California State University, Northridge

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

ECPHONETIC ACCENTS: SOME OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THEIR USE IN THE SYRIAN, TIBERIAN, AND GREEK SYSTEMS OF NOTATION A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Music

by Mark Loren Kligman

December 1985 This study is dedicated to my dear grandparents, Sam and Jeanette Becker. Their years of love and support have been truly inspirational. They have shown me a deep love for music and desire for knowledge. May this, my first attempt, be the beginning of combining these two worlds in many more meaningful ways. Their dreams and my dreams have become a reality. CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

by Mark Loren Kligman

Page Chapter I: Introduction ...... l

Chapter II: Syrian Ecphonetic Accents ...... 4

Chapter I I I: Tiberi an Ecphonet i c Accents ...... •...... 16

Chapter IV: Greek Ecphonetic Accents ...... 39

Chapter V: Comparison ...... 50

Chapter VI: Conclusions ...... 71

Notes ...... 75

Bibliography Acknowledgements

I wish to thank the efforts of many people who have made the completion of this study possible. To Fr. Aelred Cody and Lili Kahan for their assistance in examining and dating the Syrian and Hebrew manuscripts used in this study. To all my professors who have given me inspiring years of teaching and assistance. A very special thanks to my family for their constant love and support. To my fiancee Jessica for her multifaceted contributions toward editing, manuscript preparing and spelling, and for her constant support, love, and dedication when I needed it the most. To Dr. Toutant for his many long hours of help without which this study would not have been possible. Chapter I: Introduction

The evolution of our modern notational system has as its primary influence the practices of liturgical music between the fourth and twelfth centuries C.E. The most significant development of this period was the system of neumatic notation which grew out of the musical prac tices of the Western Church. The system that both preceded and influ enced neumatic notation was ecphonetic notation,1 which served to indi cate the grammatical division and pronunciation of a text. This system later evolved musically into cantillation, the half-spoken, half-sung recitation of a text. Ecphonetic accents appear in various cultures; each culture developed its own unique application of the system. One of two notational systems that preceded ecphonetic notation was chironomy, 2 which dates from as early as 2700 B.C.E. Chironomy was the practice of drawing the course of a melody in the air whereby the interpreter moved his hand in a manner to indicate a melodic line. 3 This seems to have been practiced in most ancient Asiatic civilizations including Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia, Israel, and Byzantium. 4 Edith

Gerson-Kiwi states, 11 In many respects, ancient Egypt may be regarded as the classical land of the art of cheironomy .•.. 115 She adds that this practice of chironomy was not a conductor's art but an educational system of melodic graphs indicated by hand signs. An illustration of this practice will appear below. There is a great deal of documentation of chironomy in iconography. Example 1, a relief from the tomb of 2

Ra-em-remet dating from around 2400 B.C.E.,6 illustrates three chirono mists guiding two harpists and a flautist. Observe that the chirono mists are the first, fourth, and sixth figures from the left.

Example 1

The other system of notation was developed by the Greeks during the early centuries of the first millennium B.C.E. The letters of the alphabet represented pitches7 and are found in two different systems. The older of the two systems, which consisted of Phoenician letters and other symbols, was used primarily for instrumental music. The other system, which employed the Ionian alphabet and other signs, was chiefly used for vocal music. 8 In the vocal system, each syllable of a text was put to a specific pitch by a letter. As sophisticated as this system may appear, it did not prove useful for the music of the church. 9 According to Eric Werner, a notational system that had to define every pitch proved to be too cumbersome for the music of the church. 10 The church sought to notate melodic phrases for cantillation instead of individual syllables; the Greek system did not provide the means. 3

Werner concludes, "Phrases or syntatic units had to be provided with notation, not individual syllables ..• the primitive neumes (the ecphonetic accents) ... were much more practical."ll Hanoch Avenary states that, according to modern research, the reading of scriptural texts was important in the Syrian, Hebrew, and Byzantine cultures. 12 Therefore, this study will focus on the ecpho netic notational systems of all three. 13 The fully developed system of each culture will be discussed individually, with comments regarding its evolution, external features such as accent shapes and names, and will include an illustration of its main pausal accents. The applica tion of each system will be illustrated using the same passage from the eighteenth chapter of Kings Book I. The u5e of the identical passage to illustrate all three systems will facilitate a detailed comp~rison. Chapter II: Syrian Ecphonetic Accents

One of the most comprehensive examinations of Syrian ecphonetic accents is J. B. Segal's The Diacritical Point and the Accents in Syriac;14 this informative study is used as a primary source for this research. The Syrian accents appeared in manuscripts between the fifth and thirteenth centuries,15 reaching their fullest use in the eighth century. 16 The accent markings appear as large, medium, and small size dots arranged in groups of ones, twos, and threes, placed above, below or on the same level as a line of text. Segal claims a native origin to the Syrian accents; they were not influenced by chironomy or the Greek lettering system. 17 The earliest example of Syrian accents is seen in a manuscript which dates from 411 C.E. 18 A complicating factor in Syrian manuscripts is the appearance of markings, such as the dia critcal point, in addition to the accents. In this early manuscript the accent and diacritical point are identical in appearance, consisting simply of a single dot ( • ). However, in later manuscripts the accent sign becomes larger and therefore easier to both see and to differenti ate from the diacritical point. The accent and diacritical point serve different purposes: the accent marking is an aid in recitation, while the diacritical point determines the pronunciation of the word. 19 Since the diacritical point will appear in the manuscript discussed below, it must be taken into account, even though it does not have a musical value. Segal explains that the general outline of Syriac literature falls 5 roughly into three stages. The accents developed during this period and are also divided into three stages. 20 Accents in the first stage, between the fifth and sixth centuries, appear in groups of ones and twos. As a result of the schism of the sixth century, which divided Syria between East and West, two schools of accentuation emerged. This marked the beginning of the second stage, which spanned the period from the seventh to the tenth centuries. 21 Manuscripts from both schools of this stage contain a greater number of accents that are displayed not only in combinations of ones and twos, as in the previous stage, but also threes. These added accents provided the means for a more expres sive system for the recitation of holy texts. It was during this stage that the Syrian accents reached their fullest use. During the third stage, eleventh to thirteenth centuries, the East and West merged into one theoretical system. 22 Although the method of application of the accents became more complex in later stages, each followed a well de fined system. The accents were not arbitrarily placed in the manu scripts.23 Example 2 (see page 6) illustrates the shape, name and meaning of the accents found in the first stage of the Syrian ecphonetic system. 24 Although the split of the East and West took place in the second stage, even during the first stage different names for the same accent developed, as in the case of accents 4, 12, and 13. The "___ .. denotes a phrase of text; in the case of accent 13, the broken line denotes several phrases of text. Each accent is shown where it would appear in relation to the text. Of the thirteen accents in this stage, twelve 6

Example 2 Accent Name Meaning Above the text 1) • m'sa''lana interrogative 2) • paqoda- II - commanding

3) • 'e~yana resisting, compelling

4) • zauga 'elaya (E) reproaching taksa (w) 5) •• rahta running Below the text 6) metdammrana wondering • 7) m'nahhta.. causing to descend • 8) samka support • At least one accent on the same level as the text 9). pasoqa- Jl - breaking-off 10 )•• 'elayaA -- upper

11) ta~taya lower • • 12) zauga iE) pair '• ~'wayya (W) 1evel 13) I m'~allyana (E) praying • • metkar~pana (E) supplicating • , m' ~a llyana (W) praying • metka{5pana (W) supplicating are located either at the beginning or end of the phrase (accents 1-12), and one appears both at the beginning and the end of the phrase 8 resulting in a more meaningful utternace of the text. 35 In contrast to the Eastern concern with the musical value of the accents, the West placed emphasis on their grammatical value. This resulted in, as one scholar states, "a mechanical application" of the accents. 36 As a result, the Eastern Syriac system became highly sophisticated and more flexible thaA the Western systern. 37 The third stage opened towards the end of the eleventh century and continued through the thirteenth century. This period is known as the Silver Age of Syriac and was marked by fusion and synthesis of the two Syrian dialects and cultures. 38 Syriac had already declined as a liv ing tongue in favor of its sister-language, Arabic. 39 Segal states that since spoken Syriac declined, any discussion of accents within the schools of this stage was, "little more than an academic exercise."40 The theoretical system that formed kept the same main accents found in the two previous stages. 41 The four main accents, employed in all three stages, were pausal accents. They are: pasoqa, 'elaya, tabtaya, and ~·wayya accents 9-12 of Example 2. 42 All implied a division or separation in the recitation of a verse. The placement of each accent reflects the logical pattern of a verse. A verse in Syriac usually divides into two main parallel parts: the first verse-half and the second verse-half. The second verse-half is contrasted with, or corollary to, or occasionally expla natory of, the first verse-half. 43 The accent tabtaya is used to indi cate the end of the first verse-half, while pasbqa signifies the end of the second verse-half, or conclusion of the entire verse. If the first 9 verse-half needs to be divided into two parts, the minor clause is indi cated by the accent s'wayya; the subdivision for the second verse-half is 'elaya.A. -- 44 This arrangement is illustrated in Example 3, which is read from right to left to accomodate the Syriac language.

Example 3 3a Verse with no subdivisions Verse

second verse-half ·------A - - - pasoqa .tabtaya

3b Verse with subdivions Verse

verse-half

minor clause minor clause minor clause minor clause ~ ~ ~ • -~ • • - .... - A -- • • ... - pasoqa 'elaya ta~taya s'wayya

This structure is analagous to periodic phrase structure in music. The first phrase ends inconclusively and is followed by a conclusive second phrase; the second phrase also completes the musical thought left in complete by the first phrase. In the reading of a Syriac text, the first verse-half also ends with an inconclusive division followed by a conclusive second verse-half which completes the entire verse. 10

This placement of the accents aided the reader in the recitation of a text. A tonal value associated with each accent indicated to the reader the appropriate rise or fall of the voice. 45 The position of each accent in relation to the line of text suggested their tonal value. See Example 4 for the tonal value of the four main pausal accents. 46

Example 4 Accent Name Tonal value 47 , (•wayya level ' , tat]taya falling - II -- •' 'elaya rising , pasoqa- A - 1evel

It is interesting to note the similarity between the shape of the accent and the corresponding tonal value. For example 'elaya, with one dot on the same level as the text and another dot to the right and above, appears to be rising. Compare this to tabtaya, with one dot on the same level as the text and another below, which appears to be falling. The tonal value of the main pausal accents as arranged in a verse could be represented by the graph illustrated in Example 5 (see page

11), which is also read from right to left. It is impossible to describe the exact musical chant of the Syrian system since no oral tradition has kept it alive. 48 No precise practice was obligatory to the reader; this resulted in recitations of the same phrase being 11

Example 5

pasoqa- /1. - 'elayaA -- s'wayyat/ -

different from reader to reader. 49 However, it is important to realize that the Syrian accents followed a well designed system, and the appear ance of the dots was not haphazard, but rather it shared an intimate kinship with the meaning of the text. 50 Example 6a {see page 12) illustrates a manuscript which dates from 823-824 C.E. 51 The accentuation used in this manuscript is in accor dance with the Syrian system in its second stage; most likely it is from the West Syrian schoo1. 52 The passage that appears here is Kings I, XVIII: 29-35. Most of the dots that appear in this manuscript are diacritical points; generally only a few pausal accents are used. 53 To provide a clear illustration of the accents, Example 6b {see page 12) displays a portion of this text, verses 34-35 (the last eight lines of Example 6a) with the accents circled. The remaining dots are not circled. Observe that roughly only half of the dots in this portion are accents. Example 7a (see page 13) consists of a translation of verses 34-35 54 with the corresponding accent names placed below the appropriate words. 55 Observe that after each clause "and he said," the accent pasoga- J\ - appears. A diagram of the pausal accents used in this passage 12

Example 6

6a 6b 13

Example 7 7a v:34 And he said fill four barrels with water and pour it pasoqa ta~taya zaw'a on the burnt offering and on the wood and he said samka pasoqa-A- pasoqa-"- do it a second time and they did it the second time samka pasoqa- -'\ -

and he _,._said do it a third --time and they did it the third _.,._time pasoqa samka pasoqa v:35 And the water ran round about the altar and also it pasoqa zaw'a the trench he filled with water samka pasoqa

verse 7b v:34 1 ta~t~y~ (zaw a) pasOqa

pasoq~ v:35 pasoqa (zaw 1&) pasoqae x z appears in Example 7b. 56 This diagram is read from left to right rather than from right to left; consequently, the diagrams illustrated in Example 3 are now reversed. In this passage there is only one instance where a verse divides in half. This appears within verse 34 and is, consequently, the longest verse of this passage. This is similar to the diagram that appears in Example 3a. The other phrases that are marked by pasoqa that appear in 14

this passage are simply clauses. These clauses vary in length and are marked by a pasoga- ,.. - in the middle of a verse. Segal states that this is another use of the pasoga- ,. - accent. 57 Since pasoga- "" - indicates a level

intonation of the voice, as seen in Example 4~ when this accent appears repeatedly in short clauses, it seems that this level intonation would continue. The accent zaw'a is included in Example 7b even thqugh it is not a main pausal accent. It serves to emphasize a word which generally indicates a rising tone. 58 Segal adds that zaw'a came to be treated as ·~syana which marked a pause at the end of a phrase within a verse. 59 To provide a speculative visual representation of these pausal indications, Example 8 (see page 15) illustrates a translation of this passage with symbols that indicate various pauses. The marking (4) represents a pause within a phrase that appears weaker than a verse half; this marking is used to represent zaw'a. The verse-half accent tabtaya is ; nd i cated by the symbo 1 ( I ). The representation of pasoga- A - presents some difficulties. The present writer assumes that a clause marked by a pasSga in the middle of a verse would not appear as strong as a pasoga- A - that appears at the end of a verse. Therefore, the symbol ( fl) indicates a pasSga at the end of a verse, and the other use of pasoga is represented by the symbo 1 ( J } . 15

Example 8 v: 34 And he said \fill four barrels with waterl and pour it f on the burnt offering and on the wood If and he saidl do it the second time and they did it the second time! and he saidldo it the third time and they did it the third time I/ v:35 And the water ran round about the altar I and also itf the trench he filled with waterJI Chapter III: Tiberian Ecphonetic Accents

The long process of development of the Hebrew accents was not com pleted until the tenth century C.E. 60 even though the cantillation of Hebrew religious texts was practiced as early as the second century C.E. 61 This fully developed system, called the Tiberian system, super seded the earlier Palestinian and Babylonian systems. The Tiberian system provided accents for the entire Hebrew Bible: the Five Books of Moses, the Books of the Prophets, and the various Writings (i.e. Ruth, Song of Songs, Proverbs, etc.). The system of accentuation known as the 'prose' accents is used in all but three books of the Hebrew Bible. The three books that do not employ this system are Job, Proverbs, and Psalms; these books use the system known as 'poetic' accents. 62 Al- though the accents of both systems appear the same, this study will focus on the 'prose' accents of the Hebrew Bible since it comprises a greater number of books from the Bible. 63 Since many melodies have been associated with the same sign in different cultures, an accent sign did not provide a means for a precise musical rendition. The notated examples of the accents used in this study are taken from the Ashkenazic or European tradition, which is one of five regional styles that remain in existence today. 64 The Ashkenazic style will be used since it has been developed to hold one specific melodic value for each accent; this is not the case of the accents of the four other regional styles. 65 It should be kept in mind that the use of the Ashkenazic tradition in this paper in no way implies 17 that this is the only, original, or purest tradition of cantillation. Since this system indicates a precise melody for each accent sign, it provides the easiest means to illustrate the Hebrew process of cantil lation. The history of Tiberian accents is not as easily understood chrono logically as is the history of the Syrian accents. Several references in Jewish sources indicate that Biblical Chant was an old and well es tablished custom as early as the second century C.E. 66 References in the Talmud, which was compiled roughly between 200 and 500 C.E., 67 demonstrate that the practice of Biblical Chant certainly predates the fifth century. The following quote is taken from Seder Mo'ed tractate Megillah 32a, 11 If one reads the scripture without a melody or repeats the Mishnah without a tune, of him the scripture says, 'Where fore I gave them also statutes that were ng~ good, and ordinances whereby they should not live.• .. The scriptural verse referred to is Ezekial XX:25. Perhaps in this context the Talmud quote overstates the point; the meaning here is that cantillation is the proper practice of the reading of scripture. Anc other reference to cantillation is expressed by Rabbi Akiva, found in Seder Neziki tractate Sanhedrin 99a-99b. In his demand for daily study,

Rabbi Akiva reiterates the necessity for cantillation stating, 11 Chant it every day, chant it every day. ~~ 69 The Talmud also states that the Biblical verse was subdivided into clauses which were initially indicated by chironomy. 70 One reference in the Talmud to chironomy, stated by Rabbi Akiva, is found in Seder r 18

Zeraim tractate Berakoth 62a. Rabbi Akiva discusses the uses of the

right hand, 11 0ne points with it to the accents in the scroll.... 71 Since this practice dates earlier than the sixth century C.E., and since the accents were fully developed by the tenth century, it seems plausible that chironomy and the accent signs were in use together for at least five centuries. Rashi, an eleventh century Biblical scholar, commented on the above Berakoth 62a Talmud passage and stated that even in his time Palestinian readers practiced chironomy. 72 Rashi's statement indicates that chironomy was practiced along side of, and was even tually replaced by, the accents. 73 Chironomy initially served asprompt ing signs for the reader during recitation in a religious service. The tomech, or helper, would move his hand in the indicated motion as the reader or student would recite the Biblical verse. Later, when the accents were added, chironomy provided a memory aid for the reader in learning the shape of each accent and its corresponding melody. 74 In some cases chironomy influenced the actual names and shapes of certain accent signs in the Tiberian system. 75 An example of this can be illustrated through the combination of the two accents zarka and sego1 76 which appear respectively as ( c:-.:J) and ( :. ) . See Example 12 page 23 for a list of Tiberian accents. The chironomy associated with these tw·o accents is illustrated in Example 9 (see page 19). 77 Note the similarity between the shape of the accent sign, (C')), and the associated chironomic motion. Vocal renderings of three different cultures suggest the same shape for these two accents depicted in Example 10 (see page 19). 78 An initial falling movement which rises is 19

Example 9

followed by another downward motion that finally moves upward. This suggests.astrong similarity between the chironomic motion, the shape of the accent, and the melody of the accent combination zarka and sego1. 79 It appears that the hand motion and corresponding melody is

Example 10

lOa ~ !:{?@ f!J t-/P ~ lOb 41l DJ 1 J tJ; f1J Z/)Yr ko..~ ;r:jol

1Oc 4 JJjJ)JffJ@J8J ~-~ - se-jl associated with these two accents in combination. The chironomic motion serves to indicate the motion not only of the accent zarka but also of segol. Indeed without the musical rendition of segol the 20

connection between the chironomy and the entire melody, as seen in Example 10, would be incomplete. The meaning of zarka and segol does not seem to determine the shape of these accents; zarka literally means 'a scattering' and segol 'bunch.' Neither 'scattering nor 'bunch' seems clearly related to the chironomic motion illustrated in Example 9. However, in other cases there is a clear relationship between the shape of an accent and the corresponding chironomic motion. An example is the accent tipcha, which literally means 'hand-breath.' The shape of the accent sign is ( '- ) and the chironomic motion consists of an 'L'-shaped position formed with the thumb and index finger of the right hand, as illustrated in Example 11. 80 The shape of the accent and its chironomic motion are

Example 11 r

clearly similar. Avenary has calculated that approximately twenty per cent of the names of the accents in the Tiberian ecphonetic system are derived from chironomy. 81 The date commonly accepted for the completion of the Tiberian system is the tenth century C.E. 82 It is not possible to give a pre cise date since there are no extant manuscripts that mark the begin ning of this system. 83 The final codification was completed by the Ben Asher family at Tiberias, hence the name Tiberian. This system, which is known as the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible, provided for the following: 1) the division of the text into clauses, 2) indications for the flow of cantillation, and 3) markings to ensure the correct pronun- c1a. t"1on. 84 Th e d"1v1s1on . . o f th e t ex t 1n . t o c 1auses seems t o b e accep t e d as the original function of the Tiberian accents while cantillation and pronunciation indications were a later addition. However, the exact date of these additions is unclear. 85 Both the text division and cantillation symbols are indicated by the accents signs, whereas the pronunciation indications are designated by diacritical markings. The diacritical markings consist of the diacritical point (similar to the Syrian use of just one dot), and the vowel sign. Both are an aid in pronunciation which, however, varies amoung cultural regions so that no single pronuciation is imperative. 86 As in the Syrian system, the diacritical markings in Hebrew do not hold a musical value. Since they appear in the manuscript below, the diacritical markings can not be disregarded. However, unlike those in the Syrian system, the Hebrew accents are distinctly different in shape from the diacritical markings 22 making it easier to distinguish between the two markings. The total number of accents that appear in the Tiberian system is twenty-eight, according to Rosowsky. 87 In this system accents are placed either above or below individual words, 88 rather than above or below a phrase of text as was the case in the Syrian system. The accents appear in various shapes: dots, strokes, hooks, and circles. 89 Example 12 (see page 23) illustrates fifteen of the more common

Tiberian accents. 90 Since each word receives one accent the 11 11 denotes a word rather than a phrase of text. The name and meaning follow each accent. 91 The name of each accent is derived from either its visual form, f unc t 1on,. or c h.1ronom1c . mo t.10n. 92 Two examp 1es of th e v1sua. 1 f orm o f the accent determining the name are sego 1 , ( : • ) , and revi i , ( • ) , accents 1 and 3 of Example 12. The meaning of these two accents are 'bunch' and 'square,' respectively. Note the association of the three dots for segol 'bunch' and a rotated square for revii 'square.' An example of an accent that is named for its function is sof pasuk, accent 9 of Example 12. This accent literally means 'end-of-sentence' and its placement appears at the end of a verse. An example of the shape of an accent that is similar to the chironomic motion is zarka, accent 4 of Example 12, as illustrated above. Each accent does not indicate an absolute sequence of notes. As a result, the cantillation of any given Biblical verse varies from one culture to another. Avigor Herzog states, 11 the motives exist as 'ideas' to be realized in performance, within certain margins of flexibility:• 93 23

Example 12 Accent Name Meaning Above the word 1 ) ••• segol bunch 2) ..L_ zakef-katon minor-raising 3)~ revii square

4) c-..:;) zarka scatterer 5) ~ pashta stretcher 6) /? gershayim double geresh (expulsion) 7) p t'lisha g'dola big t'lisha (to draw out) 8)~ t'lisha k'tana small t'lisha (to draw out) Below the word 9) or sof pasuk end of sentence -.- -;:-- 10) etnachta to rest ~ 11) tipcha -L- hand breath 12) tevir --;;--- broken 13) munach -J- sustained 14)- mapach reversed > 15) mercha -:r to lengthen

In addition, within almost every tradition there are six distinct modes of cantillation for single books and groups of books of the Hebrew Bible. Separate modes are used during cantillation of 1) the Five Books of Moses, read on Shabbat; 2) the Five Books of Moses, read on High 24

Holidays (Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur); 3) the Prophets; 4) Esther; 5) Lamentations; and 6) Ruth, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes. 94 Therefore, the melodic rendition of any given accent depends not only upon the cultural tradition but also upon the book of the Bible from which it is taken and, in some cases, the time of year in which it is to be recited. Example 13 illustrates four renditions of the accent etnachta, accent 10 of Example 12. 95 Note the variations of the same accent within the same cultural tradition.

Example 13

13a Five Books of Moses $ J t J on Shabbat et-Nth-tA

13b Books of the Prophets et- ~h- to.. ____

13c Esther

13d Lamentations

The main purpose of Biblical recitation was the understandable utterance of the text. Consequently, the motives provided by the accents were never ornate. However, there are a few accents that serve ...

as special functions in recitation. One such accent is shalshelet which is among the rarest of the accents, appearing only four times in the entire Hebrew Bible. 96 Shalshelet is marked by the following shape

( ~ ) and literally means •chain.• Its function is to keep the lis tener is suspense for what is to follow. A melodic rendition of shalshelet is notated in Example 14. 97

Example 14 ' 4 1 iJd 1 p~ 1 JJ J tD. J). shal~ she.------Let__

The main pausal accents in the Tiberian ecphonetic system are best

described in E. J. Revell•s article, 11 Hebrew Accents and Greek Ekpho netic Neumes ... 98 Like the Syrian verse, the Hebrew verse normally divides into two halves. The accent that marks the end of the first half of the verse is etnachta (accent 10 of Example 12), while sof pasuk (accent 9) marks the second and final half of the verse. 99 Ac cording to Revell, the length of each verse may vary from a few words to many, and the syntactic structure relating these words may also vary

from a part of a clause to a group of clauses. Each of the verse-ha~es is composed of a terminal clause, which may be preceded by one or more contextual clauses. The accents of the terminal clause are tevir and 26 tipcha (accents 12 and 11 of Example 12, respectively); tevir would be omitted for shorter clauses. The end of the contextual clause is marked by zakef-katon, which is usually preceded by pashta (accents 2 and 5 of Examp 1e 12 , respec t 1ve· 1y ) . l OO A verse- ha 1f may con t a1n . none, one, or several contextual clauses;101 their number depends upon the length of the text. The arrangement of the Tiberian main pausal accents is illustrated in Example 15 (see page 27), which is read from right to left to accomodate the Hebrew. The two abbreviations, 11 t.c. 11 and "c.c. , 11 denote 'terminal clause' and contextual clause,• respectively. Revell states that typically each verse-half is composed of one con textual clause and one terminal clause;102 this arrangement is illus- in Example 15c. The Tiberian accents are commonly divided into two categories: disjunctives and conjuctives. 103 The disjunctive accents are dividing accents, whereas the conjuctive accents connect words within a verse. 104 The six pausal accents described above are all disjuntive accents since they all function to divide the verse. However, these are not the only dlSJunc · · t 1ves;· l 05 Reve 11 s t a t es th a t th ere are th.1r t een bas1c . d.lSJunc- . tive accents. 106 In the Hebrew manuscript below the conjunctive accents will be indicated but not discussed in detail since they are not pausal accents. The cantillation of scripture in the synagogue follows many strict t ra d1•t• 1ons. 107 In most synagogues the usual custom is to chant the Torah, the Five Books of Moses, from a scroll that contains the text without any markings. The reader prepares the portion that he reads It£ ------~- -

Example 15

15a One terminal clause in each verse-half

second verse-half

~I I sof pasuk t1pcha tev1r e t na c hta "fi'P"Cili te'V"i"r

15b One terminal clause in each verse-half with one contextual clause in the first verse-half nrs~ ~ __...-----t-.c-.-- ~ ~ .,- ~ 1 sof pasuk Itipcha tev1r' etnachta t1pcha tevfr zakef-katon pashta

15c One terminal clause and one contextual clause in each verse-half

second verse-half first t.c. t.c.

zakef-katon pashta etnachta tipcha ~ zakef-katon pashta

15d One terminal clause in each verse-half and two contextual clauses in the first verse-half and one contextual clause in the second verse-half

verse-half t verse-half c.c. c.c. t I N sof pasuk tipcha tev1r zakef-katon pashta etnachta tipcha tev1r zakef-katon ~ segol zarra ""-' 28 from a copy of the text that does provide markings. This is practiced primarily for the recitation of the Torah and not for the cantillation of the other Biblical books. Although the passage that appears below is taken from the Book of the Prophets, the illustration to follow can be applied to the cantillation of the Torah. Example 16 (see page 29) illustrates the scroll version of the pas sage from Kings, XVIII: 29-37, in the left column; 108 the same passage with the ecphonetic accents appears in the right column. 109 The column that contains the accents is taken from a Leningrad Codex which most likely dates from the eleventh century. 110 The text in the left column flows continuously with no markings to indicate sentence divisions of the text, cantillation, or pronunciation. Only one set of markings appears in the scroll version of the text; this marking is a single line, a~. placed on the head of cer tain letters as decoration. Up to three tagim can be found on a spe cific letter. An example of this marking is shown on the first line, second letter from the right. The right column does, however, contain markings which indicate sentence divisions of the text, cantillation, and pronunciation. To explain these markings in detail, Example 17 (see page 30) illustrates two selected verses, Kings I, XVIII:34-35, from Example 16. Example 17 displays three versions of these two verses. Example 17a is taken from the left column of Example 16, lines 7-9. Example 17b is taken from the right column of Example 16, lines 15-20. In order to provide a clear illustration of the ecphonetic accents in I

Example 16

16a )'J~~ ~~' ~~, ~? ,~,~'ni~~ ~,;,; ,, ~,::'\., ~~:-\~~ Nl~., ,~'C)':\'' ,;,~,, "* ,~·~ ='J!1 ''' r.t·;~ ~~}('' :1'~~ ~'1:~ ~·vv ~':\-, ,.,.;~ n;-' '~~:'! :'\,:-~,. n:~~ ~N ~~-,~ -,:~; ,~~ !'\'!'\' ~:,, :\'!'\ ~"~ =~~' ·:: ...,:·~ ~~ \'}'•, ~!'\" t": 'r.:'~ ~·::N~ :'l)t :1::,, jr.'J.t :'\'!'\' ~ rm:~~~;~ ~ i',~, n:'m :-:' Y.,t =,}t, :\'=.' ~, ~~ ~'~' ~y~~ ~;t: ~~N', ~·~-,!'\ "; t~., "\S~ ~'», 1V~ ,~., ,l;,~, ,~, ~~~~ ~·~7-' .,,, ~';!'\ '1 ,,r.. ~~"C ~;~ ~,.,,'=' r¥- ~~ 'n:'~' ~, ~-~:\ ,,,., ""''lr.M:N ~ ~~~·~ ~-:~ ~~~ "', ~n=~ -rm=~~~,~~·~ ~~~~, ,.,,~~ ~,·.v·, :t-1,., ~ t':m" ,n,~~ =...,,:1 ;,~ ':l'.'' r 30

Example 17 17a ~-,,, ~~ ~,_,, ~~~~ ~;r. ,~N·~ ,.,'»~ ~'~ ,~~., ,~_,,, ~~'v .,,~~, ~~~,~ ,~, ~'~!'\ '¥ ~"C ~'~ ~;-,~~ :\~ ~~ "~'~' ~~~ ~~~:'\ ,,,.,

17b

17c

these two verse, Example 17c is a •modern• version which clearly dis plays the ecphonetic accents and diacritical markings. 111 The ecphonetic accents are circled; the other markings appear as vowel signs and diacritical markings. An example of a vowel sign is the horizontal line or the dots found on the first line, under the first word of the right. An example of a diacritical point is seen as the dot that appears on the third line, above the third letter of the first word on the right. 112 Observe that in Example 17c the end of a verse is marked by the sof pasuk (accent 9of Example 12), and to make this division very clear two vertical diamonds are used. This is illustrated at the end of 31

verse 34, after the first word on the right of line three, and at the end of verse 35, logically appearing at the end of line four. In order to proceed with a closer analysis of these two verses, Example 18 illustrates a transliteration of this passage with the name of the accents appearing below the appropriate word. This provides for

Example 18 v:34 Vayomer mil'u arba'ah chadim mayim v'yitzku revii kadma mapach pashta zakef-katon mercha al-ha'ola v'al-ha'eitzim vayomer sh'nu vayish'nu vayomer tipcha etnachta mapach pashta zakef-katon mercha shaleishu vay'shaleishu tipcha sof pasuk v:35 vayeilchu hamayim saviv lamizbei'ach v'gam et-hat'alah munach zakef-katon tipcha etnachta mercha tipcha milei-mayim sof pasuk

the following cantillation illustration of this passage. In order to recite this passage, the reader would apply the melodic formula associ ated with each accent in the order that the accents appear in this passage. Example 19a (see page 32) illustrates the melodic formula of the accents with the name of the accents independent of the actual text. 113 This is done so that the reader can practice the melodic rendition with the appropriate accent combination. The next step is to add the text to the melodic line; this is illustrated in Example 19b (see page 32). Observe that by comparing the two melodic renderings, r

Example 19

19b 4t' W JU. ; J n f11i €]#:;. 33 in certain instances the melody is altered; this is done to accomodate the text with the melody. The following illustration will concentrate on the structure of the main pausal accents. Example 20a illustrates an English transla tion of this passage with the names of the main pausal accents below the appropriate word; 114 only the main disjunctive accents are indica cated, not the conjuctive accents. This method provides an easier

Example 20 20a v:34 And he said fill four barrels with water and pour it on the pashta zakef-katon burnt offering and on the wood and he said do ita second time tipcha etnachta pashta and they did it the second time and he said do it a third time zakef-katon tipcha and they did it the third time sof pasuk v:35 And the water ran round about the altar and the trench zakef-katon tipcha etnachta also he filled with water tipcha sof pasuk 20b ~c. ~ I I ~~ v:34 pashta zakef-katon tipcha etnachta ~c. t.c.~ f I pashta zakef-katon 'tipcha 1 sofpasuk ~c ~ I I ~ I I v:35 zakef-katon tipcha·~ etnachta tipcha sof pasuk r

illustration since it is read from left to right rather than from right to left. Therefore, the diagrams of the main pausal accents depicted in Example 15 are now reversed. Example 20b illustrates the main pausal accents in order of appearance in the above passage diagrammed without the text. Observe that verse 34 displays the typical arrangement of a verse: one terminal clause and one contextual clause in each verse-half (as similarly diagrammed in Example 15c). Verse 35 reveals a different

arrangement, one terminal clause in each verse-half with one con~extual clause in the first verse-half (as similarly diagrammed in Example 15b). No contextual clause appears in the second half of verse 35 due to the short length of the verse. In addition, a pashta does not precede the zakef-katon in the contextual clause of the first verse-half due to the shorter length of this verse. Finally, Example 21 illustrates a translation of this passage with the same symbols used in the Syrian example that visually mark the pauses in the passage: (f) denotes a contextual clause or terminal clause, ( I) denotes a half-verse, and (If) denotes the end of a verse.

Example 21 v:34 And he said fill four barrels with water/ and pour it on the burnt offering( and on the woodl and he said do it the second time and they did it the second timef and he said do it the third timeJ and they did it the third timeff v:35 And the water ranJround aboutl the altarf and the trench also1 he filled with waterll 35

The Palestinian and Babylonian systems of accentuation predate the Tiberian system. Most scholars believe the Palestinian to be the older of the two systems, dating to around the eighth century C.E. 115 The Palestinian system presents some difficulties. Aron Ootan states that since no manuscripts exist that display the ultimate stage of develop ment of the Palestinian accents,116 there is no proof of a complete system called Palestinian. 117 However, an analysis of the Palestinian manuscripts reveals some interesting characteristics. Avenary states that the Palestinian accents consist mostly of dots that are placed above, below, within, or on the edge of the lett~rs. 118 These dots are not used as methodically as in the Tiberian example illustrated above. According to Revell, no Palestinian manuscript uses a different sign for each of the thirteen basic disjuctive accents. In fact, it· was common to use only nine accents to represent the thirteen basic disjunctives. This is achieved by having one accent sign to represent a group of accents. 119 One example of this is the use of the tipcha accent to mark the following accents: tipcha, segol, etnachta, and sof pasuk. Revell explains that since segol comes at the end of a clause120 and etnachta and sof pasuk come at the end of the first and second verse-half respectively, their presence is predictable. There would be no need to mark segol, etnachta, or sof pasuk because the reader would know one of these final accents would follow tipcha. 121 This method of using one accent to represent several accents has led some scholars to label the Palestinian system as primitive122 since the Tiberian system is more precise. However, Revell claims this 36

apparent primitiveness is just a result of differing cultural priori ties. Revell further states, 11 the Palestinian and Tiberian accent systems derive from the same origin, and were in parallel, not succes sive, use."123 Unlike the Palestinian system of accentuation, the Babylonian sys tem did reach a fixed stage of development. 124 The Babylonian system of accentuation differs from the Tiberian system in a few respects. The Babylonian accent signs appear exclusively above a word in the shape of letters,125 whereas the Tiberian accent signs are placed above or below the word in the shape of dots, strokes, hooks, and circles. The tipcha accent before the etnachta is marked differently than the tipcha that preceeds the sof pasuk. Reve11•s explanation for this dif ference is that the first verse-half and second verse-half differed melodically, thus necessitating different markings for the same accent. 126 Another difference is that in the Babylonian system each verse-half consists of only one contextual clause, whereas the Tiberian system marks several contextual clauses. The Babylonian uses different methods to mark this division; in some instances two Tiberian contextual clauses are included in only one Babylonian contextual clause, resulting in a longer clause. 127 The last difference is that the Babylonian sys tem has no conjuctive accents, only disjunctives.128 Revell concludes that the Babylonian system differs from the Tiberian in detail but not in the basic pattern. In each system the text is divided into two halves, each composed of a terminal clause which may be preceded by one (or, in the Tiberian system, one or more) contextual c1ause(s). 129 37

Revell views the Babylonian system as a progressive step toward the Tiberian system which is clearer, more precise, and a more useful systern to apply toward the division of the text. Although the preceding discussion focused solely on Biblical accen tuation, accents appear in other Hebrew texts. Revell states that while some of the other texts employ the Tiberian system of accentu ation, a large body of material known as 'Rabbinic Literature' (the Mishna, Talmud, and Midrash), displays a completely different system.130 According to Revell, the unit of accentuation of the Mishna is the paragraph, as opposed to the verse in the Biblical accentuation. 131 Typically, the paragraph is made up of one or more contextual clauses followed by a terminal clause. No fixed set of signs marks the end of each clause; various manuscripts display different accent signs for the identical Rabbinic passage. 132 In a discussion of the relation between the Rabbinic and Biblical accentuation, Revell claims that the Rabbinic paragraph can not be viewed as an extended Biblical verse. The accent signs marking the two clauses in the Mishna texts are rarely the same as those in the Bibl~~ texts. The terminal clause in certain cases is similar in both systems, but the accents used to mark the contextual clause are not found in the same order in the Mishna texts as in the Biblical texts. 133 Revell states that since the chant of the two texts is not the same, different accent signs were used. He concludes, "My own opinion would be that some motifs were common to both types of chant, and that they are related in a few other features as well, but that the accentuation and chant usedfor r

Rabbinic texts was never either at its origin or during its development closely similar to that used for the Biblical text, and hadJ in fact, a completely different basic structure."l3q Chapter IV: Greek Ecphonetic Accents

The following information for Greek ecphonetic accents is taken primarily from the writings of Egan Wellesz135 and Gudrun Engberg. 136 The Greek ecphonetic accents, which are commonly referred to as ecpho netic neumes, 137 appear mainly in the following three Biblical texts: the Hebrew Bible lectionary, the Gospel lectionary, and the Epistle lectionary. The accents do not appear in the psalter or prose litur gical texts. 138 There seems to be a disagreement between the two scholars as to the date when the Greek ecphonetic accents first appeared in manuscripts. Wellesz claims the signs were introduced toward the end of the fourth century C.E.,139 whereas Engberg claims that markings are found in manuscripts dating from the eighth century C.E. 140 Despite this difference, both scholars agree that the accents were found in manuscripts until the end of the fifteenth century. 141 Engberg states that during the eleventh and twelfth centuries the system of accentu ation was apparently standardized in Constantinople; this system is referred to as the 'classical' system. 142 The older, or archaic sys tem, differs in a few respects, to be discussed below. The description of the Greek ecphonetic accents below will focus on the 'classical' system since the available sources and manuscripts concentrate on this system. In addition, it is generally accepted that the Greek ecpho netic system was standardized after the Syrian (eighth century) and the Hebrew (early tenth century), and is regarded as a later ecphonetic system. 143 40

The shapes of the Greek accents144 appear as dots, strokes, and hooks that appear usually above or below a phrase of text.145 The accents of the •classical• period are used in pairs to frame a phrase of text, one accent at the beginning of the phrase and one at the end of the prase. This use of the accents is different than that of the Syrian and Hebrew systems. Fourteen combinations of pairs of accents are used in the •classical • system and are illustrated in Example 70

(see page 41). 146 The 11 11 denotes a phrase of text and is read frow left to right. In most cases the same accent appears at the beginning of a phrase and at the end of a phrase (accents 1-9). This is not the case for the apeso-exo combination (accent 10) and the four teleia combinations (accents 11-14). In two cases the same accent is consecutively repeated both at the beginning and end of a phrase creat ing a double accent (accents 3 and 4). Each pair of accents forms a kolon which is a unit of three or four words. The accents served as a memory aid to the reader for the correct melodic formula associated with the given kolon. 147 Engberg explains that the first and last accented syllables of a kolon are subject to melismatic treatment and the rest are recited on a single tone,148 however, the accents do not provide the exact intervals for transcrip tion. Carsten H9eg has made an attempt to reconstruct the melodic for mula of the accents although no exact intervals are given in his tran scription.149 The melodic formula of three accents is illustrated in Example 23 (see page 42) which is taken from H~eg•s transcription. 150 This example illustrates the melodic formula for oxeia pro oxeian, 41

Example 22 Accents Signs Name Above a phrase of text 1) /' /1 oxeia pros oxeian 2) ' ' bareia-bareia 3) ,, ,, bareiai diplai 4) II // oxeiai-diplai

5) c/ J kremaste-kremaste

6) .. , . • kentemata-kentemata Below a phrase of text

7) kathiste-kathiste

8) apostrophos-apostrophos Other com~nations 9) ~ ~ hypokrisis-hypokrisis ,.-----~ iO) :-----_..;....,. apeso-exo ./ Teleia combinations il) ~----+ syrmatike kai teleia )2) ~----+ oxeia ka1 teleia i 3) eN'----+ parakitike kai teleia 14) ----+ synemba kai teleia apostrophos-apostrophos, and syrmatike kai teleia, accent combinations 1, 8, and 11 of Example 22. Note that the melodic rendition of the syrmatike kai teleia combination takes on the shape of the syrmatike 42

Example 23

23a) ( a. .--;- God willed -C.---.i~.-~--j,.__,c--·c i 1 i ,. ,. B • no& - 'fJ - OtJI 0 {h -0(;

oxeia pro oxeian ,...---. ' p and brought out c c c c c r c of darkness m-a-Jiw T7]~ a. -~va - aov " apostrophes apostrophes 23c) (tr ;----. ,....,c c ~ r c e c the heavens and ..,. TCW 01J - ea - 1'0V ""'' T'T}JI 'Y7}JI the earth syrmatike kai teleia

sign, (""'-'). Wellesz suggests that this accent 11 demands an undulating movement like the shape of the sign. 11151 Engberg and Wellesz state that by the fifteenth century the function of the accents had been forgotten. 152 Therefore, the above melodic reconstruction can only be considered as an approximation. The origin of most of the Greek accents lies in the Greek prosodic signs. 153 Wellesz explains that in the course of the development from the reading of scripture to cantillation, an increasing number of Greek prosodic signs are displayed in manuscripts. As the indication for the intonation of the voice needed to be made more specific, more prosodic 43

signs were added. 154 Wellesz also states that a comparison of the prosodic sings and ecphonetic accents shows most clearly how the ecpho netic signs developed organically out of the prosodic signs. 155 It seems that this comparison can be made on two levels: the similarity of shape, and the similarity of both shape and name. This comparison 156 is illustrated in Example 24. Note that signs 1 and 7 and accents 2 and 3 share two similar markings.

Example 24 Prosidic Signs Ecphonetic Accents Name Sign Name Accent Same shape C/:) 1) perispomene 11 C'\,;) syrmati ke ~ 2) hyphen v synemba LJ > 3) diastole , hypokrisis ,.. ~ Same shape and name 4) oxeia / oxeia /

5) bareia bareia \

6) apostrophes '!) apostrophes !) 7) teleia , teleia + • +

Engberg suggest that some of the remaining accent names may be . • . . . 157 c h1ronom1c 1n or1g1n; however, little evidence seems to support this claim. According to Wellesz, the practice of chironomy dates from the first half of the eighth century. 158 Wellesz describes the connection 44 between the shapes of the Greek markings and the corresponding hand signs in detail. However, the markings Wellesz uses are the neumes found in the system of notation that post dates the ecphonetic accents. These neumes are from the middle period of Byzantine neumatic notation, appearing between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. 159 Since available sources do not describe a connection between the ecphonetic accents and chironomy, no clear connection can be assumed. It seems that accents appeared before the practice of chironomy. Therefore, very few accents seem to have taken their shape from chironomy. In addition, Avenary makes no connection between the nomenclature of the accents and chironomy. Instead, Avenary claims that the nomenclature of the accents is taken from their shape, function, or melodic value. 160 The Greek unit of accentuation is generally referred to as a 'period'; in both the Syrian and Hebrew systems the unit of accentuation is called the verse. In the 'classical • system three or four kola, or phrases, typically form a period. 161 The symmetrical divisions of the verse into two halves, as displayed in the previous two systems, are not found in the Greek period. 162 The end of a period is marked by one of the teleia combinations (accents 11-14 of Example 22). If an intermediate division is to appear within a period it is marked by apostrophos apostrophos (accent 8 of Example 22). 163 A Greek period is generally shorter than a Hebrew verse. 164 Due to its shorter length, it seems that a period may or may not need to have an intermediate division. Example 25 (see page 45) illustrates four possible periods and is read from left to right. 165 Note the short length of the Greek period, 45

Example 25

25a ) ('\_/syrmat1ke . - kai teleia t

.A A t:\./ - 25b) ~thiste-kathist~ oxeia pro oxeian syrmatike kai teleia +

25c) ~athiste-kathistl, bareia-bareia' \ apostrophos-apostrophos ~ p ~xeia kai teleia+

25d) apostrophos-apostrophos bareia-bareia' ' oxeia.,A kai teleia1r J ? particularly period 25a of the example. The apostrophos-apostrophos may not always occur within a period, as seen in period 25b of the example. The placement of apostrophos-apostrophos within a period may vary, as the penultimate accent to the teleia, or earlier within a period, as illustrated in periods 25c and 25d, respectively. Example 26 {see page 46) illustrates the use of Greek accents in the 'classical • system. 166 The passage that appears here is Kings I, XVIII: 30-39. The accents are clearly displayed in this example; therefore, they are not circled. This 'modern• edition is a compilation of older manuscripts for readings from the Hebrew Bible. It seems that various manuscripts do not use the same accents for an identical passage. However, this results in only slight differences. In order to provide a convenient reference for individual phrases, small numbers 46

Example 26

~ ~ 30 1Emev T)Ataa lTpoa TOV Aaov+ 1-rrpoaaycrye-re lTpoa l-IE ltcat lTpOO'- " ,. " 31 T)yaye lTaa o Aaoa lTpoa CXVTov+ 'Koo U.a(3EV T)Ataa 6:A(.o)21.alOt :Avo v:Aptaa v:AaToa 1 ~cn rntXEET(.o)O'av rnt TO 6vataO'TT)- ,,. ~ . " ...... 1 1 ptov 'rnt r TO OAOKCXVT(.o)j.la o Kat rnt Taa O'){~aKaa+ ~at Etmv ...... 1 ':Arun~O'aTE 17KQt E21EuTEp(.o)O'av 1't

37 OWOV" Kal EtlTEV+" 3SiE 0 6a a(3paaj.1 Kat tO'aaK Kal tT)A 18rnaKOVO'OV ~ ,. ~,. " ,. 11 1 18 IJOV O'T)lJEpoV o EV lTVpt Kal ryv(.o)T(.o) lTaO' 0 AaOO' OVTOO' 0Tt au Et __,. ~ IJOVOO' i«T 0 ea IT)A "1'Kat EY(.o) :AovAOO' 0'00' "Koo :Ata O'E lTElTOtT)Ka

1 ~" " r TCXVTa lTavTa + ,. tiKat au ElTEO'Tp"'J'aO',. TT)V KapAtav o TOV AaOV,. TOVTOV 38 OlTIO'(.o) aov+ •~teat Emot lTVp lTapa KV •ta< Tov O'Wou ~at KaTEcpaye ;t ~- , - TO OAOKCX\JT(.o)j.la ·~at TaO' O'){~aKaa •'Koo TO V:A(.o)p TO rn' CX\JT(.o)V ,. " " ,. t 7Kat TO V:A(.o)p TO EV TT) 6aAaa+ "teat TOVO' At60VO' "Kal TOV XOW

39 ~~~EJ.Et~E""' TO lTVp+ 11Kat""' Emot lTaa "o Aaoa""' 6lrnt~ lTpOO'(.o)lTOv" CXVT(.o)V" ...... !!' ... - _,. Kat r EllTOV1 + 13aAT)6(.o)O' KO' 0 6a ltCXVTOO' EO'TtV 160 6a: " " 47

are placed within the text at the beginning of the appropriate phrase. These reference numbers are also useful for referring to the different accentuations of the same phrase. 167 The numbers that appear vertically in the left column are verse indications. A list of the names of the accents of Kings I, XVIII: 34-35 with an English translation appears in Example 27a (see page 48), lines 9-14 of Example 74. 168 Observe that the variations in accentuation of certain phrases are labled. Example 27b (see page 48) illustrates only the accents of this passage with phrase numbers. Since the Greek accentua tion does not contain a system of main pausal accents to divide a phrase as was the case in the two previous systems, this example contains all the accents of this passage. Observe that phrase 21, oxeia-teleia, is a period that consists of only one phrase; this is similar to Example 25a. The next period, phrases 22-24, consists of three phrases; this arrangement is similar to the period diagrammed in Example 25b. The alternate version that appears below contains two phrases for phrase 24. However, in both instances the teleia, end-of-sentence indication, appears at the same place in the text. The next six phrases, 25-30, use the same accent, bareia-bareia. This is followed by three phrases, 31-33, that then conclude this period. Observe that phrase 31 contains two variations. In one instance, two phrases correspond to phrase 31 which then is followed by two phrases, 32 and 33, that ends this period. However, the second variation also contains two phrases the latter of which ends the period; this provides for a shorter period. 48

Example 27

27a v:34 And he said fill four barrels with water oxeia-teleia apostrophes -- -apostrophes and pour it on the altar on the burnt offering and on the wood oxeia --- -oxeia syrmatike ------teleia var: apostrophos-apostrophos synemba- teleia and he said do it the second time and they did it the second time bareia-bareia bareia -- • bareia bareia ------bareia and he said do it the third time and they did it the third time bareia-bareia bareia --- bareia bareia ------bareia v:35 And·the water ran round about the altar oxeia ------oxeia var 1 : oxeia - - - oxeia a peso ------exo var 2: oxeia - - - oxeia syrmatike - - -teleia and the trench also he filled with water apostrophos-apostrophos oxeia ---- teleia

27b 21 oxeia-teleia 22apostrophos-apostrophos 23oxeia-oxeia 24 syrmatike ------teleia 25 bareia-bareia var: apostrophos-apostrophos synemba-teleia 26b are1a-. bare1a . 27b are1a-. bare1a . 28b are1a-. bare1a . 29 31 . . bareia-bareia 30b are1a-. bare1a . oxe1a ------oxe1a var 1: oxeia-oxeia apeso --- -exo var 2: oxeia-oxeia syrmatike-teleia 32apostrophos-apostrophos 33oxeia-teleia

Finally, an English translation of this passage with symbols to indicate the divisions of the text is illustrated in Example 28 (see page 49). The symbol (f) is not used in this example since there 49 does not seem to be an instance where an accent is used to indicate a pause of less than a verse-half. The symbol ( I ) corresponds with apostrophos-apostrophos and the symbol ( IJ) with a teleia combination.

Example 28 v:34 And he saidJ1fill four barrels with waterJand pour it on the altar on the burnt offering and on the woodll and he said do it the var: on the burnt offering I and on the woodl/ second time and they did it the second time and he said do it the third time and they did it the third time v:35 And the water ran round about the altar and the trench also/ var l:And the water ran round about the altar var 2:And the water ran round about the altar/1 he fi 11 ed with water f(

The archaic system differs from the 'classical' system in a few respects. Instead of four accents to two kola, three are found; one at the beginning and end of the two kola, and one dividing the two kola. 169 The accents are combined more freely in the archaic system; more than the fourteen accent combinations in the 'classical' system are possible in the archaic system. 170 Engberg concludes, "It would seem that when the notation was inv.ented, perhaps in the eighth century, it could at first be used freely, but was then codified by some authority, perhaps at Constantinople."171 Chapter V: Comparison

The comparison will focus on the Syrian accentuation in its second stage, the Tiberian system, and on the 'classical' Greek system. The systems will be compared on five levels; general observations, shape of the accents, the structural use of the main pausal accents, a specific illustration or usage for each system in Kings I, XVIII: 34-35. The most obvious general observation is that each of the three systems appears in manuscripts between the fifth and twelfth centuries. In addition, each system reached its fully developed stage within a five hundred year period: the Syrian system in the eighth century, the Tiberian system in the early tenth century, and the Greek system between the eleventh and twelfth centuries. It is plausible that the reason for the appearance of the accents at the same general time is that the pur pose and need for the accents seems to be the same. The accents first served a grammatical purpose, dividing the words within a text, and then developed a musical significance.172 The accents provided the means for the correct oration of a text so that each culture could preserve its own pronunciation and cantillation for future generations. The grammatical purpose of the accents within each system has been illustrated above. This purpose is most noticeable in the Greek system which essentially evolved from the Greek prosodic signs as illustrated in Example 24. Another general observation concerns the names of the accents. They derive from their shapes, functions, melodic or expressive values, 51

and through chironomy. Avenary provides a table which displays an approximate calculation of the above elements of derivation; this is summarized in Example 29. 173

Example 29 Name of accent Ecphonetic System derived from: Syrian Tiberi an Greek Shape 10% 40% 50% Function 30% 40% 30% Melodic value 12% 20% Expressive value 48% Chironomy 20%

The following observations seem plausible. All three systems have shape and function as a common source for the derivation of the names of the accents. This seems more pronounced in the Tiberian and Greek systems, where the accents' shapes and functions serve as the primary sources of derivation. The Syrian and Greek systems share one element in common that is not found in the Tiberian system; this element is the melodic value of the accents as the source of its name. Each of the three systems contains one unique element. Almost half of the Syrian accents are derived from the expressive or emotional value of the accents. This is certainly a unique feature that is not found in the Tiberian or Greek systems. The element unique to the Tiberian system is that about one-fifth of the names of the accents in some way comes 52

from chironomy; one such example was illustrated for the accent tipcha in Example 11 above. The feature that is unique to the Greek system is the prosodic signs as the source of the accents• names; this was illustrated above in Example 24 accents 4-7. Avenary does not indicate the prosodic signs as a separate item on his table but makes mention of this elsewhere. 174 A comparison of the shapes of the accents leads to some interesting observations. It must be kept in mind that such a comparison should be regarded as speculative because the problems are numerous. As Avenary states, 11 Dots, strokes, and hooks resemble one another every- where .... 11175 In addition, since the manuscripts of each system were written by hand, any given accent•s shape certainly varies from manuscript to manuscripts wihtin the same system. The Syrian system consists exclusively of dots; the other two sys tems contain strokes, hooks, circles (in the Tiberian system), in addi tion to dots. Only one accent shape seems common to all three systems. This is the accent that appears as a cluster of three dots (.•.); this accent is called rahta d 1 kart~h in the Syrian system, 176 segol in the Tiberian system, and kentemata in the Greek system. However, it is important to note that in the Greek system kentemata appears as a slightly different arrangement of the three dots, (.•.) as opposed to (:,) (see accent 6 of Example 22 above). Therefore, it is plausible to assume that virtually no accents appear similar in all three systems. There also seems to be one additional arrangement that is common to both the Syrian and Tiberian systems. This is the arrangement of two 53

vertical dots which appears as (! ). Since the placement of the two dots can vary in relation to a word or phrase of text, several possibil ities for comparison exist. These are illustrated in Example 30. 177

Example 30 Syrian Hebrew Name Accent Accent Name Above a phrase of text Above a word - " - - 4) zakef-katon 1) z~ug~ 'elaya (E) • • taksa (W) -·- 2) m'damrnrana (E) • 5) a: zakef-gadol metdammrana (E) One accent on the same 1evel Below a word as a phrase of text 3) zauga (E) 6) sof pasuk ~·wayya (W) • I!

Observe that if the placement of the accents is disregarded entire ly, the accents all appear essentially the same. The inconsistencies are two Hebrew accents, zakef-gadol and sof pasuk (accents 5 and 6 of the example, respectively), containing a vertical line that is placed to the left of the two dots. Since the arrangement, and not the placement, of the vertical dots is the only point of camparison, a similar obser vation is also plausible; very few accents appear similar between the Syrian and Tiberian systems. 178 The accents in the Tiberian and Greek systems provide more 54 possibilities for comparison since they contain accents other than dots that are similar. Eric Werner provides several tables of comparison 179 f oun d 1n. var1ous . pu bl 1ca. t.1ons. Examp 1e 31 1s. a comp1"1 a t.1on of se 1ec- 180 accents from Werner's tables.

Example 31 Hebrew Accents Greek Accents Name Shape Shape Name (/) zarka N kathiste \ legarmeh bareia ' // gershayim rr oxeiai diplai /" etnachta ~J A exo tipcha L J kremaste shalshelet f ~ hypocrisis

Observe that the shapes of the last four accents in both systems display only approximate similarities. Gershayim consists of two round ed signs, whereas oxeiai diplai consists of two straight diagonal strokes. Similarly, the three remaining accents in both systems do not demonstrate an exact comparison of shape. It is apparent that only a few accents display approximate similar shapes in the Tiberian and Greeks systems. In addition, Revell states that the same accents in the Palestinian and Tiberian systems are not always indicated by the same shape; he also adds that similarity of sign form of these two Hebrew 55 systems is not significant. Revell concludes, "For this reason comparative lists, such as that published by Werner on p. 317 of the first volume of the Oxford History of Music (London, 1960) must be used with great caution." 181 Thus far it is plausible to state the following. The three systems adopted ecphonetic accents at roughly the same time for similar pur poses: first grammatical, then musical. The etymology of many accents is the same in all three systems, although each system retains some unique features. Each system developed the accents independently since the shapes of virtually no accents seem similar. However, the Tiberian and Greek systems illustrate a few more similarities; about two-thirds of the derivations and a few of the shapes appear the same. Avenary summarizes his findings as follows, 11 Although the three traditions are based upon quite similar principles, and use the same means of graphic expression, they hardly conform."182 The above observations are certainly speculative since they deal only with external similarities. It is certainly possible that these similarities merely happened by chance. A brief illustration of the structural use of the main pausal accents within each system provides a more substantial comparison. At a general glance, the Syrian and Tiberian systems display a similar organization in the accentuation of a verse. Both systems divide the text into two halves where each half may consist of further subdivisions. In the Syrian system each verse-half may be divided in half producing two minor clauses in each verse half; see Example 3. 56

The subdivision of the Tiberian verse-half consist of a terminal clause which may be preceded by one or more contextual clauses; see Example 15. It seems that the essential difference between these two systems lies in the subdivisions of a verse-half. The Greek period, analagous to the Syrian and Tiberian verse, does not display a parallel system of accentuation since its divisions do not form two symmetrical halves. Even so, the structure of the Greek main pausal accents is indeed similar to the Syrian and Tiberian systems, as will be illustrated below. For a closer analysis, the theories of the following three scholars will be discussed: Eric Werner, taken from The Sacred Bridge; Gudrun Engberg, taken from "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes and Masoretic Accents"; and E.J. Revell, "Hebrew Accents and Greek Ekphonetic Neumes." 183 The theor~es of Werner and Engberg focus solely on the Hebrew and Greek systems, whereas Revell primarily focuses on these two systems, comment ing briefly on the relation of the Syrian system to the other two systems. Werner states that three of the four strongest Hebrew accents, sof pasuk (end of verse), etnachta (end of first half of verse), and zakef-katon (end of contextual clause), correspond in some way to the following Greek signs, teleia, apostrophes, and bareia. The three accents of each system correspond in the manner illustrated in Example 32 (see page 57). 184 Observe that sof pasuk and a teleia combination correspond; recall that these two accents function as the end-of-sentence indications in the Tiberian and Greek systems, respectively. In addition, both 57

Example 32 Hebrew Accents Greek Accents Name Shape Name Shape

sof pasuk to teleia combination (. ""') r: + etnachta to teleia combination (rv) + IV' or apostrophos-apostrophos !) !)

zakef katon • to apostrophos-apostrophos - :J .!) or bareia-bareia .... '

etnachta and zakef-katon correspond to two Greek accents: etnachta corresponds to a teleia combination or an apostrophos-apostrophos, and zakef-katon corresponds to apostrophos-apostrophos or bareia-bareia. Werner offers the following explanation for the instance where two Greek accents may correspond with on Hebrew accent. Since the Septua gint usually makes two Greek sentences out of one Hebrew sentence, the main pausal accents of the two systems do not always correspond. Since the Greek period is generally shorter than the Hebrew verse, there may be instances where the etnachta corresponds to a Greek end-of-sentence accent; one of the teleia combinations. However, when the etnachta does not display this association, an apostrophos-apostrophos may correspond. Similarly, an apostrophos-apostrophos may correspond to zakef-katon but when it does not the bareia-bareia may be found. 185 Werner also states 58 that occasionally the apostrophos-apostrophos may correspond with the Hebrew accent tipcha,186 the fourth Hebrew main pausal accent that marks the end of a terminal clause (see Example 15). Werner concludes, 11 The laws of the Greek language did permit a division of sentences along the main lines of the Hebrew syntax, but could not in every in stance follow the Hebrew original. 11 lB7 The observations of Engberg are very similar to those of Werner. Engberg's article is based upon a comparison of ninety-nine Hebrew verses to the corresponding Greek periods. Werner, however, couches his observations in more general terms. 188 Therefore, Engberg's observations are more detailed; these observations are summarized below. Engberg is more specific in taking into account the correspondence of the number of Greek periods to one Hebrew verse. She states, 11 two, three, or even more Greek periods may correspond to one Hebrew verse, and in some cases there is no correspondence at all; the Greek period 'overlaps' the Hebrew verse. 11189 Example 33a (see page 59} illustrates Engberg's analysis of the oinety-nine verses she as compared. 190 Based on these calculations Engberg concludes, 11 Whi1e coincidence between Hebrew verse, and Greek period is comparatively frequent (more than one-third of the instances}, most verses are divided into two or more periods. The Greek period is normally shorter than the Hebrew verse ... l91 In addition, note that Engberg arranges her observations of correspon dence in Example 33b (see page 59} into three groups: Group I, one Hebrew verse corresponding with one Greek period; Group II, one Hebrew verse corresponding with two or more Greek periods; and Group III, 59

Example 33 33a One Hebrew verse corresponds to: number of number of Greek period(s) verses 1 35 2 27 3 12 3 or more 2 No correspondence between verse and period in 23 verses total of 99 verses

33b Group I Group II Group III One Hebrew verse One Hebrew verse No correspondence corresponds to 1 corresponds to 2 between Hebrew Greek period in: or more Greek verse and Greek periods in: period in: 35 verses 41 verses 23 verses total of 99 verses no correspondence between Hebrew verse and Greek period. Group III is an example of a verse and period overlapping. Likewise, Engberg also displays the correspondence of the main pausal accents into these three groups. Her table of correspondence is illustrated in Example 34 (see page 60) . 192 In this example 11 .,(rv_....) __ +11 denotes syrmatike kai teleia or oxeia kai teleia (accents 11 and 12 of Example 22, respectively) since these 60

Example 34 Hebrew Accent Group I Group II Group III

(tV) ( "-') -t crv) :fOr -r:- + !) j sof pasuk teleia combination

+ ~ etnachta apostrophos- 'apostrophos '

• • ••• ,•.or ~-~

zakef-katon kentemata-' !) / kentemata

two teleia combinations are the most frequently used at the end of a Greek period. 193 Engberg's table invites several observations. In Group I, where one Hebrew verse corresponds to one Greek period, the hierarchy of a single verse is clear: sof pasuk corresponds with the final teleia combination, etnachta corresponds with apostrophos apostrophos, and zakef-katon corresponds with either kentemata kentemata or apostrophos-apostrophos. This observation would suggest that in Group I, apostrophos-apostrophos marks the end of the first half of a Greek period and kentemata-kentemata or apostrophos-apostrophos are used to indicate the longest pause, or pauses, within either half of a period. 194 Group II, where one Hebrew verse equals two or more Greek periods, demonstrates how etnachta may also correspond to a final 61 teleia combination. Since two Greek periods may equal one Hebrew verse, it is clear that the first period would correspond to the Hebrew half pause, the etnachta. For Group III, where one Hebrew verse is not equal to a Greek period, Engberg offers no explanation as to why a sof pasuk_ may correspond with a final teleia combination. Otherwise, the relationship in Group III seems clear. Note that Werner's and Engberg's conclusions are clearly similar. By comparing Examples 32 and 34, it is plausible to assume that typi cally a sof pasuk corresponds to a final teleia combination, an etnachta to a final teleia or an apostrophos-apostrophos, and zakef-katon to an apostrophos-apostrophos_ or a kentimata-kentimata. The accent of the zakef-katon seems to be the only point of discrepency between the two scholars. Werner indicates that this Hebrew accent may correspond with bareia-bareia, whereas Engberg offers virtually no evidence to support this as a possible correspondence to zakef-katon. 195 Revell's comparison between the Tiberian and Greek systems is entirely different from that of Werner's and Engberg's. According to Revell, the paragraph is the unit of accentuation in the Greek system. The paragraph may be divided into a number of units divisible by clauses. Recall that the accentuation of the Hebrew Rabbinic texts of the Mishna are also marked by the paragraph. Revell states, 11 There can be no question but that the Greek Biblical accentuation and the Hebrew Rabbinic accentuation follow the same pattern ... 196 The only point of specific comparison that Revell provides is that four accents are char- acteristic of both the Hebrew and Greek terminal clauses. Although 62

Revell states this similarity exists between the two systems, he offers no specific correspondence or examples of this comparison. 197 Revell denies Engberg's comparison categorically, referring speci fically to Engberg's observations as summarized above. He claims that 11 Engberg's attempt to demonstrate this relationship is no more fruitful than her predecessors [sic.] ... 198 Revell states that Engberg points out that the accentuation of the Greek and Hebrew Biblical texts are theoretically identical. He then adds that it is expected that this division will produce similar content and relationship. Rather than forming any altered conclusions Revell states, "her results must be the effect of coincidence; apparent but not real. 11199 Revell concludes that any attempt at a comparison, such as Examples 32 and 34, must fail because no such relationship exists.200 The present writer can not find sufficient information to support Revell's observation. Revell states his observations in general terms, he offers no specific example of comparison to support his claim. It seems that any specific comparison of Hebrew Rabbinic and Greek clauses would be difficult since no fixed set of signs marks the end of each clause in a Rabbinic passage. In addition, Revell's claim that the paragraph is the unit of division in the Greek system contradicts Engberg's illustration of the unit of division as the period. Since Engberg is a scholar of Greek music, and Revell a Hebraist, the present writer accepts Engberg's observations for the Greek unit of division. Therefore, Revell's comparison of the Hebrew Rabbinic paragraph and the Greek paragraph seems unlikely. 63

Unfortunately a very small amount of information exists regarding the comparison of the Syrian main pausal accents to the Tiberian and Greek systems. However, a brief description of available comparisons provides some interesting general observations. Revell claims that although the Syrian and Tiberian Biblical verses reflect a common structure of two verse halves, any similarities beyond this point do not seem likely. 201 This is a plausible conclusion since the Syrian verse and the Hebrew verse are rarely equal in length. 202 It seems that the Syrian and Tiberian systems share a theoretical similarity, dividing the verse into two halves, but due to their difference in length and accentuation of a verse-half, these two systems display no similarities in their structural use of the main pausal accents. Although he provides no example, Revell states that the Syrian system holds a significant importance since it 11 may well have stimulated both the Jews and Greeks to develop their own writing systems ... 203 Revell concludes that the Syrian system should be classified with the Rabbinic and Greek systems as having the paragraph as the unit of accentuation that is then divided into smaller clauses. 204 Again, the present writer can not find any additional sources that support this claim. 205 Regrettably, Revell does not provide a specific illustration to support any of his observations of comparison; therefore, these observations are not considered any further in this study. It is interesting to note that the length of the Syrian verse seems to be similar to the length of the Greek period. 206 It is plausible that this is so because the Syrian Bible was translated from 64 the Greek. 207 Segal, however, claims that this viewpoint should be treated with caution. He states, 11 The resemblance between the Syriac accents and the Greek neuma system is no greater than might be expected from their common raison d~tre and their application to the same work, the Bible."208 Nevertheless, a comparison of the above passage from Kings between the Syrian and Greek systems will reveal this similarity. Several conclusions can be drawn from the preceding comparison of the structure of the main pausal accents. No structural use of the main pausal accents seems common to all three systems. The Syrian and Tiberian systems are similar in their theoretical structure but differ in the subdivision of a verse-half and in the length of the entire verse. The length of a Syrian verse is similar to a Greek period. A more detailed study of the Tiberian and Greek systems reveals more similarities. One, two, or more Greek periods typically equal one Hebrew verse; in addition, there may be no correspondence between verse and period. Because of this lack of equivalence, one or two Greek accents may typically correspond to one Hebrew accent: sof pasuk normal ly corresponds with a teleia combination, etnachta to a teleia combina tion or apostrophos-apostrophos, and zakef-katon to apostrophos apostrophos or kentemata-kentemata. A comparison of the passage from Kings I, XVIII: 34-35 in all three systems is illustrated in Example 35 (see page 65)~ 209 This example lists a translation of the passage with the names of the accents of each respective system beneath, as seen previously within each system. 210 This will serve to illustrate some of the correspondences discussed 65

Example 35 v:34 And he said fill four barrels with water Syr pas8qa ta~taya Heb pashta zakef-katon Gk oxeia-teleia apostrophes --- apostrophes

and pour it (on the altar) on the burnt offering and on the wood Syr zaw•a samka pas~qa Heb tipcha etnachta Gk oxeia - - - - oxeia syrmatike ------teleia var apostrophos-apostrophos synemba -teleia

and he said do it the second time and they did it the second time Syr pasoqa samka pas8qa Heb pashta zakef-katon Gk bareia-bareia bareia --- bareia bareia ------bareia

and he_s~i9 do it the third ~im~ and they did it the third time Syr pasoqa samka pasoqa- 1\ - Heb tipcha sof pasuk Gk bareia-bareia bareia -- -bareia bareia ------bareia

v:35 And the water ran round about the ~l~ar: Syr pasoqa Heb zakef-katon tipcha etnachta Gk oxeia ------oxeia var 1 oxeia - oxeia apeso --- exo var 2 oxeia - oxeia syrmatike -- -teleia

and the trench also he filled with water Syr zaw•a samka pasoqa- 1\ - Heb tipcha sof pasuk Gk apostrophos-apostrophos oxeia -- teleia 66 above. Of course no generalizations can be supported or rejected by a comparison of only two verses, although Example 35 does provide an application of Werner's and Engerg's observations of correspondence. Observe that the pasoga- ill - that ends the Syrian verse, the second pasoga- A - in the example, corresponds to etnachta. In addition, the pasoga- 1\ - that appears at the end of verse 34 corresponds to sof pasuk. A similar correspondence is displayed in verse 35 within the Syrian and Hebrew systems. However, there are also instances where clauses marked by a pasoga- 1\ - do not correspond to a Hebrew ma1n• pausal accent. It seems that Revell's observation of little correspondence between the Syrian and Hebrew systems is supported in this passage. The Syrian system provides more frequent stronger divisions within a verse than as seen in the Hebrew system. A comparison of the Syrian and Greek passages seems to support the claim that these two systems share in common the length of a verse and period. This appears within verse 34. Observe that from the point in the text, "fill four barrels on the wood," the Syrian verse cor- : I· responds to the end of a Greek period. One verse is equivalent to three 1 Greek phrases or four Greek phrases if the Greek variant is used. In ! addition, the opening three words, "And he said," are marked with an end of verse or period indication; it seems that this would emphasize this clause within these two systems. Another interesting observation is the instance where four successive pas8ga clauses correspond to the six bareia-bareia phrases. It seems that in the Syrian system this section would be chanted on a continued level intonation, as stated i' I II 67 earlier. Similarly, the Greek systems' use of bareia-bareia serves to indicate a lowering of pitch, thus giving emphasis to these words. 211 This passage from Kings also provides an example to support many of Werner's and Engberg's observations of the correspondence in accentu ation between the Hebrew and Greek systems. Verse 34 is an example of Engberg's Group III classification since the end of the Hebrew verse does not correspond to the end of the Greek period; sof pasuk corres ponds to bareia-bareia, not a teleia combination. Observe that one verse is equal to ten phrases, or eleven if the variant is considered. Within verse 34 etnachta does correspond to a teleia combination; note that the teleia is also used in the variant reading. Verse 35 is an illustration of a Group I classification since one verse is equal to one period. This period consists of three phrases or four phrases if the first variant is used. Observe that sof pasuk corresponds to a teleia combination. If the second variant is used, two periods would correspond to the Hebrew verse, thus, Group II classification. In addi tion~ etnachta corresponds to a teleia combination in the second vari ant.212 Although zakef-katon appears three times in Example 35, there is only one instance where this accent corresponds to apostrophos apostrophos.213 Werner's observations of tipcha corresponding to apostrophos-apostrophos is also supported in this passage. 214 These correspondences strongly support most of the observations of Werner and Engberg; see Example 32 and 34, respectively, The only point that is not illustrated in Example 35 is the instance where sof pasuk or etnachta may correspond to apostrophos-apostrophos and the other 68 correspondences of zakef-katon. This comparison of only two verses can not illustrate all of the two scholars' observations. It seems that no one division of the text is uniform in all three systems. Each system usually indicates pauses at different points within a verse; however, the pauses at the end of verses and verse halves usually correspond. Example 36 (see page 69) contains a conven ient, but speculative illustration of the pauses of this passage as they appear in each of the three systems. The three symbols that represent the strength of the pause are used. Observe that there are instances where two systems have a pause and the third does not. For example: in verse 34 after 11 And he said, 11 a pause appears only in the Syrian and Greek systems; in verse 34 after

"and they did it the second time, 11 seen in the Syrian and Hebrew sys tems; and in verse 35 after 11 and the trench also, 11 seen in the Hebre\'I and Greek systems. In addition, there seems to be one instance where all three systmes have a pause within a verse at the same point in the text. This appears in verse 34 after 11 fill four barrels with water. 11 Although there are these correspondences within a verse, in most instances the pauses within a verse do not coincide among all three systems. The Syrian system seems to display the most frequent amount of strong divisions in this passage. The other instances where all three systems correspond is usually at the end of a verse-half and the end of a verse. It is clear that all three systems do not follow the same pattern of division within a verse but at the end of verses and verse-half the three systems usually correspond with some indication of 69

Example 36 v: 34 Syr And he said l fill four barrels with water f and pour it { Heb And he said ·fill four barrels with waterJand pour it Gk And he saidfl fill four barrels with waterf and pour it

Syr on the burnt offering and on the wood II Heb on the burnt offering i and on the wood 1 Gk on the altar on the burnt offering and on the wood II var on the altar on the burnt offering 1 and on the woodfl

Syr and he said I do it the second time I and they did it the second Heb and he said do it the second time and they did it the second Gk and he said do it the second time and they did it the second

Syr time I and he said 'do it the third time and they did it the Heb time i and he said do it the third time f and they did it the Gk time and he said do it the third time and they did it the

Syr third time f1 Heb third time II Gk third time v:35 Syr And the water ran round about the altar I Heb And the water ran f round aboutjthe altar I Gk And the water ran round about the altar var 1 And the water ran round about the altar var 2 And the water ran round about the altar//

Syr and the trench f a1 so he fi 11 ed with water II Heb and the trench alsof he filled with water II Gk and the trench alsot he filled with water11 70 a division. It is plausible that this lack of uniformity of accentuation in all three systems is strongly influenced by the differing melodic renditions of each system. Avenary states that while Syrian chant expressed the emotional meaning of the text, Hebrew chant concentrated on an intel lectual message and the Greek approach concentrated on the rhetorical or informative contents of the text. 215 His observations seem plausible. Recall that almost half of the names of the Syrian accents are derived from their expressive value. As illustrated in Example 2, some of the accents indicate an emotional element, such as •commanding,• •reproaching,• 'praying,• and •supplicating.• Avenary•s observation of the intellectual message of Hebrew chant seems to be supported by the intri cate network of organization of the accents as found in the Tiberian system. 216 Recall the systematic illustration of the cantillation of the Kings passage in the Hebrew system; see Examples 18 and 19. The Greek conception of emphasizing the informative contents seem evident since, according to Avenary, 11 No gradation of their accents is known to us. The clear formation of half-clauses as well as any other intention al stylization, cannot be discerned ... 217 This is also supported by the high degree of influence of the Greek prosodic signs within the Greek ecphonetic system; see Example 24. In addition, Avenary indicates,

11 They conceived the Greek Bible as a prose text ...... 218 Thus, each of the three systems displays a unique application and recitation of a text. A specific melodic comparison would seem highly speculative since 70 a division. It is plausible that this lack of uniformity of accentuation in all three systems is strongly influenced by the differing melodic renditions of each system. Avenary states that while Syrian chant expressed the emotional meaning of the text, Hebrew chant concentrated on an intel lectual message and the Greek approach concentrated on the rhetorical or informative contents of the text. 215 His observations seem plausible. Recall that almost half of the names of the Syrian accents are derived from their expressive value. As illustrated in Example 2, some of the accents indicate an emotional element, such as •commanding,• •reproaching,• •praying,• and •supplicating.• Avenary•s observation of the intellectual message of Hebrew chant seems to be supported by the intri cate network of organization of the accents as found in the Tiberian system. 216 Recall the systematic illustration of the cantillation of the Kings passage in the Hebrew system; see Examples 18 and 19. The Greek conception of emphasizing the informative contents seem evident since, according to Avenary, 11 No gradation of their accents is known to us. The clear formation of half-clauses as well as any other intention al stylization, cannot be discerned ... 217 This is also supported by the high degree of influence of the Greek prosodic signs within the Greek ecphonetic system; see Example 24. In addition, Avenary indicates,

11 They conceived the Greek Bible as a prose text. .... 218 Thus, each of the three systems displays a unique application and recitation of a text. A specific melodic comparison would seem highly speculative since 71 in only one system, the Hebrew, has the practice of chant from ecpho netic accents been preserved. Since the accents do not indicate precise melodic indications, an oral tradition has had to keep their meanings alive; this is not the case for the Syrian and Greek systems. Although H0eg does provide a reconstructed representation of the Greek accents, as illustrated in Example 23, it is only an approximation. In addition, since there are many cultures today that chant Hebrew Biblical texts, there seems to be little concensus among scholars as to what culture preserves the most authentic chant. 219 Therefore, a melodic comparison of all three systems seems nearly impossible. 220 It is interesting to note that in some instances the shapes of certain accents that appear similar in the Hebrew and Greek systems seem to have a similar melodic content. For example, the accent zarka and syramatike display similar shapes; 221 zarka appears as (~) and syramatike as ( "'-' ). The three melodic renderings of zarka, all displaying a melody similar to the shape of the accent, are illustrated in Example 10. H0eg•s melodic representation of syramatike-teleia is illustrated in Example 23c. Note the similar melodic line among the examples. In addition, Werner claims that there is a connection between sha 1she 1et ( ( ) and hypocri sis ( 't ). Werner does not pro vi de a melodic comparison of both accents. He explains that although scholars in the past could not reach a clear conclusion as to the melodic connection between these two accents, their original function was to indicate a tremolo of the voice which was later embellished. 222 Thus, it seems these two accents also share a similar shape and melodic indication. 223 Chapter VI: Conclusions

Ecphonetic accents appear in Syrian, Hebrew, and Greek manuscripts between the fifth to twelfth centuries. The fully developed systems of each of these three cultures appear within a five hundred year period. The Syrian system appears fully developed in its second stage in the eighth century. The Hebrew system of accentuation reached its develop ed form in the Tiberian system during the early part of the tenth cen tury. In the 'classical' Greek system the accentuation appears fully developed between the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These three systems adopted the accents for similar purposes: initially, to provide grammatical indications in a text and later to serve a musical function. A comparison of the accents of these three systems suggests several observations. The etymology of many accents indicates that all three systems share, to a certain extent, two elements in common: the accents' shapes and functions. In addition, each system displays some unique features for the derivation of the names of its accents. Virtually no accents appear similar in shape in all three systems, whereas the Tiberian and 'classical' Greek systems contain a few instances where the accents appear similar. No structural use of the main pausal accents seems common in all three systems. The Syrian and Hebrew systems share a similar theoretical structure of the verse dividing into two halves; however, these two systems differ in the length of a verse. The length of a Syrian verse is similar to the Greek equivalent, a 'period.' As in the case of the shapes of the accents, the Tiberian and 'classical' r i:

r 1 11 :I 73

Greek systems reveal more similarities. Typically, one Hebrew verse is equal to one, two, or more Greek periods; there may also be instances where a verse and period may not correspond. This results in the fol lowing correspondences to the main pausal accents: sof pasuk corresponds to a teleia combination, etnachta to a teleia combination or apostrophos-apostrophos, and zakef-katon to apostrophos-apostrophos or kentemata-kentemata. A comparison of Kings I, XVIII verses 34 and 35 supports most of these observations of correspondence. It appears that the three systems indicate pauses at different points within a verse but usually correspond at a verse-half or end of a verse. It is plausible that this apparent lack of uniformity in the application of the accents, as well as their different shapes, indicates that all three systems developed independently. The Syrian system emphasizes the emotional contents of a text, the Hebrew system stresses the texts' intellectual contents, and the Greek underlines the informative meaning of a text. Since the accents do not provide a precise melodic indication, any specific melo- die comparison is nearly impossible. It is clear that each system illustrates a unique application of the ecphonetic accents. A comparison of a large number of passages, perhaps many chapters or books of the Bible, would be necessary to firmly support these conclusions. It is plausible that a greater insight into the use of ecphonetic accents can be achieved if the other systems of each culture are compared: the Syrian system in its first stage, the Palestinian or 224 Babylonian Hebrew systems, and the archaic Greek system. This study 74 primarily deals with the main pausal accents of each system; therefore, this comparison is certainly not complete. If accents other than the main pausal indications are compared more instances of correspondence may result. A further study of ecphonetic accents may not only shed more light of its influence upon neumatic notation but also how pre tenth century chant was practiced.

,I 'I

,I,

I I,

i I lI, Notes

1 The spelling of this term is in accordance with Willi Apel, 11 Ecphonetic notation," Harvard Dictionary of ~1usic, 1972 ed., p. 252. Another spelling is 'ekphonetic.' 2 The spelling of this term is also in accordance with Willi Apel, "Chironomy," Harvard Dictionary, p. 157. Another spelling is •chei ronomy. ' 3 Edith Gerson-Kiwi, 11 Cheironomy,n The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. IV, p. 191. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. 6 Ny Carlsberg Glyptothek, Copenhagen. Taken from Gerson-Kiwi, p. 191. 7 Ian D. Bent, 11 Notation, General," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. XIII, p. 334. 8 Ape1, "Notation, 11 Harvard Dictionary, p. 578. 9 Ibid. 10 Eric Werner, The Sacred Bridge: The Interdependence of Liturgy and Music in S na o ue and Church durin the First Millennium (London: Dennis Dobson, 1959 , p. 358. 11 Ibid. 12 Hanoch Avenary, Studies in the Hebrew, S rian and Greek Litur gical Recitative (Jerusalem: Jerusalem Post Press, 1963 , p. 3. 13 Other ecphonetic accent systems also exist. This study will not focus on these other systems. Avenary lists the use of the following other systems: Samaritan, Soghdic, Coptic, and Armenian. He indicates that these systems are related to or are sidelines of the Syrian, Hebrew, and Byzantine Systems; Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 4 table 1. See also Gudrun Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation, 11 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. VI, p. 102. 76

14 london Oriental Series, vol. II (london: Oxford University Press, 1953). 15 Segal, pp. 3-4. 16 Ibid. , p. 60. 17 Ibid., p. 63. Segal comes to this conclusion but refers to other scholars who indeed claim Greek accents did influence Syrian accents; see pp. 60-63, particularly footnote 6 on p. 60. 18 British Museum Add. MS. 12150; see W.H.P. Hatch, Album of Dated Syriac Manuscripts (Boston, 1946), p. 52. Hatch remarks that "this is probably the earliest dated codex in any language that is still extant." 19 The diacritical point is used for two words with the same spell ing. A letter in Syriac represents a syllable, the fusion of a conso nant with a vowel. The diacritical point is used to show the distinc tion between the two words. A point above the line indicates the sound 'a' where a point below the line indicates 'a' or 'e'. The following word with the diacritical point above it ()QO.) is pronounced 'h'w§'.' In contrast, the same word with the diacritical point placed below {1o~) is pronounced 'hawe'; see Segal, pp. 9-10. 20 The dates for the stages are taken from Segal, pp. 3-4. 21 The center for the East Syrian School was at the University at Nisbis and the center for the West Syrian School at Edessa. For a more detailed history see Segal, pp. 3-4. 22 Segal, p. 144. 23 Ibid., p. 6. 24 Taken from Segal, pp. 64-65. The names are given here in trans literation; for the names of the accents in Syrian see Segal, p. 64, footnotes 1-14, and p. 63, footnotes 1-2. 25 Accent 13 is regarded as probably belonging to this period. It is common to both the East and West Schools in name and usage, but not in form; see Segal, p. 64. There is no consensus among scholars as to the exact number of accents during this stage; see Segal, pp. 65-67. 26 See Segal, pp. 72, 104, and 140 for an example of an accent whose tonal value and meaning are identical. 27 Segal, PE· 68-69. The two following pairs of accents appear the same: m'sa''lana and pag~da (accents 1 and 2 in Example 2), and 77 metdammrana and m'nabbta (accents 6 and 7). The distinction between the two depends upon the meaning of the text which is not indicated by the accents and would have to be known by the reader. For the distinction between m'sa''lana-- and pagoda-11- see Segal, pp. 68-69; for metdammrana- -- and m'nabbta see pp. 71-72. 28 Segal, p. 60. 29 Ibid., p. 80. Segal also comments that the differences of nomen clature in the various manuscripts of this stage give the appearance of a higher total. For a complete list of the East Syrian accents of the second period see Segal, pp. 78-118. 30 Segal, p. 120. For a complete discussion of the West Syrian accents of this period see Segal, pp. 119-142. 31 Segal, p. 80. 32 Segal, pp. 80-81. Segal also comments that this is shown further by the name of the new accents. 33 Gudrun Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, val. VI, p. 99. 34 Segal, p. 60. 35 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 10. See also E.J. Revell, "Hebrew Accents and Greek Ekphonetic Neumes," Studies in Eastern Chant, val. IV (1979), p. 162. 36 Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation," p. 99. 37 Ibid. 38 Segal, p. 4. 39 Ibid., p. 143. 40 Ibid., p. 4. 41 Ibid., p. 143. For a complete discussion of the accents of the third stage see Segal, pp. 143-150. 42 Segal, p. 75. Only the West Syrian name is taken for the last pausal accent (accent 12 of Example 2) since a West Syrian manuscript will be-discussed below. 43 Segal, p. 75. 78

44 In the later stages •:laya rarely has a fixed placement. It usually occurs at the end of a clause with a rising tone. Segal also comments on other weaker pauses which shall not be discussed here; see Segal, pp. 99-101 and 109. 45 Segal, p. 76. 46 Ibid., pp. 67-68. The suggested tonal value of each accent is a presumption of Segal, p. 76. 47 It is important to keep in mind that the tonal value is not the same as the meaning of the accent. 48 Segal, pp. 67-68. 49 Ibid., p. 76. 50 Ibid. 51 British Museum Add. MS. 14485, folio 7. As found in Hatch, Plate LXIV, second column from the right. 52 In a letter received from Aelred Cody, O.S.B. of St. Meinrad Archabbey, 24 Aug. 85, he states that this manuscript was intended to be used in a Monophysite Church in Harran, which is basically West Syrian. Harran, geopolitically, at this time was far enough east~for East Syrian influences to have been felt. Consequently, this manuscript is not clearly East Syrian or West Syrian. However, Fr. Cody states that he finds some West Syrian characteristics particularly in the use of zaw'a accents. This accent appears the same as 'e~yana, accent 3 of ExamQle 2, and was used in Wes~ ~yrian manuscripts; Segal states that zaw'a eventually replaced 'esyana; p. 122. Fr. Cody also states that in certain sections of this manuscript he sees a pattern in the usage of the dots: one is placed above a phrase of text, then below a phrase of text, an then on the same level as a phrase of text. He states that he sees no corresponding rhetorical pattern. He then adds that this use of the dots may have simply reflected the resulting melodic line of this passage. This manuscript also uses single dots which is character istic of the first stage of accentuation; any use of accents indiffering sizes or arrangements usually found in the second stage does not appear in this manuscript. 53 Letter from Fr. Cody. 54 This portion will appear in the other two systems as well because it was the only identical passage the present writer could find with an explanation in all three systems; see Revell, pp. 169-170. 55 This example is based primarily upon Revell's Example 6, 78

44 In the later stages 'elaya" -- rarely has a fixed placement. It usually occurs at the end of a clause with a rising tone. Segal also comments on other weaker pauses which shall not be discussed here; see Segal, pp. 99-101 and 109. 45 Segal, p. 76. 46 Ibid., pp. 67-68. The suggested tonal value of each accent is a presumption of Segal, p. 76. 47 It is important to keep in mind that the tonal value is not the same as the meaning of the accent. 48 Segal, pp. 67-68. 49 Ibid., p. 76. 50 Ibid. 51 British Museum Add. MS. 14485, folio 7. As found in Hatch, Plate LXIV, second column from the right. 52 In a letter received from Aelred Cody, O.S.B. of St. Meinrad Archabbey, 24 Aug. 85, he states that this manuscript was intended to be used in a Monophysite Church in Harran, which is basically West Syrian. Harran, geopolitically, at this time was far enough east"'for East Syrian influences to have been felt. Consequently, this manuscript is not clearly East Syrian or West Syrian. However, Fr. Cody states that he finds some West Syrian characteristics particularly in the use of zaw'a accents. This accent appears the same as 'esyana, accent 3 of ExamEle 2, and was used in Wes~ ~yrian manuscripts; Segal states that zaw'a eventually replaced 'esyana; p. 122. Fr. Cody also states that in certain sections of this manuscript he sees a pattern in the usage of the dots: one is placed above a phrase of text, then below a phrase of text, an then on the same level as a phrase of text. He states that he sees no corresponding rhetorical pattern. He then adds that this use of the dots may have simply reflected the resulting melodic line of this passage. This manuscript also uses single dots which is character istic of the first stage of accentuation; any use of accents indiffering sizes or arrangements usually found in the second stage does not appear in this manuscript. 53 Letter from Fr. Cody. 54 This portion will appear in the other two systems as well because it was the only identical passage the present writer could find with an explanation in all three systems; see Revell, pp. 169-170. 55 This example is based primarily upon Revell's Example 6, 79

pp. 169-170. The 'e$yana accent is listed twice by Revell, in se~tions 2 and 8 of his example; the present writer has chosen to use zaw'a in stead of 'esyana. Fr. Cody states that typically 'esyana is used to indicate a pause at the end of a phrase; however, in both instances, "and pour it" and "and the trench" as listed in Example 7a, this point is the beginning of a phrase. The West Syrians used an accent that appears identical to 'esyana, a dot above the last letter of a word, and called it zaw'a. See also Segal, p. 122. In addition, the wording of Revell's example is altered in Example 7a. 56 Samka is not included in Example 7b since it is not a pausal accent. This accent marks a minor pause leading to the main pausal accent pasoga;- J'\ - see Segal, p. 72. 57 Segal, pp. 133-134. 58 Ibid., p. 122. 59 Ibid. 60 Hanoch Avenary and others, "Music," Encyclopedia Judaica (Israel: Keter Publishing, 1971), vol. XII, p. 584. 61 Ibid., p. 577. 62 Solomon Rosowsky, The Cantillation of the Bible (New York: The Reconstructionist Press, 1957), p. 5. 63 Revell states that he can not find any comparison between the 'poetic' system and the accents of the Greek system, see p. 143 note 10. 64 The four other traditions still practiced today are: 1) Yemenite, 2) Middle Eastern and North African, 3) Jerusalem Sephardi, and 4) Northern Mediterranean; see Avigor Herzog, "Masoretic Accents," Encyclopedia Judaica (Israel: Keter Publishing, 1971), vol. XI, pp. 1109- 1110. See also A.Z. Idelsohn, Jewish Music in Its Historical Develo ment (1967 ed. New York: Schoken Press, 1929 for a chart which lists the same accent sign with thirteen melodic renditions of different cul tures, pp. 44-46. Each cultural style may be divided further into local customs of cantillation; this results in many melodic renditions of the same sign. 65 Herzog, pp. 1108-1109. 66 Avenary, "~iusic,u p. 577. 67 Eliezer Berkovits, "Talmud, Babylonian," Encyclopedia Judaica (Israel: Keter Publishing, 1971), vol. XV, p. 755. 80

68 Maurice Simon, trans., The Babylonian Talmud: Seder Mo'ed (London: The Soncino Press, 1938), p. 194. 69 H. Freedman, trans., The Bab lonian Talmud: Seder Nezikin (London: The Soncino Press, 1935 , p. 673. For addit1onal sources on the date of cantillation see: Avenary, "Music," p. 577; Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 8 footnote 3.

70 Avenary, 11 Music," p. 577; Saul Levin, "The Traditional Chironomy of the Hebrew Scripture, 11 Journal of Biblical Literature, vol. LXXXVII, (1968), p. 59; Revell, p. 141. 71 Maurice Simon, trans., The Bab lonian Talmud: Seder Zeraim (London: The Soncino Press, 1958 , p. 388; Werner, Sacred Bridge, p. 107; Levin, p. 60. For an additional comment on chironomy see Seder Nashim tractate Nedarim 37b. 72 Werner, Sacred Bridge, p. 108; Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 8; Levin p. 60. 73 Levin, p. 60; Avenary states that this was practiced until the twelfth century, see Studies in Recitative, pp. 6-8 footnote 2. Avenary also comments that chironomy was still practiced in Italy and Yemen until recently; the exact date is not stated, "Music, 11 p. 577. 74 Israel Adler, "Histoire de la musique religieuse juive," in J. Porte, ed., Encyclopedies des musigues sacrees, vol. I, 1968, pp. 472-473 as found in Herzog, p. 1099, Example 1. 75 Herzog, pp. 1098-1099; Idelsohn, p. 67. 76 The pronunciation of all the Hebrew accents used in this study is taken from the Sephardic pronunciation since this is used in most synagogues today. 77 Taken from chironomy still practiced in Rome. Although the move ments are not identical among different cultures, other communities preserve a similar practice. See Adler as found in Herzog, p. 1099. Example 1. 78 The three melodic renditions are taken from: a) Ashkenazic Tradition, b) Babylonian Tradition and c) Sephardic Tradition (Egypt and Palestine region). For a) see Rosowsky, p. 189 and for both b) and c) see Idelsohn, pp. 44 and 46. 79 It is important to remember that the chironomic motion and melody vary from culture to culture.

80 Aryell Cohen, 11 History of Synagogue Music, .. Westside Jewish 81

Community Center, Los Angeles, 24 May 1984. 81 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, see p. 5 Table 5.

82 Avenary states the date to be 900-930 C.E., 11 Music," p. 584. Idelsohn claims the date of the codification to be in the ninth century, p. 68, and Werner states the date to be about 850 C.E., Sacred Bridge, p. 105. Since there is no agreement on this date the present writer has chosen the later date and more conservative date since Avenary's re search is the most recent. 83 Aron Dotan, "Masorah," Enclclopedia Judaica (Israel: Keter Publishing, 1971), val. XVI, p. 1 16. 84 Werner, Sacred Bridge, pp. 105-106; Revell, p. 141. 85 Werner, Sacred Bridge, pp. 105-106; Revell, p. 141. 86 Dotan, p. 1433. Examples of vowel signs appear as ( •. 'T ' ••• ' -, -: ). In Hebrew the letter denotes a consonant and is combined with the appropriate vowel sign to form a word. A diacritical point is placed in relation to a specific letter of a word. An example would be the letter that appears as (te ); with a dot placed above and to the right (ttl) this letter is pronounced as 'sh.' With a dot placed above and to the left (\zJ) this letter is pronounced as •s•. 87 Rosowsky, pp. 5-6. Idelsohn states that there are a total of thirty accents in the Tiberian system, p. 68. 88 Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation," p. 100. 89 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 15 Table 5. 90 The fifteen accents chosen for this example were suggested by Cantor Lance Tapper of Temple Ner Tamid in Downey, California as those most commonly used. The translation of the names of the accents is primarily based upon Rosowsky's list, pp. 5-6. 91 The names of the accents in Example 12 appear in transliteration. For a list of the accents in the Hebrew alphabet see Rosowsky, pp. 5-6. 92 Avenary's table lists the following approximate calculations for the derivation of the name of the accents: visual form, forty percent; function, forty percent; and chironomy, twenty percent. See Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 15 Table 5; a portion of this table is sum marized in Example 29. 93 Herzog, p. 1103. 82

94 Rosowsky, p. 1. 95 These four melodic renditions are taken from A.W. Binder, Biblical Chant (New York: Philosophical Library, 1959), p. 117. 96 The four passages that use shalshelet are: Genisis XIX:l6, XXIV: 12, XXXIX:B, and Leviticus VIII:23; see Rosowsky, p. 236. 97 Rosowsky, p. 236. 98 Studies in Eastern Chant, val. IV, 1979, pp. 140-170. 99 Rosowsky refers to the etnachta accents as atnah and sof pasuk as silluk, p. 5. Avenary uses these corresponding names interchangeably Studies in Recitative, p. 17. Werner uses sof pasuk and silluk inter changeably but always uses atnah; Sacred Bridge, pp. 415-428. Both Engberg and Revell make use of the names atnah and si1luk. The present writer has chosen to use etnachta and sof pasuk because these name are used commonly in most synagogues in cantillation instructional classes. 100 Revell states that minor accents may precede each clause. For the terminal clause the minor accents would precede tevir and for the contextual clause the minor accents would precede pashta. Revel lists the following as minor accents: revii, telisha, pazer, legarmeh and geresh, see p. 143. 101 In the first verse-half the first of two or more contextual clauses may be indicated by zarka and sego1 instead of pashta and zakef-katon; see Revell, p. 143. 102 Revell, p. 143. 103 Revell, pp. 141 and 144. Rosowsky d:iscusses this in detail with relation to each accent throughout his entire study. In his first discussion of the separation of the verse, Rosow!skylabels the diSjune tives as Lords and the conjuctives as Servants, pp. 9-15. 104 Binder, p. 19. 105 Rosowsky ranks all the disjunctive accents, or Lords according to their varying degree of separating power. There are five classifi cations of Lords; starting with the most powerful and moving to the weakest these five are: Emperors, Kings, Dukes, Counts, and Petty Lords. Sof pasuk and etnachta are Emperors, tipcha and zakef-katon are Kings, and tevir and pashta are Dukes. See pp. 10-11. 106 Revell, p. 143. 107 Herzog, p. 1103. 83

108 Tikun Lakorim (New York: Ktav Publishing House, 1946), p. 266. 109 Pentateuch, Pro hets, and Ha io ra ha: Codex Lenin rad B 19A (Jerusalem: Makar Publishing, 1971 , vol. II, p. 156. 110 Since the source of this manuscript, see note 109, did not pro vide a date of this manuscript, the present writer has been in corre spondence with Lili Kahan from the library of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. In a letter from Lili Kahan, received 20 Nov.l985, she states that there are (or were) 146 different Biblical codicies in Leningrad. SheAadds that she does not know of any catalogue that mentions a B 19 manuscript; however, she assumes that this is a fac simile of a codex which dates from 1090. 111 Tikun Lakorim, p. 266. 112 For this particular use.of the diacritical point, a dot above and to the right of the letter (t£J), see note 86. 113 The melody is taken from the motives of cantillation of Binder, pp. 73-76. Observe that katon is used instead of zakef-katon. 114 Taken from Revell, pp. 169-170. 115 Dotan, p. 1433. 116 Ibid., p. 1437. 117 Ibid., p. 1433. Dotan claims that the term Palestinian system is attributed to Jacob b. [sic.] Sampson of France who lived in the twelfth century, p. 1433. 118 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 15 Table 5. 119 Revell, p. 146; Dotan, p. 1437. 120 Revell states that in the first verse-half the first of two or more contextual clauses may be indicated by zarka and segol and the second (and other) contextual clause(s) would be marked by pashta and zakef-katon; see Revell, p. 143. 121 Revell, p. 147. 122 Dotan, p. 1441. The accent marking is not placed over the stres sed syllable in this system. Dotan claims that this is another primi tive feature of this system since in the Babylonian and Tiberian systems the accent marking does appear over the stressed syllable. 123 Revell, p. 149. 84

124 Dotan, p. 1445. 125 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 15 Table 5; Dotan, p. 1445. 126 Revell, p. 149. 127 Revell gives examples of how this is achieved; see p. 150. 128 Dotan, p. 1445. 129 Revell, pp. 150-151. 130 Revell, p. 151. See Revell, pp. 151-158, for a discussion on the accents found in the Rabbinic Literature. Idelsohn also states that accents are found in the Mishna and Talmud; see p. 499 note 32. See also Batja Bayer, "Talmud, Musical Rendition," Encyclopedia Judaica (Israel: Keter Publishing, 1971), vol. XV, pp. 735-755. 131 Revell, p. 151. 132 Revell, pp. 150-151 and 155. Revell states that this difference of accentuation exists through comparing many manuscripts; see p. 155. Revell, pp. 157-158. 134 Ibid., p. 158. Bayer states that there is no standard melodic pattern for the Talmud; see p. 755. 135 Egan Wellesz, A Histor of B zantine Music and H mno ra h (1961 ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949 pp. 246-260. See p. 246 footnote 1 for a chronological list of references of other studies on Greek ecphonetic accents. 136 Gudren Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. VI, pp. 101-102. Gudrun Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes and Masoretic Accents," Studies in Eastern Chant, vol. I, (1966), pp. 37-49. The use of the writings of these two scholars in no way implies that they are the only authorities. The present writer only has English articles available. One of the most thorough explanations of Greek ecphonetic notations, that is referred to by Wellesz, Engberg, and other scholars, is Carsten•s H~eg•s, "La Notation Ekphonetique, .. Monumenta Musicae Byzantinae, Subsidia, vol. I, facsimile 2, (Copenhagen, 1935). 137 The terminology is based upon the practice, found in several sources, of referring to Greek markings as ecphonetic neumes. 138 Engberg also states that ecphonetic accents appear in other texts; see 11 Ekphonetic notation," p. 101. See also Wellesz, Byzantine 85

Music, p. 246. 139 Wellesz, Byzantine Music, p. 246. 140 Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes," p. 38. 141 Ibid., Wellesz, Byzantine Music, p. 247. 142 Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes," p. 38. 143 It seems possible to make this assu~ption even though some scholars claim Greek accents appeared as early as the end of the fourth century. See also Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 8. 144 The shape of the Greek accents refers to the accents found in both the archaic and •classical • systems. Wellesz claims that the shape of the accents remains unchanged from the eighth to the thirteenth centuries; see Byzantine Music, p. 247. 145 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 15 Table 5. 146 Taken from Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation," p. 101. 147 Ibid., p. 102. 148 Ibid., p. 101; Wellesz, Byzantine Music, p. 257. 149 H~eg, "La Notation Ekphonetique," pp. 26-35. 150 Ibid., pp. 32-33. 151 Wellesz, Byzantine Music, p. 252. 152 Ibid., p. 257; Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation," p. 101. 153 Wellesz, Byzantine Music, pp. 249-250; Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation," p. 101. 154 Egan Wellesz, Byzantinische Musik (Gennany: Ferdinand Hirt in Breslau, 1927), p. 40. 155 Ib'd1 • ' p. 41 . 156 This example is a portion of a list found in Wellesz, Byzantinische Musik, p. 41. A similar list of prosodic signs can be found in Wellesz, Byzantine Music, p. 250. 157 Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation,"?· 101. 86

158 Wellesz states that chironomy is said to go back to the time of Kosmas and John Damascene, Byzantine Music, p. 287. Follierei states that Kosmas was born some time during the first half of the eighth century; see Enrica Fall ieri, "Kosmas of Jerusalem, 11 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. X, p. 214. 159 Wellesz, Byzantine Music, pp. 284-295. 160 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 15 Table 5. 161 Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes, 11 p. 44; see also 11 Ekphonetic notation,u p. 101. 162 Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes, 11 p. 44; see also Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 18.

163 Engberg, 11 Ekphonetic Notation, 11 p. 101.

164 Engberg, 11 Greek Ekphonetic Neumes, 11 p. 41; Revell p. 162. 165 The examples of the Greek periods are taken primarily from H9)eg, 11 La Notation Ekphonetique, 11 pp. 32-35. 166 Taken from Carsten H9)eg and others, Pro hetolo ium: Monumenta Musicae Byzantine, Lectionaria, vol. I, facsimile 1 Copenhagen, 1939), pp. 73-75. 167 The Prophetologium edition lists the text with the accents based upon one manuscript. The other accents that may appear for a particular phrase are listed below the text with the number of the appropriate phrase. 168 Revell •s example, p. 170, is incorrect in section 2. Under the phrase 11 on the burnt offering" he lists the accent synemba; this accent should be syramatike, not synemba. 169 Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes, 11 p. 39; see also 11 Ekphonetic ·notation," p. 102. Engberg does not state which accent would be omitted.

170 Engberg, 11 Greek Ekphonetic Neumes, 11 p. 39; see also 11 Ekphonetic notation, 11 p. 102.

171 Engberg, "Ekphonetic notation, 11 p. 102. 172 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, pp. 16-17; Werner, Sacred Bridge, p. 109. 173 Taken from Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 15 Table 5. The 87

present writer has chosen the term "shape" for Avenary's use of the terminology "visual form or position." In addition, Avenary provides two calculations in the Syrian column, one labeled "early" and the other "late." The "late" calculations appear in Example 29 since the present writer presumes this refers to the Syrian accents in its fully developed stage. 174 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 6. The present writer assumes that prosodic signs would fall under the "function" category of Example 29 since the prosodic signs had a grammatical function. 175 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 13. 176 Rahta- - d'karteh~ does not appear in Example 2 above because it is not found in the first stage of Syrian accentuation. Instead it appears in the second stage of accentuation in the East Syrian school; see Segal, p. 99. 177 The Syrian accents of this example are also found in the second stage of Syrian accentuation. Therefore, there are some differences between the accents listed here and those found in Example 2. Several names are possible for Syrian accent 1 of Example 30; these other names can be found in Segal, p. 94. Accent 2 of the example, m'dammrana or metdammrana, is only found in the East Syrian school of the second ~tage; see_Segal, p. 89. An additional possi~ilit~ Qf comparison exi~t~ 1n the Syr}an..,s,y~t~m if the second half of meti

182 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 15 183 Werner, pp. 410-431; Engberg, pp. 41-49; Revell, pp. 158-165. For a discussion of some other comparisons see: Werner, pp. 422-424; Engberg, 37-39. 184 Werner, Sacred Bridge, pp. 426-427. 185 Ibid. It is possible that Werner also states that kentemata kentemata may also correspond to zakef-katon; Werner's illustration on p. 426 is unclear as to the correspondence of this accent. 186 Werner, Sacred Bridge, p. 427. 187 Ibid. 188 Werner compares one identical passage of the Hebrew and Greek systems consisting of only four verses, Genisis II: 20-23; see Werner, Sacred Bridge, pp. 425-426. 189 Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes," p. 41. 190 Taken from Engberg, ibid. 191 Ibid., p. 42. 192 Taken from Engberg, ibid., p. 46. 193 See Engberg, ibid., p. 43, particularly note 21. 194 Ibid. , p. 47. 195 Engberg's table of correspondence of zakef-katon to Greek accents only lists 3 out of 133 instances where the bareia-bareia corresponds. See Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes," p. 46 Table VI. 196 Revell, p. 159. 197 See ibid. , pp. 159-161. 198 Ibid., p. 159. 199 Ibid., p. 164. 200 Ibid. 201 Ibid. 202 Ibid., p. 162. 89

203 Ibid., p. 161. Werner seems to agree with Revell on this point; see Sacred Bridge, p. 414. 204 Revell, p. 162. 205 For a d1scuss1on · . on th e or1g1ns. . o f th e ecp hone t.1c accen t s an d 1 . t s relation to the Syrian system see Werner, Sacred Bridge, pp. 109-118 and 410-414. 206 Revell, pp. 161-162.

207 Engberg, 11 Ekphonetic notation, 11 p. 99. 208 Sega 1 , p. 63. 209 There is one instance where the translation is altered; this appears in the last line of the Syrian system. Example 35 reads, 11 and the trench alS0 11 whereas Example 7a reads, 11 and also it the trench_. 1 The former is used in Revell 1 S example, pp. 169-170, and the latter was a suggested alteration of Fr. Cody. Revell does indeed claim that in certain instances the translation is altered; see p. 165. In addition, the three words 11 0n the altar 11 (second line of Example 35) does not appear in the Syrian (Example 8) or Hebrew (Example 20) illustrations of this passage.

210 Example 35 is almost exactly the same as Revell 1 S Example 6, pp. 169-170. The differences are a few of the accents that appear in the Syrian and Greek systems; see notes 55 and 168, respectively. 211 Wellesz, Byzantine Music, p. 252. 212 Engberg lists three out of forty-one instances where etnachta corresponds to oxeia-oxeia in a Group II classification. See 11 Greek Ekphonetic Neumes, 11 p. 45 Table V. 213 The other two instances display zakef-katon corresponding to bareia-bareia, in verse 34, and oxeia-oxeia, in the two variants of verse 35. Engberg lists three instances for the former and fourteen for the latter in her observations. See 11 Greek Ekphonetic Neumes, 11 p. 46, Table VI. 214 This occurs in the first half of verse 34 and the second half of verse 35. 215 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, pp. 18-20. 216 Avenary explains that in the Jewish community the Hebrew Bible is viewed as a teaching and instructing of laws. Therefore, its con tents had to be easily understood. See Studies in Recitative, p. 19. 90

217 Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 18. 218 Ibid. 219 For example, Avenary disagrees with Werner's use of Yemenite melodies to show a relation between synagogue and church; see Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 42. 22 ° For a specific melodic comparison see: Werner, Sacred Bridge, pp. 427-428; and Avenary, Studies in Recitative, p. 40. 221 Syramatike is used instead of kathiste, as seen in Example 31, to correspond to zarka. Observe that these two Greek accents share a similar shape. 222 Werner states that the ecphonetic hypokrisis later became the I Byzantine guilisma; see Sacred Bridge, p. 417. I II II 223 'I Any further discussion of a comparison of the melodies that I were provided by the ecphonetic accents is beyond the scope of this study. For further comparisons see: Werner, Sacred Bridge, pp. 416-417 and 434-455; and Avenary, Studies in Recitative, pp. 22-42. 224 See also Engberg, "Greek Ekphonetic Neumes," pp. 40 and 49. Bibliography

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Avenary, Hanoch, and others. 11 Music. 11 Encyclopedia Judaica. Jerusa lem: Keter Publishing House Ltd.; New York: MacMillan Co., 1971. Vol. XII, pp. 578-586. Avenary, Hanoch. Letter to the present writer. 13 Oct. 1985. ------Studies in the Hebrew, Syrian and Greek Liturgical Recita tive. Jerusalem: Jerusalem Post Press, 1963.

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