Environmental Management of the Coonamessett River and Preservation of Its Legacy of Cranberry Farming

Environmental Management of the Coonamessett River and Preservation of its Legacy of Cranberry Farming

Produced for the Falmouth Bog Preservation Group

Produced by Woods Hole Group 81 Technology Park Drive East Falmouth, MA 02536 (508) 540 8080

November 2003

Environmental Management of the Coonamessett River and Preservation of its Legacy of Cranberry Farming

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

There are significant cultural and social reasons to retain cranberry farming in the Coonamessett River. The Coonamessett River bogs are the site of a 110-year old working landscape. They connect Falmouth to its agricultural heritage and the diversity of peoples who farmed them and built this town. The bog farming and the river have coexisted for more than a century. Cranberry harvesting brings significant income to the Town of Falmouth through leases and licenses, attracts tourists and townsfolk at harvest time, and is becoming more and more environmentally conscientious. This income generation has exceeded $1 million since 1982, far exceeding the original cost of the land to the Town of Falmouth. Modern cranberry farming is a part of the mosaic of traditional land uses that make Falmouth so attractive.

The issue at hand is the evaluation of the environmental risks posed by cranberry farming in light of a plan to restore the Coonamessett River. Restoration of Falmouth’s Coonamessett River can be accomplished without eliminating the agricultural heritage of cranberry farming, but rather can go hand-in-hand with this activity. As with most environmental issues, there may be different interpretations of the impact of cranberry harvesting on the environment.

This brief review lays out a scientifically supported series of arguments that demonstrate cranberry farming and river restoration can co-exist, and recommends a process for planning for such co-existence. Cranberry farmers are requesting an open, scientific discussion amongst the various stakeholders associated with this environmental issue, and development of a management paradigm that recognizes both the environmental demands of society, as well as its agricultural requirements. Specifically, this report makes the following recommendations:

The Town of Falmouth should takes steps to develop a Management Plan for the Coonamessett watershed, including ongoing cranberry farming, through a process guaranteeing full stakeholder input and participation. The Town of Falmouth should implement the Coonamessett Watershed Management Plan, possibly using some of the funds from the lease/licensing of the Town bogs. This report was written as technical material to accompany Petition Articles #47 and #48 for the Fall Town of Falmouth Warrant.

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... I 1.0 BACKGROUND...... 1 1.1 NUTRIENTS...... 2 1.2 PESTICIDES...... 4 1.3 FISHERIES ...... 7 1.4 HABITAT VALUE...... 9 1.5 PUBLIC ACCESS...... 9 1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION...... 10 2.0 BENEFITS OF CONVENTIONAL CRANBERRY FARMING ON COONAMESSETT RIVER BOGS...... 11 3.0 ORGANIC CRANBERRY FARMING...... 11 4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 12 5.0 REFERENCES...... 14

List of Tables

Table 1. Some pesticide breakdown rates ...... 6

List of Figures

Figure 1. Cranberries ready for harvest...... 1

Figure 2. Ducks Lower Bog looking north...... 1

Figure 3. Schematic cross section of proposed berm ...... 6

Figure 4. Existing berm ...... 7

Figure 5. Proposed berming plan...... 7

Figure 6. Fish ladder leading to bogs ...... 8

Figure 7. Rose Pagonia (Pogonia ophioglossoides)...... 9

Figure 8. Walking paths on the bogs...... 10

Figure 9. Cranberry harvest...... 10

Figure 10. Artist at harvest time...... 12

Figure 11. Harvested cranberries...... 13

1.0 BACKGROUND

Cranberry farming on low-lying glacial seepage features of the southern and western parts of Falmouth has long been a mainstay of the economy of this region. Cranberry culture and usage dates back thousands of years, as native Americans used cranberries extensively for various purposes: food, medicine, and decoration. Once the cranberry capital of the United States, cranberry farming remains a staple of the farming community in Falmouth. Still a significant income generator for the Town through a competitive land lease arrangement, the bogs maintain a stable work force as it has for generation upon generation. The attractive bogs are a familiar sight to the many tourists visiting Falmouth, and the colorful annual fall harvests are a tourist attraction in their own right.

Figure 1. Cranberries ready for harvest Recently a decision to remove up to 114 acres of town-owned land along the Coonamessett River out of conventional cranberry cultivation was recommended by Town Meeting and adopted by the Town Selectmen. The decision was made on the basis of a issues raised about cranberry farming. Those issues are the environmental concerns associated with export of nutrients and pesticides to the Coonamessett River, and secondly the idea that public access to the bogs and educational opportunities therein are restricted. These issues have not been adequately addressed in a democratic public forum, as the public was not adequately informed prior to decisions taken at last year’s Town Meeting. In order to come to a decision on whether to extend the lease of this land to commercial cranberry growers, the Town should review these issues with a critical eye on the facts. Then the Town can decide whether and how to preserve its commitment to agriculture in general, and the cranberry industry in particular, while promoting environmental quality.

Figure 2. Ducks Lower Bog looking north

This report identifies key issues associated with cranberry farming that the Town should consider when deciding how best to proceed with use of the Town bogs. These are issues that have been raised to support cessation of leasing land for cranberry cultivation. However, this report presents a balanced perspective, including methods for keeping the bogs active while protecting the environment, promoting public education, and allowing public access to town-owned land. The key issues discussed in this report include:

• Nutrients • Pesticides • Fisheries • Habitat Value • Public Access • Environmental Education The benefits associated with conventional cranberry farming are presented with additional information about organic farming techniques. This information could be of great value as the basis for future responsible management decisions by the Town.

1.1 NUTRIENTS The use of fertilizers on the town-owned cranberry bogs has been cited as a source of nutrients to the Coonamessett River and Great Pond. Nutrient loading, when excessive, can cause eutrophication, symptoms of which can include reduction in oxygen levels in the water column, excessive growth of algae, reduction in species composition, and maybe a loss of eelgrass and other beneficial fish habitat. Many of the coastal ponds and enclosed embayments in Falmouth are undergoing eutrophication.

The major cause of eutrophication in the Coonamessett River and Great Pond is not cranberry cultivation. A thorough study of the Great Pond watershed (Ashumet Plume Citizens Committee, 2001) shows that the bogs contribute less than 2% of the total nitrogen load to the pond. Rather, loadings to the watershed at buildout will be 50% from septic, 16% from home lawns, 28% from atmospheric deposition, 3% from golf courses, 2% from the Ashumet plume and just 1% from the cranberry bogs (Water Quality Assessment, Conclusions, and Program Options, Report of the Ashumet Plume Citizens Committee Oct. 27,2000).

Cranberries are fertilized only as necessary, with amounts based on plant requirements. Cranberry farmers attempt to minimize expenses to make farming profitable; this effort includes reducing fertilization and other additives to their lowest effective levels. A review of the Town-owned bogs managed by the Handy Cranberry Trust (Bonome,1998) shows that fertilizer applications are done in accordance with Best Management Practice Guidelines provided by the Cranberry Experiment Station located in Wareham, MA (an extension of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst). Observations on the condition of plants, the weather, and soil/tissue analysis are used to determine fertilizer application rate and timing. Operators typically feed a slow release, low leaching capacity 15-15-15 and 12-24-12 NPK mix in the spring (100-200 pounds per acre). Any further applications are made with commercial fertilizer having a typical formulation of 10-20-20; such applications are dependent on the age and condition of plants. Fertilizer is applied in granular form spread by hand. Precautions are taken to keep fertilizer away from canals, uplands, and nearby residences. Attention is paid to recommendations by leading

agricultural experts including the UMASS Cranberry Experiment Station and the Cranberry Chart book.

Ongoing research by experts at the UMASS Cranberry Experiment Station and elsewhere are exploring the feasibility of further reducing fertilizer usage. The purpose of the research is to reduce nutrient loading even more.

Other research on nutrient export from cranberry bogs show that the bogs contribute relatively small amounts of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus to receiving waters. Teal and Howes (1995) measured nutrient flux from a cranberry bog in Buzzards Bay and found that, although bog plants and sediments served as a sink for nutrients, nitrogen inputs1 exceeded outputs and this made the bog a nitrogen source to adjacent coastal waters. However, it was not a major source relative to other land uses in the watershed. The net loss of total dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) from the bog was 1.7-kmol ha-1 yr-1; particulate organic nitrogen (PON) loss was 0.1-kmol ha-1 yr-1. For comparison, the total amount of nitrogen exported from the bogs (DIN + PON) was similar to that from a surface-water dominated natural freshwater wetland in the Rhode River, MD. Even an accreting sphagnum bog with minor water outflows loses nitrogen in outflows: One example is Thoreau’s Bog, MA, which has been found to have a loss of 0.21 kmol ha-1, 1/8 that of a cranberry bog (Teal and Howes, 1995, page 972).

Comparing the nitrogen loss from cranberry bogs with that of residential land, the bog areas exported as much nitrogen as would residential housing at an extremely low density - 4 houses per hectare (1.7 per acre) at the mean regional occupancy rate (2.7 people per home). In contrast, the density of adjacent residential development is 9.9 houses per hectare, yielding nearly double the net nitrogen discharge per acre compared to the bog.

Phosphorus (P) is also of interest in bog nutrient export, in that biological activity in fresh water (but generally not coastal waters) is usually limited by phosphorus availability. Cranberry soils are generally high in iron and have low pH. Therefore phosphorus is tightly bound in the soil and is to a large extent unavailable to plants (DeMoranville and Davenport, 1997). Phosphorus concentrations in bog effluents are only slightly higher than levels of P entering the bog from the groundwater during the growing season, with concentrations of 0.01 ppm soluble P and 0.03 ppm total P in six bogs in southeastern Massachusetts (Deubert, 1990). However, during flooding for harvest and winter frost protection, phosphorus levels increase because of changes in soil chemistry (Howes and Teal, 1995; Deubert, 1990). Phosphorus levels during the harvest and winter flood average approximately 0.06 ppm total P and 0.04 ppm soluble P (Deubert, 1990). Although there is some export of P from bogs, the extent to which P reaches coastal waters is limited by sequestration of P in rivers and ponds.

The timing of nutrient export from bogs is important for the receiving waters. Eutrophication occurs when temperatures are high and biological activity is at its peak. In the case of cranberry bogs, most nutrient export occurs in times of low activity. Dissolved

1 Of the nitrogen inputs to the bog, 33% came from fertilizer, 59% came from inflowing waters and 8% from rain (Howes and Teal, 1995)

inorganic nitrogen (DIN), leachable P, and organic forms are generally retained in the bog during the active growing season (June-August) even with the application of fertilizers, and lost to floodwaters during periods of harvest, senescence, and decay of plants in the Fall and early winter (Teal and Howes, 1995, page 969). The timing of bog nutrient export (fall and winter) reduces impact on coastal receiving waters because then water temperatures are lower and there is less oxygen-demanding biological activity during colder weather; consequently, water oxygen content is higher and the waters are less eutrophic.

The low contribution of nutrients to the surrounding system by the cranberry bogs can be reduced by utilization of a shallow pond system to further segregate the outflow. If the outflow were passed through such a shallow pond system, further sedimentation and removal by rooted vegetation can occur before discharge. Existing nutrient removal areas include the natural wetlands and bogs below the cranberry bogs, but in the future these areas might be expanded to include some of the lower-most bogs in the Coonamessett River if calculations indicate a significant reduction in nutrients is possible. Such nutrient reduction schemes form the basis for tertiary treatment in sewage treatment plants. However, these schemes simply sequester the nutrients, some of which may be released to the environment during senescence.

However, existing nutrient budgets described in the research above show the best potential for effecting a large reduction in eutrophication of Falmouth waters is sewerage of the dense residential neighborhoods adjacent to these water bodies.

1.2 PESTICIDES Pesticides are one form of persistent toxic substances undergoing heavy regulation both in the U.S. and across the globe. Partly as a result of Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring, pesticide usage in the U.S. has undergone a vast transformation. The types of pesticides have changed, pest control technology has been broadened beyond chemical applications to include cultural and biological controls, and pest management plans that rely on non- chemical controls have been developed. As for all agriculture in the United States, the use of pesticides in cranberry bog culture is heavily regulated and monitored.

To minimize ecological risk from pesticides, they should be contained within the bog rather than exported to the Coonamessett River. Attention was focused on pesticide use in Town bogs as a result of a fish kill in Great Pond in 1985 that was attributed to a dislodged plug in the irrigation line releasing Diazinon to the Coonamessett River. Measures have been taken to remedy the cause of the spills, so fish kills are less likely to happen again and have not happened in the past 18 years. As a result of this 1985 accident, changes have been made in pest management of town-leased lands, including no further use of Diazinon on these properties, and rigorous inspection of irrigation lines.

Pest management on Handy Trust/Falmouth town bogs follows Best Management Practice guidelines from the University of Massachusetts Cranberry Experiment Station (UMassCES; Bonome Conservation Farm Plan, 1998). These practices include an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program, which is an ecologically based approach to

pest control based on solid biological knowledge and principles. UMass CES states, “An IPM program consists of pest control strategies that attempt to capitalize on natural mortality factors, such as natural enemies, unfavorable soil conditions, weather, etc., and utilize control techniques that minimize the disruption of these factors. Pest management revolves around optimizing control, rather than maximizing it. Consequently, control tactics are aimed at the suppression of a pest rather than seeking its eradication.” The IPM program used on town-owned bogs consists of pest control strategies that capitalize on these natural pest mortality factors. Techniques are geared to minimizing disruption of natural pest controls, and tactics are aimed at suppression of pests rather than eradication. Further research is ongoing on identification of new, low risk pesticides for use in Cranberry farming.

IPM on Handy Trust bogs entails weekly monitoring of the bogs, including periodic “sweeps” of the area to determine if pest populations exceed a threshold beyond which management action is necessary. If the threshold is exceeded, the appropriate action is determined, planned, and undertaken when weather and timing are appropriate. Actions undertaken include cultural practices, biological control, and chemical application.

Cultural practices including late water floods and sanding greatly reduce the severity of pest problems. Late water flooding refers to the practice of withdrawing the winter flood in March and then reflooding the bog in late April for a month (DeMoranville, 1998). This can decrease the inoculum potential of the fruit rot fungi, cause a general reduction of annual weeds, suppress the spread of Rubus spp., and suppress certain insect and mite populations (Sandler, 1998). Sanding entails adding a uniform application of sand at regular intervals to reduce infestations of cranberry girdler and green spanworm. Sanding can also inhibit emergence of dodder seedlings, and encourages vine growth by improving oxygen content and water penetration to upper soil layers (Sandler, 1998).

Cultural practices do not eliminate the need for pesticides, but they are a significant contributor for minimizing their use. Only four chemical agents are routinely used on the lower and middle Coonamessett River bogs (Sevin, Roundup, Orthene, and Dithane), out of the 206 chemicals listed as approved pesticides for cranberry crops (EPA website www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/oppsrch). These pesticides are much more selective (i.e., damaging to target species but not to non-target species) and much less persistent in the environment than their predecessors.

Concerns about pesticides focus on how long it takes for the pesticides to lose their toxicity (breakdown rate), generally given as the time for half of the pesticide to breakdown. Pesticides break down at different rates in soil, water, and vegetation. Since Sevin, Orthene, and Dithane are applied directly to the crop, and not to open water, their breakdown rate in soil controls their environmental longevity. The breakdown rates of chemicals used on Handy Trust bogs generally are in the range of days-to-weeks (Table 1), much faster than some chemicals used historically. RoundUp is wiped directly on weeds, and not sprayed on the cranberry plants. Therefore, RoundUp breakdown rates in soil or water are not germane. The environmental toxicology of glyphosate, the active ingredient of Round-up, has been extensively and thoroughly reviewed by numerous international and national agencies (e.g., CWQG, 1991; Environment Canada, 1997;

Montague, 1998; NRA, 1996; Tooby, 1985; and USEPA, 1993; WHO, 1994). It binds strongly to clays, and is considered immobile in soils and sediments. Binding to clay reduces exposure of aquatic organisms, in the unlikely event RoundUp were to get into water. Given the application method (direct wiping on tall weeds) and the low toxicity, RoundUp does not present a risk to the environment surrounding the cranberry bogs.

Table 1. Some pesticide breakdown rates

Chemical Soil Matrix

Sevin (carbaryl) 7-14 days in sandy soil

Orthene 6.1 days in sand

Dithane 1-7 days (Mancozeb)

Research on pesticide loss from cranberry bogs suggests that pesticide residues can be exported from bogs, but that these exports are generally small. A Nantucket study by Horsely and Witten showed residues of Dichlorbenil, chlorothalonil, and diazinon at outlet flumes of two bogs in the 0.6-10.8 ppb range, with one exception (81 ppb) attributable to heavy rain. These chemical concentrations were low enough to allow the presumption of no hazard, using standard risk assessment techniques (for example, compare to LC50 of 0.45 ppm for trout exposed to diazinon). Since the four chemicals used in the lower and middle Coonamessett River bogs are less toxic than those identified in Nantucket, the presumption of no hazard would hold even more for these.

Nonetheless, it is important to keep bog water separate from the river, especially after pesticide applications. This can be achieved by a system designed for tailwater recovery, separation of the bog from the river via berms, and/or a constructed wetland/pond system like the one recommended by the Ashumet Plume Committee Reports.

Figure 3. Schematic cross section of proposed berm

Berming also is a viable option for increasing retention time of pesticides and insecticides in the bogs. Plans for such berms along Coonamesset River have been made by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Extension Service. Improvements to past berming practices could include use of an impermeable core in the berms to prevent lateral transport of pesticides from the bog to the river. Vegetation growing at the base of the berms may reduce erosion and increase their durability, so they require less maintenance. Because the water table in the bogs is relatively high (the bogs are perched on a fine clay layer deposited by natural geological processes) and seepage occurs from the groundwater into the bogs (and not vice-versa), downward transport of pesticides is limited to slow diffusive processes, and thus no technology is required to reduce this transport pathway for nutrients. By controlling lateral pesticide transport, the retention time can be increased and environmental toxicity is reduced. The Massachusetts Wetlands Protection Act Regulations, under 310CMR 10.04 Agriculture 1b, allow “the installation of dikes within a cranberry bog” as ongoing agricultural improvements.

Figure 4. Existing berm

Figure 5. Proposed berming plan Benefits of such a bog isolation system include: 1) breakdown of pesticides, so that any water discharged into the river is free of these chemicals, and 2) uptake of nutrients before they are discharged to the Great Pond watershed. A wetland system could be designed to attenuate nutrients over and above that contributed by bogs. Thus, a wetland/pond system would offset not only the nutrients contributed by bogs, but also the nutrients added via septic systems, resulting in a net benefit to the town and to the Great Pond watershed. However, the cost of such a system should be evaluated along with its environmental benefits, and compared to the costs and benefits of other such alternatives at golf courses and sewage for high-density residential neighborhoods within our watersheds.

1.3 FISHERIES Cranberry farming and river fish have long been seemingly at odds, but they are not mutually exclusive. The question is not whether we want cranberry farming or fish, but how the two can co-exist. There is ample evidence that the two do co-exist. The

Quashnet River system in Mashpee has one of the most productive trout populations on Cape Cod, and the habitat lies in the midst of an active cranberry bog system (Jeff LaFleur, March 20, 2003 letter to Conservation Commission). Trout have habitat requirements that are not at present being met by the Coonamessett River system. But this does not preclude river restoration that could allow trout to thrive in the river in the future.

If the Town is committed to both trout and cranberries on the Coonamessett, expertise in trout habitat can be recruited from Trout Unlimited and/or the University of Massachusetts. The Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE) brought in trout expertise from the University of Massachusetts to assist in protecting the Quashnet habitat while remediation efforts were undertaken to remove EDB contamination in that river. The Town could bring this expertise to the Coonamessett to determine what bog and other man-made alterations are needed to bring back the trout populations to the river (Jeff LaFleur, 3/20/03 letter to Conservation Commission). Financing for such a project could come in part from grants, such as the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Wildlife Enhancement Grants from USDA.

Figure 6. Fish ladder leading to bogs There is also concern about herring populations on the Coonamessett. As with trout, cranberry farming and herring runs are not mutually exclusive. The Cape Cod Cranberry Growers Association has developed a Best Management Practices guide for the operation of cranberry bogs with anadramous fish runs. In the past, bog leasers have improved fisheries by constructing fish ladders, cleaning the River of weeds and trash, and maintaining water control structures that are used by Town personnel for water and fisheries management purposes. Bog owners have also worked with the Southeastern Massachusetts Aquaculture Center (SEMAC) to explore aquaculture in abandoned bogs.

River habitat loss is not the only reason for the loss of herring, however. Offshore fishing is also a factor. At one time river herring was exclusively an inshore fishery, but in the late 1960s deep sea fleets began fishing for river herring off the Mid-Atlantic coast. As a result, the overall catch increased dramatically and the population decreased accordingly. Deep-sea landings in the herring fishery peaked at over 24,000 metric tons in 1969 before declining to minimal levels in the late 1970s with implementation of the Fisheries Conservation and Management Act. Today, despite fishery management, some populations are still being over-exploited. The over fishing of herring populations has compounded the loss due to reduced habitat all over the region, not just in the Coonamessett River. As with the trout, herring expertise should be sought, and measures to restore habitat should be seriously undertaken by the town in a coordinated effort with cranberry growers on the river.

1.4 HABITAT VALUE The bogs have been cited as providing little in the way of wildlife habitat. However, studies show that bog systems provide habitat for a great variety of animals (IEP, 1991; Ellsworth and Schall, 1998; Hollands, 1998). In Massachusetts bog systems, 11 species of mammals, 65 bird species, 6 reptile species, 6 amphibian species, and 11 fish species were found. On the Coonamessett River bog areas, osprey, red-tail hawk, Coopers hawk, kestrels, barn and tree swallows, black and mallard ducks, Canada Geese, snapping turtles, painted turtles, coyote, fox, field mice, and many songbirds are regularly seen (letter from David Graham to Conservation Commission).

Most of the wildlife value of the cranberry wetland systems, as expressed by the diversity of species, is not provided by a single habitat type such as the cranberry beds (which have the lowest habitat utilization), but by the system as a whole and the diversity of habitats within the system (IEP, 1990). Wildlife diversity in the bog systems is due in part to an ‘edge effect’ where one habitat type abuts another (i.e., where upland meets bog). Edge areas are usually more diverse than the interior of either of the adjacent habitats. An analogous study of Wisconsin commercial cranberry systems yielded a similar diversity of species associated with bogs - 64 birds, 4 reptiles, 2 amphibians, 11 fish (IEP 1990).

Figure 7. Rose Pagonia (Pogonia ophioglossoides) Two rare orchids, Rose Pagonia (Pogonia ophioglossoides) and Glass Pink (Calopogon pulchellus), only grow in bogs. These species are highly valued and were discovered by Falmouth residents a few decades ago, and are listed in the Peterson Field Guide.

1.5 PUBLIC ACCESS The public is welcomed to the perimeter roads and uplands surrounding the Town-owned Lower & Middle and Reservoir bogs on the Coonamessett River, year around. Recently signs noting the application of pesticides on bogs were misinterpreted to mean that people couldn’t walk around the bogs. Rather, the signs are required by law to let people know that pesticides have been applied to the bogs, and that direct contact with bog soils and plants is not recommended for a period of days after the application. However, people are allowed to walk on paths all year long. During winter, when bogs are flooded, skating is allowed and open to the public.

Scenic vistas are maintained at no cost to the town by the growers, who provide mowing services, removal of poison ivy and invasive species, river maintenance, and ditch management for mosquito control. Without such maintenance by growers, vistas would disappear due to invasive plants, overgrowth, and unauthorized dumping and vandalism. The cranberry bogs north of Pond 14 and east of the Baptiste Bogs illustrate the problems that can occur without proper routine maintenance.

1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION The Town-owned bogs already provide environmental education, to an extent. Watching the harvest in real time offers a rare opportunity to see how cranberry agriculture works at full scale. This is a tourist event in the Town as well. However the potential for educational opportunities has not been fully realized on the bogs. If the Town decides to renew the lease of land to cranberry growing, it could entail a comprehensive public relations plan. Such a plan could include procedures for informing and educating the public about agricultural practices.

Figure 8. Walking paths on the bogs

Figure 9. Cranberry harvest Features of the plan could include: 1) a signage system that tells people about not only about chemical application, but more broadly describes cranberry agriculture and its importance to the history of the Town. Signage could include information about bees and pollination of the vines, fertilizer application, irrigation and harvest procedures;

information on farming procedures that people are likely to see when visiting the bogs at different times of year; 2) historical information on cranberry cultivation and role in town/regional economy; use of cranberries (use rates, how much goes to juice, raw product, sauce, etc.); 3) plants and wildlife within the bog system, wildlife expected at different times of year; 4) information on the areas where people are welcome to walk and where they should not (as with any agricultural area, there are places where people should not walk because it might disturb farm operations); and 5) a yearly cranberry harvest festival with a variety of educational opportunities, entertainment, and culinary delights (the first such festival was held in October 2003).

2.0 BENEFITS OF CONVENTIONAL CRANBERRY FARMING ON COONAMESSETT RIVER BOGS

Benefits associated with leasing Town land to commercial cranberry agriculture include the preservation of one of the last agricultural systems in town, as well as a number of economic advantages. The lease agreement with the Handy Trust stipulates that the town collect 25% of revenues from the sale of cranberries harvested from Town-owned bogs. Since 1982 the Handy Cranberry Trust has paid the Town of Falmouth $863,468. Additionally, the U.S. Air Force paid the Town a total of $229,911 in 1998 and 1999 to compensate for the loss of rental income when the bogs were shut down for EDB contamination. The town has therefore received a total of $1,093,379 in revenue. Considering that the town bought the land for $187,500 in 1970, this has been a substantial return on investment. Despite the current decline in cranberry prices, the Trust has continued to pay rent (Cranberry Bog Revenue: 3/5/97-9/16/03, Town Account #01122-436B) and (Trust Accounting 1992-1996 Letter to Boyer from Handy, 3/5/98). In addition, the Town benefits from regular maintenance (mowing, removal of invasive species and poison ivy), clearing river vegetation, and trash removal from the bog areas, the preponderance of which is done by the cranberry farm operators. Current maintenance costs are estimated to be $5,000-10,000 per year. If the area were converted to a park, maintenance and trash removal costs would be borne solely by the Town.

3.0 ORGANIC CRANBERRY FARMING

Organic and inorganic farming are more similar than they are different. Both involve agriculture, which involves maximizing certain species (food crops) while minimizing others (pests, weeds). Agricultural ecosystems (agroecosystems), whether they are organic farms or conventional, differ from natural systems in a number of ways: they contain lower plant diversity, lower insect diversity, and are intensively manipulated by humans via practices such as mowing, irrigation, and application of fertilizers. Both involve pest management.

Differences between organic and inorganic farming include differences in intensity of some practices, differences in approaches and frequency for pest and insect control, and other areas. The Northeast Organic Farming Association (NOFA) certifies organic

cranberry farming in the Northeast, which specifies which types of fertilization and pest control can be done. Fertilizers are commonly fish emulsions and other “organic nutrients,” which produce analogous nutrient fluxes to the River. Pest management relies less on chemical forms and more on other aspects of pest management. Hand weeding is more common than application of chemicals.

Some organic or natural chemicals are not necessarily less toxic than synthetic ones. For example pyrethrins are natural insecticides produced by certain species of the chrysanthemum plant. Semi-synthetic derivatives of pyrethrins (called pyrethroids) have been developed and used as “natural” insecticides in organic farming. These compounds are may be highly toxic to fish and harmful to humans (EXTOXNET - Extension Toxicology Network - Pesticide Information Profiles, found on the web at http:///ace.ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/pips/). Rotenone is a plant-based insecticide that can be highly toxic, depending on its formulation (EXTOXNET, http:///ace.ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/pips/). Though these are not necessarily used in organic cranberry farming, the assumption that “organic” chemicals are less toxic is not necessarily borne out.

Few organic farms exist in Massachusetts. NOFA lists several in southeastern Massachusetts, including Cranberry Hill (Plymouth; 6 acres), Orcranics (Buzzards Bay), and Savory Farm (Plymouth; 3.1 acres). All are relatively new (less than ten years in operation), and operate on small parcels. The increased need for human labor raises costs enormously, which is partly offset by the higher price on the market. However, organic farming has not been proven to be suitable for large parcels of land (such as the 65 acres of town-owned bogs in Falmouth).

Figure 10. Artist at harvest time

4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This summary review has shown that much of the conventional wisdom presented by opponents of cranberry farming is outdated or misleading.

• Published studies on nutrient generation shows cranberry farms produce fewer on a per acre basis than residential areas adjacent to the bogs, and these can be reduced even further by additional pond management. • Pesticide discharge has been significantly reduced through the application of pesticides that are less toxic and have more rapid breakdown rates.

Additional reduction can be achieved in pesticide discharge by increased retention of pesticides by berms placed adjacent to the River. • Fisheries can be restored in concert with cranberry farming, through maintenance of fish ladders, cleaning of rivers of vegetation and trash, and other methods presently used by cranberry growers. • The addition of berms and their vegetation by planting specific trees and other species will provide needed shade to the River and habitat for wildlife that thrives in the “edge areas”.

Figure 11. Harvested cranberries

In short, the Falmouth agricultural heritage of cranberry farming can co-exist with the desire to have a restored Coonamessett River, and the cranberry growers are committed to helping make this happen.

Recommendations arising from this study include:

The Town of Falmouth should takes steps to develop a Management Plan for the Coonamessett watershed, including cranberry farming, through a process guaranteeing full stakeholder input and participation. The Town of Falmouth should implement the Coonamessett Watershed Management Plan, possibly using some of the funds from the lease/licensing of the Town bogs.

5.0 REFERENCES

Ashumet Plume Citizens Committee, 2000. Water Quality Assessment, Conclusions, and Program Options, Report of the Ashumet Plume Citizens Committee October. Bonome, P. 1998. Farm Conservation Plan Outlining the Implementation of Best Management Practices for Cranberry Production. Coonamessett River Bog - Falmouth, MA, Conservation Farm Plan. Coody, P.N. and J.M. Fisher. 1995. Calculation of Propargite transport in flood waters released from Massachusetts cranberry beds. Lab Project ID 954, Report # 1867. Prepared for The Cranberry Institute, East Wareham, MA. CWQG, 1991. Canadian Water Quality Guidelines and Updates. Ottawa, Canada. Task Force on Water Quality Guidelines of the Canadian Council of Resource and Environment Ministers, Report Number v-8 to v-16. DeMoranville, C.J. Flood Management. In Cranberry Production: A Guide for Massachusetts. USDA, University of Massachusetts Cranberry Experiment Station. College of Food and Natural Resources, University of Massachusetts Extension. DeMoranville, C.J. and J.R. Davenport. 1997. Phosphorus forms, rates, and timing in Massachusetts cranberry production. Sixth International Symposium on Vaccinium. DE Yarborough and JM Smagula, eds. Acta Hort. 446 ISHS Deubert, K.H. 1990. Brief Synopsis on Phosphorus in Cranberry Bogs and Bog Effluents. Unpublished report from the University of Massachusetts Cranberry Experiment Station. East Wareham, MA. Deubert, K.H. and G.Z. Kaczmarek. No date given. Quantitation of nonpoint source pollution associated with cranberry production in Massachusetts. University of Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Wareham, MA. (508) 295-2213. Ellsworth, S. and D. Schall. 1998. Wildlife utilization on commercial cranberry wetlands systems. pp. 108-109. In: Cranberry Production - A guide for Massachusetts. H.A. Sandler, ed. UMass Ext. Publ. No. 127. Environment Canada, 1997. Environmental Assessments of Priority Substances under the Canadian Envrionmental Protection Act Guidance Manual, Version 1.0. Ottawa, Canada. Report Number EPS/2/CC/3E. Hollands, G.G. 1998. Wetlands functions of cranberry bogs. pp.105-107. In: Cranberry Production - A guide for Massachusetts. H.A. Sandler, ed. UMass Ext. Publ. No. 127. IEP, Inc. 1991. Wildlife Utilization and Ecological Functions of Three Commercial Cranberry Wetland Systems in Eastern Massachusetts. Prepared for Cranberry Institute, 266 Main St. Wareham, MA.

IEP, Inc. 1990. Wildlife Utilization and Ecological Functions of Commercial Cranberry Wetland Systems in Wisconsin. (Full citation needed). Miller, C.W., .B.M. Zuckerman, and A.J. Charig (no date given). Water translocation of diazinon-C and parathion-S off a model cranberry bog and subsequent occurrence in fish and mussels. University of Massachusetts Cranberry Experiment Station, E. Wareham, MA. Montague, B., 1998. Oneliner pesticide toxicity database. USEPA. NRA, 1996. NRA special review of Glyphosate. Canberra, Australia. National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals. Report number 96.1. Peterson, R.T., and M. McKenny, 1968. A Field Guide to Wildflowers of Northeastern and North-central North America. Houghton, Mifflin Company, Boston, MA, 420 pp. Sandler, H. 1998. Integrated pest management in cranberry farming. In Cranberry Production: A Guide for Massachusetts. USDA, University of Massachusetts Cranberry Experiment Station. College of Food and Natural Resources, University of Massachusetts Extension. Sustainable Science, LLC, Horsley and Witten, Inc. and Wetland Solutions, Inc. 2002. Constructed Treatment Wetlands for Nitrogen Load Reduction to Coastal Ponds, Falmouth, Massachusetts. Final Draft Report to the Ashumet Plume Citizens Committee, June 24 2002. Teal, J.M. and B.L.Howes, 1995. Nitrogen balance in a Massachusetts cranberry bog and relationships to coastal eutrophication. Environ. Sci. Tech. 29:960-974 Tooby, T.E., 1985. Fate and biological consequences of glyphosate in the aquatic environment. In: Gossbard E. and D. Atkinson, editors. The Herbicide Glyphosate. London, Great Britain. Butterworth and Co., p. 206-217. U.S. EPA, 1993. R.E.D. Facts Glyphosate. Washington, D.C. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report Number 7508W. World Health Organization International Program on Chemical Safety, 1994. Glyphosate. Geneva, 161 pp.