Activityinduced Dental Modification in Holocene Siberian

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 000:000–000 (2010)

Activity-Induced Dental Modiﬁcation in Holocene Siberian Hunter-Fisher-Gatherers

Andrea Waters-Rist,1* Vladimir I. Bazaliiskii,2 Andrzej Weber,3 Olga I. Goriunova,2 and M. Anne Katzenberg1

1Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2N-1N4 2Department of Archaeology and Ethnography, Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk, Russia, 664003 3Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, T6G-2H4

KEY WORDS dental anthropology; occlusal grooves; subsistence; ﬁshing; Central Asia

ABSTRACT The use of teeth as tools provides clues tion in the distribution of grooves by sex: grooves are to past subsistence patterns and cultural practices. Five found predominately in females, except at the Late Neo- Holocene period hunter-fisher-gatherer mortuary sites lithic-Bronze Age river site of Ust’-Ida I where grooves from the south-western region of Lake Baikal, Siberia, are found exclusively in males. Occlusal grooves were Russian Federation, are observed for activity-induced cast using polyvinylsiloxane and maxillary canine dental modification (AIDM) to further characterize their impressions were examined by scanning electron micros- adaptive regimes. Grooves on the occlusal surfaces of copy (SEM) to determine striation patterns. Variation in teeth are observed in 25 out of 123 individuals (20.3%) striae orientation suggests that a variety of activities, and were most likely produced during the processing of and/or different manufacturing techniques, were fibers from plants and animals, for making items such involved in groove production. Overall, the variability in as nets and cordage. Regional variation in the frequency occlusal groove frequency, sex and regional distribution, of individuals with occlusal grooves is found in riverine and microscopic striae patterns, points to the multiplic- versus lakeshore sites. This variation suggests that pro- ity of activities and ways in which people used their duction of material culture items differed, perhaps in mouths and teeth in cultural activities. Am J Phys relation to different fishing practices. There is also varia- Anthropol 000:000–000, 2010. VC 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The primary function of teeth is to process food. (the Cis-Baikal, Fig. 2). Among ancient Cis-Baikal popu- Humans also sometimes use their teeth in the produc- lations Link (1999; p 61) first documented the presence tion of cultural items. Such use may result in modifica- of occlusal grooves, noting that ‘‘the grooves, 1.0–2.0 mm tions to the teeth, termed activity-induced dental modifi- in width, give the appearance of being caused by repeti- cation (AIDM). AIDM has been documented in past pop- tious sliding of a thin thread of sinew over the tooth.’’ ulations from all over the world, with archaeological and The location of the sites, near Lake Baikal and the ethnographic data being used to infer possible causal Angara River, suggests that fishing was an important activities (e.g., Cybulski, 1974; Schultz, 1977; Merbs, subsistence activity. Archaeologically recovered fish- 1983; Blakely and Beck, 1984; Larsen, 1985; Larsen hooks, fish lures, fish effigies, and bone and antler har- et al., 1988; Lukacs and Pastor, 1988; Cruwys et al., poons, support this (Okladnikov, 1950, 1955; Medvedev, 1992; Molleson, 1994; Link, 1999; Minozzi et al., 2003; 1969; Goriunova, 2003; Novikov and Goriunova, 2005). Bonfiglioli et al., 2004; Erdal, 2008; Scott and Jolie, Stable isotope studies provide very strong evidence of 2008). One AIDM is the formation of grooves on the oc- the importance of fish in the diet (Katzenberg and clusal surfaces of teeth (Fig. 1). These have been associ- ated with using the mouth to soften and hold fibers1 in the production of baskets, mats, fishing and fowling nets, and various types of cordage including rope and yarn (Cybulski, 1974; Schultz, 1977; Larsen, 1985; Grant sponsor: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Larsen et al., 1988; Molleson, 1994; Minozzi et al., 2003; (SSHRC) of Canada; Grant number: 767-2005-1734; Grant sponsor: Scott and Jolie, 2008). For example, Schultz (1977) docu- Major Collaborative Research Initiative (MCRI) Program; Grant mented occlusal grooves in all adult members of a pre- numbers: 410-2000-0479, 412-2005-1004; Grant sponsor: Northern historic Californian fishing community, noting that while Scientific Training Program, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. a wide variety of activities could have produced the grooves, the preparation of plant fiber cordage for fishing *Correspondence to: Andrea Waters-Rist, Department of Archaeol- nets was likely involved. ogy, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, In this article, we present data on occlusal grooves Alberta, Canada, T2N-1N4. E-mail: [email protected] from prehistoric hunter-fisher-gatherers from the western Lake Baikal region of Siberia, Russian Federation Received 21 August 2009; accepted 3 March 2010

1The term ﬁber is used to indicate the thin, elongated, threadlike DOI 10.1002/ajpa.21313 strand of a plant, while cordage is several strands of ﬁber twisted Published online in Wiley InterScience together (Edholm and Wilder, 1991). (www.interscience.wiley.com).

VC 2010 WILEY-LISS, INC. 2 A. WATERS-RIST ET AL. Weber, 1999; Weber et al., 2002; Katzenberg et al., We will demonstrate that activity-induced occlusal 2009). The use of nets has been suggested by Losey et grooves provide additional evidence for subsistence- al. (2008) based on zooarchaeological analysis of the size related tasks and the production of material culture in of perch (Perca ﬂuviatilis) bones recovered from a habi- Cis-Baikal hunter-ﬁsher-gatherer groups. An analysis of tation site on the western shore of Lake Baikal. Terres- the characteristics and prevalence of occlusal grooves trial mammals such as roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), may suggest differences in adaptive regimes among red deer (Cervus elaphus), and moose (Alces alces) were groups, particularly between riverine and lakeshore also important as a source of materials for clothing and sites, and among sites from earlier versus later time tools, in addition to providing food (Kozhov, 1963). The periods. In addition, differences in the form and fre- Baikal seal (Phoca sibericus) was also hunted using har- quency of occlusal grooves between males and females poons. may provide insight into the sexual division of labor.

MATERIALS AND MATERIALS Background Lake Baikal is located in south-eastern Siberia between 52 and 56 degrees north latitude and 103 and 110 degrees east longitude (Fig. 2). It is the world’s deep- est freshwater lake (Kozhov, 1963). It is situated within a southern boreal forest (taiga) biome, with a continental climate of long cold winters and short but relatively warm summers (Kozhov, 1963). Lake Baikal is covered in ice by mid-winter, except at its outlet into the Angara River which remains free from ice year round. The current culture history model for the Cis-Baikal proposes that from around 8000 to 3500 calibrated years before present (calBP), the area was inhabited by two major groups (Weber, 1995; Weber et al., 2002, 2005, Fig. 1. Occlusal grooves in the mandibular incisors and left 2008; Weber and McKenzie, 2003). The earlier group ﬁrst premolar. Lokomotiv-Raisovet 15-2, F, 35–50 years. (commonly referred to as the Kitoi) was present from the

Fig. 2. Map of Lake Baikal showing the ﬁve mortuary sites and the city of Irkutsk.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology DENTAL MODIFICATION IN SIBERIAN HUNTER-GATHERERS 3

TABLE 1. Culture history model of the Angara, South Baikal area, Cis-Baikal (after Weber et al., 2005) Period Late Mesolithic Early Neolithic Middle Neolithic Late Neolithic Bronze Age Mortuary tradition(s) n/a Kitoi and other Hiatus Isakovo-Serovo Glaskovo Average time 8,800–8,000 8,000–7,000/6,800 7,000/6,800– 6,000/5,800–5,200 5,200/5,000–4,000 period (calBP) 6,000/5,800 Mortuary sitesa Shamanka II Ust’-Ida I Lokomotiv Khuzhir-Nuge XIV Kurma XI a Plotted according to AMS radiocarbon dates for the majority of graves.

TABLE 2. Percentage of observable and unobservablea teeth for each site Siteb Intact Postmortem absence Ante-mortem tooth loss Too worn Element/tooth damaged Total Lok Includedc 69.6 8.9 3.3 9.6 8.6 100.0 Excluded 73.5 9.5 2.7 9.7 4.6 100.0 Sha Included 69.8 8.7 5.6 7.4 8.5 100.0 Excluded 70.8 8.8 4.2 7.5 8.7 100.0 KU11 Included 58.5 14.7 0 14.7 12.1 100.0 Excluded 66.3 16.3 0 16.8 0.6 100.0 UI 1 61.2 19.4 6.1 3.6 9.7 100.0 KN14 72.0 14.5 0.9 2.7 9.9 100.0 a Observable teeth are listed as intact. Unobservable teeth include those lost postmortem and antemortem, those that are too worn (see text), and those where the maxillary or mandibular element is damaged or missing, or the tooth is damaged or congenitally absent. b Lok 5 Lokomotiv; Sha 5 Shamanka II; KU11 5 Kurma XI; UI 1 5 Ust’-Ida 1; KN14 5 Khuzhir-Nuge XIV. c Included 5 including individuals with grooves and incomplete dental quadrants; Excluded 5 excluding individuals with grooves and incomplete dental quadrants (affecting Shamanka II, Lokomotiv and Kurma XI only).

Late Mesolithic to Early Neolithic period,2 from 8,800 ground or bedrock, and lack internal or surface architec- to 7,000/6,800 calBP. The later groups (commonly ture. Red ochre was extensively used to cover pits and referred to as the Isakovo-Serovo-Glaskovo) were present burials. Common grave assemblage items include com- from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age, from 6,000/ posite fishhooks of the ‘‘Kitoi’’ type, pyrophlite and 5,800 to 4,000 calBP (Table 1). Ancient DNA (aDNA) mother-of-pearl beads, marmot canines, flint and shale analysis have shown that Early Neolithic peoples from projectile points, various tools of nephrite, bone and ant- the Lokomotiv site are genetically distinct from Late Ne- ler, calcite rings, and boar tusk pendants (Bazaliiskii, olithic-Bronze Age peoples at Ust’-Ida I (Mooder et al., 2003; Bazaliiskii and Savelyev, 2003). 2006). The region did experience climate change during The site of Ust’-Ida I (n 5 14) includes interments the Middle Holocene, but it is not clear that this change from both the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age, and the was of a sufficient magnitude to cause a shift in the dis- individuals analyzed in this study from the sites of tribution of plant and animal communities (Bush, 2004, Khuzhir-Nuge XIV (n 5 21) and Kurma XI (n 5 8) are 2005; White, 2006). Bronze Age. The Late Neolithic-Bronze Age mortuary sites are characterized by the use of dolomite slabs and cobbles to line and cover grave pits (Weber, 1995). Evi- Archaeological sites dence of fire in the grave pits (i.e., charcoal, burnt bone, Skeletal remains of individuals from five mortuary and earth staining) is also common (Weber, 1995). Regu- sites dating from the Early Neolithic, Late Neolithic, lar grave inclusions include ceramics, flint, bone and and Bronze Age are analyzed in this study. AMS radio- antler arrow/spear points, polished schist or nephrite carbon dates of skeletal material from the majority of adzes and knives, harpoons, and deer canine pendants; the graves at all sites, as well as mortuary characteris- while fishhooks are very rare. Metal artifacts begin to tics, are used to assign graves into temporal periods. appear in Bronze Age burials (Weber, 1995). Three of the sites are situated on the lakeshore: Sha- manka II, Khuzhir-Nuge XIV, and Kurma XI. Two sites Skeletal sample are located along the Angara River: Lokomotiv and Ust’- Ida I are located 60 and 200 km, respectively, from the Representation of skeletal elements and preservation lakeshore (Fig. 2). vary considerably among the five sites. To control for dif- The burials from the sites of Lokomotiv (n 5 26) and ferential cemetery inclusion, preservation, and recovery, Shamanka II (n 5 54) analyzed in this study are Early standardized criteria were established for inclusion of Neolithic.3 Early Neolithic grave pits were dug into the individuals in this study. Specifically, dental remains had to include, minimally, a combination of left and right teeth to form a complete maxillary or mandibular dental 2In Siberia the term ‘‘Neolithic’’ indicates the appearance of pot- quadrant (the individual has to have at least one of each tery, the bow and arrow, and stone polishing techniques, and ends tooth, from the central incisor through to the second with the introduction of metallurgy (Khlobystin, 1978). molar). This method undoubtedly reduced the number of 3Interments from Shamanka II and Lokomotiv determined to be observable individuals from each site however it is nec- from the Bronze Age are excluded from analysis. essary in so far as it can reduce comparative biases.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 4 A. WATERS-RIST ET AL. Four individuals (from three sites) who did not meet this criterion exhibited an occlusal groove.4 In the con- % text of trying to provide the maximum amount of infor- with

mation on who has occlusal grooves we argue it would grooves occlusal Individuals be a mistake to exclude these individuals. In doing so we n would omit the only two older adults (501 years) with occlusal grooves which would misleadingly skew the age distribution data because of the correlation between antemortem tooth loss and advancing age. To assess the amount of bias that may be introduced by including these individuals we have conducted all of our statistical Total analysis twice, in one instance including them, and in the other excluding them. In no case does their exclusion cause a shift in the signiﬁcance of a test above or below the 0.05 level. We also calculated the percentages of % observable and unobservable teeth (due to antemortem

loss, postmortem loss, advanced wear, and missing/dam- n aged sockets or teeth) including and excluding these individuals. These data are presented in Table 2 which shows there is only a minor reduction in the number of observable teeth with these four individuals included. As the distribution of sex-based, regional-based, tooth-type, % Old and groove-width data for these four individuals is not adult ‘‘Adult’’ b markedly skewed from that of individuals with occlusal n grooves and complete dental quadrants (see footnote 4 for more information) it is not surprising that their inclusion/exclusion does not meaningfully change the

summary or signiﬁcance statistics (except for the change % to the age distribution data as noted above). We there- adult fore include these four individuals with occlusal grooves Middle n but incomplete dental quadrants in our analysis. In total years. 2,527 teeth from 123 adult (181 years of age) were 1 18

observed. 5

Table 3 presents a summary of observable individuals Khuzhir-Nuge XIV. 5 %

and the number of individuals with grooves from each and number and percentage of individuals with occlusal grooves site. At Shamanka II excellent preservation and recovery adult Young of skeletal elements permitted observation of our largest 123) n sample, containing 54 individuals (37 males, 14 females, 5 and 3 individuals for whom sex could not be deter- years; ‘‘Adult’’ mined). At Lokomotiv 70 graves containing over 124 1 individuals were excavated, however due to a large num- 50 Ust’-Ida 1; KN14 5 ber of missing teeth (both antemortem and postmortem % 5 loss) only 26 individuals could be included in this analysis (14 males, 10 females, and 2 individuals for whom sex could not be determined). At Ust’-Ida I nine individuals are radiocarbon-dated to Late Neolithic period, four n are Bronze Age, and the date of one skeleton could not be determined, for a total of 14 individuals; 11 males and 3 females. Small sample size prevents the separa- Kurma XI; UI 1 5

tion of the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age period skele- 35–49 years; Old adult % tons into different categories. Preservation was generally 5 Sex Age-at-death n 4In individual 17-1 from Kurma XI (male, old adult) an occlusal groove is observed in a mandibular canine (width 3.1 mm), however substantial postmortem damage to the maxilla and mandible pre-

vented observation of any other teeth besides a mandibular third TABLE 3. Summary of observable individuals (n molar. In individual 44-1 from Shamanka II (male, old adult) occlu- Shamanka II; KU11 % sal grooves are observed in the maxillary left second incisor (width 5 0.8 mm) and right canine (width 1.8 mm), however all maxillary molars were lost antemortem with the sockets showing substantial Male Female Undetermined n resorption. In individual 31-1 from Lokomotiv (sex undetermined, 18–34 years; Middle adult

middle adult) an occlusal groove is observed in the maxillary left 5 ﬁrst premolar (width 1.3 mm), however all maxillary central and lateral incisors were lost antemortem with the sockets showing sub- Lokomotiv; Sha stantial resorption. In individual 37-1 from Lokomotiv (female, a young adult) an occlusal groove is observed in the mandibular left 5 Site

canine (width 0.9 mm), however the mandibular central incisors are and % are the number and percentage of observable individuals. Lok Young adult a b absent postmortem. LokShaUI 1KU11KN14Total/Average 14 83 37n 11 53.8 6 67.5 15 68.5 78.6 75.0 71.4 10 29 14 38.5 23.6 25.9 3 2 0 21.4 25.0 2 0.0 11 3 0 0 7.7 6 8.9 5.6 0.0 0.0 10 28.6 64 34 38.5 52.0 63.0 5 4 11 35.7 12 40.0 52.4 43 17 46.2 35.0 31.5 6 2 6 42.9 1 5 25.0 28.6 1 3.8 4.1 1.8 1 1 1 7.1 12.5 11 3 4.5 2 11.5 8.9 3.7 2 1 3 14.3 12.5 14.3 123 26 54 14 25 8 21 9 9 20.3 34.6 5 16.7 2 0 35.7 25.0 0.0

American Journal of Physical Anthropology DENTAL MODIFICATION IN SIBERIAN HUNTER-GATHERERS 5

Fig. 3. SEM of occlusal groove in the right maxillary canine Fig. 5. SEM of occlusal groove in the right maxillary canine (magnification 3108). Shamanka II 57-2, F, 35–50 years. Groove (magnification 3417). Ust’-Ida I 12-1, M, 35–50 years. Groove runs diagonally, from the upper right to the lower left (labial- runs horizontally (labial surface on the right). mesial surface on the top-left). et al., 2005; Thomson, 2006). In the one case of discord- ance between the morphological and molecular sex determination, the aDNA result was given precedence.5 For all observable individuals, 83 are determined to be male or probable male, 29 are female or probable female, and the sex of 11 individuals could not be determined (Table 3). There are fewer females than males at all five sites which may be due to actual demographic factors or dif- ferential inclusion in cemeteries. Sixty-four individuals are determined to be young adult (18–34 years), 43 are middle adult (35–49 years), 5 are old adult (501 years), and the age of 11 individuals could not be determined beyond ‘‘adult’’ (181 years; Table 3). Dental wear was included in the original assessment of age for seven individuals of poorer preservation (Lieverse, 2005; Lieverse et al., n/d). To exclude the potential bias of using dental wear to determine age in this study, age for these individuals was reassessed omitting dental wear as a criterion. Reassessment did not result in any changes in age Fig. 4. SEM of occlusal groove in the right maxillary canine category placement. (magnification 3108). Lokomotiv-Raisovet 15-2, F, 35–50 years. Groove runs vertically, from the upper middle-left to the bottom middle-right (labial-mesial surface on the top-right). Dental attrition good, but a small number of skeletons were in poorer Dental attrition was scored using the Smith (1984) condition (Link, 1999). Twenty-one Bronze Age skeletons system for incisors, canines, and premolars (maximum from Khuzhir-Nuge XIV contained the requisite dental score 8); and the Scott (1979) system for molars (maxi- remains to be included in this study; 15 males, no mum score per quadrant 10). Differences in dental attri- females, and 6 individuals for whom sex could not be tion rates among sites can skew the comparability of determined. Preservation at this site was quite poor (Lie- data, particularly if one site contains individuals with verse, 2007). Finally, Kurma XI is the smallest cemetery much higher wear scores, and thus fewer teeth and/or of the five included herein. Eight Bronze Age individu- fewer occlusal grooves as they may ‘‘worn-away.’’ The als, six males and two females, contained the requisite rate of dental attrition has been found to be generally dental remains to be included. Preservation was vari- similar for the sites considered in this analysis (Lieverse able, with deeper graves yielding better preserved ele- et al., 2007; Waters-Rist, 2004, 2005, 2006; see Lieverse ments. et al., 2007 for information on differences in dental attrition patterning). By 30 years of age teeth are already Sex and age determination quite worn: incisors and canines are usually at wear stages 5 to 6. The lingual surfaces of the maxillary Sex and age determination are based on the standards molars, and buccal surfaces of the mandibular molars, set out in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), with examina- are at wear stages 7–9 in the M1 and 4–6 in the M2. To tion of primarily pelvic and cranial traits, with as many reduce the effect of advanced wear on our analysis, once techniques as possible being applied to each individual (Faccia 2004, 2005, 2006; Lieverse, 2005; Lieverse et al., 5Individual 4-1 from Lokomotiv was determined to be female via n/d). Seven skeletons with AIDM have yielded aDNA standard morphological techniques, and male via molecular sexing molecular sex determinations (Mooder, 2004; Mooder techniques.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 6 A. WATERS-RIST ET AL.

TABLE 4. Occlusal groove width mean and S.D. by tooth type and time period Early Neolithic Late Neolithic-Bronze Overall mean Tooth mean (mm) Age mean (mm) (mm) Maxilla I1 0.8 6 0.4 (n 5 5) 1.1 (n 5 1) 0.9 6 0.4 (n 5 6) I2 0.9 6 0.3 (n 5 7) 1.3 (n 5 1) 0.9 60.3 (n 5 8) C 1.1 6 0.5 (n 5 8) 1.8 6 0.7 (n 5 2) 1.2 6 0.6 (n 5 10) PM1 2.2 6 1.3 (n 5 2) n/a 2.2 6 1.3 (n 5 2) PM2 n/a n/a n/a M1 0.9 (n 5 1) n/a 0.9 (n 5 1) M2 n/a n/a n/a All maxillary grooves (P 5 0.11)a 1.1 6 0.6 (n 5 23) 1.5 6 0.5 (n 5 4) 1.1 6 0.7 (n 5 27) Mandible I1 1.2 6 0.8 (n 5 3) n/a 1.2 6 0.8 (n 5 3) I2 1.8 6 0.8 (n 5 4) 1.2 6 0.5 (n 5 2) 1.6 6 0.7 (n 5 6) C 1.4 6 0.7 (n 5 10) 2.0 6 0.8 (n 5 4) 1.5 6 0.7 (n 5 14) PM1 1.4 6 0.3 (n 5 5) n/a 1.4 6 0.3 (n 5 5) PM2 n/a n/a n/a M1 n/a 2.1 (n 5 1) 2.1 (n 5 1) M2 n/a 2.8 (n 5 1) 2.8 (n 5 1) All mandibular grooves (P 5 0.20) 1.4 6 0.6 (n 5 22) 1.8 6 0.7 (n 5 8) 1.5 6 0.7 (n 5 30) All maxillary and mandibular 1.2 6 0.6 (n 5 45) 1.7 6 0.6 (n 5 12) 1.3 6 0.7 (n 5 57) grooves (P 5 0.02) a P values calculated to compare maxillary, mandibular and all groove widths between the Early Neolithic and Late Neolithic- Bronze Age. P-value based on t-test for categories where n 10; Mann-Whitney U prob[ [Z] for n \ 10.

Fig. 6. Percentage of affected teeth as a function of the total number of teeth, for maxillary and mandibular I1, I2, C, and PM1. wear scores reached a 7 for nonmolars, or 8 on two or resolution impression to be produced. Select polyvinylsi- more quadrants of a molar, a tooth was no longer consid- loxane impressions were given a conductive gold-sputter ered observable and was not included in the final count. coating and examined by a Philips/FEI E-scanning elec- As a result there are few older adults (501 years) tron microscope (magnification range 25–4503) to deter- included in this study (n 5 5). mine the appearance and orientation of occlusal groove striations (Figs. 3–5). Dental impressions and SEM analysis Statistics A high-resolution silicone-based (polyvinylsiloxane) impression was made of every groove, based on the Ben- Parametric and nonparametric statistics are used to yon (1987) impression technique. Colte`ne Putty C was evaluate frequency and width data among sites accord- used to produce an initial base support mould. Once this ing to location, sex, and time period. A t-test for inde- hardened, Colte`ne President C Light Body dental impres- pendent samples is used if there is an approximately sion material was introduced into the mould and the equal variance between comparative groups (there is no tooth was pressed back into the mould allowing a high- significant difference between the width variance of the

American Journal of Physical Anthropology DENTAL MODIFICATION IN SIBERIAN HUNTER-GATHERERS 7 two temporal groups, or the two regional groups as grooves 1.1 6 0.7 mm, mandibular grooves 1.5 6 0.7 determined by an F-test (P 5 1.06 and 1.14, respec- mm; P 5 0.009). tively). A Mann-Whitney U test is used to compare data At Khuzhir-Nuge XIV no individuals have occlusal that have a small sample size (n \ 10). Finally, a Pear- grooves. At the other four sites 17–36% of individuals son’s chi-square test for independence is used to assess have occlusal grooves (Table 3). Twenty-three percent of the significance of frequency data by sex and region. individuals from the Early Neolithic sites and 16% of individuals from the Late Neolithic-Bronze Age sites have occlusal grooves. The difference in width between all Early Neolithic (1.2 6 0.6 mm; n 5 45) and all Late RESULTS Neolithic-Bronze Age (1.7 6 0.6 mm; n 5 12) grooves is Occlusal grooves statistically significant (P 5 0.02; Table 4). With the exception of the mandibular lateral incisors, grooves in Twenty-five individuals from four sites have occlusal the Early Neolithic teeth are thinner than grooves in the grooves. Several individuals have more than one groove, Late Neolithic-Bronze Age teeth. sometimes crossing more than one tooth; a total of 51 oc- Figure 6 shows the percentage of teeth with occlusal clusal grooves, affecting 57 teeth, were documented. In grooves as a function of the total number of observable total, 20.3% of individuals have occlusal grooves. Occlu- teeth (note, Khuzhir-Nuge XIV is not included in this fig- sal grooves run in a primarily linguolabial direction, and ure because no individuals have grooves). The highest usually appear as if they are ‘‘radiating out from the frequency of affected teeth is 15.8%, for mandibular can- oral cavity’’ (Erdal, 2008). In three cases (affecting four ines from Ust’-Ida I. Ust’-Ida I also has the highest pro- teeth) the occlusal groove runs in a mesiodistal direction portions of affected teeth for the other tooth categories across the maxillary central incisors (n 5 2) or mandibu- in which grooving is present (12.5% for the maxillary lar incisors (n 5 1). Grooves are roughly evenly distrib- first incisors and canines, and 10.5% for the mandibular uted between the maxilla (25 grooves affecting 27 teeth) second incisors). Lokomotiv has the next highest propor- and the mandible (26 grooves affecting 30 teeth). tions of affected teeth, at 12.8% for the mandibular can- Grooves are most common on the mandibular canines ines, 11.1% for the maxillary first incisors, and 10.9% for (n 5 14), followed by maxillary canines (n 5 10), maxil- the maxillary second incisors. The frequencies of affected lary lateral incisors (n 5 8), maxillary central incisors teeth at Shamanka II are the lowest, with a range from (n 5 6), and mandibular lateral incisors (n 5 6), and 1.3% (for the maxillary central incisors) to 5.0% (for the mandibular first premolars (n 5 5; Table 4). Three maxillary canines). Finally, at Kurma XI the frequency grooves were observed on molars, one each in the of affected maxillary incisors is 8.3%, and 6.3% for the maxillary first molar, mandibular first molar, and man- mandibular canines. Figure 6 illustrates that at the ear- dibular second molar. There are no grooves on the maxil- lier sites of Shamanka II and Lokomotiv almost all tooth lary or mandibular second premolars, or on the maxil- categories have grooving, whereas the range of affected lary second molars. Groove width varies from 0.4 to tooth categories at the later sites of Ust’-Ida I and 3.1 mm, and maxillary grooves are significantly Kurma XI is narrower. This may be due to the overall thinner than mandibular grooves at all sites (maxillary lower number of observable (n 5 216) and affected non- molar teeth (n 5 10) from the later sites. TABLE 5. Distribution of occlusal grooves by sex Table 5 shows the distribution of occlusal grooves by sex. At Shamanka II, Lokomotiv and Kurma XI the rela- Undetermined tive percentage (as a function of the total number of Male Female sex observable teeth) of females with occlusal grooves is Sitea # n %#n %#n % higher than the relative percentage of males with Lok 3 14 21.4 5 10 50.0 1 2 50.0 grooves. Ust’-Ida I is distinctive as only males have oc- Sha 5 37 13.5 3 14 21.4 1 3 33.3 clusal grooves, although the sample of females is small UI 1 5 11 45.5 0 3 0.0 0 0 n/a (n 5 3). The difference in the numbers of males, females, KU XI 1 6 16.7 1 2 50.0 0 0 n/a and individuals of undetermined sex with grooves among KN14 0 15 0.0 0 0 n/a 0 6 0.0 sites is not statistically significant (v2 5 2.698, 2 d.f., P 5 0.260; with individuals of undetermined sex excluded a Lok 5 Lokomotiv; Sha 5 Shamanka II; KU11 5 Kurma XI; v2 5 5 5 5 5 from analysis 2.643, 1 d.f., P 0.104). Males have UI 1 Ust’-Ida 1; KN14 Khuzhir-Nuge XIV; # number of thicker grooves (1.5 6 0.8 mm) than females (1.2 6 0.5 individuals with occlusal grooves; n 5 number of observable individuals. mm), although this difference does not reach statistical

TABLE 6. Occlusal groove mean width and S.D. by sexa and time periodb Male mean (mm) Female mean (mm) P-valuec All grooves 1.5 6 0.8 (n 5 23) 1.2 6 0.5 (n 5 29) 0.07 All EN grooves 1.4 6 0.9 (n 5 14) 1.2 6 0.5 (n 5 28) 0.75 All LN/BA grooves 1.6 6 0.7 (n 5 9) 1.3 (n 5 1) 0.72 All EN maxillary grooves 1.2 6 0.9 (n 5 9) 0.9 6 0.4 (n 5 11) 0.94 All LN/BA maxillary grooves 1.6 6 0.6 (n 5 3) 1.3 (n 51) 1.00 All EN mandibular grooves 1.7 6 0.9 (n 5 5) 1.3 6 0.6 (n 5 17) 0.29 All LN/BA mandibular grooves 1.7 6 0.8 (n 5 6) n/a n/a a table excludes occlusal grooves from individuals of undetermined sex (n 5 2) and all categories exclude molar occlusal groove widths (n 5 3). b EN 5 Early Neolithic; LN/BA 5 Late Neolithic-Bronze Age. c P-value based on t-test for categories where n 10; Mann-Whitney U prob[ [Z] for n \ 10.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8 A. WATERS-RIST ET AL. significance at the 0.05 level (P 5 0.07; Table 6). Table 6 ence in mean mandibular groove width between the presents occlusal groove mean width data by sex accord- lakeshore (1.3 6 0.6 mm, n 5 18) and riverine (1.7 6 0.8 ing to time period. The evaluation of sex-based differen- mm, n 5 10) sites is approaching significance at the 0.5 ces in groove width is limited as there is only one female level (P 5 0.07). with a groove from a Late Neolithic-Bronze Age site. There is a clear association between increasing occlu- Occlusal groove impressions and SEM sal groove prevalence and age, although small sample size prevents statistical analysis of age category data It was possible to successfully examine occlusal groove beyond simple comparative proportions. As a function of impressions directly, without producing a replica or posi- the total number of observable individuals, 7.8% of tive image of the occlusal groove. Through comparison young adults (5/64), 41.9% of middle-aged adults (18/43), with SEM observation of original teeth, Galbany et al. and 40.0% of old adults (2/5) have occlusal grooves. Table (2006) found that negative dental moulds produced with 7 shows the number and frequency of individuals with Colte`ne President C Light Body dental impression mate- occlusal grooves by age category, according to sex, time- rial were highly reliable in replicating enamel surfaces. period, and region. The small increase in the frequency Benyon (1987) found that this technique reproduced of young adults in the Late Neolithic-Bronze Age com- details as small as 0.2 lm, and has a reproduction accu- pared to Early Neolithic sites (28.6% vs. 16.7%), as well racy of 2–3%. In the Cis-Baikal impressions minor crack- as in the riverine compared to lakeshore sites (28.6% vs. ing was present on a few of the surfaces. Cracking may 9.1%), is due to the Ust’-Ida I sample. have been caused by pressure exerted during the removal The difference in the number of individuals with occlu- of the impression from the crown surface, or could be due sal grooves in lakeshore (Shamanka II, Kurma XI and to the slight expansion of the impression caused by heat- Khuzhir-Nuge XIV, 11/83 5 13.3%) compared to riverine ing in the sputter coater (Hillson, 1992) or vacuum in the (Lokomotiv and Ust’-Ida I, 14/40 5 35.0%) sites is highly SEM chamber during observation (Galbany et al., 2006). significant (v2 5 123.000, 1 d.f., P \ 0.001). Lakeshore In no instance did this slight cracking interfere with the and riverine grooves do not have significantly different identification of grooves on the impressions, nor did it mean widths [1.3 6 0.6 mm; (n 5 35) for the lakeshore obscure observation of striation patterns. Casts were sites; 1.4 6 0.7 mm (n 5 19) for the riverine sites; P 5 made in the field where it was not possible to clean the 0.20; Table 8]. However, as seen in Table 8, the differ- teeth with an ultrasonic cleaner prior to impression production, so that small particle inclusions sometimes became incorporated into the cast. These are easy to iden- TABLE 7. Age at death comparison of individuals with occlusal grooves by sex, time period, and region tify (e.g., the globular, white-colored, inclusion in the upper left quadrant of Fig. 4) and did not interfere with Young adult Middle adult Old adult the identification of grooves or striation patterns. (18–34 years) (35–50 years) (501 years) Total Figures 3, 4, and 5 show SEM images of occlusal Male grooves in the maxillary right canines from individuals n 39214from three different mortuary sites (Shamanka II, Loko- % 21.4 64.3 14.3 100.0 motiv, and Ust’-Ida I). In Figure 3 the striae within the Female groove are oriented parallel to the long axis of the n 2709groove. In Figure 4 striae are oriented parallel and per- % 22.2 77.8 0 100.0 pendicular to the long axis of the groove. In Figure 5 Early Neolithic sites striae are predominately oriented parallel to the long n 314118 3 % 16.7 77.8 5.5 100.0 axis of the groove, and the high magnification (417 ) Late Neolithic-Bronze Age sites displays the relatively consistently thin width of striae. n 2417 % 28.6 57.1 14.3 100.0 Interproximal groove Lakeshore Sites n 19111One individual from the site of Shamanka II had an % 9.1 81.8 9.1 100.0 interproximal groove between the right maxillary second Riverine Sites and third molars (Fig. 7). The maximum diameter of the n 49114groove is 6.2 mm (with teeth in occlusion). The groove is % 28.6 64.3 7.1 100.0 2.4 mm in width on the distal side of the M2 and mesial

TABLE 8. Occlusal groove mean width and S.D. by site locationa Lakeshore sites Riverine sites P-valueb All groovesc 1.3 6 0.6 (n 5 35) 1.4 6 0.7 (n 5 19) 0.20 All maxillary grooves 1.2 6 0.7 (n 5 17) 1.1 6 0.4 (n 5 9) 0.94 All mandibular grooves 1.3 6 0.6 (n 5 18) 1.7 6 0.8 (n 5 10) 0.07 All female 1.2 6 0.6 (n 5 19) 1.2 6 0.3 (n 5 10) 0.43 All male 1.3 6 0.7 (n 5 15) 1.7 6 0.9 (n 5 8) 0.32 All female maxillary 0.9 6 0.5 (n 5 7) 1.0 6 0.3 (n 5 5) 0.62 All male maxillary 1.3 6 0.9 (n 5 9) 1.1 6 0.6 (n 5 3) 0.78 All female mandibular 1.3 6 0.7 (n 5 12) 1.3 6 0.2 (n 5 5) 0.96 All male mandibular 1.3 6 0.4 (n 5 6) 2.1 6 0.9 (n 5 5) 0.14 a lakeshore sites are Shamanka II, Kurma XI, and Khuzhir-Nuge XIV; riverine sites are Lokomotiv and Ust’-Ida I. b P-value based on t-test for categories where n 10; Mann-Whitney U prob[[Z] for n \ 10. c all categories exclude molar occlusal groove widths (n 5 3), and female/male categories exclude individuals of unknown sex (n 5 2).

American Journal of Physical Anthropology DENTAL MODIFICATION IN SIBERIAN HUNTER-GATHERERS 9 Other possible materials include the thin surface roots of pine (Picea sylvestris), spruce (Picea obovata), and larch (Larix sibirica); the inner bark strands (or bast) of wil- low (Chosenia arbutifolia), as well as strips of green pop- lar bark (Populus suavolens). Golubchikova et al. (2005) report that modern indigenous people of southern Sibe- ria weave gill nets from thin nettle and hemp fiber, as well as from deer tendons. Animal tendons can be easily formed into a strong, durable lashing material: ‘‘wet’’ (un-dried) sinew is malleable and will form a strong mould upon wrapping as it dries, shrinks, and hardens. Dried sinew can be shredded into individual fibers and formed into strong string ideal for sewing (Edholm and Wilder, 2001). Variation in the microscopic striae of occlusal grooves as revealed by SEM analysis, points to the many ways in which people used their mouths and teeth. Two of the SEM images, from Shamanka II and Ust’-Ida I, show striae that run in a predominately parallel direction to the long axis of the groove, suggesting that material was Fig. 7. Interproximal groove between the maxillary right M2 pulled or slid back-and-forth along the occlusal surface 3 and M . Shamanka II 79-1, PF, 18–34 years. of the tooth (Figs. 3 and 5). Interestingly, the striae in the occlusal groove from Lokomotiv run in a parallel and side of the M3. There is vertical bone loss, a plane type perpendicular fashion to the long axis of the groove, sug- defect, above the M2 and M3. gesting that material was also regularly rotated or twisted (Fig. 4). This may suggest that different material production techniques were used at Lokomotiv, but more DISCUSSION likely simply reflects idiosyncratic behavior. Occlusal groove producing activity The purposes of processed fibers and cordage undoubtedly varied, and would likely have involved weaving bas- Occlusal grooves in Cis-Baikal people were likely kets (particularly for use in berry collection), sewing formed via repeated friction with plant fibers and sinew. clothing, fastening tented housing, tying together sepa- Minozzi et al. (2003) demonstrated that repeated rubbing rate components of various composite tools (such as har- of marsh reed (Typha latifolia)willproduceocclusal poons), constructing snares and fowling nets, fishing grooves in the enamel and dentine using a modern tooth. Lake Baikal and its surrounding rivers (with singular In the Cis-Baikal sites the preponderance of grooves occur fishing line and nets), and in construction of the gear in middle aged adults suggesting that occlusal grooves such as drying lines or racks needed to efficiently pro- formed as a result of many years of repeated activity. cess large quantities of fish. While it is not possible to Cis-Baikal occlusal grooves are similar in both macro- determine the exact purpose(s) of processed fibers and scopic (width and morphology) and microscopic appear- cordage, it is reasonable to follow the example of other ance to occlusal grooves reported from other archaeologi- researchers who have used archaeological, environmen- cal contexts; and in each case, it has been argued that tal, and ethnographic data to suggest primary usages the grooves formed as a result of processing plant and (e.g., Cybulski, 1974; Schultz, 1977; Larsen, 1985; Molle- animal fibers (e.g., Larsen, 1985; Minozzi et al., 2003; son, 1994; Scott and Jolie, 2008). We emphasize the con- Schultz, 1977). This suggests that analogous tasks were tribution of fishing-related activities in occlusal groove responsible for groove formation in the Cis-Baikal teeth. formation as nonindustrialized northern societies are Fibrous plants that grow in the Cis-Baikal region and known to consume a diet derived more from hunting and that may be used to produce cordage include Siberian fishing, with less focus on the gathering of plants (Asch, dogbane (a species of hemp; Apocynum sibiricum) and 1981; Helm, 1981; Alekseenko, 1999). Based upon 229 stinging or thin nettle (Urtica dioica, Urtica camabina; hunter-gatherer groups described in the Ethnographic Kalinovich et al., 2002). Hemp grows readily in the Atlas, Cordain et al. (2000) found that above 40 degrees southwestern Lake Baikal region and has strong, dura- north latitude the consumption of gathered plant foods ble fibers. Nettles also provide a strong fiber, which was decreased in correlation with an increase in fishing. Sea- commonly used by indigenous Siberian groups, as sonal fishing practices among indigenous peoples of reported in a 19th-century ethnographic account: northern Siberia, including ice-fishing, are described by Ziker (2002) and are assumed to have a long tradition. From the lime-tree a large supply of bast is obtained, Archaeological, osteological, and stable isotope data from which the natives make into mats and cordage; but for Cis-Baikal groups all provide evidence for the impor- fishing nets, twine made from the common nettle is gen- tance of fishing (Okladnikov, 1950, 1955; Khoroshikh, erally employed ... . It is cut down in the autumn, well 1960; Medvedev, 1969; Katzenberg and Weber, 1999; soaked, and hung to dry during the winter; in the suc- Weber et al., 2002; Goriunova, 2003; Novikov and Goriu- ceeding spring the fibers are separated and the women nova, 2005; Losey et al., 2008; Katzenberg et al., 2009; twist them into twine, from which, if necessary, ropes Lieverse et al., 2009) and it is likely that many occlusal are made by the men (Eden, 1879; p 112–113). grooves were produced during the construction of fishing-related gear, in particular during the weaving of Along river banks of the Angara reed-like plants and fishing nets. The weaving of fowling nets may also have cattail (Typha sp.) could have been harvested for fibers. been an important activity (Bochenski et al., 2009).

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 10 A. WATERS-RIST ET AL. Many grooves (41/57 5 72%) are located along the distal and cordage production. Overall, while recognizing the occlusal margin of the tooth suggesting fibers were possible observation bias at Khuzhir-Nuge XIV, the lack ‘‘secured’’ behind the tooth crowns’ apex which would of occlusal grooving may be important in contextualizing have made it easier to control and manipulate items the overall variability in grooving among sites. Mean extending out to the hands. This set-up could certainly groove width is significantly different between time peri- have aided in the formation of complex woven items ods (P 5 0.02), with thinner grooves in the Early Neo- such as nets. lithic (1.2 6 0.6 mm, n 5 45) compared to the Late Neo- lithic-Bronze Age (1.7 6 0.6 mm, n 5 12), however this Regional variation trend is driven by the thicker grooves of the Ust’-Ida I males and a paucity of other Late Neolithic-Bronze Age Variation in fishing practices between groups situated individuals with grooves makes temporal comparisons along the lakeshore compared to the river may be evi- tenuous. dent in occlusal groove frequency data, as the two sites located along the Angara River have a higher prevalence Variation by sex of individuals with occlusal grooves (Lokomotiv 34.6%; Ust’-Ida I 35.7%) and the highest percentages of affected Evidence for variation among sites also comes from teeth (for categories in which grooving is present, Fig. analysis of occlusal grooves by sex. At the Early Neo- 6). The three mortuary sites located on the shores of lithic sites of Shamanka II and Lokomotiv, and the Lake Baikal have a significantly lower frequency (Sha- Bronze Age site of Kurma XI, grooves are more common manka II 16.7%, Kurma XI 25.0%, Khuzhir-Nuge XIV in females (as a percentage of the total number of 2 0.0%; v 5 123.000, 1 d.f., P \ 0.001). In addition, the observable females), with a male-to-female sex ratio of riverine sites have a higher frequency of young adults individuals with occlusal grooves of 0.6:1, 0.4:1, and with occlusal grooves (4/15 5 26.7%) compared to the 0.3:1, respectively. Both men and women were engaged lakeshore sites (1/49 5 2.0%), and although this differ- in activities that produced occlusal grooves but women ence is not testable due to small sample size, it may be were more heavily involved. However, at Ust’-Ida I no further evidence that groups who occupied the Angara females and 45.5% of the males have occlusal grooves. River region used their teeth more frequently or inten- The difference in frequency of males and females with sively in the production of material culture items that grooves among sites is not statistically significant (v2 5 formed grooves, perhaps to improve the acquisition of 2.643, 1 d.f., P 5 0.104), however this is partially due to unique riverine resources. Indeed, Lieverse et al. (2007) the small number of observable females from Ust’-Ida I found differences in dental attrition patterning between and other sites (n 5 3 at Ust’-Ida I, n 5 14 at Shamanka Cis-Baikal sites located along the lakeshore (Shamanka II, n 5 10 at Lokomotiv, and n 5 2 at Kurma XI; Table II and Khuzhir-Nuge XIV) compared to the Angara River 3). Small sample size and the lack of statistical signifi- (Lokomotiv and Ust’-Ida I), with heavier anterior and cance is reason to be cautious in interpreting this data, lower posterior attrition in the riverine sites, which they however the male only grooves at Ust’-Ida I may be hint- propose may be related to nonmasticatory use of the an- ing at a change in the sexual division of labour among terior teeth and mouth. sites. Mean groove width at Ust’-Ida I is significantly thicker Temporal variation (1.7 6 0.6 mm, n 5 10) than at the Early Neolithic sites (1.2 6 0.6 mm, n 5 45; P 5 0.03), suggesting the Ust’- There is more variation in groove frequency among Ida I males were choosing a thicker raw material for the later period sites, with Khuzhir-Nuge XIV at 0% and their fiber/cordage needs. The thickness of cordage will Ust’-Ida I at 36%, which may suggest that there was be determined by a) the raw material selected, and b) more regional differentiation in material culture produc- the intended purpose of the finished object (Edholm and tion during the Late Neolithic-Bronze Age, compared to Wilder, 1991). The fibers processed by Ust’-Ida I males the Early Neolithic. It is noteworthy that adults from may have been thicker due to the use of a different raw Khuzhir-Nuge XIV have no grooves, as occlusal grooves material (e.g., reed plants) or the need for thicker cor- are found in 17–36% of adults from the four other sites. dage that was possibly stronger or could be formed into No obvious ecological differences distinguish Khuzhir- a more durable mesh. Nuge XIV from the other sites, as it is located in the An assessment of ethnographic data derived from same area, along the western shore of the lake. The lack Murdock’s HRAF (Human Relation Area Files) research of occlusal grooves at Khuzhir-Nuge XIV is not a func- shows that many of the activities purported to produce tion of different age distribution, as it has a comparable occlusal grooves are relatively flexible and variable in number of young, middle, and older adults as the other their sex assignment (Murdock and Provost, 1973) and sites (Table 3). However, it is possible that the lack of the distribution of grooves by sex at Shamanka II, Loko- individuals with occlusal grooves at Khuzhir-Nuge XIV motiv, and Kurma XI is likely indicative of this. For is the result of a lack of observable females (15 individu- example, the making of rope or cordage is reported for als are male, 6 are of undetermined sex, and none are 111 societies. As an index of the average percentage of female). If activities producing occlusal grooves were per- male participation (with exclusive male participation formed by females at this site the evidence would be being weighted by a multiple 0.2 over each preceding lacking. Yet, it is notable that no grooves were observed category), the production of rope and cordage is classified in the males from Khuzhir-Nuge XIV, particularly in as a ‘quasi-masculine activity’, with an index value of contrast to the other two later period sites where males 69.9/100 (Murdock and Provost, 1973; p 207). When the with occlusal grooves are common. Another potential societies are grouped into major geographic regions, consideration is the introduction of new material tech- those that include groups from similar environments as nology, possibly through metallurgical techniques, that Lake Baikal (Eastern Eurasia and North America) have replaced the previous role of the teeth/mouth in fiber an even more equitable sex distribution of cordage and

American Journal of Physical Anthropology DENTAL MODIFICATION IN SIBERIAN HUNTER-GATHERERS 11 rope production (66.7 for East Eurasia and 53.5 for uation that may well have characterized the Shamanka North America). II peoples. However, there is no evidence to indicate Murdock and Provost (1973) note that the manufac- males experienced more malnutrition (i.e., sex-based dif- ture of rope and cordage, as well as net-making, are ferences in isotopic indicators of diet or dental enamel activities that are not inherently better suited to the defects), implying that the primary cause is activity- capabilities of either sex, and further suggest that in based. Therefore, it is possible that Shamanka II men such cases products that will be used predominately by more commonly engaged in activities where their women will be produced by women, and products pre- mouths and teeth were used for pulling and/or anchor- dominately used by men will be produced by men. Thus, ing, however further analysis is required and multiple the male-only grooves from Ust’-Ida I could be inter- etiological factors require consideration. Overall, the sex preted to suggest that males were specializing in the based variation in occlusal grooves, hypercementosis, production of a particular material culture item, such as and shortened maxillary roots, are suggestive of gender- a specific type of fishing net that was tailored to maxi- based task differentiation among the Cis-Baikal peoples. mize fish resources in the Angara River, and that female participation was not necessary or was actively excluded. Interproximal groove Lieverse et al. (2007) found that males from Ust’-Ida I and Lokomotiv had higher anterior and lower posterior There is debate regarding the etiology of interproximal tooth wear compared to females suggesting that sex- grooves; they have been argued to be due to the habitual based differences in masticatory load or nonmasticatory use of a wooden probe or ‘‘tooth-pick,’’ perhaps to remove behaviour may have been more pronounced among food particles (Lukacs and Pastor, 1988), for the pallia- inhabitants of the Angara River basin. tive/therapeutic relief of infected teeth and gums (Ube- Evidence of differences between men and women in laker et al., 1969), and for the stripping of animal sinew the ways they used their mouths and teeth in cultural and formation of string between clenched posterior teeth practices may be revealed by additional types of AIDM. (Brown and Molnar, 1990; Robb, 1994). As seen in Fig- At Shamanka II nine males had hypercementosis depos- ure 7, this interproximal groove occurs distal to plane- its on their tooth roots, and three males, one female, and type vertical bone loss, which suggests periodontal dis- one individual of undetermined sex, had shortened max- ease of the area (Karn et al., 1984). It is possible a cari- illary incisor tooth roots (9 central and 2 lateral incisors ous lesion was present that is now worn-away, although were shortened). Both of these root modifications can this is unlikely given the very low frequency of caries in occur as a response to excessive force. Thoma and Gold- these populations (Lieverse, 2005; Lieverse et al., 2007). man (1960) explain that the roots of teeth respond in The interproximal groove is not ‘‘deeper’’ (more indented) 2 two ways to heavy force. The root can respond by build- on the distal side of the M , suggesting it was not ing up additional layers of cementum producing hyperce- formed via a pulling motion, as would be expected dur- mentosis (Leider and Garbarino, 1987), in an attempt to ing the stripping of animal sinew. Therefore, the motiva- prevent exfoliation of the tooth, but if the force goes tion for interproximal groove formation was most likely beyond certain (unspecified) physiological limits osteo- therapeutic, or at least palliative for relief of infected clasts invade the region and resorb cementum. Eventu- gums. A dental probe may have provided relief to the ally the underlying dentin will be resorbed and the roots area by removing toxin-producing bacteria, plaque become progressively shortened. Merbs (1983; p 156– deposits, and by preventing the deposition of food par- 157) discusses how Sadlermiut Inuit men used their ticles in the space between sensitive gum tissue and the teeth as a ‘‘third hand’’ in functions analogous to that tooth surface. performed by a vice, pliers and/or a fulcrum. For example, the mouth would be used to hold wooden kayak ribs CONCLUSION while the hands bent them into shape, or to tow a full fishing line while other fish were being pursued or the The data presented herein demonstrate that the analy- hands were engaged in paddling a kayak. The presence sis of activity-induced dental modification in archaeologi- of unusually high rates of anterior teeth root resorption cal samples can contribute to our behavioral reconstruc- in Canadian Thule Inuit has been interpreted as evi- tions of past populations. For the Cis-Baikal peoples the dence for large occlusal and/or heavy pulling forces by central theme of the occlusal groove data is one of varia- Hylander (1977), and Pedersen (1949) documented the tion. There is variation in groove frequency and groove frequent occurrence of shortened maxillary incisor roots width among sites, particularly in lacustrine versus river- in the East Greenland Eskimo. Pedersen (1949) attrib- ine sites. In addition there is variation in the distribution uted the resorption to strenuous mastication processes. of grooves by sex among sites, with grooves found only in However, it is also possible that the shortened tooth males at Ust’-Ida I, which may suggest that people pro- roots observed in the Shamanka II individuals are due duced aspects of their material culture in different ways to a genetic predisposition for smaller roots as Turner or according to different normative systems. Finally, SEM (1991) found shorter maxillary roots in Aleut and Eski- imaging of occlusal grooves has revealed variable striation mos populations, compared to arctic Indian groups patterns, which suggests that more than one task, or dif- (although there were not enough maxillary central inci- ferent task mechanics, were responsible for groove forma- sors for comparative purposes). In addition, root resorption. This variation is perhaps not surprising, and is likely tion can be caused by local factors such as chronic infec- simply reinforcing the multiplicity of ways and activities tion of the area, eruptive forces on neighboring teeth, in which people used their mouths and teeth. Indeed, a traumatic injury, and cysts or tumors; however, in no wide variety of extra-masticatory activities that in many present instance was there any sign of disease or trauma cases caused dental modifications have been well-docu- to the area. Corruccini et al. (1987) suggested that mented among Inuit peoples (e.g., Leigh, 1925; Pedersen, hypercementosis may be due in part to episodes of 1949; Merbs, 1983; Pedersen and Jakobsen, 1989). This chronic malnutrition with periodic rehabilitation, a sit- study further supports the finding that northern hunter-

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 12 A. WATERS-RIST ET AL.

fisher-gatherers make frequent use of their mouths and Cordain L, Miller JB, Eaton SB, Mann N, Holt SHA, Speth JD. teeth as a third hand in a wide variety of tasks. While we 2000. Plant-animal subsistence ratios and macronutrient cannot determine the specific activities that produced oc- energy estimations in worldwide hunter-gatherer diets. Am J clusal grooves, archaeological, environmental, and ethno- Clin Nutr 71:682–692. graphic data on the subsistence practices of peoples from Corruccini RS, Jacobi KP, Handler JS, Aufderheide AC. 1987. Implications of tooth root hypercementosis in a Barbados the Cis-Baikal area suggest that fishing was of primary slave collection. Am J Phys Anthropol 74:179–184. importance, and the construction of fishing related gear Cruwys E, Robb ND, Smith BGN. 1992. Anterior tooth notches: such as nets may have been involved in occlusal groove an Anglo-Saxon case of study. J Paleopathol 4:211–220. formation. Occlusal grooves in Cis-Baikal individuals Cybulski JS. 1974. Tooth wear and material culture: precontact pat- clearly show that teeth can record past habitual activity terns in the Tsimshian area: British Columbia. Syesis 7:31–35. patterns, and provide an additional source of data in Eden CH. 1879. Frozen Asia: a sketch of modern Siberia, to- reconstructing past subsistence and material culture pro- gether with an account of the native tribes inhabiting the duction systems. region. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. New York: Potts, Young. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Edholm S, Wilder T. 1991. Cordage. Bull Prim Technol 1:19–22. Edholm S, Wilder T. 2001. Buckskin: the ancient art of brain- A. Waters-Rist thanks Dr. Caroline Haverkort for her tanning. Boonville, California: Paleotechnics. careful dental morphology observations which helped ini- Erdal YS. 2008. Occlusal grooves in anterior dentition among tiate this research. The authors acknowledge Drs. Charles Kovuklukaya inhabitants (Sinop. Northern Anatolia, 10th FitzGerald and Shelley Saunders, Department of Anthro- Century AD). Int J Osteoarchaeol 18:152–166. pology, McMaster University, for the tooth preparation Faccia K. 2004. Shamanka II, 2004 field season osteology report. and sectioning workshop where A. Waters-Rist learned Internal report submitted to the Baikal Archaeology Project. Edmonton, AB. dental casting techniques. SEM imaging was performed Faccia K. 2005. Shamanka II, 2005 field season osteology report. at the Microscopy and Imaging Facility, Health Sciences Internal report submitted to the Baikal Archaeology Project. Centre, University of Calgary, with assistance by Kim Edmonton, AB. Rensing. Dental photography is by Michael Metcalf. They Faccia K. 2006. Shamanka II, 2006 field season osteology report. thank Dr. Robert Losey for informative discussions about Internal report submitted to the Baikal Archaeology Project. fishing practices. 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