Special Articles

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES IN INDIA Dacca division, populated mostly by Muslims By Sir R. N. CHOPRA, c.i.e., m.a., m.d., sc.d., (67 per cent). This area is mainly agricultural, and of alcohol on f.r.c.p. (Lond.) therefore the consumption is, the much lower here than in the other colonel, i.m.s. (Retd.) whole, parts of the province. G. S. CHOPRA, m.b., b.s. Pachwai or handia or mama, i.e., fermented liquor and brewed from rice or millet, is drunk chiefly by the both I. C. CHOPRA, m.r.c.s. (Eng.), l.r.c.p. (Lond.), aboriginal tribes in several districts and is used as a stimulant and as a food. It is the favourite drink d.t.m. (Cal.) of the lower classes, particularly the aboriginals. {From the School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta) Except in Darjeeling, where pachwai is chiefly made from millet, rice is mainly used for its production. Part II Free home-brewing of pachwai is permitted only f?r private to the tribes in a few in consumption aboriginal Consumption of country spirits and beers districts during the annual Bandhana and Pons different provinces Sankranti festivals. Wanchu, a variety of fermented liquor, prepared from is sometimes used by the In this section an is made to review rice, attempt Chinese in Calcutta on ceremonial occasions for which the present position of the use of different temporary permission is obtainable. alcoholic beverages in different provinces with special reference to the conditions which deter- Table VI mine their in these areas. consumption Number of licences issued for retail sale home- 1. The Bengal Presidency.?The consumption brewing and manufacture of pachwai on special of country liquor in 1936-37 was 364,589 proof occasions in Bengal Presidency:? gallons which amounts to 73 proof gallons per ' thousand of the population. The name country Retail 1,145 spirit' in Bengal applies to unsophisticated Home-brew 61,406 spirit made locally from mohua and molasses. Manufacture on special occasions 633 The standard varies from 25 strength degrees Total 63,184 and 75 degrees' underproof. The causes which determine the consumption of alcoholic drinks in this presidency are the comparatively small The migration of the aboriginal tribes to Burdwan, urban population, especially towards the west, Birbhum, Bankura and Murshidabad districts, which adjoin Chota and has the use of the fair percentage of Mohammedans in Nagpur Behar, spread chiefly pachwai all over this province, especially in the western the eastern and the industrial districts, large and northern districts bordering the Chota Nagpur hills population extending from Calcutta to Asansol and the Himalayas. In the northern and eastern in the north-west along the railway lines and parts of Bengal, comprising the Darjeeling district, Sikkim and Bhutan borders, the use of a different in the coalfields.- From a careful survey of the kind of beer called marua is in vogue. consumption of spirits in different areas it has been concluded that the presidency can be 2. Behar.?The consumption of country divided into three district zones : (1) the town of liquor during the year 1939-40 amounted to Calcutta, its suburbs, and the adjoining industrial 640,426.5 proof gallons, roughly 3 proof gallons areas of Burdwan and Hooghly; (2) the per 1,000 of the population. Country liquor is Darjeeling district and the adjoining tea gardens; mostly consumed in Patna division, in two dis- and (3) the Eastern Bengal zone comprising the tricts of Bhagalpore division and in two districts May, 1942J ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES IN INDIA : R. N., G. S. & I. C. CHOPRA 291

of Chota Nagpur division. The districts of pointed out, the area of highest consumption of Patna and Arrah form part of a compact and spirits in this province adjoins Behar, areas Well-defined alcohol-consuming area which in- between the Ganges and the Jamuna rivers, and cludes the adjoining Benares and parts of in the north up to Lucknow. Most of the con- Allahabad divisions and almost the whole sumption of the country spirit is confined to of the Oudli in the United Provinces. The cause the large cities and cantonments?Allahabad, of the high consumption of country spirit in Bareilly, Cawnpore, Gorakhpore, Mirzapore, these areas appears to be more ethnological than Lucknow and Faizabad. In other districts of these pro- occupational. In the both plain and spiced country spirits has been province vinces the place of country spirits are used. The chief bases used for the manufacture of taken by other intoxicants such as ganja and country spirit are mahua flowers and molasses. The opium. The only exception is Manbhum dis- admixture of these in varying proportions is also trict with the of coal min- employed. The eastern districts prefer spirit manufac- where, development tured from viahua or a mixture of mahua and molasses, the use of has also increased. ing industry, liquor but the western districts generally prefer spirit distilled The consumption is also somewhat higher in from pure molasses. The Tharus of Gonda and Monghyr where the people have a racial ten- Bahraich districts and the Bhutias of Kumaun use as a base for the of while the towards and where high cash wages gram production spirit, dency drink, inhabitants of certain of Naini Tal district manu- are to the in parts paid employees railway workshops facture pachwai or rice beer. at Jamalpur. Special exemption from the excise laws and rules in certain localities.?The Bhutias are while Pachwai or handia is the universal drink of the exempted, within the of Dharma and Johar and aboriginal tribes such as Sonthals and Bhils inhabiting residing parganas at Bholia Parao at Dharchula in the of Chota Nagpur hills which comprise the district of the pargana in the district and in Painkhanda Ranchi, Hazaribagh and parts of Sonthal Parganas. Askot Almora pargana in the Garhwal district of the Kumaun division, from The total number of licences issued during the year all those of the United Provinces Excise for retail sale was 445, and the total number of home- provisions Act of which the manufacture of brewing licences was 2,659. These licences were issued (IV 1910), prohibit under a licence and the of in the districts of Champaran, Bhagalpore and Purnea. liquor exempt possession in excess of retail that Tari is largely used in Gaya, Monghyr, Saran, liquor quantities, provided any which manufacture or is used for and Darbhanga, and is obtained from liquor they possess Muzaffarpur domestic and not for sale. The coconut and other palm trees. consumption only inhabitants of Jaunsar Bawar in the Dehra Dun dis- 3. Orissa.?In this province the general trict, which lies outside the town of the Kalsi and picture of addiction to alcoholic drugs is almost Chakrata cantonment, are exempt from the provisions of the Act, in so far as they are permitted to manu- with that of Behar. The identical consumption facture spirituous and fermented liquors, known as of country spirit during the year 1936-37 sur and rabra respectively, without any licence. 1 amounted to 109,562.2 proof gallons, roughly Other country fermented liquors.?Sendhi, a kindred 17 of the The drink to tari, made from the sap of the wild date palm gallons per 1,000 population. Phoenix is also sometimes used. Darbahra is is in of the sylvestris, highest consumption parts agency a variety of country beer obtained by fermentation of tracts in Balliguda, G. Udayagire and Khond- various herbs. This very slightly alcoholic beverage mals in Ganjam district. is used to a limited extent in the Azamgarh district. Buza is a fermented liquor made from rice and is and is Tari is the sap of the palm tree, used either very little used now. In the western districts of the freshly drawn from the tree or after fermentation. The United Provinces hemp preparations and opium are date is the only variety of palm tree from which tari commonly used in place of country beers. is drawn in this province. Last year 3,054 trees were 5. The Punjab.?The common country spirit used in tapped. the Punjab is prepared by the addition of flavours and Pachwai.?Liquor brewed from pachvmi with the help spices to plain spirits, care being taken, for excise of a rami fermenting agent known as bakkar is used purposes, that the product does not resemble any in certain this The drink are parts of province. goes by foreign spirit. Plain spirits also used and are various names?pachwai, handia, henda, paindan and distilled from cane sugar. of sooram. This is the favourite beverage aboriginals. In 1939, the issues of spiced country spirit for con- The retail shops numbering 60 for pachwai are mostly sumption in the Punjab amounted to 317,156 gallons situated in Balasore and Sambalpur districts. Besides as against 82,758 gallons of plain spirit. The total there were 846 licences issued for home-brewing. The consumption of both varieties amounted to chief consumers are Bhuinyas, Kols, and Santals. 399,914 gallons. The consumption of spiced country licences for on Special manufacture of pachwai festive spirit is encouraged because its use creates a demand are occasions issued to these tribes. for a drink which the illicit distillers are unable to supply. In the Punjab the proportion of urban 4. United Provinces.?The. total popu- consumption lation to the rural population is almost the same as of country spirit during 1938-39 amounted to in the United Provinces, with the difference that there 327,925 proof gallons which works out to 7.1 are about 53 per cent Mohammedans in this province. Therefore the highest is confined to defi- proof per of the The consumption gallons 1,000 population. nite areas comprising the central districts of factors the of alcohol mainly influencing consumption Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur, Jullundur, and Ludhiana, in the United Provinces constitute (a) the larger which are largely populated by Sikhs. Besides the number of towns in this province compared above areas the consumption is also fairly high in the towns and cantonments of Ambala and with and (b) the low percentage per Simla, others, (14 In the northern and western of Mohammedans. The actual Rawalpindi. districts, cent) consump- which are mostly populated and tion by Mohammedans, of liquor is believed to be higher than that in the southern and eastern parts which are indicated the excise returns. This is due to predominantly Hindu, the consumption of country by is the fact that a large amount of illicitly manu- spirit comparatively low. The country beers are used in areas factured is used the cultivators?a only scattered liquor by of the Himalayas. The varieties known as sur and thing it is difficult to prevent. As already lugri and chang are the favourite drinks in the hill 292 THE INDIAN MEDICAL GAZETTE [May, 1942 tracts of the Kangra district, and in the parts of and Broach districts?which form more or less western Himalayas from Kashmir in the extending a continuous tract of land. This area records the north and to Lahoul, Spiti and Kangar. Home-brewing of these beers is allowed "in certain areas under licence. highest consumption. No tari is used in this province. II. Second zone comprises the towns of 6. North-West Frontier Province.?In this Ahmedabad, Nasik, Belgaon, Satara, Sholapur, Dharwar and Hubli which are all industrial province over 90 per cent of the people are Mohammedans, who have a strong feeling centres. zone coasts dis- against the use of alcohol, and the population is III. Third comprises south tricts The for the most part rural. The of of Kanara and Ratnagiri. backward consumption show liquor, therefore, is much lower in this province districts of Panchmahal and Kaira also than perhaps in any other part of India. The high consumption. in first zone may total consumption of country spirit during the The high consumption the be due to the factors :? year 1939-40 was 10,114 L.P. gallons, and is following confined mainly to the large towns. The (0 The natural inclination of the people for drink; habit of drinking exists amongst the work- (ii) the large fluctuating population in these areas; only the and the better and middle classes in the towns. The (Hi) damp unhealthy climate; (iv) ing economic conditions, such as high cash wages earned present rise in consumption can be attributed by the mill hands in the mill areas and by the labourers to the contact with other provinces, and mainly and the fishermen in the sea, and (u) general prosperity to the large population. No country and high standard of living. In Khandesh practically military the whole Wanis and beer or tari is used in this population, except Brahmins, province. indulge in the use of liquor. is the Guzar-kunbis, 7. The Madras Presidency.?Arrack The high consumption in the towns and industrial name given to distilled spirit used in this presi- areas is due to the large proportion of the labour dency. In South Kanara district, spirits dis- population belonging to races amongst whom drinking is and it also be due to the tilled from cashew are common, may partly very popular. During nature of their work which necessitates the use of the year 1938 the total consumption of country stimulants. spirits amounted to 999,685 proof gallons, which In the south-coast areas the high consumption is the works out to be 22.6 proof gallons per 1,000 of attributed to the damp and unhealthy climate, the In this the Moham- natural inclination of the inhabitants of these areas population. presidency to drink, and also to the better economic condi- medan is 6.4 and for partly population only per cent, tions of the people. this reason the of alcohol is com- consumption Toddy, both fresh and fermented, is used throughout paratively high. The agricultural classes con- the presidency. There are three kinds of licences, viz, sume a large amount of toddy. The Madras shop licences, tree-foot booth licences and licences for domestic are and cities and the cantonment areas consumption. The domestic licences Bellary issued mostly in certain talukas of Panchmahal ? also showed a the other dis- Surat, high consumption; and Poona and Kaira districts. Tari consumption is tricts with a high consumption were Vizaga- very high in Surat, Thana and Ratnagiri districts and patam and South Arcot. Sweet toddy is used in the town and island of Bombay. in East West in certain agency tracts Godaveri, In Panchmahal and Kaira districts the chief of Guntur and Nellore dis- Godaveri and part consumers are Bhils and other aboriginal tribes tricts. Fermented tari and Malabar arrack who indulge in illicit distillation. distilled from are used in South (spirit tari) 9. Sindh.?Seventy-six per cent of the Kanara. In this presidency tari is drawn from population of Sindh is Mohammedan. The the or date and coconut, sago, palmyra palms well-to-do Sindhis are addicted to various sorts dadasal trees. of spiced-liquor, drinking of the plain or cheaper In most of the areas the use of fermented country liquors left for the poorer classes. There beers has been tari. The fermented being replaced by country is a industrial and beers, such as londa handa and sonti saru, are sometimes fairly large drinking popula- tion used by the fishermen on the coast. The grant of in the city of Karachi. The total con- licences for its sale was stopped in 1897-98, because sumption during the year 1937,-38 amounted to of the availability of a more wholesome fermented 109.399 proof gallons. is large or tari. In the southern districts a drink Consumption liquor toddy in the towns of Kotri, known as akki bhoja is largely used, particularly in Karachi, Hyderabad, Mysore plateau in Miland. The brewing and con- Shikarpur, Sukkur and Rori. Toddy is sold sumption of liquors is subject to little or no control only in the towns of Karachi and its suburbs, in the non-regulated tracts of the Madras Presidency. Hyderabad, Sakhar and Dadu districts. The 8. The Bombay Presidency.?The total con- total consumption during the year 1937-38 sumption of country spirit during the year amounted to 42,682 gallons. Tari is used in 1937-38 amounted to 1,054,518 proof gallons. Karachi district. The Bombay Presidency used to consume 10. Central Provinces and Berar.?The total approximately one-third of the total liquors consumption of country spirits during the year drunk in India. The consumption in this pro- 1939 amounted to 512,757 proof gallons. The vince before the enforcement of prohibition used population of the Central Provinces is mostly to be nearly five times as much as in any other aboriginal in the hilly districts and agricultural province of India. With regard to the con- in the districts to the north and south of of it is sumption liquor convenient to divide the Satpura range. It is partly agricultural and province into the following three zones :? partly industrial in the cotton-growing areas, I. First zone consists of Bombay town, and such as Nagpur, Akila and Amraoti districts. its suburbs?Kolaba, Thana Surat, Khandesh These factors determine the consumption of May, 1942] ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES IN INDIA : R. N., G. S. & I. C. CHOPRA 293 liquors in these areas. The highest consump- Some of these tribes never drink water, but tion of alcohol is recorded in Bhandara, a rich always take beers. district at the foot of the hills. Chanda, Tari is consumed in Goalpara, Ivamrup, Nowgong districts. The of tari Ellichpur and Mandla are largely inhabited by and Lakhimpur consumption _ affects the sale of to a extent tribes who consume beers. country spirit certain aboriginal country the tari season in these areas. The of In the is during tapping Chatthisgarh division, consumption tari and its sale, in an unfermented state, is exempt lower in Raipore and Bilaspur, which are from all excise restrictions. It is reported that this inhabited by Satnami Chamars. The local privilege is being abused in many places. For the convenience of the made fermentation from the sap indigenous population liquor by simple and the aboriginal tribes residing in the province, free of trees is also to taxation. The palm subject home-brewing of pachioai for home consumption is consumption of this liquor is confined almost allowed up to a prescribed limit, and permits, free of entirely to the Nagpur, Bhandara, Chanda, charge, for brewing of -pachwai on ceremonial occasions, excess the are Jubbulpore, and Chhindwara districts. in of prescribed limits, issued to such Wardha, persons, on request. Such permits are, however, not Toddy.?Total consumption of toddy during the year required by the aboriginal tribes living in the hills it is used all over 1939 amounted to 490,165 gallons; and Frontier tracts, provided they act up to such the provinces. Tree-tapping licences are granted to instructions as the Deputy Commissioner or the Madia Gonds of Chanda district and also to certain Political Officer concerned may issue at his discretion. other classes in Wardha, Akola, Saugor and Yeotmal The total number of such permits issued during the Nimar and districts. districts, Hoshangabad, Saugor year 1939-40 was 303 against 159 in the preceding year. of to 11. Coorg.?The population Coorg appears be As a result of the low economic condition of the people largely addicted to the daily use of alcohol, many of in general, and the low earning capacity of tea garden a them earn daily wages. There is also certain amount coolies in particular, the above privileges are much of consumption of toddy. The consumption of country abused in almost all the districts. The consumption of spirit in 1938 amounted to 9,963.2 proof gallons with pachwai affects the sale_ of country spirit to a consider- an incidence of 151.4 gallons per 1,000 of the popu- able extent, more particularly in the tea districts. lation, the highest in India. in this is not Toddy.?Unfermented toddy province Causes affecting consumption of alcoholic to any taxation. Fermented toddy is used all subject DRINKS over the province and there were 47 licences issued the 1940. during year A. Predisposing causes 12. Ajmer Merivara.?The rate of consump- I. Ethnological factors.?The question of is in other tion here higher than any province race is a very important factor. To quote the except Coorg. Consumption of country spirit majority conclusions of the Research Committee during the year 1938 was 61,461 proof gallons appointed by the Society for the Study of with an incidence of 103.3 gallons per 1,000 of Inebriety, races that have long been exposed the population. This appears to be largely due to the action of alcohol have grown more and to (1) the presence of extensive railway work- more temperate. For example, Greeks, Italians, shops of the B. B. and C. I. Ry., and (2) on people of Southern France, Spaniards, Portu- a of account of its being popular place pilgrimage. guese and the Jews, who have been most 13. Baluchistan.?The consumption of exposed to the action of alcohol, have grown country spirit during the year 1938 in the more temperate. The nations of Northern Agency was 20,756.2 proof gallons, confined to Europe, on the other hand, who have been com- Quetta and to a few other stations and villages paratively less exposed to the action of alcohol, mostly along the railway lines. The population for example the British, the Scandinavians and is mostly Mohammedans who do not take the Russians, are more prone to drink; whereas alcohol. most uncivilized races, such as the Esquimoes, 14. Assam.?The consumption of country the Red Indians, the aboriginal inhabitants of liquors amounted to 312,796 proof gallons during Australia and others who have had little or no of are the year 1940. The low price of molasses, racial experience alcohol, more prone to owing to the development of the sugar industry excessive drinking. Some of these races have and cheapness of rice, has given impetus to illicit been wiped out by the excessive use of alcoholic distillation, which is carried on mostly by the drinks. West Africans are an exception to this Nepalese tea garden coolies who are well versed rule; they are comparatively temperate, but in this art. Country spirit is used chiefly in they consume a lot of palm wine. This rule in towns. Recently the consumption has gone up also holds good India. In this country the on account of opium prohibition. In Assam, the habit of drinking and drunkenness is much consumption of beverages such as zu, irmdh, and commoner amongst the aboriginal races, when laopani is universal and these are the main an opportunity is offered to them, than amongst beverages of the aboriginal hill tribes. They those that are more cultured. The Aryans and have also been adopted by some of the lower the white races, who introduced the use of Indian working classes, such as the tea garden alcohol from their original home in Central Asia, coolies. Consumption of these beers is almost have grown more temperate, while the races universal and extends along the border of the such as the Sonthals, Bliils, Gonds, Nagas and hill Himalayas right up to the Shan States in other tribes belonging to the aboriginal Burma. Little control appears to be exercised stock, who have been less exposed to the use of over their production in these areas. Further alcohol, are more prone to excesses, when an east, marua is used in Sikkim and the neighbour- opportunity is offered. It was observed that ing hills, zu is the popular drink with the Nagas. these races, although they are ordinarily given 294 ? THE INDIAN MEDICAL GAZETTE [May, 1942

to the use of country beers, always drink to hilly tracts between Chota Nagpur and excess if they can get stronger distilled liquors. Godaveri, the use of these liquors is considered is common Drunkenness always when economic essential. Men, women, and children all conditions allow primitive peoples to buy indulge, there being no restriction as to caste stronger alcoholic drinks.. Fortunately, this is or creed. Among the Sonthals and Bhumji not often the case, their means usually not tribes of Chota Nagpur, fermented liquors are allowing them to go beyond the cheap beers. considered to be indispensable at funerals, II. Climatic factor.?Taking the influence of marriages and other ceremonial occasions. climate, and treating India as a whole, it has Mohammedans are forbidden by their religion been observed that the consumption of fer- to take alcohol, and for that reason in the mented and weak distilled liquors generally Western Himalayas, where the population is prevails in areas of heavy rainfall, e.g., in the predominantly Mohammedan, these liquors are mountainous and sub-mountainous tracts of the not much used. Himalayas, Chota Nagpur and along the West- IV. Occupation.?This is perhaps a more ern Ghats. Weak alcoholic beverages, such as important factor than caste and religion in country beers, are commonly believed to be a influencing the consumption of alcoholic drinks. necessity of life for dwellers in malarious tracts. A departure from the pursuit of agriculture has In drier climates, such as those of the Punjab, commonly the effect of weakening the traditional Sindh and the United Provinces and parts of restrictions against indulgence in alcohol, an Bengal and Bombay Presidencies, where greater effect which is enhanced by the difficulty of extremes of heat and cold prevail, strong spirits maintaining the old customs under the more are more commonly used. complex town life. The conditions of employ- III. Religious and social factors.?Religious ment in Indian factories and industries, such as and caste factors also determine to a large jute, cotton, coal and mining, cause the workers extent the use of liquor in this country. The to feel the need of a stimulant after the day's use of alcoholic drinks is prohibited among work is done, and the high wages enable them Mohammedans and certain classes of Hindus, to satisfy this desire. The mill hands in such as Jains and Vaishnavities, and prohibition Calcutta, Bombay and other industrial towns, is strictly observed by the two last named. such as Cawnpore, are a good example. It is for reason a of Generally speaking, among the upper and middle this that about dozen the large strata of society of India, drinking is uncom- cities in India with the bulk of the industrial mon except in moderation; this is especially the population consume approximately one-fourth case among those who take to European habits of the total alcoholic" drinks consumed in India. and customs, such as the Mohammedans and There are other factors, such as the presence most of the high caste Hindus. In the Tantric of a floating population at the time of certain 1 sect of Saktas ', on the other hand, drinking is fairs or gatherings, which lead to a heavy con- not only permissible but is even enjoined both sumption of alcohol. We have observed that 40 for personal use and worship. A similar prac- during festivals the consumption goes up by to 80 tice prevails among many of the most backward per cent in certain localities. castes, notably on the east coast of Madras V. Belief in medicinal value.?When a rela- ' and in the forest tracts between Chota Nagpur tive or friend is out of sorts' or ' feeling and Godaveri. Amongst the dhobis of the seedy', a man habituated to liquor often sug- Punjab and the United Provinces, an offender is gests a dose as a prophylactic or curative. required, as a caste punishment, to provide There is a belief amongst certain sections of drink for the panchayet of the caste. This cus- population in this country that the use of tom also prevails in certain other parts of India alcoholic beverages is a necessity as it keeps out among the lower working classes, such as damp and cold, and is a prophylactic against Chamars, on religious grounds. Recently malaria, cough and colds. there have been big demonstrations in Bombay VI. As source of vitamins and over prohibition brought in the Congress digestive by adjuncts.?Beers are as Government of that province and also by the generally regarded stimulating, refreshing and Parsees, for similar reasons. The use of thirst-quenching beverages that have a definite food value. is considered necessary at religious and pachwai to done in our social festivals According analysis laboratory, by Sonthals, Garros, Koch, most of them contained 1.4 of and Mandais, and other abori- gm. sugar Dhangars, Tipperas 0.6 gm. albuminoids 100 there is no ginal tribes. The Sonthals, especially the per c.cm.; doubt therefore regarding their food value. In women, object to the use of pachwai that is fact they have the combined value of a food and bought from a shop. a stim Jant. The quantities of carbon dioxide There is a belief the hill general amongst and other substances present may even promote tribes that fermented liquors are less injurious digestion by stimulating various digestive juices, than distilled The use of these fer- spirits. and thus they may act as adjuncts in facilitating mented is not liquors only permitted but it is the digestion of other foods. They also supply encouraged by custom. On the occasions of quantities of salts of potassium and sodium, many of the backward religious worship, among calcium phosphate, etc., which are among the races inhabiting the Western Ghats and in the more important of minerals required for the May, 19421 ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES IN INDIA : R. N., G. S. & I. C. CHOPRA 295

repair of the tissues after the wear and tear of general have a direct influence on the consump- hard physical exertion. tion of alcohol. Consumption rises in good It is known that of all well plants kinds, years and falls in bad years; it falls to the including lower forms of vegetable growth, con- minimum during famine years. The present tain water-soluble substances which promote authors observed that the consumption rises growth and nutrition. Brewer's yeast is a after the harvest season in the Punjab, when recognized source of vitamin. The crude beers people have plenty to eat. Furthermore, con- which contain both moulds and yeasts should sumption in the shops in the mill areas rises therefore form very rich sources of water-soluble higher on pay days than on other work days. vitamins to the and and belonging groups Bx B2, X. of also vitamin C. Most of the Epidemics.?Outbreaks epidemics, probably people such as cholera and plague may also be accom- who take beer are habitually country very panied by a large increase in the consumption and cannot secure for themselves poor, always of liquors owing to the people taking liquor, a varied diet all the re- containing principles in the belief that it is a prophylactic for nutrition. Our have partly quired proper inquiries and partly to overcome the fear of the disease. convinced us that the of such tribes majority This tendency was clearly observed in the last are on a restricted and some- subsisting poor, great epidemic in the Punjab during of a monotonous plague times unbalanced diet and it has been observed in other character. It is that 1902, remarkable, however, epidemics since. these are free from primitive people particularly XI. Relation to other intoxicants.?It is of any of the diseases which have deficiency interest to discuss here the con- havoc in some of the world. The comparative wrought parts of other forms of intoxicants used in beers have been shown to be rich sources of sumption India with alcohol and how their con- vitamins and it is not that the along unlikely supply affects that of An of vitamins their agency is responsible sumption liquor. attempt through made to the con- for the absence of diseases in these has been compare deficiency in different communities. Yeasts, which also occur in these sumption per annum, provin- also contain and ces, of spirits, country beers, opium, bhang, beers, haematopoietic principles, and charas. The of alcoholic have been used in the treatment ganja, popularity they successfully area of anaemia. beverages in the same may vary from time to time to the fluctuations in of VII. As of the common alcoholic according prices food.?Most different intoxicants. The sometimes used in India have a considerable people beverages take to instead of when the food value. the of fermentation toddy spirit prices During process of are This is a common occur- are converted spirits high. many undigestible carbohydrates rence in South Surat and Konkan into more assimilable The Kanara, readily sugars. districts in the south. nutritive value of rice beers, such as pcichwai A remarkable instance of of and zu, is undoubtedly substantial. The Nagas very change the increase of never drink milk or use milk as a food; they stimulants, following taxation, is that of to beers in drink zu in their own homes. people resorting country always prepared where In the mountainous regions of India where Bombay and Madras Presidencies the taxation in distilled has been raised to a economic conditions are poor and the natural spirits level. craving for a stimulant is greater, on account high of climatic the use of beers conditions, country B. Exciting causes and spirits, offered at prices commensurate with Ease of access to alcoholic must, the means of the people, has been in vogue from beverages be considered as an very early times. These mild drinks are to the important causative factor in to their use. It poor what the different varieties of expensive leading regular has been found the habit is alcoholic liquors are to the well-to-do. that drinking easily picked up and is common amongst the tribes VIII. .4 s a the most quite aboriginal euphoric.?For part and in families where some other people resort to alcoholic drinks in order to tide members of the family take alcohol. The use of alcohol is over the feeling of exhaustion after a day's universal amongst the tribes who are allowed to hard labour in the fields, in the tea gardens or manufacture their own drinks or who the winter season. Pachwai is have easy during trying access to it. used all the male and female by practically The workers in the coal mine areas of and important precipitating or immediate Bengal causes of habitual use of Bihar, and is usually indulged in after the day's alcohol are related to the previous uses of such in medical labour is done. The work is so hard, uninter- beverages treatment, to for esting and monotonous that it would be difficult self-treatment the relief of pain, to recourse to emotional for them to get through it every day without drugs during stress. In an carried out their beer. The quantities taken are often investigation by the present over 50 cent of the moderate, just sufficient to relieve the feeling of authors, per habitues attributed their addiction to fatigue and ensure sound sleep. The prospect contact or association with other of getting it is often an incentive for work. habitues, to a desire for to to obtain a IX. Economic conditions.?All circumstances experience, satisfy curiosity, thrill, or to their use during emotional distress. which affect the prosperity of the people in {Concluded on next page) (Continued jrom previous page) The persons below 30 years all attributed their addiction to contact and association with other habitues. Ten per cent of cases attributed it to the previous use of drugs in medical treat- ment and to self-administration for the relief of pain. The underlying causes of habitual use of alcohol are related to the inherent constitutional make-up of the individual. Individuals with unstable nervous systems are more prone to the habitual use of alcohol and other drug habits than those with a stable constitution. This is one way of saying that those with mild psychic disorders or those with a variable proportion of mental abberation are more prone to alcoholic excess. An approach to the partial solution of narcotic drug addiction must therefore take into account the mental and hygienic factors in- volved. In a series, which was accessible to us for study and observation, more than one-fourth attributed their addiction to the previous use of these drugs in medical treatment or to self- treatment for the relief of pain. The others began at the instance or company of a friend or associate.

(Part III will appear in our next issue)