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“GIRLS ON THE LOOSE”? WOMEN’S WARTIME ADVENTURES IN THE NATION’S CAPITAL, 1941-1945 By Cynthia Gueli Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In History Chair: Dr. Peter Kuzmc r Dr^Valene Laura .n Kamoie Dean of tlfe College Date 2006 American University Washington, D.C. 20016 ri AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 3236749 Copyright 2006 by Gueli, Cynthia All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 3236749 Copyright 2006 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. © COPYRIGHT BY Cynthia Gueli 2006 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. “GIRLS ON THE LOOSE?”: WOMEN’S WARTIME ADVENTURES IN THE NATION’S CAPITAL, 1941-1945 BY Cynthia Gueli ABSTRACT Washington, D.C. functioned as America’s central military and political command post during World War II. Among the newcomers flooding into the city to support the war effort were tens of thousands of women eager to become Government Girls, Army WACs, Navy WAVES, Women Marines, and Coast Guard SPARS. These members of the "army on the Potomac" enjoyed newfound employment opportunities and social freedom but also faced an incredible housing shortage, gender and racial prejudice, and an urban infrastructure unfit to meet the demands of the city’s frenetically expanding needs. This dissertation places women at the center of Washington, D.C.’s World War II story and allows the reader to appreciate the little known efforts of home front female government and military workers as well as to understand the complex social, cultural, and gender interplay occurring in the “first city of the world.” It explores the experiences that Government Girls and servicewomen had, the opportunities presented to them, and the problems they encountered. It examines how and why a community of women developed in Washington during ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the war; it analyzes the social conflicts in which Government Girls were involved and the social and economic pressures their presence created on others. It explores how the women who relocated to Washington developed wartime identities that distinguished them from peacetime workers and helped create a vibrant, if short-lived, professional network of women. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The intellectual guidance and friendship of many individuals made the research and writing of this dissertation possible. My greatest debt is to my advisor Peter Kuznick. Peter read, commented on, and discussed several drafts with great care. Another wealth of gratitude goes to my other committee members, Valerie French and Laura Kamoie, who were patient, critical, and encouraging. The advice and friendship of all three exceptional and generous historians at every stage have been invaluable. It has been a true pleasure to work with them. Several archivists and librarians lent me their time and assistance. Individuals at the Washingtoniana Room at the Martin Luther King, Jr. Library and the Historical Society of Washington were especially helpful. John Taylor at the National Archives and Records Administration was gracious with his suggestions, referrals, and lunchtime chats. Kate Scott and Britta K. Granrud at Women in Military Service of America graciously allowed me to use their interview collections, files, and facilities. And the cooperation and candor of the women and men of the “Greatest Generation,” who so willingly shared their experiences with me, were essential to the writing of this dissertation. My utmost thanks are reserved for my family. I could not have completed this project without the enthusiasm and love of Alberta, Charlie, Charles, Lisa, iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Thomas, Tom, and Watson. They supported me unconditionally in this as well as every endeavor I undertake. v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...................................................................................... vii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................1 2. THE WAY THEY WERE: WASHINGTON, D.C. AT THE START OF THE W A R ......................................................................29 3. A WOMAN’S WORK IS NEVER DONE: WOMEN’S WARTIME EMPLOYMENT............................................................... 53 4. THERE’S NO PLACE LIKE HOME: WARTIME HOUSING IN THE NATION’S CAPITAL............................................................ 81 5. ALL WORK AND NO PLAY...: SOCIAL LIFE IN WARTIME WASHINGTON............................................................. 116 6. GLAMOUR, ROMANCE, AND SUPERPOWERS: THE GOVERNMENT GIRL IN POPULAR CULTURE.......................... 154 7. GOVERNMENT GIRLS NO MORE: LIFE AFTER WORLD WAR II.............................................................................................. 182 8. CONCLUSION................................................................................. 207 BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................... 216 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ARC American Red Cross Oral History Collection GWU Gellman Library Special Collections, George Washington University, HSW Historical Society of Washington HU Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University MLK Martin Luther King, Jr. Library, Washingtoniana Division MBCH National Archives of Black Women’s History- Mary McLeod Bethune Council House NARA National Archives and Records Administration WHA Washington Housing Association WIMSA Women in Military Service of America World War II Oral History Collection vii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION “Apparently nothing much has been done to supervise the conduct in hours off duty of the thousands of young girls who have been removed from surveillance of parents and the restraints of family life and turned loose in the city.”1 “Girls on the Loose,” Washington Post, 1944 A World War II era Washington Post article titled “Girls on the Loose” deplored the behavior of the capital city’s young, female war workers. The reporter felt that the women, who had come from all over the country to work in government service, were summarily “turned loose in a city swarming with...temptations and dangers” too great for their highly suggestible, naive natures to resist. They stayed out late, frequented clubs and bars, engaged in promiscuous sex, spent their money on luxuries, and brought chaos to venerable Washington. This “tragedy” stemmed both from parents who did not adequately prepare their daughters for life in the big city and federal agencies that did not properly warn prospective “Government Girls” about wartime conditions in Washington. The article offered no solutions or hope for the “very ugly situation” local officials now faced.2 Although the newspaper’s interpretation of female war workers’ behavior was extreme, concerns regarding the influx of Government 1 “Girls on the Loose,” Washington Post, October 14, 1944, 4. 2 Ibid. 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 Girls into the nation’s capital had begun at the onset of the war and grew over its duration. Who were these women who generated such strong reactions? What were they doing in Washington? And did their conduct truly warrant the label of “loose?” If, as the article suggested, the city’s female war workers spiraled out of control, did living independently in Washington result in the shattering of familial and familiar prewar social norms? During World War II, Washington, D.C. operated as America’s central command post for far-flung military action and domestic war production and mobilization. Decisions made in small, cramped city offices affected not only the entire nation but the