer. 2005. N Technology 27:438–445. processing within geomorphic structures in urban streams. Journal U.S.Environmental Protection Agency, How Wetlands are Defined of the North American Benthological Society 24: 613-625. and Identified under CWA (Clean water Act) Section 404. https:// Information on the relationship of stream habitat structure and www.epa.gov/cwa-404/how-wetlands-are-defined-and-identified- passive water storage are from, Yandel, C., 2004. An analysis of the under-cwa-section-404 nutrient removal capacity of agriculturally impacted vs. restored van der Valk, A. G. and C. B. Davis. 1978. The Role of riparian wetlands. Final Project Report, Semester in Environmental Seed Banks in the Vegetation Dynamics of Prairie Glacial Science, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA. Research Marshes. Ecology 59:322–335. conducted with Kevin Kingsland and Linda Deegan.

Data on stream habitat types in the Coonamessett River is from Engel, H. 2010. Stream quality among active and restoring 9. Fauna Diversity in Restored Active Cranberry Bogs river-based cranberry bogs. Final Project Report, Semester in Environmental Science, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Chapter 9 Notes MA. Research conducted with Melanie Poole and Linda Deegan. Page 65-66: For more information on wetland loss in the US and Page 55: Data on seasonal nitrate concentrations in Beaver Dam their overall importance for conservation of native wildlife see Brook at Tidmarsh Farms is unpublished from Casey Kennedy. Dahl (1990), Gibbs (2000), National Research Council (2001). Data on nitrate concentrations in the Coonamessett River are unpublished from Chris Neill, Linda Deegan and Casey Kennedy. The general information on wetland form, diversity, and functions can be found in Zedler (2000), Engelhardt and Ritchie (2001), Zedler and Kercher (2005). 8. Wetland Hydrology Creates Conditions for Wetland Plants For detailed information on wildlife occupancy in active and retired (unrestored) cranberry bogs, refer Ellsworth and Schall (1993), Chapter 8 Notes Sandler and DeMoranville (2008), Burns (2017). Cranberry bog restoration projects help test wetland restoration Page 66: Fish diversity, habitat associations, and abundance at theory and inform restoration practice: For an introduction to the restored and unrestored cranberry farms referenced from Hurley “self-design” theory, see Mitch 1993. (2010), O’Brion et al. (2011), O’Brion (2012), Dimino et al. (2018), For a discussion of which species remain viable in the seed bank McCanty and Christian (2018), Hall et al. (2011), Vincent (2019), of wetlands that have been converted to agriculture, see Middleton N. Nelson (personal communication). Details on natural history and 2003, Galatowitsch and van der Valk 1996, and van derValk and ecology of American Eels, River Herrings, and other diadromous Davis 1978. fish can be found in MacGregor et al. (2009), Hitt et al. (2012). Restoration results in a more diverse plant community: Information on stream macroinvertebrates in restored vs. Unpublished data on the pre- and post-restoration vegetation at unrestored and reference streams were taken from McCanty Eel River collected by Don Schall. and Christian (2018). Unpublished data on the pre- and post-restoration vegetation Page 70: Photos of the Coonamessett River are from Chris Neill. at Coonamessett, including experimentally seeded plots, collected Stream profile channels are unpublished data from Linda Deegan, by Chris Neill. Chris Neill and Coonamessett River Trust volunteers. Occurrences of sphagnum moss, an important component of Page 68 and 71: More information on amphibian and reptile peat, increase after restoration: Information about Atlantic white communities at restored vs. unrestored, retired cranberry farms cedar swamps in Massachusetts provided by the Massachusetts were taken from Surasinghe et al. (2018), Christen et al. (2019), Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program 2007. Dewey et al. (2019), Tocchio et al. (2019), Zimmerman and Surasinghe (2019). Unpublished data on the survival, growth, and reproduction of Atlantic white cedar seedlings at Eel River collected by Chapter 9 References Alex Hackman, MA DER. Burns, M., (2017). A Rapid Assessment for Cranberry Farm Disturbance caused by construction during restoration can provide Wetland Restoration Potential in Southeastern and Cape Cod an opportunity for non-native and invasive species to establish: Massachusetts. Antioch University New England MA., 2017 For an analysis of the denitrification potential of Phragmites australis relative to other wetland species, see Alldred et al. 2016. Christen, R., A. Dewey, A. Gouthro, K. Tocchio, B. Sheehan, D. Venuto, Y. Dobeib, T. McCulley, and T. Surasinghe, (2019). Chapter 8 References Comparison of reptile diversity between restored and unrestored freshwater wetlands: An assessment of restoration success of Alldred, M, Baines, S. B. and S. Findlay. 2016. Effects of invasive- New England cranberry farms. Fisheries Society & The Wildlife plant management on nitrogen removal services in freshwater Society Joint Annual Conference, Reno, NV., 2019. tidal marshes. PLoSONE 11(2): e0149813. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0149813.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 91 Dahl, T. E., (1990). Wetlands losses in the United States, 1780’s to Sandler, H. A., and C. J. DeMoranville, (2008). Cranberry 1980’s. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, production: A guide for massachusetts. University of Massachusetts Washington D.C., 1990. Amherst Outreach and Extention, Amherst, MA., 2008. Dewey, A., A. Gouthro, R. Christen, K. Tocchio, B. Sheehan, D. Surasinghe, T. D., T. Tochhio, B. Sheehan, D. Venuto, Venuto, Y. Dobeib, T. McCulley, and T. Surasinghe, (2019). N. Montanaro, V. Schneider, A. Deguire, A. Zimmerman, and A Comparative Survey of Amphibian Community Structure G. Albanese, (2018). Amphibian and reptile diversity at Tidmarsh between Restored and Unrestored Freshwater Wetlands Mass Audubon Sanctuary.in Connecting Communities and in Fisheries Society & The Wildlife Society Joint Annual Ecosystems in Restoration Practice. Regional COnference of Conference, Reno, NV., 2019. the Society for Ecological Restoration, New Endgland Chapter, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, CT. Dimino, T. F., S. McCanty, and A. Christian, (2018). Local adaptation of fish populations in response to stream habitat Tocchio, K., B. Sheehan, D. Venuto, A. Deguire, T. Surasinghe, restoration at Tidmarsh Farm in Connecting Communities R. Buchsbaum, and G. Albanese, (2019). Species richness and and Ecosystems in Restoration Practice, Society for Ecological distribution of herpetofauna at a recently-restored cranberry bog in Restoration New England, Southern Connecticut State University, Southeastern Massachusetts.in US- US Regional Association of the New Haven, CT., 2018. International Association for Landscape Ecology Annual Meetings, Fort Collins, CO. Ellsworth, S., and D. Schall, (1993). Wildlife Utilization on Commercial Cranberry Wetlands Systems. Pages 33-34 in W. Vincent, R., (2019). Massachusetts Bays National Estuary Program F. Clark and H. A. Sandler, editors. Massachusetts Cranberry Healthy Ecosystem Grants, Epa Grant No. CE96173901. MIT Sea Production: An Information Guide. University of Massachusetts Grant College Program, Cambridge, MA., 2019. Extention Publications, Amherst, MA., 1993. Zedler, J. B., (2000). Progress in wetland restoration ecology. Engelhardt, K. A. M., and M. E. Ritchie, (2001). Effects of Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15:402-407, 2000. macrophyte species richness on wetland ecosystem functioning Zedler, J. B., and S. Kercher, (2005). Wetland resources: status, and services. Nature 411:687-689, 2001. trends, ecosystem services, and restorability. Annu. Rev. Environ. Gibbs, J. P., (2000). Wetland loss and biodiversity conservation. Resour. 30:39-74, 2005. Conservation Biology 14:314-317, 2000. Zimmerman, A., and T. Surasinghe, (2019). Amphibian Bioacoustic Hall, C. J., A. Jordaan, and M. G. Frisk, (2011). The historic Survey in a Restored Cranberry Farm at Plymouth, MA. US- US influence of dams on diadromous fish habitat with a focus on Regional Association of the International Association for Landscape river herring and hydrologic longitudinal connectivity. Landscape Ecology Annual Meetings, Fort Collins, CO., 2019. Ecology 26:95-107, 2011. Hitt, N. P., S. Eyler, and J. E. Wofford, (2012). Dam removal 10. Building Stewardship: A Community Commitment increases American eel abundance in distant headwater streams. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 141:1171-1179, Chapter 10 Notes 2012. Page 74: “Restoration is a new, very powerful tool in our Hurley, S., (2010). Preliminary Fisheries Sampling Report, Eel River, conservation tool box,” Bob Wilber, Director of Land Conservation, Plymouth, 2010. Mass Audubon in person to Glorianna, c. 2017. MacGregor, R., J. M. Casselman, W. A. Allen, T. Haxton, J. M. To learn more about Eel River visit https://www.mass.gov/service- Dettmers, A. Mathers, S. LaPan, T. C. Pratt, P. Thompson, and details/eel-river-headwaters-restoration-plymouth. M. Stanfield, (2009). Natural heritage, anthropogenic impacts, To learn more about the Tidmarsh Restoration view: Restoring and biopolitical issues related to the status and sustainable wetlands in Plymouth, Boston Channel 5, Chronicle, Oct 29, management of American eel: a retrospective analysis and 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CKxICNlfrrM&t=51s management perspective at the population level. Pages 713- 740 in Challenges for diadromous fishes in a dynamic global To follow and learn more about current programs at the Mass environment. American Fisheries Society, Symposium, 2009. Audubon Tidmarsh Wildlife Sanctuary visit: https://www.massaudubon.org/get-outdoors/wildlife-sanctuaries/ McCanty, S. T., and A. Christian, (2018). The effects of ecosystem tidmarsh and https://www.facebook.com/MassAudubonTidmarsh/ restoration on community and landscape biodiversity in southeastern Massachusetts headwater streams: A case-study To follow and learn more about Living Observatory visit Living of Tidmarsh Farms cranberry bog restoration. Connecting Observatory: http://livingobservatory.org, http://tidmarsh.media. Communities and Ecosystems in Restoration Practice, Society for mit.edu, and on Instagram at livingtidmarsh. Ecological Restoration, Southern Conneticut State University, To learn more about Coonamessett River Trust: https://www. New Haven, CT. Restoring the Coonamessett River: Results of facebook.com/Coonamessett-River-Trust-154082221281677/ Phase 1, video, Alison Leschen, Rich Signell, On the water.com, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFX03Qx1vn4 To learn more about every stage of the Coonamessett Restoration go to: CRT (https://www.crivertrust.org/river-restoration), National Research Council, (2001). Compensating for wetland T3C (https://300committee.org/) losses under the Clean Water Act. National Academies Press, Washington, DC., 2001. Carrie Gentile, Coonamessett River Restoration Wraps up, May 19, 2020. https://www.capenews.net/falmouth/news/coonamessett- O’Brion, K., E. Douglas, and A. Christian, (2011). Session B4- river-restoration-project-wraps-up/article_77060c94-ed80-57b3- Freshwater fish and aquatic macroinvertebrate biomonitoring of bedd-6fab35496784.html the Eel River Headwaters Restoration sites in Plymouth, MA, 2011. Thomas O’Neill’s rug designed to “explore the nature of change” O’Brion, K. M., (2012). Physical and Biological Assessment of the in New England Home, September-October 2019, winners of Eel River Headwaters Restoration Site in Plymouth, MA, 2012. 5 under 40. p. 198-211. Turtle Pond story: Betsy Gladfelter, personal reminiscence.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 92 Chapter 10 References Evan Schulman, Restoration Potential, (January 2019), proposal for restoration of small bogs circulated to DER and CCCGA. New England Home, September-October 2019, p. 211. Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources [MassDAR] 2016. 11. Future Learning Manomet Center for Conservation Services, Eric Walberg (2013), Chapter 11 Notes Tidmarsh Farms, Massachusetts, Climate Change Adaptation Plan, May 2013. For more information about the MA Department of Fish and Game Cranberry Bog Program see https://www.mass.gov/cranberry-bog- Mass Audubon, Jeff Collins (2014). A Conservation Assessment and program Wildlife Sanctuary Concept Plan for Tidmarsh Farms in Plymouth Massachusetts, September 2014. For more information about underlying geology and hydrology of cranberry bogs, see Hydrology section of this document. For more information about the soil moisture study at Foothills Preserve, contact Christine Hatch, [email protected] For more information about water quality and denitrification, see Water quality section of this document. Also Ballantine et al.,Restoration of Denitrification in Agricultural Wetlands. For more information about seedbank study, contact: Sarah Klionsky, [email protected] For more information about habitat structure study, contact Thilina Surasinghe, [email protected] For more information about a multiphase insect study, contact Jason Andras, [email protected] For an overview of economic impact studies on the restoration of cranberry farms, contact Living Observatory, glorianna@ livingobservatory.org For more information about Alternative Futures see Chapter 5 of this document or contact Kate Ballantine, kballant@mountholyoke. edu For more information about Alternative Methodologies, Greenhouse gas emissions, contact Rob Vincent, [email protected] and/or Kate Ballantine, [email protected] For more information about AWC plantings on restored cranberry farms, contact Glorianna Davenport glorianna@livingobservaotry. org, Alex Hackman, [email protected] and/or Nick Nelson, nnelson@interfluve For more information on Bioaccoustics monitoring of restoration sties, contact Brian Mayton, [email protected] For more information about aerial imaging, contact Living Observatory [email protected]; Christine Hatch see also Mark Harvey, Danielle Hare, Alex Hackman, Glorianna Davenport, Adam Haynes, Ashley Helton, John W. Lane Jr. and Martin Briggs, “Evaluation of stream and wetlands restoration using UAS-based thermal infrared mapping; Water 2019, 11(8), 1568; https://doi.org/10.3390/ w11081568 For more information about using satellite imaging for monitoring contact: Upstream Tech, http://upstream.tech Kate Mulvaney, Katee Canfield, and Nathan Merrill, “Social Science and Cranberry Bog Restoration?” Presentation at LO’s Learning Agenda, March 6, 2020.

Chapter 11 References Margaret A. Palmer, Donald A. Falk, and Joy B. Zelder, (2006). Ecological Theory and Restoration Ecology, Foundations of Restoration Ecology, SER, Island Press, 2006. pp 1-9. Margaret A. Palmer, Donald A. Falk, and Joy B. Zelder, (2006). Integrating Restoration Ecology and Ecological Theory: A Synthesis, Foundations of Restoration Ecology, SER, Island Press, 2006. pp 341-345.

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 93 organic material that can be decomposed, and conditions with no or Glossary very little oxygen, typical of flooded sediments. Di-nitrogen gas Adsorption The gaseous form of nitrogen composed of two triple bonded The adhesion of atoms, molecules, or ions to a surface. nitrogen atoms (N2). Aerobic Discharge The presence of oxygen in an environment. (1) Water flowing out into, or joining another water body, stream, or Alluvium wetland. (2) The volume of water flowing in a stream per unit time A deposit of sediment; clay, silt, sand and gravel, left by flowing in units such as liters per second, or cubic feet per day. rivers or streams. Facultative (wetland) species Ammonium Plant or animal species that are often found in wetlands but can also The form of inorganic nitrogen that consists of a nitrogen atom be found in other environments. bonded to four hydrogen atoms that creates a highly soluble Ecosystem + A complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all positively charged ion (NH4 ). Ammonium is produced by the decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic materials. their interrelationships in a particular unit of space. Anaerobic Ecosystem function The cellular process of respiring (creating energy) in the absence The ecological processes that control the fluxes of energy, nutrients, of oxygen. and organic matter through an environment. Anoxic Ecosystem services The absence of oxygen in an environment, typical of flooded Direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human and sediments. ecological well-being. Anthropogenic Ephemeral Relating to or resulting from the influence of human beings Short-lived or of short duration. on nature. Fen Anadromous Peat-forming wetlands that receive nutrients from sources other than Species of fish that migrate up rivers from the sea to spawn. precipitation, such as from upslope sources through drainage from Aquifer surrounding mineral soils and from groundwater movements. An underground geologic unit that can store and transmit water Finger lake in usable quantities. A long, narrow, lake in an over-deepened valley that has been Baseflow carved by glaciers. The amount of streamflow equal to the approximate input from Flashy stream groundwater. Baseflow is relatively constant throughout the A stream that rapidly collects flows from the steep slopes of its year, while surface runoff adds the additional component of catchment (watershed, basin) and produces flood peaks soon after streamflow from runoff associated with precipitation events. the rain. Its flow quickly subsides after rain stops. Biodiversity Floodplain The variety and variability of life on Earth, including the variations The low-lying, flat area adjacent to a stream or river where rivers at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. flood and deposit sediment. This area stretches outward from the Blue carbon channel banks toward the valley. When rivers flood their floodplains, Carbon stored long-term in the world’s ocean and coastal ecosystems. they renew the soils, providing fertile ground for agriculture as well Carbon sequestration as for wild plants and animals. They help dissipate volume and The long-term removal, capture, or storage of carbon dioxide from energy, reducing destructiveness of floodwaters. Many animal and the atmosphere. plant species take advantage of river-floodplain connections to move Carbon sink to new habitats, feeding areas and communities. Any natural reservoir that absorbs more carbon than it releases. Flow-through (cranberry) bog Catadromous Cranberry farm (bog) on the flat lands floodplain( ) that have a Species that migrate down rivers to the sea to spawn. stream channel flowing within the bog unit and not separated Cations from the channel by berms or dikes. (Water flows-through a An ion or group of ions having a positive charge. flow-through farm system continuously.) Collapse structures Freshwater lens (aquifer) Bending and deformation from the originally flat, horizontal, Near coastal areas, fresh water forms a convex layer over saltwater depositional environment in layered sedimentary materials such as called a lens. The less-dense fresh groundwater floats on top of peat, gravels and other glacial sediments resulting from melting the dense saltwater. of ice blocks that were present during deposition. Freshwater-saltwater interface Colonization Near the coast, fresh groundwater will float on top of dense The establishment and occupation of a habitat by a community saltwater. The line (or more accurately, the region) between them or a species. is the saltwater interface. This location can move toward the sea Community with increased submarine groundwater discharge, or landward with An association of populations of two or more different species increased groundwater pumping, causing saltwater intrusion. occupying the same geographical area at a given time frame. Generalist Species in a given community interact with each other, particularly A species that can thrive in a wide variety of environmental in terms of food webs. conditions and can make use of a variety of different resources and Diadromous habitats. Fish that migrate between salt and fresh waters. Catadromous and Glacial erratic anadromous fish are two different forms of diadromous fish. A rock of unspecified shape and size, transported a significant Denitrification distance from its origin by a glacier or iceberg and deposited by A metabolic process in which microbes use nitrate instead of oxygen melting of the ice. Erratics range from pebble-size to larger than a to break down organic matter to obtain energy. This process converts house and usually are of a different composition that the bedrock nitrate to either di-nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide. The process requires or sediment on which they are deposited. the presence of denitrifying microbes, a supply of nitrate, a source of

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 94 Glacial outwash Legacy sediment Sand and gravel deposited by moving meltwater surrounding a Sediment that accumulates behind a dam. glacier. Outwash deposits typically form from draining glacial lakes Lentic and are often stratified, well-sorted, and very permeable. Non-flowing (in contrast to rivers and streams) waterbodies such Glacial stratified drift as ponds and lakes. A broad category of gravel, sand, and fine-grained deposits that Limiting nutrient originate from glacial meltwater, either deposited by streams, A limiting nutrient in an aquatic ecosystem is the nutrient that is in through settling in glacial lakes or in glacial marine environments. shortest supply relative to the needs of algae and aquatic plants, Drift deposits contain some layers of clays and fines, but are often and therefore limits growth of vegetation. Nitrogen tends to be the well-sorted, and very permeable. limiting nutrient in salt and brackish water bays and estuaries, while Glacial till phosphorus tends to be the limiting nutrient in freshwater lakes and An unsorted and unstratified accumulation of glacial sediment, ponds. Excess nitrogen or phosphorus from septic systems, lawn and deposited directly by glacier ice. Till is a heterogeneous mixture of agricultural fertilizers, or other sources carried by run-off to surface different sized material deposited by moving ice or by the melting waters often leads to excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants, in-place of stagnant ice. reduced water clarity, and low oxygen that harms fish and shellfish. Glaciofluvial (clay or sediment) Macroinvertebrates (aquatic) Sediments that come from glaciers and/or streams due to the Animals without a backbone, large enough to be observed with the melting of glaciers. unaided eye, that live on the bottom of stream, lakes, and rivers, such Graminoids as, crustaceans, worms, and aquatic life stages of insects. Plants with a grass-like structure and appearance, most commonly Mesic grasses, sedges, and rushes. An environment or habitat containing a moderate amount of moisture. Groundwater Methanogenesis Water held underground in the soil, in pores, or in fractures in rock. The formation of methane by microbes known as methanogens. Groundwater basin or Groundwater watershed Methanotroph A map view area within which an aquifer can be defined as having The bacteria that consume, or metabolize, methane as a source well-defined boundaries. This may not correspond to the surface of carbon and energy. water basin above it (and is typically significantly larger in aerial Microbial community extent). Groups of microorganisms—bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses— Groundwater-dependent ecosystem that share a common living space. Wetlands or other ecosystem types that exist only where there Microbiome is a significant and reliable source of groundwater input. The genetic material of all the microbes—bac­ teria, fungi, protozoa, Habitat heterogeneity and viruses—that live in a community. Diversity or variety in habitat types which refers to the variation in Microtopography physical environmental features within an area, such as topography, Small-scale topography on the land surface, pits and mounds on soil chemistry, temperature, moisture, and biological factors. the scale of centimeters to meters. Microtopography remains after Herpetofauna glacial retreat, when falling trees leave behind pits and mounds, or An animal group that combines amphibians (frogs, toads, through the development of peatland vegetation structures. salamanders, and newts) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, and turtles). Monoculture Hydric soil The production of a single crop or livestock species in a farmed area. Soil found only in wetlands, formed under prolonged flooded and Moraine anaerobic conditions. Unstratified and unsorted deposits of sediment from glacier ice. The Hydraulic conductivity ground moraine forms beneath the glacier, lateral moraine forms A constant of proportionality describing the relative ease with along its margins, and the terminal moraine is deposited at the which water moves through a geologic material, comprised of maximum extent of the glacier. properties of both the fluid and the solid. Morphology Hydrologic connectivity The form of the land, or the study of the shapes of landforms. Connection between different locations that allows water to flow Nitrate between them. Connectivity may be oriented more strongly in The form of inorganic nitrogen that consists of a nitrogen atom the horizontal than the vertical direction. Adjacent layers with bonded to three oxygen atoms that creates a highly soluble negatively - very different hydraulic conductivities may produce hydrologic charged ion (NO3 ). Nitrate is produced from ammonium by the disconnection. microbial process of nitrification. Nitrate can move relatively freely Hydrophytic vegetation through soils and groundwaters. Nitrate is a readily available source Plants that are adapted to grow in the low-oxygen conditions that of nitrogen for aquatic algae and plants. occur when the soil is often flooded or saturated. Nitrification Ice sheet The aerobic microbial process of conversion of ammonium to nitrate. An extensive, thick layer of ice covering a large area for a This requires the presence of nitrifying bacteria and oxygen. prolonged period. Nitrous oxide Impoundment A gaseous form of nitrogen that consists of two atoms of nitrogen

A water body created by damming of streams or rivers to form bonded with one atom of oxygen (N2O). Nitrous oxide is not toxic areas of slow-moving water. at very low concentrations but it is a powerful and long-lived Invasive species greenhouse gas. It is produced under conditions of low oxygen Species that are not native to a location and can spread to a degree by denitrification that incompletely converts nitrate to N2. that they harm humans or the environment. Obligate (wetland) species Kettle, kettle hole, or kettle lake Plant or animal species that are only found in wetlands. A depression that forms in an outwash plain or other glacial deposit Obligatory by the melting of an in-situ block of glacier ice that was separated Capable of functioning or surviving only in a particular from the retreating glacier-margin and subsequently buried by environmental condition, critical biological resource, or habitat. glacier sedimentation. As the buried ice melts, the depression Outwash plains enlarges and may become filled with water, or over time, with peat. A broad, low-slope angle alluvial plain composed of glacially eroded,

Learning from the Restoration of Wetlands on Cranberry Farmland / PAGE 95 sorted sediment (outwash), that has been transported by glacial Spring sapping valley meltwater. The alluvial plain begins at the foot of a glacier and may Long, narrow valleys formed by erosion associated with groundwater extend for miles. Typically, the sediment becomes finer grained springs. Spring flows enhance weathering and erosion of soil and with increasing distance from the glacier terminus. rocks through concentrated fluid flow, undermining and collapsing Outwash deposit the valley head and side walls and removing the basal support. Sand and gravel deposited by moving meltwater surrounding a The process of spring sapping leads to headward migration of the glacier. Outwash deposits typically form from draining glacial erosional valley, which is typically nearly constant width or width lakes and are often stratified, well-sorted, and very permeable. that increases very slowly downstream, U-shaped cross-sectional Peat profiles with steep walls and flat floor, possessing a low drainage An accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter density, one main channel and a lack of small inlet channels, and that forms in wetland conditions where water limits the availability short stubby tributaries. of oxygen from the atmosphere, slowing the rate of decomposition. Stormflowor surface runoff Peat bog The component of streamflow associated with runoff from storm A type of wetland which accumulates peat, in a majority of cases events. Added to baseflow, stormflows typically cause rapid comprised of sphagnum moss. changes to stream flows. Percent cover Substrate The percentage of an area that a species covers. Material beneath the ground: soil, sand, rock, etc. Perennial waterbodies Succession Wetlands, streams, rivers, and ponds that have standing water year The process of change in the structure, composition, and spatial around. distribution of a community over time where some species may Perennial plants become less abundant (or complete extirpation) while the others A plant that lives more than two years. become more abundant. Phosphate Surface water The form of inorganic phosphorus that consists of one atom of Fresh waterbodies in contact with air or above the land surface, phosphorus combined with four atoms of oxygen that form a including: rivers and streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands. 3- negatively charged ion (PO4 ). Phosphate does not typically move Taxa/taxon through soils and groundwaters because it binds to iron minerals. Any group or rank in a biological classification into which related Phosphate is a readily available source of nitrogen for aquatic organisms are classified, such as species, genera, family, order, algae and plants. phylum, kingdom, etc. Pitted plains Thermal refugia Similar to outwash plains; pitted plains refer to glacial outwash Within a water system, a source of thermally-regulated water that plains dotted with pits created by melting blocks of ice floated to provides a refuge to a species that needs a specific temperature their depositional sites by meltwater and subsequently buried by regime to live or thrive. For example, cold-water fishes will sediment. As the ice blocks melt, depressions in the surface of become stressed or die if temperatures exceed a certain threshold. the outwash plain develop. Groundwater, which typically fluctuates across a much narrower range Productivity of temperatures, can provide a thermal buffer where it discharges The amount of biomass produced through photosynthesis per into surface waterbodies, and creates refugia. unit area and time by plants, the primary producers. Upland bogs Proglacial lake Modern cranberry bogs that are created from non-wetland areas such A meltwater lake that typically forms in front of a melting glacier. as pitch pine or oak woodlands. They are lined with clay or peat to Propagule slow vertical drainage. Upland bogs are typically rectangular in shape, A plant component, other than a seed, that can give rise to a new planted with newer high-yielding cranberry cultivars, and typically individual. contain underlying tile drain pipes to maintain proper soil moisture. Regional groundwater flow Watershed, drainage basin, catchment; also Surface watershed Groundwater flow that occurs underground across a broad region or Surface basin from a distant source. The land area defined yb surrounding ridges or high boundaries Rhizomes which channels all of the precipitation that falls within its boundaries Underground stems that can produce new shoots and store nutrients. to drain toward a single outlet point such as the mouth of a bay or Often found in wetland plants. any point along a river or stream. Riparian zone Water table The immediate upland area bordering rivers and other bodies. The level below which the ground is saturated with water. Root zone Wetland bogs The top ~15cm of a soil profile where most plant roots grow. Typical cranberry bogs that were created from former wetlands, Soil moisture typically forested swamps. Underlying clay or peat slows vertical The humidity, or amount of water contained in a soil. Gravimetric drainage. Wetland bogs are most typically irregular shapes that water content is calculated by calculating the mass of water reflected the former land contours. contained in a soil per mass of dry soil, and Volumetric water Wetland indicator species content is calculated as the volume of liquid water per volume The US Army Corps of Engineers assigns an indicator status to plant of soil. species on a regional basis based on how likely each species is Soil organic matter to occur in wetlands. Obligate species (OBL) almost always occur The organic component of soil, consisting small (fresh plant residues in wetlands, facultative wetland species (FACW) usually occur in and small living soil organisms, decomposing (active) organic matter, wetlands but may occur in non-wetlands, facultative species (FAC) and stable organic matter (humus). are equally likely to occur in wetlands or uplands, facultative upland Species richness (FACU) species usually occur in uplands, and upland species (UPL) The number of different species in a defined area. almost always occur in uplands. Analyses in this report consider OBL Specialist and FACW to be wetland indicator species. A species can thrive only in a narrow range of environmental Wet meadows conditions or has very specific and limited resource needs, such as A type of marsh that commonly occurs in poorly drained areas such species that can only consume one specific type of food. as shallow lake basins, low-lying farmland, and the land between shallow marshes and upland areas.

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