DOCSLIB.ORG

The Relations Between Muslims and Protestan

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Relations Between Muslims and Protestan I - 2 CONTACT AND CONTROVERSY BETWEEN ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY IN NORTHERN INDIA, 1833-1857: THE RELATIONS BETWEEN MUSLIMS AND PROTESTANT MISSIONARIES IN THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES AND OUDH by AVRIL ANN POWELL (School of Oriental and African Studies) Thesis submitted to the University of London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, 1983 ProQuest Number: 11010473 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 11010473 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 3 ABSTRACT In the period 1833 to 1857 some 'ulama from the three north Indian cities of Lucknow, Agra and Delhi were drawn into open controversy with Protestant missionaries in the region. Initial contacts which began in Lucknow in 1833, were turned into prolonged and bitter encounter in the North-Western Provinces, by the dissemination from Agra of publications against Islam by a German Pietist missionary, the Reverend Carl Pfander^/ The two-fold objective of the thesis is to throw light on the backgrounds and motives of his 'ulama opponents, and to examine the types of argument they used in response to his evangelical challenge. The response came initially from some Lucknow Shi'I 'ulama, and in the second stage from some Muslim residents of Agra who served in the East India Company's subordinate services, notably in clerical capacities in the law courts. By the early 1850s concern had spread to some prominent Sunni 'ulama of Delhi who were led by Maulana Rahmat Allah Kairanawi and a Bengali medical doctor, Muhammad Wazir Khan. An examination of the arguments which were used by the 'ulama shows that although the 'Mohammedan controversy' drew on some traditional objections to Christianity, a number of new as well as local factors determined the emphasis which was placed on claiming the irrationality of Christianity and the corruption of its scriptures. Important here was the 'ulama1s contact with recent European biblical criticism which they utilized in their own attacks on the Bible. A debate held in Agra in 1854, which was hailed as a victory by the Muslims, marked the climax of religious controversy during this era. Within three years the risings of 1857 in north India, in which some of the leading controversialists were implicated, rendered both 'ulama and missionaries unable or reluctant to re-open the controversies. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 ABBREVIATIONS 5 NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION 6 INTRODUCTION 7 CHAPTER ONE: 'Ulama and Missionaries in Northern India in the early Nineteenth Century 21 CHAPTER TWO: The Evolution of an Evangelical Apologetic directed at Muslims 96 CHAPTER THREE The Processes of Encounter (1) Contact and Controversy 1833-1848 151 CHAPTER FOUR: The Processes of Encounter (2) Contact and Controversy 1848-1857 223 CHAPTER FIVE: The Themes of Controversy (1) Reason and Revelation 298 CHAPTER SIX: The Themes of Controversy (2) The Corruption of the Scriptures 362 CONCLUSIONS 426 APPENDIX 466 GLOSSARY 472 BIBLIOGRAPHY 477 MAP: The North-Western Provinces and Oudh in the early 1850s. 493 SUPPLEMENTARY ARTICLE 'Maulana Rahmat Allah Kairanawl and Muslim-Christian Controversy in India in the Mid-19th Century', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, No.l (1976), pp.42-63. 5 ABBREVIATIONS B.F.B.S. British and Foreign Bible Society B.M.S. Baptist Missionary Society C.M.I, Church Missionary Intelligencer C.M.S. Church Missionary Society C .R. Calcutta Review D.I. T.P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam (London, 1885) D.N.B. Dictionary of National Biography E .B . Encyclopaedia Britannica E.I.^ Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed. Leiden, 1913-42) 2 E .I. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed. London and Leiden, 1960 continuing) G ,C .P . I. General Committee of Public Instruction I.O.L. India Office Library and Records, London J.R.A.S. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society K.K.H. Khair Khwah-i Hind L.M.S. London Missionary Society M.A.S. Modern Asian Studies M.M. 'Missions Magazin' (Magazin flir die neueste Geschichte der evangelischen Missions und Bibel-Gesellschaften) N.W.P. North-Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency P.P. Parliamentary Papers S .E .I. Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel T .U .H. Rahman 'Ali, Tagkira-i fulama-i Hind (Karachi, 1961). 6 NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION Transliteration follows the system used in John T. Platts's Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English (see Preface, Tables I and II) with some modifications, mainly for convenience in typing. Thus, ’ain (£) and hamza {&) are both represented by an inverted _ * • comma ('), <$> by ch,£^ by kh, by gh. The Persian izafat is denoted by -i. Persian and Arabic words are transliterated according to the Urdu system, as are English words used in Urdu book titles. The familiar English forms of some Indian place-names have been retained (e.g. Delhi and Lucknow), but most other place-names have been trans­ literated according to Platts’s system, omitting diacritical marks. 7 INTRODUCTION The era of 'contact and controversy' between Protestant missionaries and Indian 'ulama which began in 1833 and came to a climax and a sudden end in 1854-55 has not previously been examined. The purpose of this thesis is to identify the partici­ pants, their motives and their arguments in order to assess the significance of the so-called 'Mohammedan controversies'^ in the history of contact between Islam and Christianity, and to examine the reaction of the 'ulama to the missionaries in the broader context of Indian Muslim responses to the impact of British rule on northern India. The scene is set in the first chapter by considering the situation of the Muslims of northern India after the English East India Company's conquest and annexation of the region in 1803, but before the beginning of the religious encounters in 1833. The evolution of Protestant missionary interest in India during this period is examined against the background of the evangelical revival, with the object of identifying the emergence of missionary interest in, and knowledge of, Indian Islam. Particular attention is paid to the reasons why the 'ulama seldom came into contact with missionaries before 1833. Once encounter had begun and had escalated in the period between 1833 and 1854, the preaching and the publications of the Reverend Carl Gottlieb 1. The term 'Mohammedan controversy' was first used in the title of an article submitted to the Calcutta Review in 1845 by an East India Company civilian, William Muir. Pfander and other missionaries used the term 'controversies', while 'ulama publications described the encounters variously as religious mqnazara or mubahasa (disputation, debate). 8 Pfander played a crucial part in turning ’contact’ into 'controversy’. Thus although Pfander did not reach India until the late 1830s, the object of the second chapter is an examination of the attitudes, knowledge and strategies of this Pietist missionary whose activities would subsequently be viewed on both sides as the main catalyst in the contro­ versies. Chapters three and four are concerned with the reasons why some ’ulama of various sectarian, educational and occupational backgrounds in the three north Indian cities of Lucknow, Agra and Delhi, decided to come forward to refute Pfander by the publication of replies to his books on Islam, and by the holding of discussions and public debates. In thus clarifying the ’processes of encounter’ some light is thrown on the place of the ’anti-missionary ’ulama’ in the broader community of north Indian Muslims, and on the responses of some individual ’ulama to their new situation under British rule in a reforming and ’interfering’ era. An attempt is made to relate the chronology of the encounters to the changing political con­ text, and in particular to identify contrasts between the early responses in Lucknow, the capital of the state of Oudh, and the subsequent reaction in Agra and Delhi, the foci of Muslim religious and cultural concerns in the North-Western Provinces. In chapters five and six the arguments used by the ’ulama in their counter-attack on the missionaries are examined in detail. Although the Indian ’ulama drew on many of the arguments against Christianity which had been utilized in Muslim-Christian controversies from the first preaching of Islam until the Jesuit encounters at the Mughal court, they chose to concentrate their attack on two main charges. These were first, the charge that some crucial Christian doctrines were irrational, 9 and second, the charge that the Christian scriptures had been corrupted. In making a detailed examination of these questions, particular attention is paid to the effects on the reformulation of these charges, of local conditions in north India, and of the adoption of European critical assumptions. The controversies ended with a public debate in Agra in April 1854, which the 'ulama claimed as a decisive victory over Pfander. This debate engendered some further correspondence and publications, but by the middle of 1855 both 'ulama and missionaries had relapsed into silence. There was to be no resumption of their encounters on a significant scale until the 1870s. Reference will be made in the concluding section to the possible after-effects of the era of controversies, both in India and in the wider context of subsequent Muslim-Christian encounters in other parts of the Muslim world.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Rituals of Islamic Spirituality: a Study of Majlis Dhikr Groups
    Rituals of Islamic Spirituality A STUDY OF MAJLIS DHIKR GROUPS IN EAST JAVA Rituals of Islamic Spirituality A STUDY OF MAJLIS DHIKR GROUPS IN EAST JAVA Arif Zamhari THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY E P R E S S E P R E S S Published by ANU E Press The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Email: [email protected] This title is also available online at: http://epress.anu.edu.au/islamic_citation.html National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Author: Zamhari, Arif. Title: Rituals of Islamic spirituality: a study of Majlis Dhikr groups in East Java / Arif Zamhari. ISBN: 9781921666247 (pbk) 9781921666254 (pdf) Series: Islam in Southeast Asia. Notes: Includes bibliographical references. Subjects: Islam--Rituals. Islam Doctrines. Islamic sects--Indonesia--Jawa Timur. Sufism--Indonesia--Jawa Timur. Dewey Number: 297.359598 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Cover design and layout by ANU E Press Printed by Griffin Press This edition © 2010 ANU E Press Islam in Southeast Asia Series Theses at The Australian National University are assessed by external examiners and students are expected to take into account the advice of their examiners before they submit to the University Library the final versions of their theses. For this series, this final version of the thesis has been used as the basis for publication, taking into account other changesthat the author may have decided to undertake.
    [Show full text]
  • In the Name of Krishna: the Cultural Landscape of a North Indian Pilgrimage Town
    In the Name of Krishna: The Cultural Landscape of a North Indian Pilgrimage Town A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Sugata Ray IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Frederick M. Asher, Advisor April 2012 © Sugata Ray 2012 Acknowledgements They say writing a dissertation is a lonely and arduous task. But, I am fortunate to have found friends, colleagues, and mentors who have inspired me to make this laborious task far from arduous. It was Frederick M. Asher, my advisor, who inspired me to turn to places where art historians do not usually venture. The temple city of Khajuraho is not just the exquisite 11th-century temples at the site. Rather, the 11th-century temples are part of a larger visuality that extends to contemporary civic monuments in the city center, Rick suggested in the first class that I took with him. I learnt to move across time and space. To understand modern Vrindavan, one would have to look at its Mughal past; to understand temple architecture, one would have to look for rebellions in the colonial archive. Catherine B. Asher gave me the gift of the Mughal world – a world that I only barely knew before I met her. Today, I speak of the Islamicate world of colonial Vrindavan. Cathy walked me through Mughal mosques, tombs, and gardens on many cold wintry days in Minneapolis and on a hot summer day in Sasaram, Bihar. The Islamicate Krishna in my dissertation thus came into being.
    [Show full text]
  • Understanding the Concept of Islamic Sufism
    Journal of Education & Social Policy Vol. 1 No. 1; June 2014 Understanding the Concept of Islamic Sufism Shahida Bilqies Research Scholar, Shah-i-Hamadan Institute of Islamic Studies University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006 Jammu and Kashmir, India. Sufism, being the marrow of the bone or the inner dimension of the Islamic revelation, is the means par excellence whereby Tawhid is achieved. All Muslims believe in Unity as expressed in the most Universal sense possible by the Shahadah, la ilaha ill’Allah. The Sufi has realized the mysteries of Tawhid, who knows what this assertion means. It is only he who sees God everywhere.1 Sufism can also be explained from the perspective of the three basic religious attitudes mentioned in the Qur’an. These are the attitudes of Islam, Iman and Ihsan.There is a Hadith of the Prophet (saw) which describes the three attitudes separately as components of Din (religion), while several other traditions in the Kitab-ul-Iman of Sahih Bukhari discuss Islam and Iman as distinct attitudes varying in religious significance. These are also mentioned as having various degrees of intensity and varieties in themselves. The attitude of Islam, which has given its name to the Islamic religion, means Submission to the Will of Allah. This is the minimum qualification for being a Muslim. Technically, it implies an acceptance, even if only formal, of the teachings contained in the Qur’an and the Traditions of the Prophet (saw). Iman is a more advanced stage in the field of religion than Islam. It designates a further penetration into the heart of religion and a firm faith in its teachings.
    [Show full text]
  • The Legacy of Henry Martyn to the Study of India's Muslims and Islam in the Nineteenth Century
    THE LEGACY OF HENRY MARTYN TO THE STUDY OF INDIA'S MUSLIMS AND ISLAM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Avril A. Powell University of Lincoln (SOAS) INTRODUCTION: A biography of Henry Martyn, published in 1892, by George Smith, a retired Bengal civil servant, carried two sub-titles: the first, 'saint and scholar', the second, the 'first modern missionary to the Mohammedans. [1]In an earlier lecture we have heard about the forming, initially in Cambridge, of a reputation for spirituality that partly explains the attribution of 'saintliness' to Martyn: my brief, on the other hand, is to explore the background to Smith's second attribution: the late Victorian perception of him as the 'first modern missionary' to Muslims. I intend to concentrate on the first hundred years since his ordination, dividing my paper between, first, Martyn's relations with Muslims in India and Persia, especially his efforts both to understand Islam and to prepare for the conversion of Muslims, and, second, the scholarship of those evangelicals who continued his efforts to turn Indian Muslims towards Christianity. Among the latter I shall be concerned especially with an important, but neglected figure, Sir William Muir, author of The Life of Mahomet, and The Caliphate:ite Rise, Decline and Fall, and of several other histories of Islam, and of evangelical tracts directed to Muslim readers. I will finish with a brief discussion of conversion from Islam to Christianity among the Muslim circles influenced by Martyn and Muir. But before beginning I would like to mention the work of those responsible for the Henry Martyn Centre at Westminster College in recently collecting together and listing some widely scattered correspondence concerning Henry Martyn.
    [Show full text]
  • Curriculum Vitae
    CURRICULUM VITAE ALEXANDER D. KNYSH Professor of Islamic Studies Department of Middle East Studies University of Michigan 202 Thayer Building Ann Arbor, MI 48104-1608, USA Tel. (734) 615-1963; e-mail: [email protected] EDUCATION: Institute for Oriental Studies, USSR Academy of Sciences, Leningrad (presently St. Petersburg), Ph.D. in Islamic Studies, 1980-1986 State University of Leningrad (presently St. Petersburg), Department of Oriental Studies, B.A./M.A. in Arabic Literature and Culture, 1974-1979 (Honors) ACADEMIC POSITIONS: 1997-present, Professor of Islamic Studies, University of Michigan May-June, 2017, Visiting Professor/Researcher, Forschungszentrum “Bildung und Religion”, Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen, Germany, http://www.uni-goettingen.de/de/das- zentrum/110217.html. 2014-2015, European Association of Institutes for Advanced Study (EURIAS); Senior Fellow (http://www.2018-2019.eurias- fp.eu/fellows?promotion=89&city=Helsinki%2C+Finland&felowship_category=All&discipline =All), The Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies, Helsinki, Finland. 2013-present, Project Director, Political Islam/Islamism: Theory and Practice in Comparative and Historical Perspective. St. Petersburg State University, Russian Federation (http://islab.spbu.ru/). 2012 (May-June), Visiting Professor of Islamic Studies, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Astana, Kazakhstan 2011 (December), Visiting Professor of Islamic history, Kazakh National University named after al-Farabi, Almaty, Kazakhstan 2008-2009, Associate Director, Center for Middle Eastern and North African Studies, University of Michigan Winter 2008, Visiting Professor of Islamic studies, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 2007-2008, Fellow, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington D.C. 2006-2010, Co-Director, Islamic Studies Initiative, interdisciplinary program funded for the Page | 2 Office of the Provost, the Dean of the College of Literature Science and the Arts, and the International Institute, University of Michigan.
    [Show full text]
  • Tribes and Empire on the Margins of Nineteenth-Century Iran
    publications on the near east publications on the near east Poetry’s Voice, Society’s Song: Ottoman Lyric The Transformation of Islamic Art during Poetry by Walter G. Andrews the Sunni Revival by Yasser Tabbaa The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Shiraz in the Age of Hafez: The Glory of Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century a Medieval Persian City by John Limbert by Zeynep Çelik The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi‘i Symbols The Tragedy of Sohráb and Rostám from and Rituals in Modern Iran the Persian National Epic, the Shahname by Kamran Scot Aghaie of Abol-Qasem Ferdowsi, translated by Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology, Jerome W. Clinton Expanded Edition, edited and translated The Jews in Modern Egypt, 1914–1952 by Walter G. Andrews, Najaat Black, and by Gudrun Krämer Mehmet Kalpaklı Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650 Party Building in the Modern Middle East: by Daniel Goffman The Origins of Competitive and Coercive Rule by Michele Penner Angrist Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science: The Almanac of a Yemeni Sultan Everyday Life and Consumer Culture by Daniel Martin Varisco in Eighteenth-Century Damascus by James Grehan Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey, edited by Sibel Bozdog˘an and The City’s Pleasures: Istanbul in the Eigh- Res¸at Kasaba teenth Century by Shirine Hamadeh Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid East by Ehud R. Toledano by Daniel Martin Varisco Britons in the Ottoman Empire, 1642–1660 The Merchant Houses of Mocha: Trade by Daniel Goffman and Architecture in an Indian Ocean Port by Nancy Um Popular Preaching and Religious Authority in the Medieval Islamic Near East Tribes and Empire on the Margins of Nine- by Jonathan P.
    [Show full text]
  • I TREATING OUTLAWS and REGISTERING MISCREANTS IN
    TREATING OUTLAWS AND REGISTERING MISCREANTS IN EARLY MODERN OTTOMAN SOCIETY: A STUDY ON THE LEGAL DIAGNOSIS OF DEVIANCE IN ŞEYHÜLİSLAM FATWAS by EMİNE EKİN TUŞALP Submitted to the Graduate School of Arts and Social Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Sabancı University Spring 2005 i TREATING OUTLAWS AND REGISTERING MISCREANTS IN EARLY MODERN OTTOMAN SOCIETY: A STUDY ON THE LEGAL DIAGNOSIS OF DEVIANCE IN ŞEYHÜLİSLAM FATWAS APPROVED BY: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tülay Artan (Thesis Supervisor) ………………………… Ass. Prof. Dr. Akşin Somel ………………………… Ass. Prof. Dr. Dicle Koğacıoğlu ………………………… Prof. Dr. Ahmet Alkan (Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences) ………………………… Prof. Dr. Nakiye Boyacıgiller (Director of the Institute of Social Sciences) ………………………… DATE OF APPROVAL: 17/06/2005 ii © EMİNE EKİN TUŞALP ALL RIGHTS RESERVED iii ABSTRACT TREATING OUTLAWS AND REGISTERING MISCREANTS IN EARLY MODERN OTTOMAN SOCIETY: A STUDY ON THE LEGAL DIAGNOSIS OF DEVIANCE IN ŞEYHÜLİSLAM FATWAS Emine Ekin Tuşalp M.A., History Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tülay Artan June 2005, ix + 115 pages This work investigates the forms of deviance rampant in early modern Ottoman society and their legal treatment, according to the fatwas issued by the Ottoman şeyhülislams in the 17th and 18th centuries. One of the aims of this thesis is to present different behavioural forms found in the şeyhülislam fatwas that ranged from simple social malevolencies to acts which were regarded as heresy. In the end of our analysis, the significance of the fatwa literature for Ottoman social history will once more be emphasized. On the other hand, it will be argued that as a legal forum, the fetvahane was not merely a consultative and ancillary office, but a centre that fabricated the legal and moral devices/discourses employed to direct and stem the social tendencies in the Ottoman society.
    [Show full text]
  • Iran's Sunnis Resist Extremism, but for How Long?
    Atlantic Council SOUTH ASIA CENTER ISSUE BRIEF Iran’s Sunnis Resist Extremism, but for How Long? APRIL 2018 SCHEHEREZADE FARAMARZI ome fifteen million of Iran’s eighty million people are Sunni Muslims, the country’s largest religious minority. Politically and economically disadvantaged, these Sunnis receive relatively lit- tle attention compared with other minorities and are concen- Strated in border areas from Baluchistan in the southeast, to Kurdistan in the northwest, to the Persian Gulf in the south. The flare up of tensions between regional rivals Saudi Arabia and Iran over Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Yemen would seem to encourage interest in the state of Iranian Sunnis, if only because the Saudis present them- selves as defenders of the world’s Sunnis, and Iran the self-appointed champion of the Shia cause. So how do Iran’s Sunnis fare in a state where Shia theology governs al- most every aspect of life? How have they been affected by this regional rivalry? Are they stuck between jihadist and other extreme regional Sunni movements on the one hand, and the Shia regime’s aggres- sive policies on the other? Is there a danger that these policies could push some disgruntled Iranian Sunnis toward militancy and terrorism? A tour of Turkmen Sahra in the northeast of Iran near the Caspian Sea, and in Hormozgan on the Persian Gulf in 2015 and 2016 revealed some of the answers. More recent interviews were conducted by phone and in person in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and with European-based experts. “Being a Sunni in Iran means pain, fear, anxiety, restrictions,”1 said a young The Atlantic Council’s South woman in a southern Hormozgan village.
    [Show full text]
  • Timeline of Great Missionaries
    Timeline of Great Missionaries (and a few other well-known historical and church figures and events) Prepared by Doug Nichols, Action International Ministries August 12, 2008 Dates Name Ministry/Place of Ministry 70-155/160 Polycarp Bishop of Smyrna 354-430 Aurelius Augustine Bishop of Hippo (Africa) 1235-1315 Raymon Lull Scholar and missionary (North Africa) 1320-1384 John Wyclif Morning Star of Reformation 1373-1475 John Hus Reformer 1483-1546 Martin Luther Reformation (Germany) 1494-1536 William Tyndale Bible Translator (England) 1509-1564 John Calvin Theologian/Reformation 1513-1573 John Knox Scottish Reformer 1517 Ninety-Five Theses (nailed) Martin Luther 1605-1690 John Eliot To North American Indians 1615-1691 Richard Baxter Puritan Pastor (England) 1628-1688 John Bunyan Pilgrim’s Progress (England) 1662-1714 Matthew Henry Pastor and Bible Commentator (England) 1700-1769 Nicholaus Ludwig Zinzendorf Moravian Church Founder 1703-1758 Jonathan Edwards Theologian (America) 1703-1791 John Wesley Methodist Founder (England) 1714-1770 George Whitefield Preacher of Great Awakening 1718-1747 David Brainerd To North American Indians 1725-1760 The Great Awakening 1759-1833 William Wilberforce Abolition (England) 1761-1834 William Carey Pioneer Missionary to India 1766-1838 Christmas Evans Wales 1768-1837 Joshua Marshman Bible Translation, founded boarding schools (India) 1769-1823 William Ward Leader of the British Baptist mission (India) 1773-1828 Rev. George Liele Jamaica – One of first American (African American) missionaries 1780-1845
    [Show full text]
  • Regional Implications of Shi'a Revival in Iraq
    Vali Nasr Regional Implications of Shi‘a Revival in Iraq Since regime change disenfranchised the Sunni minority leader- ship that had ruled Iraq since the country’s independence in 1932 and em- powered the Shi‘a majority, the Shi‘a-Sunni competition for power has emerged as the single greatest determinant of peace and stability in post-Saddam Iraq. Iraq’s sectarian pains are all the more complex because reverberations of Shi‘a empowerment will inevitably extend beyond Iraq’s borders, involv- ing the broader region from Lebanon to Pakistan. The change in the sectar- ian balance of power is likely to have a far more immediate and powerful impact on politics in the greater Middle East than any potential example of a moderate and progressive government in Baghdad. The change in the sec- tarian balance of power will shape public perception of U.S. policies in Iraq as well as the long-standing balance of power between the Shi‘a and Sunnis that sets the foundation of politics from Lebanon to Pakistan. U.S. interests in the greater Middle East are now closely tied to the risks and opportunities that will emanate from the Shi‘a revival in Iraq. The competition for power between the Shi‘a and Sunnis is neither a new development nor one limited to Iraq. In fact, it has shaped alliances and de- termined how various actors have defined and pursued their interests in the region for the past three decades. Often overlooked in political analyses of greater Middle Eastern politics, this competition is key to grasping how cur- rent developments in Iraq will shape this region in years to come.
    [Show full text]
  • Victims of Downing Street: Popular Pressure and the Press in the Stoddart and Conolly Affair, 1838-1845 Sarah E
    The College of Wooster Libraries Open Works Senior Independent Study Theses 2016 Victims of Downing Street: Popular Pressure and the Press in the Stoddart and Conolly Affair, 1838-1845 Sarah E. Kendrick The College of Wooster, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://openworks.wooster.edu/independentstudy Recommended Citation Kendrick, Sarah E., "Victims of Downing Street: Popular Pressure and the Press in the Stoddart and Conolly Affair, 1838-1845" (2016). Senior Independent Study Theses. Paper 6989. https://openworks.wooster.edu/independentstudy/6989 This Senior Independent Study Thesis Exemplar is brought to you by Open Works, a service of The oC llege of Wooster Libraries. It has been accepted for inclusion in Senior Independent Study Theses by an authorized administrator of Open Works. For more information, please contact [email protected]. © Copyright 2016 Sarah E. Kendrick The College of Wooster Victims of Downing Street: Popular Pressure and the Press in the Stoddart and Conolly Affair, 1838-1845 by Sarah Emily Kendrick Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of Senior Independent Study Supervised by Professor Johnathan Pettinato Department of History Spring 2016 Abstract During the summer of 1842, Emir Nasrullah of Bukhara, in what is now Uzbekistan, beheaded Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Stoddart and Captain Arthur Conolly, two British officers sent to his kingdom on a diplomatic mission. Reports of the officers’ deaths caused an uproar across Britain, and raised questions about the extent to which Britons abroad were entitled to government protection. Historians have generally examined the officers’ deaths exclusively in the context of the Great Game (the nineteenth century Anglo-Russian rivalry over Central Asia) without addressing the furor the crisis caused in England.
    [Show full text]
  • A Constitutional Reckoning with the Taliban's Brand of Islamist Politics
    Afghan Institute for Strategic Studies A Constitutional Reckoning with The Taliban’s Brand of Islamist Politics The Hard Path Ahead Peace Studies VIII © 2021 Afghan Institute for Strategic Studies Afghanistan Institute for Strategic Studies (AISS) is an independent research institute, founded on October 2012 with a goal of providing scientific and academic ground for assessment of the strategic issues of Afghanistan in regional and international levels. Afghanistan Institute for Strategic Studies strives to help the society in improvement and development of democracy, security, peace, good governance and other matters through conducting independent researches, translating and publishing books and scientific papers, convention of national and international gatherings and conferences. Disclaimer The analysis provided in this study are solely those of the author and do not reflect viewpoint of AISS. A Constitutional Reckoning with The Taliban’s Brand of Islamist Politics The Hard Path Ahead Author: Haroun Rahimi Publishing No: AISS-P-038-2021 Circulation: 500 Copies Address: Qala-e-9 Borja, Kart-e-Parwan, Kabul, Afghanistan Contact Number: (+93) 202232806 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENT ......................................................................... II EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 6 WHAT FRAMEWORKS WOULD THE TALIBAN USE TO ARTICULATE THEIR VIEWS ON THE RELATION BETWEEN THE STATE LAW
    [Show full text]