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Sexual Slander and the Reputation of Milesian Aspasia Rachel Hill Aspasia of ’ (c.470-410 BCE) legacy survives in the tradition that she was a prostitute from the Classical Era (c. 498-323 BCE), who became sexually involved with (c. 495-429 BCE).1 The fact that she was a prostitute is not often called into question; however, this paper will strive to demonstrate that the evidence available is insufficient and prejudiced against her. This will be done by examining different aspects of her identity, and by discussing the various social mores which influenced her perception in . The nature, historicity, and function of the sources who speak of her will also be discussed, especially why the early comedians may have fabricated her reputation as a courtesan in order to slander Pericles with her shame.2 The intent of this paper is not to definitively prove that Aspasia was not a prostitute, nor that she was never involved in the ownership or management of a ; instead, it is simply to demonstrate that the evidence for Aspasia’s personal involvement in prostitution is insufficient to assume her involvement to the extent traditionally assumed. The first aspect of Aspasia’s identity to investigate is that she was an educated and outspoken woman. Aspasia had no recorded male mentor, her intellect effectively came out of nowhere.3 This means that her rhetorical skills were largely developed independent of the masculine sphere. This is significant because of the distinction made between men and women, who were seen as altogether different species, demonstrating a well-established Greek notion of sexual dimorphism.4 By the standards of the day, Aspasia’s intellect was a great anomaly. She was an active participant in the , a banquet famous for entertainment and conversations of public affairs, and was also the ’ teacher5. Not only did she participate in the male dominated fields of rhetoric and philosophy, this passage demonstrates that she bested them: “Tell me, please, wife of , if your neighbour had a better piece of gold jewelry than you, would you prefer hers or your own?” “Hers,” said the wife.

1 Cheryl Glenn, “Sex, Lies, and Manuscript: Refiguring Aspasia in the History of Rhetoric,” College Composition and Communication 45, no. 2 (1994): 180. 2 was an honour/shame society, in which sexual license was perceived as dishonourable. 3 Madeleine M. Henry, Prisoner of History: Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 137. 4 For evidence in myth of dimorphism see: . Theogony. 590. For a modern interpretation of the significance of Greek dimorphism, see: Marilyn, Katz “Ideology and “The Status of Women” in Ancient Greece.” History and Theory 31, no. 4 (1992): 86. 5 Xenophon. Economics. 3.14, Xenophon, , 2.6.36

68 «So—if she should have a dress or other feminine ornament more expensive than what you have, would you prefer hers or yours?” “Hers, naturally,” said the wife. “So now: what if that woman had a better husband than you? Would you prefer hers or your own?” Here the woman blushed. Aspasia, however, began to interrogate Xenophon himself.6 After this , Aspasia continued to make similar assertions against Xenophon, talking him into the same corner as she did his wife. This dialogue is to demonstrates that Aspasia was believed to be the intellectual and rhetorical superior of aristocratic Athenian women and men alike. One modern scholar deduced that respectable Athenian women did not attend symposia; moreover, it was entertainers and prostitutes who attended alongside the men.7 The natural conclusion is that Aspasia was the rule and not the exception (making her a prostitute). However, as Aspasia was not Athenian, she was not bound by the same social regulations as a citizen. Another way in which Aspasia’s reputation for promiscuity was established was by emphasizing and exoticizing her social status as a .8 were foreigners given special privileges to permanently reside and conduct business in Athens, without being granted full citizenship rights. By emphasizing her inferior social and legal status, Pericles’ shame is increased in light of his previous divorce from an Athenian citizen.9 By winning a married Athenian man over, Aspasia encroached on the territory of Athenian women. Another group accused of this were Classical-era prostitutes, who were suspected of trying to take all the Athenian men, steal opportunities from respectable women, and cause the sexual degeneration of the general citizen population if able to marry freely.10 It is possible that, in order to sensationalize this scandal and to explain how a Milesian could lure a married man away from his wife, Aspasia was labeled as both a metic and, unjustly, a prostitute. For Pericles, choosing a foreign woman was already seen as a mark on his character and a lack of wisdom. In 431 BC, another important figure was presented as foolish and sexually debased for his union with a foreign woman. In ’ play Medea (first performed 431 BCE), Jason is a man with regrets about his foreign wife, and one who finds fault in his decision

6 This is a reconstruction of fragments from of Sphettos’ dialogue found in ’s De Inventione. This translation is from Madeleine M. Henry, Prisoner of History: Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 44. 7 Sean Corner, “Did ‘Respectable’ Women Attend Symposia?,” Greece & Rome 59, no. 1 (2012): 35. 8 Similar in concept in Athens to a landed immigrant. A metic has permission to live in the city but does not have full citizenship rights. Have this information in your body since it’s important 9 , Life of Pericles, 24.5. 10 Pseudo-, Against Nerea, 59.112-113.

69 to take a Colchian wife rather than a Greek one.1 This demonstrates that Pericles’ relationship with Aspasia was looked down on according to the political and societal beliefs reflected in Athenian drama. Men who chose prostitutes over wives were similarly vilified by Athenian society.2 Perhaps in an effort to sensationalize the scandal of divorcing his respectable wife, Aspasia was painted as altogether disreputable. This implies a dichotomy and a symbolic representation of Pericles choosing the promiscuous East over Athens (to whom, like to his first wife, he owes loyalty). This serves the dual purpose of maximizing the condemnation heaped onto Pericles, and alludes to his pro-Persian sympathies.3 Furthermore, Aspasia may have originally been identified as a prostitute not only based on her status as a metic, but also according to the particular nature of her homeland. She was from Miletus, in the Eastern part of the world, across the Aegean from the .4 Being Eastern, she is characterized according to broadly Eastern stereotypes, especially with Persian and Babylonian sexual stereotypes. Aspasia was certainly a victim of orientalism.5 One way in which this manifests is the assumption that she is a prostitute. (c. 484 – c. 425 BCE) explained that Babylon was seen as shameful by the Greeks for its pervasive prostitution, and particularly that both low-status and high-status women were sold.6 By this logic, Aspasia, a woman of great philosophical repute, should have found no place in the Athenian sex trade unless she were vaguely Eastern. According to Plutarch, Aspasia’s life was parallel to the prostitute Thargelia’s, on the grounds that they were both Eastern, rose to power by manipulating Attic men, and had political ties with Persia.7 Aspasia’s own ties with Persia included the fact that her reputation was admired by Cyrus the Great (600–530 BCE), who renamed a favourite prostitute after her.8 This demonstrates her conformation with the Eastern stereotype of sexual immorality. This connection with the promiscuity of the East may be the result of prejudice in light of a Milesian revolt against Athens in the 450s, creating enmity between the two cities.9

1 Euripides, Medea, 1339-40. 2 Demosthenes, Against Olympiodoru, 48.53-5. 3 A.E. Raubitschek, “The Peace Policy of Pericles,” American Journal of Archaeology 70, no. 1 (1966): 71. 4 Plutarch, Life of Pericles, 24.2. 5 Madeleine M. Henry, Prisoner of History: Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 130. 6 Herodotus, Histories, 1.199.1-5. 7 Plutarch, Life of Pericles, 24.2. 8 Plutarch, Life of Pericles, 24.7, 24.2. 9 Noel Robertson, “Government and Society at Miletus, 525-442 B. C.,” Phoenix 41, no. 4 (1987): 358. This scholar discusses well the controversy about the existence of such a revolt against Athens.

70 Perhaps the most powerful reason that Aspasia was branded as a prostitute by the sources is to characterize Pericles as (sexually) excessive and not in charge of his faculties. First, the implication that Pericles was swayed by a supposed prostitute to begin the indicates a sexually- driven power imbalance in which Pericles was manipulated.10 The notion of a politician submitting to the will of a debased and foreign prostitute was slanderous, especially in a patriarchal society, and would have been looked down upon by Athenian society. In fact, satirizes a general who agreed to end a war out of desperation for his own sexual gratification.11 This character was emasculated for submitting to a woman, so too with Pericles. Aspasia was used to demonstrate that Pericles was emotionally excessive, one example of which can be found in Plutarch. He records that, while she was on trial for impiety, Pericles wept before the jury for her acquittal.12 This public display of intense emotion was not looked well upon by the Greeks, as it was a violation of σωφροσύνη.13 This demonstrated that Pericles was no longer in control of his emotions. The final and perhaps most interesting piece of evidence for Pericles’ debasement by Aspasia’s reputation is in the way that he kissed her. He was said to have kissed her twice a day, which Plutarch considers significant enough to include in his biography, but the word used is καταφιλεῖν.14 The significance of this seldom-used word is found in the prefix κατα—, which suggests that the kiss is a deep one, filled with sexual undertones, and therefore dishonourable.15 Since Pericles was the one performing this act towards Aspasia, the word serves to suggest that, even in the presence of a supposed prostitute, Pericles is still the sexually immoral actor. Finally, there is the issue that very few sources on Aspasia’s life exist, none of which are particularly reliable.16 The only surviving contemporary sources are comedies. Comedic plays often satirize and sometimes slander the political figures of their day, and Aspasia was no exception. Plutarch cites sources, now lost to us, which called her vulgar names that alluded to prostitution.17 One may assume that she was mocked because of her profession, but there is no satisfactory proof that real-life prostitutes were mocked in comedy any worse than were respectable wives, gluttons, or

10 Plut. Per. 24.1. 11 Aristophanes, , 870-915. 12 Plutarch, Vitae Parallelae, Pericles, 32. 13 A word denoting the quality of temperance, emotional balance, and self-control. 14 Plutarch, Vitae Parallelae, Pericles, 24.6. 15 Richard Hawley, “‘Give Me a Thousand Kisses’: The Kiss, Identity, and Power in Greek and Roman Antiquity,” Leeds International Classical Studies 6, no. 5 (2007): 8. 16 Madeleine M. Henry, Prisoner of History: Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 4-5. 17 Plutarch, Vitae Parallelae. Pericles, 24.6.

71 the like.18 Indeed, it is more likely that because her reputation transgressed into the male sphere, betraying her gender and shattering social norms, she was satirized by resentful male intimidated by her superior skills and influence19. Yet another reason that Aspasia’s reputation may be the fabrication of satire is her relationship with Pericles and his controversial pro-Persian politic. In 472 BC, ’ Persians used drama as a form of the political expression of anti-Medist, pro-Athenian sentiments. Pericles was said to have manipulated the Persian invasion to gain power and was suspected of holding Medistic sympathies.20 It is possible, then, that he was satirized by having his wife described as someone who similarly sold themselves to gain influence.21 By calling Aspasia sexually debased, comedians automatically stained his moral character by association.22 In conclusion, one cannot accept these contemporary comedies as factual histories. However, one must acknowledge the role of satire in building notoriety, and that it is through this satirical slander that Aspasia’s reputation as a prostitute was born. There is also a discrepancy in Aspasia’s description, in that she was not portrayed as beautiful; instead, her defining characteristic was her intelligence. This may seem insignificant, but it is a drastic deviation from the traditional description of prostitutes, where beauty was equated with their function and value. Socrates himself wonders whether to give thanks to a prostitute for showing him her beauty.23 This implies that beauty is a means by which women acquired power over men. Even Herodotus noted that beautiful and tall prostitutes were preferable and more successful than their competitors, demonstrating that the value of a prostitute was directly related to her physicality.24 One scholar argues that, in the discussion of women in antiquity, beauty is also often equated with weakness of body and mind.25 However, these same criticisms were not leveled at the notoriously clever Aspasia. While it is true that intellect and sharp wits were often attributed

18 Eva C. Keuls, The Reign of the Phallus: Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 200. 19 Roger Just, Women in Athenian Law and Life (New York: Routledge, 1989), 21. 20 A.E. Raubitschek, “The Peace Policy of Pericles,” American Journal of Archaeology 70, no. 1 (1966): 71. 21 Richard Hawley, “‘Give Me a Thousand Kisses’: The Kiss, Identity, and Power in Greek and Roman Antiquity,” Leeds International Classical Studies 6, no. 5 (2007): 7. 22 Gerald F. Else, “Some Implications of Pericles’ Speech,” The Classical Journal 49, no. 4 (1954): 156. 23 Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.11.1-2. 24 Herodotus, Histories, 1.199.5. 25 Xin Liu Gale, “Historical Studies and Postmodernism: Rereading Aspasia of Miletus,” College English 62, no. 3 (2000): 376.

72 to prostitutes, it is only in Aspasia where it is her defining trait.26 Across all sources, her intellect is emphasized and her beauty is not mentioned.27 Rather, it is her command of rhetoric for which she is praised.28 Plutarch even states that Pericles’ affections were won by characteristics other than beauty, as seen in the passage, τὴν δ᾽ Ἀσπασίαν οἱ μὲν ὡς σοφήν τινα καὶ πολιτικὴν ὑπὸ τοῦ Περικλέους σπουδασθῆναι λέγουσι (‘as they say, Aspasia was being held up by Pericles on account of certain political wisdom’).29 Since, unlike a prostitute, Aspasia won Pericles’ desire not through beauty but through intellect, which deviates from the traditional depiction of a prostitute, therefore it would be inconsistent with the literature to assume that Aspasia is a prostitute. Aspasia’s reputation as a prostitute was also plagued by a lack of factual evidence. Since much of her life before Pericles is unaccounted for, nobody was able to testify or provide specific instances as to when she practiced, nor whom she serviced.30 For comparison, one might examine the trial of Nerea, wife of Stephanus, who was accused of being a prostitute. In this case, there were testimonies and specific instances brought against her, and the locations and clients implicated in her practice were known.31 Theodore is another courtesan contemporary to Aspasia - Socrates discussed prostitution with her - and they chatted freely about her profession, emphasizing its lucrative nature and Theodore’s wealth.32 It is inconsistent, then, that Aspasia had no such recorded conversations with Socrates, who was her student and often questioned her about the nature of love and matchmaking.33 Even as a literary character, Aspasia did not admit to prostituting herself, nor were there records of her wealth or documented instances of Aspasia accepting payment for sexual favours. Aspasia’s literary representation is inconsistent with the usual openness of prostitutes to discuss their profession, and the lack of specific evidence and testimony work to further discredit the accusation. Therefore, it is inconsistent with literary convention to assume, from the evidence we have concerning Aspasia, that she was a prostitute. In addition, Aspasia does not appear in ’ treatment of Pericles.34 This is significant because it is highly unlikely that he was unaware

26 Eva C. Keuls, The Reign of the Phallus: Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 199-200. 27 Roger Just, Women in Athenian Law and Life (New York: Routledge, 1989), 144. 28 , , 235e. 29 Plutarch, Vitae Parallelae, Pericles, 24.3. 30 Madeleine M. Henry, Prisoner of History: Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 3. 31 Pseudo-Demosthenes, Against Nerea, 59.17-25. 32 Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.11.1-15. 33 Xenophon, Economics, 3.14; Xenophon, Memorabilia, 2.6.36. 34 Thucydides, History of the , 2.65.

73 of her existence and her supposed influence on Pericles, given the historian’s methodical approach to research.35 His silence on the matter of Aspasia may speak volumes by implying that he deemed her influence and reputation as hearsay. Thucydides said that he had omitted many sensational and romantic things, so that his histories remain painstakingly practical.36 Thus, his accounts are still upheld as viable and generally accurate.37 This being true, there can only be two reasons for which something was excluded from Thucydides’ accounts: either it was factually dubious, or it was unimportant. Since Aspasia’s scandalous reputation included her as the cause for a few significant political moves by Pericles, such as starting the Samian War, and because she was a significant mark on his reputation, she could not have been insignificant.38 Aspasia’s infamy for using promiscuity to manipulate Pericles must have been seen by the historian as questionable at best. This shows that Thucydides, writing relatively contemporary to Aspasia’s life, doubted whether or not she used her skills as a prostitute to manipulate Pericles. Finally, Pericles’ story, with Aspasia’s reputation taken into account, is simply too ironic and reminiscent of Classical era tragedy, and thus not to be taken without skepticism. Pericles legally bastardized the offspring of metic/ citizen couples.39 Shortly afterwards, he fell in love with a metic and, losing both his legitimate sons to the plague, he was forced to make an exception to his own law (by adopting his son by Aspasia) in order to survive his lineage.40 While this is not an impossibility, it fits suspiciously well into the rubric of a typical tragedy, with irony being overwhelmingly present. The Greeks were masters of irony, and this reading of Pericles’ life would certainly not have been lost on them. It is extremely likely that Aspasia’s biographical tradition was tampered with to make a literarily elegant political statement against Pericles. In the final analysis, it is possible that because of Aspasia’s identity and the prejudices of the time, as well as the lack of viable sources for her life, that one might question whether or not she was ever personally involved in prostitution.

35 Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.22. 36 Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, 1.22.4. 37 Gerald F. Else, “Some Implications of Pericles’ Funeral Speech,” The Classical Journal 49, no. 4 (1954): 153. 38 Plutarch, Vitae Parallelae, Pericles, 24.1-7. 39 , Athenian Constitution, 26.3. 40 Plutarch, Vitae Parallelae, Pericles, 36.

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75 Larson, Jennifer. Greek and Roman Sexualities: A Sourcebook. New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012. Plato. Menexenus. Edited by John Burnet. Oxford University Press. 1903. Plutarch. Vitae Parallelae. Pericles. Edited by Bernadotte Perrin. London: Harvard University Press, 1916. Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddesses. Whores, Wives and Slaves: Women in . New York: Schoken Books, 1975. Pseudo-Demosthenes. Against Nerea. Edited by W. Rennie. Oxoniie Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1931. Raubitschek, A. E. “The Peace Policy of Pericles.” American Journal of Archaeology 70, no. 1 (1966): 37-41. Robertson, Noel. “Government and Society at Miletus, 525-442 B. C.” Phoenix 41, no. 4 (1987): 356-98. Robson, James. Sex and Sexuality in . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013. Sissa, Giulia. Sex and Sensuality in the Ancient World. Translated by George Staunton. London: Press, 2008. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. Historiae in two volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1942. Xenophon. Economics. Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vol. 18. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., London. 1935. Xenophon. Memorabilia. Xenophontis opera omnia, vol. 2, 2nd edn. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1921

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