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Imaging the Invisibles: Cross-Dressing and Gender Play in the French Caribbean

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Imaging the Invisibles: Cross-Dressing and Gender Play in the French Caribbean IMAGING THE INVISIBLES: CROSS-DRESSING AND GENDER PLAY IN THE FRENCH CARIBBEAN CHARLOTTE HAMMOND Royal Holloway, University of London Submitted for the degree of PhD in Drama and French 2014 DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP I, Charlotte Hammond, hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: C A Hammond Date: 18 September 2014 ABSTRACT Imaging the Invisibles: Cross-dressing and Gender Play in the French Caribbean This thesis explores visual and embodied representations of the practice of cross- dressing in Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe and diasporic communities in France. The study examines the strategic performativity of dress as both a covert and overt means of resistance to the gendering, racialization and categorization of bodies during slavery. It pays particular attention to anti-colonial tactics of mimicry, masquerade and mirroring, as deployed in the artistic practices of contemporary Caribbean, diasporic and non-Caribbean film and performance makers. Underpinned by archival research into early performance activities and the historical control of bodies and dress during the Haitian revolutionary period (1791-1804), the study focuses on current expressions of cross-dressing in films and other visual media that negotiate and question this colonial and patriarchal paradigm. It interrogates to what extent corporeal stereotypes that continue to circulate as a legacy of French colonialism are repeated, re-configured and challenged through the performative power of dress, and includes close analysis of identities that cross gender, racial and class binaries in the African-derived religious tradition of Vodou. Beyond textual and historical analysis, the research includes a small scale qualitative audience study of selected works of my corpus, within both the context of the islands and metropolitan France. In its interrogation of these three aspects the thesis draws on Édouard Glissant’s theories of opacity and relationality (1981; 1990) with specific reference to cross-dressing and its reception in particular colonial/postcolonial contexts. The accompanying research blog can be accessed at: <http://leblogdehammond.wordpress.com/>. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... 6 A NOTE ON TRANSLATIONS ................................................................................. 8 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 9 1 COSTUMING COLONIAL RESISTANCE IN THE NEW WORLD ........ 60 2 CHILDREN OF THE GODS: CROSS-GENDER EXPRESSION AND HEALING IN DES HOMMES ET DES DIEUX ................................................... 94 3 IMAGING THE INVISIBLES: FLIPPING THE COLONIAL GAZE IN HAITIAN VODOU ................................................................................................ 125 4 SPECTATORS EN TRAVESTI ..................................................................... 156 5 DRESSED TO KILL: OPACITY AND MASQUERADE IN CLAIRE DENIS’S J’AI PAS SOMMEIL ............................................................................. 190 CONCLUSION: THE REGARDED SELF ......................................................... 230 WORKS CITED ...................................................................................................... 240 GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................. 264 4 TABLE OF FIGURES FIGURE 1: VÉVÉ BEING SKETCHED OUT IN CORNMEAL FOR EZILI AT A VODOU SEREMONI IN PORT-AU-PRINCE, 2011. ................................................................. 37 FIGURE 2: MARIAGE BURLESQUE MASQUERADERS WITH THE PLASTIC SYSTEM BAND, LUNDI GRAS IN LAMENTIN, MARTINIQUE, 2012. .................................................. 53 FIGURE 3: LEAH GORDON, KANAVAL 2010. ................................................................ 86 FIGURE 4: FILM STILL: DES HOMMES. DENIS TALKS ABOUT MOTHERHOOD AGAINST IMAGES OF HIS SPIRITUAL MOTHER, EZILI DANTÒ, IN THE BACKGROUND.. ........ 101 FIGURE 5: THE MARIAGE BURLESQUE OF THE PLASTIC SYSTEM BAND CARNIVAL GROUP IN LAMENTIN, MARTINIQUE, LUNDI GRAS, 2012. ................................... 106 FIGURE 6: FILM STILL: DES HOMMES. BLONDINE AND INNOCENTE GET READY FOR A NIGHT OUT IN THE LOCAL HAIR SALON. .............................................................. 122 FIGURE 7: LEAH GORDON BOUNDA PA BOUNDA 2010. .............................................. 134 FIGURE 8: FILM STILLS. LEAH GORDON BOUNDA PA BOUNDA 2008. ......................... 137 FIGURE 9: RICHARD COURCET AS CAMILLE IN CLAIRE DENIS'S J’AI PAS SOMMEIL, 1994 .......................................................................................................................... 213 FIGURE 10: FILM STILL. J’AI PAS SOMMEIL. CLAIRE DENIS, 1994. ............................. 219 FIGURE 11: LYLE ASHTON HARRIS. IN THE WORLD THROUGH WHICH I TRAVEL, 1990, B+W PRINT, EDITIONS 30X20, ‘72 X 48’ JACK TILTON GALLERY, NEW YORK. .. 239 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr. Hannah Thompson in French and Professor Helen Gilbert in Drama, whose tremendous support and encouragement has been invaluable throughout this project. I have benefited hugely from Hannah’s guidance on all things Francophone and her astute understanding of visual practices, whilst Helen’s expertise and supervision in the areas of postcolonial theory and performance has greatly ameliorated my thinking and writing on Caribbean culture. I am very grateful to Royal Holloway for the support they have provided over the past four years and the Arts and Humanities Research Council for awarding me a scholarship for my PhD studies. I would also like to thank colleagues in the departments of Drama and French for their ongoing feedback and encouragement during seminars, forums and colloquia. I am deeply indebted to colleagues at l’Université des Antilles et de la Guyane (UAG) in Martinique, who supported my research whilst I was working there. In particular my thanks go to: Dominique Aurélia, Bruce Jno-Baptiste, Corinne Le Sergent and members of the Genre et Culture research group at the Centre de Recherches sur les Pouvoirs Locaux dans la Caraïbe (CRPLC). I am also grateful to the support and generosity of Chantal Sacarabany at Cine Woule in Fort- de-France, all at AIDES Martinique, Anna-Louise Milne at ULIP, and the students of Lycée Victor Duruy in Paris, without whom my audience study would not have been possible. I would also like to acknowledge the support of Darren Waldron and Barbara LeBrun at Manchester University, whose initial advice in putting together my PhD proposal, was crucial in shaping the methodological structure of my project. Mesi anpil to my artist/scholar friends in Haiti and all the Ghetto Biennale crew, including Leah Gordon, Macha Kasparian, Abson Janvier, Jonas Labase, Kwynn Johnson, Anne Lescot, Paul Humphrey, David Frohnapfel. A special note of thanks is due to my family and friends in the UK for their love, support and oft-needed diversion over the past few years. My father, David Hammond, has encouraged me throughout, and I am very grateful for his unstinting 6 belief in my ability. My gratitude also extends to my partner, Joe Sudlow, whose patience and understanding has seen me through the final stages of my studies. Finally, this thesis is dedicated to my mother, Anne Evelina Hammond, who sadly did not live to see me complete my PhD. I will always remember her magically fabricating outfits minutes before we had to leave the house, swearing at the sewing machine and sending me to school clad in non-regulation uniform, saying: ‘who wants to look like everyone else anyway!’ 7 A NOTE ON TRANSLATIONS Unless otherwise stated, all translations are my own. Quotations in French or Creole are first provided in quotation marks in the text, followed by the English translation, italicised and placed in parentheses. In the case of short phrases or words, where the meaning is evident from the context, no translation is provided. 8 INTRODUCTION ‘Dans le monde où je m’achemine, je me crée interminablement.’ In the world through which I travel, I am endlessly creating myself. (Frantz Fanon, Peau noire, masques blancs 186 ; trans. Charles Lam Markmann Black Skin 229) ‘Sa ou pa konnen pi gran pase’w.’ That which you don’t know is greater than you. (Haitian proverb) On the 28 April 2014 the Martinique-based organisation KAP Caraïbe, who offer Konsey, Aide, Prevansyion (Advice, Help, Prevention) to sexual minorities on the French Caribbean island, lodged a formal complaint against the social networking site Facebook at the crown court of the capital, Fort-de-France. Their protest came in response to the Facebook page, ‘Les masques tombent’ (The masks are falling), set up by a user on the 29 March to ‘out’ men in Martinique who allegedly have sexual relations with other men. According to several metropolitan-based media sources, these ‘outings’ were published on the social media network after a mobile phone belonging to a homosexual travesti, or cross-dresser, found its way into homophobic hands.1 The phone contained messages archiving a number of liaisons between the biologically male travesti and various self-proclaiming ‘heterosexual’ Martinican men. The messages were then re-posted on the Facebook page inciting homophobic comments, several of which were posted in Creole. This case demonstrates
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