RESPONSE of SOUTHEAST ASIAN MUSLIMS to the INCREASINGLY GLOBALIZED WORLD: DISCOURSE and ACTION Iik Arifin Mansurnoor

HAOL, Núm. 5 (Otoño, 2004), 103-111 ISSN 1696-2060

RESPONSE OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN MUSLIMS TO THE INCREASINGLY GLOBALIZED WORLD: DISCOURSE AND ACTION

Iik Arifin Mansurnoor Universiti Brunei-Darussalam, Brunei-Darussalam. E-mail: [email protected]

Recibido: 11 Julio 2004 / Revisado: 13 Agosto 2004 / Aceptado: 12 Septiembre 2004 / Publicado: 15 Octubre 2004

Resumen: Having itself grown out of a global aving itself grown out of a global orientation, Islam in Southeast Asia has gone orientation, Islam in Southeast Asia has global since its inception. Southeast Asian Hgone global since its inception. Muslims always welcome and participate in the Southeast Asian Muslims always welcome and globalized world, even though they are vigilant participate in the globalized world. What they, to the origin and aim of global action and based on the pristine teaching of Islam on social design. Historically Southeast Asian Muslims responsibility, are critical to is closely related faced globalization and colonialism with more to the origin and aim of global action and responsible criticism. Islam has found two major design. support-bases for its translation in Southeast Asia: the state and the autonomous religious Historically Southeast Asian Muslims faced leaders. With the increasing sophistication and globalization of colonialism with responsible penetration of Western colonialism, modern criticism. Muslims continue to work for, in Muslim organizations gradually have taken over particular, morally correct global relations and the social role of the defunct indigenous states exchange. As early as the 13th century, indeed, and other institutions. Southeast Asian Muslims Islam has found two major support-bases for its have shown their moral vision of the globalized translation in Southeast Asia: the state and the world and their design to achieve it. In this autonomous local leaders (ulama). This article, emphasis is given to major trends in polarization continues until today. After the 16th spirituality centered movement among Southeast century the scripturalist and tariqa-based Asian Muslims as represented by mass institutions stimulated active and strong organizations, the reformed traditional movements to implement a spirituality centered institutions, and the more pronounced social concept of community. With the increasing movements in the region. Despite the fact that sophistication and penetration of Western the state's hegemony and the ever presence of colonialism since the dawn of the 20th century, the shari'a at times interfere with and color the modern Muslim organizations gradually have activities of these movements, they have taken over the social role of the defunct undeniably demonstrated the viability and indigenous states and other institutions, potential of spirituality centered movement in primarily to respond to the rapid change and at reshaping the rapidly changing and more the same time pursue defense of the community. globalized world of today. Although some, if not most, of them assume, if Palabras Clave: action, globalized world, not take, the role of state, others insist on social increasingly, muslims, Southeast Asian. and religio-cultural struggles. ______"It is a large world; its inhabitants form a large From the publication of Singapore's al-Imam in community; Islam is in every sense a great affair. The 1906 to the recent foundation of Islam Liberal in Muslim in Lahore, or in Samarqand or Kano, does not Jakarta, Southeast Asian Muslims have shown feel isolated, but is vividly conscious of belonging to a their moral vision of the globalized world and living community spread across the globe" their design to achieve it. In this paper, emphasis * (Wilfred C. Smith, On Understanding Islam) is given to major trends in spirituality centered movement among Southeast Asian Muslims as

© Historia Actual Online 2004 103 Response of Southeast Asian muslims Iik Arifin Mansurnoor represented by mass organizations like the terrorists should be taken seriously. For them Nahdlatul Ulama and the Muhammadiyah, the recent terror attacks in the region do not belong reformed traditional institutions like pondok to the pristine teachings of the religion and the (Gontor) and tariqa (Naqshbandiya), and the ideological make up of their organizations. Such more pronounced social movements such as the an aberration indeed forms an attack on their Sisters in Islam (Kuala Lumpur), the Aliran very raison d'être, identity and future. (Pinang) and Islam Liberal. Unlike Roy1, Kepel2 and Lewis3, who, in their Despite the fact that the state hegemony and the own respective styles and emphasis, point out ever presence of the shari'a at times interfere politicized Islam and its attending crisis in the with and color the activities of these contemporary Muslim world, Graham Fuller4 movements, they have undeniably demonstrated maintains the diversity of Islamist movements. the viability and potential of spirituality centered The majority of these, he insists, continue to be movement in reshaping the rapidly changing and moderate and even resolute to cooperate in the more globalized world of today. struggle for democracy.

INTRODUCTION In a powerful thesis of cultural encounters between Islam and the West, Hichem Djaït With the barrage of negative and discrediting maintains anxious fears among Muslims about Western press about recent Muslim terrorists, the collapse of their religion have been calmed. including those in Southeast Asia, it is ironic "The idea of cultural pluralism, of equal rights that my paper addresses the reverse –Islamic to self-development for all societies, ideas now spirituality and globalization–. More accepted by open- minded people everywhere, specifically, it is obviously easier to argue the allow Muslims to maintain a certain distance point from an apologetic standpoint; however, in from their identity"5. this esteemed academic and serious atmosphere of our workshop we need to move forward to Among modern historians W.C. Smith is the finding common grounds of interest in and most insistent on the importance of history to shared benefit of having a just, peaceful and Muslims. Islamic history, especially the early harmonious global world. part, belonged to them6. Optimism to life and to the world thus manifested in the global What is global about Islamic discourse? Is it not orientation of Muslim discourse and worldview. futile and self- contradictory to pose religion Not only did Muslims enjoy universal influence, like Islam as a means to create a more convivial they also positively looked to the wider world. global world? Were Southeast Asian Muslims Interaction and cooperation with the larger customers of ideas and practices offered by their entities were launched in the 8th to 10th teachers based in the Middle East and South centuries. On this issue Max Weber has an Asia? What were the environments conducive to interesting observation. He points out the major stimulate self-reliance and confidence in difference between early active worldly Southeast Asia in the last quarter of the 20th orientation of Islam and the latter contemplative century? To answer the first part of these Sufism, even though both share a strong questions, it is necessary to examine how history universal orientation7. shows that Muslims have been untiringly global actors. Fazlur Rahman maintains that the inherent and pervasive beauty and strength of Sufi Despite some historical deviation and partial spiritualism must be given a proper place in aberration, Muslims strongly believe that their Islamic domain, namely the shari'a8. The failure religion, Islam, fully commits to peace, harmony of formally accommodating Sufism had costed and brotherhood. Their brilliance in the classical Muslims dearly in intellectual and social life. period through political and military domination often sends wrong signals and messages Marshall Hodgson is consistent in maintaining concerning their own spiritual worth. the brilliant contribution of Islamic civilization to pluralism and universalism. Indeed, the Recent complaints by several Muslim leaders in cultural traditions which shouldered Islamic Southeast Asia concerning their being civilization comprised of diverse elements, "by victimized and attacked by their own radicals or no means restricted to Muslims"9.

104 © Historia Actual Online 2004 Iik Arifin Mansurnoor Response of Southeast Asian muslims

Taufik Abdullah10 emphasizes the importance of 1. NON-STATE ISLAM IN TRADITIONAL political structure of various Muslim SEA communities in Southeast Asia to the autonomy of socio- religious movements. In New Order The close link between the early phase of Indonesia, political centralization and the Islamization and the formal endorsement of kratonic structure of state and religion led Islam by rulers in the Malay World do not toward autonomous growth of Islamic permit total separation between state and Islamic movements in non-political fields. In Malaysia institutions12. Only with the deeper penetration and Brunei the formal link between state and of Western powers and Western systems of Islam has determined the monopoly, or at least administration, leading to weakening local attempt to it, of all religious matters and powers, did autonomous religious institutions activities. and leaders gradually, but vigorously, emerge. From quite early period, for example, the It is clear to me that historically Muslims, like Muslim courts maintained the presence of the many other missionary religionists, have been ulama and the Sufis. A few enclaves of strict active and even aggressive participants in the religious communities grew led mainly by those global world11. At times religion and political potential leaders who found themselves in exile considerations predominated, yet its success in due to various outward reasons. In Java such founding worldview and civilization among enclaves became the bastions of autonomous diverse peoples and communities show its leaders and centers of education of some sort. relevance to social change and accommodation. Unlike those religious functionaries who were In Southeast Asia Islam has developed with associated with now weakened courts, the particularly evolutionary rhythm and autonomous scholars needed to have some adjustment. The two-way process of qualities to command wider following. Islamization or, in the reverse direction, Interestingly, roads to fame and piety took many indigenization has left a long term impact on difference courses: piety, magic, learning and Muslim religiosity in the region. Despite the social role. No ruler of some name ever emerged strength of bureaucratic cooptation, Islam in from among purely learning-oriented scholars in Southeast Asia has seen much autonomy, thus their own bastions. Despite their fame and nurturing non-political institutions of caliber and influence in society, religious scholars remained resilience as well as discourses and ideas teachers and local leaders. A few were given relevant to pluralism, civil society and the global power when married to the ruling family. world. Today such institutions and ideas pave the way for new movements and updated In this background discussion, I bring up tariqa agendas toward a closer and more harmonious leaders and their institutions as an illustration of world. the major role of spirituality and globalization in Islamic movement within a traditional context. This paper addresses three major foci: One of many interpretations concerning the early phase of Islamization in Southeast Asia • Islamic discourse and historical points to the important role played by the Sufis. experience: what is global about Islam Through their tolerance, empathy and patience and institutionalization of global in dealing with the indigenous population, some orientation in Islamic South East Asia of their religious messages went through and • Non-state Islam in traditional South East accepted by the local population. This was Asia particularly so when it is understood that Sufis • Recent Islamic movement. were known for their intensive spirituality and noble character, yet remained simple and Why these particular organizations and adaptive to local conditions. movements? What is particularly relevant to my topic • Historically meaningful even if not concerns Sufi institutions. The spread of Islam always typical in the Malay world coincided with the • Representative of non-bureaucratic and emergence of Sufi brotherhood (tariqa) which, 13 non-political leaning as Weber maintains , enjoyed universal 14 • Self-reliance and independent. character and orientation . Although for some such institutionalization has been considered the vulgarization of Sufi mystical tradition and

© Historia Actual Online 2004 105 Response of Southeast Asian muslims Iik Arifin Mansurnoor popularization of the refined thought, tariqa In addition to these three tariqas, others have rapidly developed into a supralocal institution been propagated with some local success. within the Muslim communities worldwide transcending diverse parochial social and Unlike the study in the scholarly circles, political barriers. For quite some time before the participation in the tariqa did not impose strict 16th century, the Qadiriya tariqa, one of the intellectual requirements, thus it could attract earliest orders, had won adherents in Southeast wider following. Indeed, the tariqa opened more Asia as can be seen in Hamzah Fansuri's opportunities for wider access to more intimate reference around the century. The tariqa could ties and stronger religious brotherhood based on be brought to Southeast Asia by pilgrims from the shared spiritual search and loyalty to tariqa the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina and by leaders. For this reason alone, we see the dual traders from the Indian Ocean ports. By the development of the tariqa in contemporary period the Qadiriya order won followings in the Southeast Asia. On the one hand, tariqas have Middle East and South Asia. lost some segments of their followers in the countryside where more modern facilities for The Qadiriya failed to sustain its spread in communication and entertainment become Southeast Asia as other more aggressive tariqas easily available. tariqas are no longer the only were introduced after the mid-17th century. powerful breaker of the monotony of rural Among the widely known tariqas in Southeast setting. On the other hand, among certain Asia include Shatariya, Naqshbandiya, and segments of urban Muslims, even the secularists Sammaniya. The spread of these orders followed and the educated, the tariqa offers them with the same pattern, that is through pilgrimage to alternatives to drug abuse, anomy, post-power Mecca and Medina, teachers and adepts syndrome, urbanization, and diverse introduced these orders throughout the Muslim psychosomatic problems. lands. The Shatariya was introduced to Southeast Asia by a Jawi student from Aceh, Traditionally tariqas performed diverse roles in 'Abd al-Ra'uf Singkel (d.1693), who had joined different Muslim societies, including political study circles in the two holy cities for almost legitimacy, magical prowess, political resistance two decades before returning to his homeland in against the colonial powers, socio-economic 1661. The Shatariya won some support in Aceh networking and religio-spiritual brotherhood. and other places in the island of Sumatra and What remains crucial in the revival of tariqa in Java. Southeast Asia is related to social change, modernization and decline of traditional social The Sammaniya order was introduced to arrangements leading to moral and emotional Southeast Asia by Jawi students, especially 'Abd vacuum. Reformed or new tariqas have al-Samad Palembang (d. after 1788). He never responded to this offering informality, personal returned to settle in Southeast Asia, even though acquaintance, and peace to the members. his name belongs to one of the greatest older Muslim scholars of the Malay world. The 2. POPULAR MOVEMENT: RELIGION Sammaniya interestingly took roots in the region AND SOCIETY IN A RAPIDLY from 'Abd al-Samad's homeland of Palembang CHANGING WORLD and from there spread to other communities in the archipelago. The Sammaniya won wide Examining current Islamic movements requires support and at times and among some circles some knowledge of their historical backgrounds. increasingly popularized into religious folk Reformism among Muslims in Southeast Asia performances. accompanied scripturalization and modernization. Scripturalization began in The largest tariqa in Southeast Asia, the earnest with the writings of a few Acehnese Naqshbandiya (and its derivative Qadiriya wa- scholars from the second half of the 16th Naqshbandiya) spread among Southeast Asian century and the return of Southeast Asian Muslims due to the intensification of pilgrimage students from the centers of Islamic learning in to Mecca after the last quarter of the 19th Mecca and Medina and other port cities in the century. Its spread was facilitated by the Jawi Indian Ocean. The central messages of students who returned home or instructed scripturalization in Southeast Asia focused on pilgrims during the hajj seasons to the order. return to the pristine teaching of Islam and One prominent Naqshbandi figure in this period sticking to Islamic identity. Modernization in the was Ahmad Khatib Sambas (d.1875). wake of economic, political and administrative

106 © Historia Actual Online 2004 Iik Arifin Mansurnoor Response of Southeast Asian muslims changes resulted in Islamic reformism pursuing the Qur'an and the prophetic tradition, getting some elements of scripturalization and coming rid of all superstition and religious accretions. up with an emphasis of joining modern trend Yet, interestingly, it strongly upholds modernity without compromising Islam. Despite the strong in social and economic views and actions. political tone of several early reformist Politics per se was handily put aside making it movements, many emphasized the importance more flexible and less suspect by the colonial of how to live socially and religiously truly authority. These characters successfully led Islamic. Not only did the Sarekat Islam emerge MUH to a religious movement with proven in 1912 as a religio-political movement, but achievements in the fields of social work, other vigorously socio- religious reform education, welfare and health, as can be seen in movements also emerged, including the the mushrooming of MUH orphanages, schools, Muhammadiyah (MUH) in 1911, followed later women mosques, universities and in 1926 by the Nahdatul Ulama (NU) as well as clinics/hospitals throughout Indonesian such an educational reform of the Pondok provinces. Modern Gontor (Gontor) in the same year. NU emerged with determination to defend the The relevance of Islamic reformism to our characteristics of the accepted spirituality, discussion comes from its roots and approaches. lifeway and worldview. Today, NU retains Beset with major changes regionally and influence within the Indonesian government and beyond, educated Muslims in Southeast Asia society through its accommodationist stance, considered the time had come to take modern inclusive approach and the emergence of a challenges and opportunities seriously. Better younger generation of innovative Islamic armed with modern disciplines and sophisticated thinkers within its intellectual leadership. MUH education they regarded what they had inherited has become domesticated, with a turning to in the form of tradition and belief system as Sufism while maintaining a commitment to strong identity and foundation to participate in reform within the framework of an essentially newly created opportunities. Yet, they also felt secular, multi-religious Indonesian society. Most that their practiced religion was not satisfactory, devout Muslims (santri) in Indonesia today are intellectually and socially. Imbued with the affiliated with either NU or MUH, a significant Islamic reformism of the period introduced by fact as both organizations are moderate in their brethren in South Asia and the Middle character15. East, a comparable replay of earlier scripturalization waves came to fore. At this Gontor, formally known as Modern Islamic juncture of socio- religious change, two School, emerged during the time of adjustment important relevant issues manifested in relief: to and rapid change. This background continues to bring tradition and religion into contact with be influential and inspirational for the modernity and at the same time to relate it to institution. universal Islamic interpretation. Indeed, Islamic Southeast Asia has opted to go globalized. Now, The élan of Gontor came from youthful spirit of let us come closer to these three examples: reform in the face of the deteriorating religious MUH, NU and Gontor. center and degenerating local community in the mid- 1920s. Education was taken as a means to In Indonesia, Muslims are conventionally reform and revive the lost vigor of village divided into traditionalists and Wahhabi- religiosity and worldly spirit. At the start the influenced modernists. For most parts of the program was simple and direct aimed to educate 20th century, the former were represented by village children and sow new energy and NU and the latter MUH. NU was perceived as religious understanding for the adult. With the traditionalist, conservative and rural Javanese- growth of participants and the intellectual based while MUH was regarded as modernist, sophistication of the Gontor organizers, a new innovative and urban-based with strong support stage of education began. Gontor then launched in the urban centers of Java and in the outer a more ambitious program of producing modern islands of Indonesia. teachers in religion and society. Its aim was to produce students and teachers with noble Born during rapid changing colonial policies, character, sound body, broad knowledge and MUH grew with two-pronged approaches. On open mind. The major elements of teaching and the one hand, it emphasizes the importance of education came in two major forms return to the pristine teaching of Islam through concomitantly: in classes and in practice as

© Historia Actual Online 2004 107 Response of Southeast Asian muslims Iik Arifin Mansurnoor teachers and students lived in the campus formally non-Islamic organization. Why do I (pondok). Students thus learned and lived 24 choose it in discussing Islamic movement? My hours as adepts and trainees. Strict discipline, primary consideration lies with the fact that the mastering of ethics, languages and diverse Aliran accommodates many Muslim figures and branches of knowledge, religious and general, also addresses pluralism, universalism and and the nurturing of vision and ambition formed tolerance in the context of Islam, plural society the core of daily training and motivation freed and nation in Malaysia. Aliran is a social from any political agenda and party affiliation. movement aims to "raise social consciousness Gontor insists and maintains its proactive stand and encourage social action that will lead to toward all shades of political ideologies and social justice"17. It claims to adhere to eternal parties. "It must stand above all parties and also universal values in order to realize social justice for all parties"16. Gontor always emphasizes to and humanity. Being a movement concerned its students to uphold honesty, moderation, self- with raising consciousness, Aliran has been reliance, Islamic brotherhood and liberty during vigorous in publication and IT production, their study and their future career in society. including its currently struggling on-web magazine. Chandra Muzaffar, a leading founder In today's Indonesia Gontor has shown the of Aliran, claims, for example, that "it is relevance of open and liberal education possible for us to develop a modern, sustaining balance between emphasis on Islamic progressive, and accommodative school of character and participation in, if not anticipation Islam"18. of, global change. Like other women in the region, Muslim women 3. THE AGE OF GLOBALIZATION AND have demanded better treatment and insisted on THE CONTINUING NEED TO gender equality. Sisters in Islam (SIS) was SPIRITUALITY founded in 1988 by "a group of Muslim professional women committed to promoting the The popular and mass organizations like MUH rights of women within the framework of Islam" and NU often by necessity jumped into (Sisters in Islam 2003). Although the unfamiliar terrains or unavoidable stands, organization is more known for its publication, including politics and popular demands. Not counseling, protest, demonstration, and training, surprisingly, some segments in the communities Sisters in Islam has grown into a movement with felt disappointed and thus opted to return to the quality and weight. It is feminist and at the same pure mission and call for spirituality, pluralism time Islamic as can be seen in its emphasis to or universalism. Mass movements for them promote the rights of Muslim women based on failed to address the basic issues of humanity the Qur'anic principles of equality, justice, and their concerns were ignored. They freedom and dignity. These principles then are considered themselves now new champions of formulated into objective and programs. Sisters wider causes. The Aliran, Sisters in Islam and in Islam aims: Islam Liberal will be taken as examples of this trend. • To promote and develop a framework of women's rights in Islam, which takes If the two mass organizations MUH and NU into consideration women's experiences represent the puritan in religious and realities; doctrine/practice and the urbanite in social • To eliminate injustice and orientation and the latter the more compromist discrimination against women by in doctrine/practice and the bucolic in social changing practices and values that orientation, the new groups totally came out of a regard women as inferior to men; new global world. Not only have they responded • To create public awareness, and reform to external global pressures and challenges, but laws and policies, on issues of equality, they also protest the slow and at times out of justice, freedom, dignity and democracy date steps of the mass organizations and even in Islam. the state. In addition to dealing with current and diverse Aliran or National Consciousness Movement issues of emancipation, justice, democracy and was founded in 1977 in Pinang, Malaysia by a equality, SIS has laid programs such as: group of diverse concerned individuals coming from multi- ethnic backgrounds. It is clearly and

• To launch research and interpretation of In a sense Islam Liberal manifests internal textual sources of Islam Islamic dynamism, since its emergence has been • To undertake advocacy for policy and geared toward balancing, or rather countering, law reform the increasing dominant discourse of • To encourage awareness raining and fundamentalism and conservatism. Not public education surprisingly, its expression echoes more closely • To formulate strategic planning and movement and thought of other religious and policy formulation. cultural traditions than other formal forms of Islam. For example, Islam Liberal upholds In addressing Muslim response to globalization, Islamic interpretation of democracy which a few will point out the growth of religious supports and identifies with civic culture, radicalism among Southeast Asian Muslims. including pluralism, equal opportunity, Despite the continuing problem and scholarly moderation, trust, tolerance, sense of inadequacy in understanding this issue, it is community. equally significant that in March 2001 a group of open-minded Muslims launched a movement Reflection and Retrospect: The road and future of liberal thinking, known as Islam Liberal in of Islamic movement in Southeast Asia are not Indonesian. isolated from the wider contexts, Islamically, regionally and globally to mention only the It is a story about young Muslim intellectuals, scope and range. Yet it is clear that despite many of them coming from traditional, rural- difficulties and mounting internal pressures, based Islamic backgrounds, fluent in Arabic and Islamic movements have contributed to, within well- versed in theological and legal debates, the religious framework, link religion to plural who are currently active in promoting what they and global entities with all their diversities. The call "liberal Islam" (Islam Liberal). They strength of such approach lies with its definite disseminate their ideas via books, syndicated frame and clear/public objectives. At the same columns, radio talks, public fora, circulars, the time, problems and barriers should not be internet and socio/politico-religious activism. avoided but rather negotiated; after all; religion, including Islam, can be meaningful to humanity Many of these young Muslim intellectuals, most and life in general when it responds to human of them not yet in their 40s, began their studies mind, needs and even dreams. of religion when they studied at Indonesian-style Islamic boarding schools, the traditional pondok. The diversity of Islamic movement clearly According to the well-known journalist-cum- shows that Islam has been understood in a activist Goenawan Mohamad, most of them dynamic manner by its adherents, especially came from the provinces far away from Jakarta. those in Southeast Asia. It is true that spirituality Only very few of the leading members of the oriented social movements in Southeast Asia group have ever been to any school in the US or have competed for support with other Europe. Older Indonesian Muslim thinkers exert movements, including scripturalist-Islamists, yet a major influence on them, but paradoxically, it their emphasis on discourse, idea and concept of was their lives as students in the pondok that society, community and mankind has potential gave them the first exposure to the plurality of of sustainability and resilience with more interpretations in Islam. concrete results.

Despite its early beginning and amorphism, The recent assertiveness of more Muslims in Islam Liberal has been consistent in propagating Southeast Asia concerning their innovation and openness, ethico-religious spirit, pluralism, uniqueness show the dynamics of their democracy, empowerment of the weak and the religiosity and spirituality imbedded in the local minorities, religious freedom and secularism. At context and at the same time inspired by Islamic the level of discourse the group has been ideas and paradigm, not to mention their pre- aggressive in airing their ideas and visions, even occupation with globalization process and at the bastions and fora of the exclusivists. More challenges. interestingly, the group has attracted diverse segments of the community, thus indirectly From the straightforward implementation of bring together students and disciples of former conventional and modern ways in education to rival figures. the radical and liberal approach to Islamic teachings, Southeast Asian Muslims have shown

© Historia Actual Online 2004 109 Response of Southeast Asian muslims Iik Arifin Mansurnoor the relevance of their spiritual precept and fundamentalism and conservatism and experience to create, even if not always ending the current tendency "to set apart materialized, livable and harmonious niche. from the Other." By opening up their They are not one, let alone united, but they share own turfs and making gestures for spirit and develop vision and agenda for dialogue and cooperation, they communities and fellow mankind. indirectly promote the de-demonization of others. Let me share with you my brief reflection: • Two leading Muslim liberal thinkers in Southeast Asia have insisted the only • In Southeast Asia, where political alternative to the increasing popularity systems are still evolving and thus of Islamist hardline militanism is to unsettled, social movements based on harness the objective Islamic discourse religion or spirituality will continue to as reference in the people's daily lives offer promises, provide certainty and and to recreate the conditions in which open opportunities for many segments an open, tolerant and pluralistic society of society. might emerge. At present many social • The renewed and intensified movements, including those listed globalization allows social movements above, have shown the value and use of to respond more effectively and quickly such discourse and preconditioning. adjusting to new challenges and opportunities than many other I wish this brief discussion serve as an example movements. of what attending to socio- religious and human • Dynamism of and social movement details can reveal and how it can contribute to among Southeast Asian Muslims must the body of knowledge about Southeast Asian be considered and located within the Muslims, their social movements and their context of global multiculturalism and participation and role in the globalized world. "multiple modernities," in an Eisenstadian sense. NOTES • The common emphasis on civility, * openness and pluralism among these In writing this paper, I owe the University of Brunei social movements paves the way for Darussalam and ASEF for their respective generous wider and more comprehensive dialogue support. My thanks are due to my colleagues at the Department of History, especially Dr. Hj. Md. Yusop and cooperation between cultures and bin Haji Awang Damit and Dr. Hab. Johannes L. nations. Dialogue and exchange cannot Kurz, and also the floor at the the Nagoya Workshop, be dispensed with. Self-truism and especially the extensive notes of M.O. Nahas, for absolutism thus find no place to expand their invaluable assistance, comments and/or and win global support. Indeed, Islamic criticism on the drafts of this paper. Since not all concepts of being related, dhu al-qurba their views were incorporated into the text, they are and ta'aruf ("to relate convivially to not any way responsible for its shortcomings. 1 others" even in diversity) continue to Roy, O., The Failure of Political Islam. London, I.B. Tauris, 1994. inspire many Muslim activists for social 2 movement. Kepel, G., "Islam Today: Social and Political Prospects", in Cerutti, F.; Ragionieri, R. (eds.), • All these movements have emerged in Identities and Conflicts: The Mediterrenean. New response to challenges and pressing York, Palgrave, 2001, 161-166. problems. The identification of common 3 Lewis, B., What Went Wrong? The Clash Between problems at the wider global level, Islam and Modernity in the Middle East. New York, including illiteracy, poverty, violence Perennial. 2002. and environmental crises, potentially 4 Fuller, G. E., The Future of Political Islam. New brings more collaboration for social York, Palgrave, 2003. 5 movements. Djaït, H., Europe and Islam. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985, 5. • These movements have shown the value 6 and strength of multifaceted approaches Smith, W.C., Islam in Modern History. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1957 and On in dialogist encounters with others based Understanding Islam. The Hague, Mouton on internal confidence and optimism. In Publishers, 1981. a sense they pave the way for outward 7 Gerth, H.H.; C. Wright Mills (eds.), From Max looking, bringing Muslims to the reality Weber: Essays in Sociology. New York, Oxford of the world outside thus preventing University Press, 1977, 269, 285.

8 Rahman, F., Islam. New York, Anchor Books, 1968, 315. 9 Hodgson, M.G., The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization. I vol. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1975, 90. 10 Taufik, A., "Islam di Alam Melayu: Kecenderungan Masa Kini, Tantangan masa Depan." A paper presented at The International Seminar on Malay Civilization II, August 15-20, 1989, Kuala Lumpur, 8-9. 11 Since the cases which I employ and refer in this presentation come mainly from Indonesia and Malaysia, it has no claim of universal application, not even regionally. More specifically, Muslim minorities in Southeast Asia need to be addressed separately due to their unique approach and experience to live with the dominat groups and face intensive globalization. In this presentation, thus I have been unable to include them. 12 Such a pattern of association should not surprise students of early Islamic caliphate when Islam formed the cornerstone of state and government. See Shaban, M. A., Islamic History: A. d. 600-750. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1972. 13 Gerth, H.H.; C. Wright Mills (eds.), From Max Weber..., op. cit. 14 Johns, A., "The Role of Sufism in the Spread of Islam to Malaya and Indonesia". Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, 9 (1961), 143-61. 15 Desker, B., "Islam and Society in Southeast Asia after September 11". Working Paper Series No.33, Singapore, Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies, 2002. 16 Gontor, Kenang-Kenangan Peringatan Delapan Windu Pondok Modern Gontor, 1926-1990. Gontor, Darussalam Press, 1991, 23. 17 Aliran, . 18 Noor, F.A., "New voices of Islam". accessed on December 21, 2003, Leiden, ISIM Publications, 2002, 46.