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The 1945 Black Wac Strike at Ft. Devens DISSERTATION Presented

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The 1945 Black Wac Strike at Ft. Devens DISSERTATION Presented The 1945 Black Wac Strike at Ft. Devens DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Sandra M. Bolzenius Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2013 Dissertation Committee: Professor Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, Advisor Professor Susan Hartmann Professor Peter Mansoor Professor Tiyi Morris Copyright by Sandra M. Bolzenius 2013 Abstract In March 1945, a WAC (Women’s Army Corps) detachment of African Americans stationed at Ft. Devens, Massachusetts organized a strike action to protest discriminatory treatment in the Army. As a microcosm of military directives and black women’s assertions of their rights, the Ft. Devens strike provides a revealing context to explore connections between state policy and citizenship during World War II. This project investigates the manner in which state policies reflected and reinforced rigid distinctions between constructed categories of citizens, and it examines the attempts of African American women, who stood among the nation’s most marginalized persons, to assert their rights to full citizenship through military service. The purpose of this study is threefold: to investigate the Army’s determination to strictly segment its troops according to race and gender in addition to its customary rank divisions; to explore state policies during the war years from the vantage point of black women; and to recognize the agency, experiences, and resistance strategies of back women who enlisted in the WAC during its first years. The Ft. Devens incident showcases a little known, yet extraordinary event of the era that features the interaction between black enlisted women and the Army’s white elite in accordance with standard military protocol. This protocol demanded respect all who wore the uniform, albeit within a force segregated by gender, ii race, and rank. It is this conflict that gave rise to one of World War II’s most publicized court-martials, the black Wac strike at Ft. Devens. iii Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to African American servicewomen who have waged “Triple- V” campaigns for themselves, their communities, and the nation. iv Vita 1977................................................................Bishop Watterson High School 1987................................................................B.S. Education, Ohio State University 2004................................................................M.A. History, Ohio State University 2013 to present ..............................................Graduate Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University Fields of Study Major Field: History Minor Fields: African American History; Modern United States History v Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Vita ...................................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... vi List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgments............................................................................................................ viii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1. The Army Diversifies ...................................................................................... 28 Chapter 2. Introduction to the WAC ................................................................................. 73 Chapter 3. The Problems of Placing Black Wacs ........................................................... 116 Chapter 4. Wacs Take a Stand ........................................................................................ 165 Chapter 5. The Strike ...................................................................................................... 199 Chapter 6. Trial and Verdict ........................................................................................... 238 Chapter 7. The Civilian Reaction.................................................................................... 286 Chapter 8. Mutinous Behavior ........................................................................................ 333 Chapter 9. Dissemblance through Military Protocol ...................................................... 377 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 430 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 471 vi List of Tables Table 1. Comparison of white and black Wacs' AGCT Scores, Ft. Devens, April 17, 1945 ......................................................................................................................................... 141 Table 2. Comparison of White Wac and Black Wac Assignments, March 9, 1945 ...... 186 vii Acknowledgments This dissertation’s journey has been unusually lengthy as other journeys, far from Ohio State University, have waylaid its completion for over a decade. Consequently, this project has required the sustained faith of others in it and in me. Three persons in particular have stood this test of time. Without them, this dissertation would not have been possible. Professor Susan Hartmann has been there for me since the beginning of my graduate studies and is largely responsible for my interest in the strike at Ft. Devens. I first learned of the incident through her book The Home Front and Beyond in which she laid important groundwork for further studies of women in the military. During the research phase of this project, I most enjoyed sharing with her each new breakthrough interview and exciting archival find. Susan read numerous versions of my manuscript, including those written during my breaks from the university and after her recent retirement. I am grateful for her insight and guidance, many wonderful dinner conversations, and her willingness to be part of this project every step of the way. Likewise, I am indebted to Professor Judy Tzu-Chun Wu and her stalwart commitment to the completion of this project. Her incisive commentaries were invaluable to managing, among other aspects of this dissertation, the multiple-identity contours so crucial to the story. Additionally, the independent graduate writing groups she sponsored set a needed pace for my progress and ensured numerous critical assessments for each chapter. I am grateful to Judy for supporting me and being such a terrific advisor after Susan’s retirement. She is without a doubt a first rate scholar and mentor. As an Early Modern European historian, Geoffrey Parker’s primary field of study may seem worlds apart from viii my own, yet his contributions to this twentieth-century American story have been essential. Having read earlier drafts, he shared his celebrated knowledge of constructing historical narratives through delightful conversations--occasionally spiced with subtle advice on moving forward. From the start, Geoffrey believed in this project, and he believed in my desire to complete it. He nudged me to this end, or, as we have often said, “he made me do it.” I am most grateful to these three Ohio State professors, mentors, and friends for their unwavering support, generous time, inimitable expertise, and patience in this endeavor. I also greatly benefitted from a host of other professors at Ohio State University. Professor Tiyi Morris emphasized the theoretical foundations of African American women’s history that proved invaluable to my analysis, and Professor Peter Mansoor alerted me to intricacies of military history that I would have otherwise overlooked. I would like to thank them for their dedication to this project as members of my dissertation committee and for the critical direction they provided. Additionally, Paula Baker and Hassan Jeffries guided my foundational studies through essential readings and discussions. Birgitte Soland, Stephanie Shaw, and Lilia Fernandez aided the development of the history of the Ft. Devens Wac strike through scholarly commentaries and personal encouragement. To these and other professors, including Mark Grimsley and Kevin Boyle, I am profoundly grateful. My graduate student colleagues also have been supremely supportive. Whether during seminars or independent writing groups a number of them have provided crucial feedback of my work. Thanks to Aaron George, Peggy Solic, Adrienne Winans, Jeffrey Vernon, Leticia Wiggins, Delia Fernandez, Andrew Skabelund, Liz Perego, Brandy ix Thomas, and many others who diligently spent hours reading hours reading lengthy drafts of unpolished chapters. I also extend my appreciation to Joseph Arena, Keishia Lai, Marcus Nevius, John Brown, Reyna Esquivel-King, Noel Foster, and Joel Higley. Their professional interest in my work and personal camaraderie have greatly enhanced this journey. I also owe a debt of gratitude to those whose personal accounts of the Wacs who served during World War II have uniquely enriched the narrative. Anna Morrison, one
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