traveling stages. One has fifty-one The “Ancient Tea and Horse river crossings, fifteen rope bridges and ten iron bridges (Fig. 2, p. 30) Caravan Road,” the “Silk Road” and traverses seventy-eight mountains over 3000 meters high. All of Southwest of this makes the route one of the most difficult in the world. Moreover, the weather in this area of the world Yang Fuquan is extremely changeable. In a single day the traveler may experience The “Tea and Horse Caravan Road” with an abundant bio-diversity and heavy snow, hail, burning sun and of Southwest China is less well complex topography. Generally heavy winds, with extreme varia- known than the famous Silk Road. Its speaking, the Tea and Horse Road tions in the temperatures. There are route crosses some very high and follows two main routes (Fig. 1). One many branches joining these two dangerous terrain. It begins from of them starts at the original place major routes, combining to connect and provinces in of the famous Pu’er tea production the economy, religions and cultures Southwest China, runs along the (present day Xishuangbanna and in the broad triangular area of , eastern foothills of the Hengduan Sima prefectures of Yunnan province) Yunnan and Sichuan. Mountains, a center of tea pro- and passes through Dali, , duction in China, then crosses the Zhongdian (present Shangrila Hengduan mountain range and deep county), Deqin of Yunnan Province The Tea and Horse Caravan canyons of several major rivers, the and Mangkang, Zuogong [Zogong], Road as a corridor of ancient Yalong, the Jinsha (the upper Bangda, Changdu, Luolongzong, civilizations reaches of Yangtze), the Lancang Gongbujiangda and in Tibet. (Mekong), and the Nu (Salween), From Lhasa it heads south through This route would appear to have thus spanning the two highest Jiangze [Gyantse], Pali, and Yadong been in use long before it became plateaus of China (Qinghai-Tibet and in Tibet and on to Burma, and an avenue for the tea and horse Yunnan-Guizhou) before finally . The other route starts at trade during the Tang and the Song reaching India south of the Ya’an, Sichuan province, which is the dynasties, for it was a very important Himalayas. major site of Yacha tea production, corridor connecting the ancient The name of the road (Chamadao and goes through Luding, Kangding, cultures of the areas of present Tibet, in the Chinese records meaning “the Batang, Changdu and Lhasa, and Yunnan and Sichuan. In such places tea and horse road”) indicates its then to Nepal and India. According as Ganzi and Aba distrcts of Sichuan importance in the trade of tea and to the surveys, the tea and horse and the Hengduan Mountains of horses, but other products passed route from Sichuan to Lhasa is some Northwest Yunnan archaeologists along it as well. Horse caravans 2350 kilometers long, with fifty-six have discovered many cist tombs carried tea, sugar and salt from Sichuan and Yunnan to Tibet and brought back colorful local mountain goods. The Chinese over the ages often bought warhorses from Tibetan and other ethnic groups of Southwest China, and these too came over this road. The road also served as a significant corridor for migration as well as a channel for cultural communication among the ethnic groups in western China; beyond this, it was a bridge for international cultural and economic exchange between China and India. Although silk was not included in the trade goods carried over it, at times it has been termed the “Southern Silk Road of China,” due to its importance in both economic and cultural aspects of Chinese history. The Hengduan mountain range and the Qinghai-Tibet plateaus through which the Tea and Horse Map © 2004 by Lance Jenott Caravan Road passes is an area Fig. 1. Map illustrating the Tea and Horse Road

29 the Tang dynasty. Mountains of Mengla County, According to the Xishuangbanna. The local people call Tibetan book these ancient tea trees the “Tea Tree “Historic Collection Kings.” In the Man shu (the book of the Han and about the native tribes of southwest Tibet” (Han Zang shi China, written by Fan Chuo during

(1909), facing p. 56. p. facing (1909), ji) “In the reign of the Tang), there is a description of the Tibetan King the tea trees grown in southern Chidusongzan [Khri Yunnan. It also states that the local Yün-nan ‘Dus sron] (676- tribal people of Nanzhao Kingdom 704), the Tibetan (7th-9th centuries CE) had the aristocracy started custom of drinking the local tea (Fan to drink tea and Chuo 1961, 1992). The Tibetan use the tea-bowl, military government had a very close and tea was relationship with the Nanzhao Source: H.R. Davies, classified into dif- kingdom, and it is possible that Fig. 2. Iron chain bridge over the Nu (Salween) ferent categories.” Yunnan tea was introduced into Tibet Moreover, the book, during that time. which date from the Shang (ca. 1600- Ganlu zhi hai (The Sea of Amrita,), ca.1100 BCE) and the Zhou (ca. mentions ranking tea by quality The development of large-scale 1100-256 BCE) dynasties. These cist (Dacangzongba: 104-106). Li Zhao’s commerce in tea and horses between tombs are scattered broadly in the Guo shi bu (Supplement to the the Chinese dynasties and Tibet and canyons and valleys of the upper National History), written under the the development of the caravan road reaches of the Min River as well as Tang dynasty, relates that emperor for the tea and horse trade probably the Yalong and Jinsha Rivers. Most Dezong sent his supervisory official dates to the Song dynasty (960- of these tombs are located in (jiangchayushi) Chang Lu to visit 1279). During that period, the western Sichuan and western Tibet, where the Tibetan king re- demand for tea would have gradually Yunnan, although a few have also ceived him in a tent. Chang Lu offered increased as tea became an been found in Tibet. Although there boiled tea to the King, who asked important drink in the daily life of the are slight differences between the what it was. Chang answered that Tibetans. The Song court then started cist tombs of the various sites, their this was called cha (tea) and was to be involved in the shipping of tea main features and cultural char- good for relieving thirst and to Tibet. The Song required an large acteristics are generally similar. The nervousness. The king then re- number of warhorses from Tibet to archeologists have established that sponded that Tibet already had cha defend against the invading northern the cist tombs discovered in Tibet are and instructed his servants show the nomadic Liao, Jin and Xixia. The court closely related with those of Sichuan tea to Chang Lu (Li Zhao: Vol. 2). This established the Chamasi [Ch’a-ma and Yunnan in terms of their form and record corroborates that of the Han ssu] , Tea and Horse Office, in charge the grave goods. Notably those cist Zang shi ji. of the tea and horse trade in the tombs found in Changdu and Linzhi, seventh year of Xining (1074) and Tibet, definitely belong to the same The Tibetan people had been in also set up many markets for selling cultural system as those in western close communication with the Tang tea and buying horses in Northwest Sichuan and western Yunnan (Luo and the various ethnic groups of China.1 Every year the government Kaiyu 1992). The cist tombs in Tibet southwest China for a long time; so transported huge amounts of tea, are for the most part found close to it is very likely that the tea of Sichuan obtained mainly from Yunnan and the roads which led directly from and Yunnan had already reached Sichuan, to exchange for warhorses Yunnan and Sichuan. Thus it is clear Tibet. As early as the seventh century with the Tibetan tribes. According to that about 4000-5000 years ago, Tubo (Tibetan) military power had one study, more than 20,000 well before the Tea and Horse Road conquered the ethnic tribes warhorses per year were exchanged was opened, migration and scattered in the present areas of for tea during the Northern Song communication among the various Lijiang and Dali, Yunnan, and had (960-1127) dynasty. Of the total ethnic groups operated along this established a military administration annual output of tea in Sichuan, road. in northwest Yunnan. The military 30,000,000 Jin or 15,000,000 route used by the Tibetans to reach kilograms, at least half was sold to Yunnan was closely related to the Tibet (Jia Daquan 1993: 4). A brief introduction to the contemporary tea and horse route. history of the ancient Tea and Yunnan is the one of the places The Yüan dynasty (1271-1368) also Horse Caravan Road where tea plants are native. Since paid great attention to the trade of 1949 scientists have found many wild tea to Tibet and established the One can trace the history of the Tea and cultivated tea trees that are more Xifanchatijusi, meaning the bureau in and Horse Road back to the period than a thousand years old in the charge of tea trade to Tibet. At first, of the Tang dynasty (618-907) and Nannuo mountains and Bada tea was sold through the Tibetan (Tubo) regime. Tea was Mountains of as well government bureau, but later it introduced to the Tibetan area during as Yiwu Mountains and Xiangming gradually was handled by individual

30 traders. The most prosperous period According to one source, more than aside for the northern route to for the tea and horse trade between 25,000 horses and mules were used Tachienlu [Dhartsedo/Kang- Yunnan, Sichuan and Tibet was under (Fig. 3) and more than 1200 trading ding], to be transported by the Ming dynasty (1369-1644). The firms were to be found along the yaks; other articles were Ming court established the office of road. The Russian-born Peter packed for delivery at Likiang, Chakesi [Ch’a-k’o ssu], the bureau in Goullart, a descendant of merchants especially the liquors and charge of tea and horse trade. The who had been involved in the inner cigarettes which were worth quality of the horses offered to the Asian trade with China, arrived in their weight in gold in court by the Tibetans as “tribute” , the capital of Yunnan, in Kunming, crowded with thirsty determined the quality of the tea. 1939. He spent two years there and American and British troops... Given the importance of tea in the then moved to Lijiang (Likiang), one It was estimated that daily life of the Tibetans, the Ming of the important stopping points on some 8,000 mules and horses, court was able to use the tea trade the Tea and Horse Caravan Road. In and probably 20,000 yaks, as a means of maintaining some his evocative book about his Lijiang were used during Operation political control over the Tibetan years, Forgotten Kingdom, he Caravan, when all other routes leaders and lamas. provides abundant detail about the into China had been blocked wartime trade with Tibet over that during the war. Almost every During the Qing dynasty (1644- historic road: 1911), the tea trade between week long caravans arrived in Likiang. So good and profitable Yunnan, Sichuan and Tibet continued Everything was indented [sic], to develop. Although the court was the business that even contracted or bought outright the rainy seasons failed to stopped buying horses from the that could be conveniently Tibetan area in 1735, it eased the stop some adventurous carried by yak or mule. Sewing merchants. This was a restrictions on the tea trade, and machines, textiles, cases of the huge amounts of tea were exported considerable risk and, in their best cigarettes, both British avarice, they took it. The rainy there. In 1661, the fifth Dalai Lama and American, whiskies and asked the Qing court to set up a season is much dreaded in gins of famous brands, dyes Tibet and on the border, and large market for the tea and horse and chemicals, kerosene oil in trade in Beisheng (present Yong- all caravan and pilgrim traffic tins, toilet and canned goods usually stops for the duration. sheng, Yunnan), and his request was and a thousand and one approved by the central court. From The trails become muddy and varieties of small articles swampy, rivers and streams that time there was a rapid increase started flowing in an unending in the amount of Yunnan tea swell to incredible proportions, stream by trail and truck to mountains are wrapped in transported to Tibet along the Tea Kaimpong, to be hastily and Horse Road. In just one year, mists and avalanches and repacked and dispatched by landslides become the rule 1661, 30,000 dan or 1,500,000 kg of caravan to Lhasa. There the Yunnan tea were sent to Tibet. Tea rather than the exception. flood of merchandise was Many a traveller has been also served as an important gift from crammed into the halls and the Qing court to the Tibetan elite: buried forever under tons of courtyards of the palaces and rocks or swept to his death by for example, the court allocated 5000 lamaseries and turned over to jin (2500 kg) to the Dalai Lama and a raging torrent [Goullart an army of sorters and 1955: 87-88]. 2500 jin to the Panchan Lama each professional packers. The year. During the Republic Period least fragile goods were set (1911-1949), though the With the defeat of Japan, Chinese government did not the bottom instantly play an important role in the dropped out of the Tibet tea trade, it continued to trade, and the merchants prosper in the hands of who had yet undelivered private traders who still stocks were devastated. traveled along the ancient The overland route never Tea and Horse Road. recovered.

During World War II, The Tea and Horse

especially in 1942 when the 2. p. facing (1909), Caravan Road today coastal cities of China and Burma were occupied by the While modernization under- Yün-nan Japanese army, blocking any mined this historic route’s remaining highways for commercial significance, the international trade, the Tea Tea and Horse Caravan and Horse Caravan Road Road is now attracting became a significant trans- attention due to the growth portation link supplying of tourism in southwest inland China from India.2 Source: H.R. Davies, China. One reason is the Fig. 3. A Yunnan pack mule and load.

31 ethnic and cultural diversity of the their studies and to advance their Goullart 1955 region. There is a local saying, “The careers. languages beyond five square li [2.5 Peter Goullart. Forgotten Kingdom. Goullart’s conclusion about the kilometers] are different from each London: John Murray, 1955. significance of the road (from his other, and the customs beyond ten post-war perspective) is worth square li are different from each Jia Daquan 1993 quoting, since it might be generalized other.” There are more than twenty to the earlier periods of this historic different ethnic groups to be found Jia Daquan. “The historic function of route: along the route. Some famous old the Sichuan tea sold to Tibet.” In The towns and villages which once were Collection of Papers of Tibetology of Few people have realized how key stations and markets of the Tea Sichuan. China’s Tibetology Pub- vast and unprecedented this and Horse Caravan Road have been lishing House, 1993 (in Chinese). sudden expansion of caravan listed among the most important traffic between India and international sites for historic Li Zhao n.d. China was, or how important. preservation. For example, the It was a unique and spec- Lijiang, where the Naxi people form Li Zhao. Tang guo shi bu [3 juan]. tacular phenomenon. No the majority of inhabitants, was been N.P. Ji gu ge, 16—. complete story has yet been designated as a world cultural written about it, but it will heritage site by UNESCO in 1997. In Luo Kaiyu 1992 always live in my memory as 2002, Sidengjie village, Shaxi one of the great adventures of Township in Yunnan, was listed as a Luo Kaiyu. “A study of the cist-tombs mankind. Moreover, it “protected world architectural in Western Sichuan, Western Yunnan demonstrated to the world heritage site” by the World and Eastern Tibet” (in Chinese). Kao very convincingly that, should Architecture Foundation. gu xue bao (Acta Archaeologica all modern means of com- Sinica), 1992, No. 4: 413-436. Moreover, the Tea and Horse munication and transpor- Caravan Road continues to be a tation be destroyed by some Rossabi 1970 sacred road for many people. The atomic cataclysm, the humble different religions along the road horse, man’s oldest friend, is “The Tea and Horse Trade with Inner include, for example, the white, ever ready to forge again a link Asia during the Ming.” Journal of Asian yellow and red sects of Tibetan between scattered peoples History, 4/2 (1970): 136-168. Buddhism; the Bon religion of pre- and nations [Goullart 1955: Buddhism in Tibet; the Dongba 88]. Notes [added by editor] religion of the Naxi people which combines Bon, Buddhism and its own 1. Morris Rossabi dates the animism; Han Buddhism and Taoism, establishment of this office to the as well as the Hinayana belief of the twelfth century, citing as his source Dai people, and the Benzhu (local References the Sung shih, 167, pp. 17b-18b gods and goddess) worship of the (Rossabi 1970: 140). The current Bai people. Along the caravan road, Dacangzongba 1986 article and that of Rossabi there are many sacred mountains complement one another, since belonging to the different ethnic Dacangzongba Banjuesangbu. Han Rossabi’s main focus is the horse and groups. For example, Kawagebo Zang shi ji: Xian zhe Xi le shan bu zhou tea trade along the “Northern Silk Snow Mountain [Meiliexuashan] ming jian (Historic Collection of the Route.” He says nothing about the (6740 m), near Yubeng in northern Han and Tibet). Translated by Chen trade with Tibet, just as Yang Fuquan Yunnan, is one of the most famous Qingying. [Lhasa?]: Xizang ren min says nothing about the trade with sacred mountains of the Tibetan chu ban she; Xizang Xin hua shu dian partners other than Tibet. Rossabi people. Every year many pilgrims fa xing, 1986. provides substantial detail about the from Sichuan, Yunnan, Tibet, Qinghai, mechanisms for controlling the trade and Gansu come there to worship Fan Chuo 1961 and the changes over time in and circumambulate the mountain government policies. with their tents, sheep and horses Fan Chuo. The Man shu, book of the to ask for blessings from the southern barbarians. Tr. Gordon H. 2. I have added here some material mountain god. Pilgrims still travel Luce, ed. Giok Po Oey. Ithaca, NY: from Goullart beyond what was annually to Lhasa to pay their Program, Department originally selected by Yang Fuquan. respect to the deities of Buddhism, of Far Eastern Studies, Cornell It is worth noting as well that the often still “measuring the road” by University, 1961. overland trade was but a part of the prostrating their bodies along its effort to supply the forces fighting length. The road these pilgrims Fan Chuo 1992 the Japanese. Americans best follow is the Tea and Horse Caravan remember the air routes over “the Road. In the past, young monks often Fan Chuo. Man shu. Beijing : Hump” of the mountains of the shared the road with the caravans Zhongguo shu dian; Fa xing Xin hua eastern Himalaya, an anecdotal when traveling to Lhasa to carry on shu dian shou du fa xing suo, 1992. account of which may be found in

32 Bliss K. Thorne, The Hump: The Great Military Airlift of World War II (Philadelphia and New York: Lippincott, 1965).

Chinese characters

Chakesi

Chamadao

Chamasi

Hang Zang shi ji

Man shu

Xifanchatijusi 3900 KA Archive: Anitpina Fig. 1. Family portrait. Klavdiia Antipina is standing in the white dress to the left of center. Morshansk c. 1910-11.

was a “blue blood,” a member of the Klavdiia Antipina — a Tribute to gentry. the Ethnographer of the Kyrgyz In 1922, at age eighteen (Fig. 2) she moved to where she John L. Sommer entered a Forestry Institute and became fascinated with dendrology. Fremont, California Her interests widened and she was accepted by Moscow State University, Born into nobility near Moscow, and the Leninist doctrines of where she studied ethnography and , Klavdiia Ivanovna Antipina Communism with fellow students in became, along with several of her died at the age of 92 in Bishkek, the finest and most selective of classmates, a respected scholar. She Kyrgyzstan. In those decades, she Soviet universities, Moscow State married a fellow student, Mikhail had seen the beginning and the end University. A happy marriage and (“Misha”) Rabinovich, who edited the of the Soviet Union. Initially she had promising career in the 1930s were University’s student newspaper (Fig. shared the exhilaration of the Marxist soon destroyed by Stalinist repres- 3). They lived full and happy lives. She sions. Her husband was arrested and disappeared; she and her young son were exiled to Central Asia. “The stone must lie where it has fallen” is a Kyrgyz saying, an explanation for the acceptance of fate. Klavdiia Ivanovna lived in Kyrgyzstan for the remainder of her life, becoming a much-respected ethnographer of The Kyrgyz.

Klavdiia Ivanovna Antipina was born 5 May 1904, the fourth child in a large family which lived in Morshansk near Moscow (Fig. 1). Her grandfather had been a “person of the church.” Her father, who preceded every meal with a prayer, carried a title of nobility which he lost at the time of the communist revolution. The family lived in a two-story house with a piano on the second floor. We may conclude that the family was prosperous, aristocratic, religious, Anitpina Archive: KA 2950 KA Archive: Anitpina

and disciplined. Klavdiia Ivanovna 3901 KA Archive: Anitpina Fig. 2. Klavdiia Antipina at about the Fig. 3. Klavdiia Antipina and “Misha.” time of her move to Moscow. c. 1922. Moscow, c. 1930.

33