ISSN 1810-0775

al fe Tradition rmented food and beverages for improved livelihoods )$2'LYHUVLÀFDWLRQERRNOHW Diversification booklet number 21

al fe Tradition rmented be food and verages for improved livelihoods

Elaine Marshall and Danilo Mejia

Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome 2011 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO.

ISBN 978-92-5-107074-1

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© FAO 2012 ■■Preface v

■■Acknowledgements vii

■■Introduction 1 ■■The origin and rationale of fermentation: Traditions and culture 1 ■■Diversity of fermented products 3 ■■Fermented foods 4 ■■Traditional beers and wines 6 ■■Market potential 12 ■■Purpose of the booklet 13 Table of contents Table ■■Fermentation and sustainable livelihoods 15 ■■Food security and cultural importance 15 ■■Nutritional value 19 ■■Benefits to small-scale farming systems 22 ■■Adding value 23 ■■Employment benefits 23 ■■Financial rewards 25 ■■Gender development 26 ■■Traditional medicinal value 27

■■Essentials of fermentation 29 ■■What’s involved: Key steps in fermented foods and beverages 29 ■■Fermentation skills and techniques 30 ■■Overview of fermented fruits and vegetables from around the world 32 ■■Overview of fermented grains and cereals from around the world 42 ■■Strategies for successful income generation 53 ■■Market appraisal 53 ■■Marketing strategies 55 ■■Organization for the enterprise 60 ■■Summary 61

■■Support services to promote fermented foods and beverages 63 ■■Public policy 63 ■■Technical training 64 ■■Business skills development 65 ■■Financial services 65 ■■Technology transfer 66 ■■Advisory roles 69

■■Opportunities and challenges 71 ■■Public policy: Regulations and laws 72 ■■Safety and quality 72 ■■Gender issues 72 ■■People with disabilities 73 ■■Enterprise sustainability 73

■■Selected further reading 75

■■Sources of further information and support 79

Table of contents Preface

The purpose of the FAO Diversification booklets is to raise awareness and provide decision support information about opportunities at farm and local community level to increase the incomes of small-scale farmers.

Each booklet focuses on a farm or non-farm enterprise that can be integrated into small farms to increase incomes and enhance livelihoods. The enterprises profiled in the FAO Diversification booklets selected are suitable for smallholder farmers in terms of resource requirements, additional costs, exposure to risk and complexity. The products or services generated by the enterprises are suitable for meeting demand on a growing, or already strong, local market and are not dependent on an export market. However, in this booklet export markets will be considered, because enterprise development, local markets and prices will be influenced by imports.

The main target audience for these booklets are people and organizations that provide advisory, business and technical support services to resource- poor small-scale farmers and local communities in low- and middle-income countries. It is hoped that enough information is given to help these support service providers to consider new income-generating opportunities and how these might enable small-scale farmers to take action. What are the potential benefits? What are farmer requirements and constraints? What are critical ‘success factors’?

The Diversification booklets are also targeted to policy-makers and programme managers in government and non-governmental organizations. What actions might policy-makers take to create enabling environments for small-scale farmers to diversify into new income-generating activities? Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Traditional The Diversification booklets are not intended to be technical ‘how to do it’ guidelines. Readers will need to seek more information or technical support, so as to provide farmer advisory and support activities relating to the introduction of new income-generating activities. To assist in this respect,

v each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support and website addresses.

A CD has been prepared with a full series of Diversification booklets, relevant FAO technical guidelines, together with complementary guidelines on market research, financing, business planning, etc. Copies of the CD are available on request from FAO. FAO Diversification Booklets also can be downloaded from the FAO Internet site.

If you find this booklet of value, we would like to hear from you.Tell your colleagues and friends about it. FAO would welcome suggestions about possible changes for enhancing our next edition or regarding relevant topics for other booklets. By sharing your views and ideas with us we can provide better services to you.

vi Acknowledgements

Gratitude is owed to Doyle Baker, Senior Technical Officer, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division, (AGS), FAO, who provided for a detailed technical review on a previous draft version of this booklet. Special thanks also go to Alexandra Röttger, Agribusiness Economist, (AGS), Stepanka Gallatova, Agro-Industry Officer, (AGS), Divine Njie, Senior Officer, (AGS), and Martin Hilmi, Small Enterprise Management and Marketing Consultant, (AGS), for their reviews, inputs and advice on previous drafts of this booklet.

Acknowledgements for the series Gratitude is owed to Doyle Baker, Senior Technical Officer, Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division (AGS), FAO, for his vision, encouragement and constant support in the development of the FAO Diversification booklet series. Martin Hilmi managed the development, production and post-production of the series and provided technical support and inputs. Michael Breece undertook the design and layout of the booklets and desktop publishing. Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Traditional

vii uh emne pout derives products of fermented diversity such and The value. traditional cultural with and foods beverages fermented of variety self-esteem through incomegeneration. and and independence training their increase can inputs, to access appropriate who, with poor landless and a the disabled women, of livelihoods make the to can contribution important particularly and activities, domestic and traditional other of variety a with combinable highly into recycled be livestock fodder. can largely by- products and is weather, of seasonal, independent itself be harvesting may fermentation substrate Although or income. regular a provide can activity the fermentable that round, of year available substrate diversity a is such There option. enterprise small- scale valuable a via through generation alike, enhanced food security, and income dwellers peri- urban to and rural of contributing livelihoods the role an important play can products Fermented n h wrd hr ae large a are there world the In are activities Fermentation Introduction socio-cultural practices. socio-cultural practices. to household nutrition and to important contributing fermentation, “kitchen” via production of history long a have products Such population. global the of proportion large a of requirements nutritional the meeting in extremely important are which products food and beers traditional wines. fermented many also are There of variety a popularly and alcoholic- notably most – are based fruit and vegetables grain, and from derive products Some of the most popular fermented generations. subsequent to traditional values and cultural by down passed and chance, by about came and unknown were production of methods the that likely highly is it for fermentation. In many instances used by-products and/or staple the cultural and produced are they where world, areas geographical the different preference, in found from theheterogeneityoftraditions ■ methods of food preservation, and and preservation, oldest food the of of methods one salting, is and fermentation drying with Together ■ culture culture fermentation: Traditions and The originandrationaleof 1

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods CASE STUDY 1 Fermented beverages: A 9 000 year history

In 2004 a study confirmed that over 9 000 years ago people of the globe were already fermenting beverages. Ancient organic material preserved in pottery jars from the Neolithic village of Jiahu, in Henan province, Northern China, have revealed, via chemical analyses, that a beverage composed of rice, honey, and fruit was being produced at approximately the same time that barley beer and grape wine were beginning made in the Middle East. Additional liquids, dated at over 3 000 years old were also remarkably preserved inside tightly lidded bronze vessels. These vessels from the capital city of Anyang and an elite burial in the Yellow River Basin, dating to the Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties (ca. 1 250-1 000 B.C.), contained specialized rice and millet “wines.” The beverages had been flavoured with herbs, flowers, and/ or tree resins, and are similar to herbal wines described in the Shang dynasty oracle inscriptions.

Source: Adapted form Science Daily. 2004. 9 000-Year History of Chinese Fermented Beverages Confirmed (Available at http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/12/041206205817.htm) embedded in traditional cultures and periods, by improving the shelf-life village life. Fermentation processes and safety of foods and beverages. are believed to have been developed The importance of fermentation over the years by women, in order to in modern-day life is underlined by preserve food for times of scarcity, the wide spectrum of foods marketed to impart desirable flavour to foods, both in developing and industrialized and to reduce toxicity (Rolle and countries, not only for the benefit of Satin, 2002). Today, fermentation is preservation and safety, but also for their still widely practised as a household highly appreciated sensory attributes. or village-level technology in many Fermented foods are treasured as countries, but comparatively very major dietary constituents in numerous few operations are carried out at an developing countries because of industrial level (Holzapfel, 2002). As their keeping quality under ambient a technology, food fermentation dates conditions - thereby contributing to back at least 6 000 years, and probably food security - and because they add originated from microbial interactions value, enhance nutritional quality and of an acceptable nature (see Case digestibility, improve food safety, Study 1). Fermentation has enabled and are traditionally acceptable and our ancestors in temperate and cooler accessible (Holzapfel, 2002, Rolle regions to survive winter season and and Satin, 2002). Fermentation is a those in the tropics to survive drought low-input enterprise and provides

2 ■ safety ofproducts. also importantly in terms of quality and and 2002) (Holzapfel, industrialization toward developments global of abreast most keeping to challenges of create countries areas low rural existing in technologies and infrastructure limitations in significant advances, technological making biotechnology food modern noted despite context, be this in must and it However, hygiene safety. for those methods, particularly improved to some services is introduce extension there for potential remaining, production traditional technologies cultures, despite many and in embedded is long beverages fermented of The tradition maintained. well generally cultural fermentations are food and in traditions particularities to old areas where rural features in especially consumers, valued become increasingly having quality, overall acceptability and wholesomeness, with fermentation, of the objectives remain principal beverages and foods of nutritious foods. and inexpensive safe, purchasing to access power, limited with individuals including porridges, beverages beverages breads non-alcoholic), porridges, and (alcoholic including ■ Preservation and safeguarding safeguarding and Preservation A products, fermented of diversity Diversity offermentedproducts cultural taboos. is specific with regard to religious and for alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks market the countries, most In 1992). Hampton, and (Fellows preferred are distilled, be not may or may which whereas occasions, in others alcoholic special beverages, on used also are carbonated these countries some and In drinks. soft syrups, nectars, The former include tea, coffee, juices, festivals. including are occasions, special which on consumed and alcoholic those generally and non- alcoholic), (mostly products to quenching thirst used both beverages, also manufacture are vegetables and porridges, gruels, andpickles. breads, including forms various in America, Africa, Latin and Asia, throughout staples as consumed dietary are tubers fermented and roots and cereals Fermented on section the in studies case as presented are many and 1, Box in summarised and fermented 2000), 1999, on 1998, FAO, (see foods FAO series an in publication documented well are These countries. many in raw materials produced inedible and edible are both from 1996) Steinkraus, 1987; (Campbell-Platt, meat, condiments and products fermented dairy vegetables, fish, pancakes, and A wide range of grains, fruit fruit grains, of range wide A Essentials of fermentation. 3

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods BOX 1 Examples of foods and additives manufactured using industrial fermentation processes in developing countries.

• Alcoholic beverages, including some spirits, but largely wines and beer • Milk and milk products, including cultured milks, yogurts, and cheeses • Flavours, namely monosodium glutamate, and nucleotides • Organic acids such as lactic, citric, and acetic acids • Amino acids of lysine and glutamic acid • Vitamins A, C, B12, and riboflavin • Enzymes Amylases such as proteases and invertases.

Source: FAO.2000. Fermented grain legumes, seeds and nuts: A global perspective, by S.S. Deshpnade, D.K. Salunkhe, O.B. Oyewole, S.Azam-Ali, M. Battcock & R. Bressani, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No.142, Rome

■■Fermented Foods of some of these is detailed Table 1 provides an overview of in the case studies presented fermented foods from around the in the section on Essentials of world. The fermentation process fermentation.

TABLE 1 Fermented foods from around the world

Region and name of fermented products Type of product

Indian sub-continent

Acar, Achar, Tandal achar, Garam nimboo Pickled fruit and vegetables achar

Gundruk Fermented dried vegetable

Lemon pickle, Lime pickle, Mango pickle

South East Asia

Asinan, Burong mangga, Dalok, Jeruk, Kiam-chai, Kiam-cheyi, Kong-chai, Naw-mai- dong, Pak-siam-dong, Paw-tsay, Phak-dong, Pickled fruit and vegetables Phonlami-dong, Sajur asin, Sambal tempo- jak, Santol, Si-sek-chai, Sunki, Tang-chai, Tempoyak, Vanilla,

4 TABLE 1 Wines Oilseeds, Ogili,Ogiri,Hibiscusseed Olive Lamoun makbouss,Mauoloh,Msir, Mslalla, Hot peppersauce Fruit vinegar Africa Hot peppersauce Umeboshi, Wasabi-zuke, Yen tsai Tai-tantsoi, Takana, Takuan, Tsa Tzai, Tsu, Seokbakji, Shiozuke,Szechwancabbage, zuke, Omizuke,Powtsai,Redinsnow, senkei, Narazuke,Nozawana,Nukamiso- Cha-ts’ai, Hiroshimana,Jangagee,Nara kimchi, Tongkimchi,Totkal kimchi, kimchi, Oigee,Oiji,Oisobaegi, Tongbaechu- Kakduggi, Kimchi,Mootsanji,Muchung- moogi, Dongchimi,Kachdookigactuki, Bossam-kimchi, Chonggak-kimchi,Dan East Asia Nata decoco,pina Bai-ming, Leppet-so,Miang East Asia South Region andnameoffermentedproducts

Fermented foods fromaroundtheworld Fermented fruits seeds Fermented fruit,vegetable Pickled fruitandvegetables Vinegar Pickled fruitandvegetables Fermented inbrine Fermented fruitjuice Fermented tealeaves Type ofproduct (Cont.) 5

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods TABLE 1 Fermented foods from around the world (Cont.)

Region and name of fermented products Type of product

Americas

Cucumber pickles, Dill pickles, Olives, Pickled fruit and vegetables Sauerkraut

Lupin seed, Oilseeds Pickled oilseed

Vanilla, Wines Fermented fruit and vegetable

Middle East

Kushuk Fermented fruit and vegetables

Lamoun makbouss, Mekhalel, Olives, Torshi, Pickled fruit and vegetables Tursu

Wines Fermented fruits

Europe and World

Mushrooms, Yeast Moulds

Olives, Sauerkohl, Sauerruben Pickled fruit and vegetables

Grape vinegar, Wine vinegar Vinegar

Wines, Citron Fermented fruits

Source: Adapted from Cambell Platt,G.1987. Fermented foods of the world-A dictionary and guide, Butterworths, London

■■Traditional beers and wine 2) the most commonly available and While there are many different types best known are beer and wine (see of fermented drinks (see Case Study Table 2).

6 TABLE 2 Source: FAO.2011. Manufacturingfruitwines-a practicalguide,byJ.DeLaCruzMedina&H.S. Garcia, Rome(Unpublished) Milk Potato and/or grain Honey Pomace Juice ofplums Juice ofagave cane, ormolasses Juice ofsugar Juice ofpears Juice ofapples or pears other thanapples Juice offruits, Rice Wheat Corn Rye Barley Source

Fermented beveragesfromaroundtheworld Kumis potato beer mead pomace wine plum wine pulque (regional) basi, betsa-betsa perry, orpearcider apfelwein (“hard”) cider, from grapes) of commonly thought wine (most sake sonti wheat beer corn beer rye beer beer, ale Name offermented beverage Araka Ukraine, otherwisegrain vodka: potatomostlyusedin “honey brandy”) distilled mead(“meadbrandy”or (Germany), marc(France) (Italy), Trestergrappa slivovitz, tzuica,palinca tequila, mezcal guaro rum, cachaça,aguardiente, pear brandy Calvados applejack (orapplebrandy), (Peru/Chile) Branntwein (Germany),pisco brandy, cognac(France), shochu (Japan),soja(Korea) wheat whisky, Korn(Germany) bourbon whiskey rye whisky Scotch whisky Name ofdistilled beverage 7

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods CASE STUDY 2 Mezcal making in Mexico

Mezcals are spirits prepared by distilling cooked and fermented agave plants: a tradition which has been passed down from one generation to another for hundreds of years, and takes place in small rustic distilleries or fábricas, located close to water sources. Mezcal dates back 10 000 years when baked agaves were the main foodstuff for hunters and gatherers, and the fermented beverage a basic alcohol enslaved Filipinos introduced it in the 16th century. After some escaped and blended with the local population, mezcal became the distinctive indigenous liquor. Some 15 agave species are used in different regions of Mexico and each mezcal is different, both because of the species and because of the tools and processes used in its preparation

Traditionally only men are involved in the production and trading of mezcal, and local distilleries are owned by individuals who have managed to accumulate sufficient capital. Such enterprises can offer local men, who choose to be paid in cash rather than mezcal, sufficient employment and income to prevent seasonal migration in search of paid work. From a case study in Guerrero, Mexico, a group of distillers from 30 communities formed a bottling and commercialization enterprise, and a grower and distiller association, which certifies the mezcal as being of high quality, limited supply, and deriving from a sustainable harvest. The vast majority of community produced mezcal is locally and regionally traded and consumed, but observable increases in demand as a result of trends embracing established traditions and customs, have created new brands providing consumers and connoisseurs with a range of different prices and qualities, from US$25 to US$2 000 per litre.

Source: Adapted from Marshall, E., Schreckenberg, K. & Newton, A. 2006. Commercialization of non-timber forest products in Mexico and Bolivia: Factors influencing success. Research conclusions and policy recommendations for decision-makers, UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Beer time, different types of starchy plants Beer is an ancient beverage: clay have been used for brewing, including tablets describing its brewing process maize (in South America), soy (in – found in Mesopotamia – date back India and Iran), millet and sorghum more than 5 000 years. Sumerians (in Africa), and rice (in the Far East), used to prepare “beer bread” out but beer production from barley malt of germinated barley seeds and by is currently the most common brewing crumbling this bread into water, they process worldwide (FAO, 2009), and obtained a liquid called “sikaru” which forms the basis of industrial brewing was finally boiled and mixed with a which is of particular importance few herbs, resulting in a drink-free of to European countries in transition, harmful bacteria (FAO, 2009). Over including the Balkan States.

8 or food-grade plastic bins generally generally bins plastic food-grade or vats inactivating large in Fermentation prevent yeast. the to be produced, to beer of type the on depending the temperature, lower a to (inoculation), cooled is wort yeast the adding to Prior over-boiling. prevent to and steam the away carry vessel to neck the with flask-shaped a in place takes Boiling added. are purity) biological (which have antiseptic qualities and assist with hops then sometimes is and wort boiled, The steel. stainless or wood of made be may which vessels large in out carried is liquid and wort, called a produce to grains, the from materials soluble the extract to water hot of use the involves which mashing, sterilised withboilingwater. cloth, a cotton through filtered is beer the fermentation beer. After the of flavour and in awarmplacetofermentfor1824hours. cereal improvesthecolour The ground bucket. a clean juice in banana diluted leaft and lid, a clean with The bucketiscovered the to added then and fire open an over roasted lightly are millet) or (sorghum cereal for theyeasttofermentjuice.Grinded is lowenough solids of soluble concentration so thatthe juice the banana to dilute to theextractedjuice water isadded boiled or othercontaminants.Clean by micro-organisms which areunspoiled bananas, extracting thejuicefrompeeled involves for fermentation.Preparation necessary is sugar contentwhich are usedastheyhaveahigh bananas (Musaspecies) Ripe banana beerisknownas hazy with a shelf-life of several days undercorrect storage conditions.In Kenya, slightly and sweet is It flour. sorghum often - flour cereal a with bananas fermenting Banana beeris a weakalcoholicbeveragepopularthroughout Africa, and ismadeby CASE STUDY 3 Brewing at industrial level requires requires level industrial at Brewing

beverage throughout Africa beverage Making BananaBeer–apopularalcoholic urwaga , andinUganda of bananabeer. brewing local illustrates 3 Study Case fermentation. and boiling mashing, – stages basic three of consists general example pottery. The actual process in for container, brewing a iii) and fire; wood or a example for controllable, that millet is energy of source agricultural a as ii) sorgum; an such i) commodity, factors: requires three booklet “beers” this the in of mentioned focus the is which the in grain. starch the of transformation the the from comes for process needed fermentation sugar The kept. bottles are the which at temperature the on depending weeks, two to one takes Brewing at farm and village level, level, village and farm at Brewing lubisi . 9

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods CASE STUDY 3 Making Banana Beer – a popular alcoholic beverage throughout Africa (Cont.)

Packaging is usually only required to keep the product for its relatively short shelf- life and clean glass or plastic bottles can be used. The product is stored in a cool place away from direct sunlight.

As banana beer is made from raw material that does not undergo any heating or cooking at any stage of the process, the pulp is an excellent substrate for microbial growth – both of the desirable yeasts and the non-desirable spoilage bacteria. The fermentation is brought about by natural yeasts that are present on the banana. Heating or boiling the raw material would kill these natural yeasts and spoil the traditional flavour of the beer. This implies, for important public health and marketing that it is essential that strict attention is paid to cleanliness of the equipment and processing area and to personal hygiene to avoid contamination of the beer with other bacteria that may form acid rather than alcohol. Equipment needs to be sterilised prior to use with boiling rather than chlorinated water, which can affect the fermentation.

Improved method for banana beer

Both hygiene and product quality can be improved by following a typical method for making a fermented beverage, involving the preparation of a wort (which is a boiled starter substrate), addition of a commercial source of yeast, fermentation under controlled conditions (time and temperature), followed by pasteurisation to stop the fermentation. The beer made by this method will have a different taste and appearance to the ‘live’ beer produced by the traditional method, and it can be bottled and stored, and will be consistent from one batch to the next.

Source: Adapted from Practical Action.2008. Banana beer, The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development, Rugby, United Kingdom

Wine that some fruit wines, for example Wine making consists typically of Palm and Toddy wine, have a very fermenting fruit juices and adding short shelf-life once made, commonly yeast, sugar, dextrose or invert only about a day, and thus limit sugar (FAO, 2011). Making wine at marketing value and may be more smallholder level does not require suitable for specific event markets, complex equipment and processes, such as celebrations (weddings, etc.) especially those that do not use and festivities (national holidays). grapes. However hygiene and safety Box 2 (Mango wine) illustrates a are paramount in the process, much viable small-scale wine production like beer. However it has to be noted process that requires commonly non-

10 fe tn as h fretn wine fermenting the days ten After wine. the infecting bacteria from fungi prevent and to closed vessel fermentation the keep to important is it and foaming, and frothing is there and vigorous becomes fermentation hours, 48 Within stage. fermentation first the during days ten about for bin fermentation a in held and sugar and fruit juice or pulp is mixed with yeast the stage, first the During complex. but more slightly practices, as involved processes hygiene good and facilities simple still requires making marketing option as shelf-life is long. viable a for provides but maturation, of period a simple process, and equipment materials, raw marketable Medina &H.S.Garcia, Rome(Unpublished) Source: Adapted from FAO.2011. Manufacturingfruitwines-apracticalguide,byJ.DeLaCruz problems withthe“instability”ofwine. The mangowine canbeaged,but checks needto made onquality anddetectany maturing. for capped and bottles sterilized into funnelled and filtered is wine the then airlock. and airtight vessel to alarger is transferred the juice fermentation After initial an with fitted is vessel The days. 21 to 5 for inoculation yeast a with fermentation for be can added. steel) or stainless in avessel(madefromplastic,wood is placed Then thejuice sugar then low too is juice the of content sugar If strainer. a using filtered is Mangos needto be peeled andcut prior to pulping. Fruits are pulpedandthenthe juice ripened, freeofmouldandrotnotbadlydamaged. over not be should production for wine needed unsafe. Mangos be that canalso wine mango wine.Poorqualityrawmaterialsformakingthewinewillresultinpoor which cannotbemarketedasaresultofshapeandsizecanusedforproducing For freshmangomarketingtheshapeandsizeoffruitsareimportant. Thus fruits BOX 2 oe spitctd wine “sophisticated” More

Making mangowine eoe h sdmn fo te wine the from sediment the remove to order in filtered, is wine the stage, this At surface. the to rising bubbles when it is seen that there are no more judged be can fermentation of end the and months, three to weeks three from take can process whole the and 18°C, of temperature a at continued then is Ideally,fermentation used. be an airlock (known as a demijohn) may with fitted vessels specially-designed plugged with wads of cotton wool, or be may necked which vessels, narrow fermentation into transferred wine is The cloth. straining nylon or and jug, muslin sterilized a through it passing or cup, using mug, sterilized solids a the with together it up scooping involving “racked”, is 11

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods and then syphoned into narrow- fermented products are regarded as necked or food-grade plastic vessels, being delicacies. Fermented products and stored for the minimum period are also convenient for consumers as in the recipe to allow the wine time many of the products do not require to clear and mature before bottling. refrigeration and this is especially After this period of maturation, the important in hot and humid climates. wine is siphoned off into bottles and Rural dwellers are also reassured that sealed with a sterilized cork-stopper the product may be safer to consume or screw cap (Fellows and Hampton, then other food and beverages, as a 1992). result of fermentation. Demand for such products is found ■■Market Potential not only in traditional rural areas, but Fermentation as a diversification also in large urban centres as a result enterprise offers many opportunities of traditions and rural migration. as a result of their global popularity. Such products, for example, offer Fermented products are part of many retailers in urban centres to be able social, cultural and consumption to sell products which have a longer patterns, especially regarding shelf-life and are relatively safer to fermented beverages. The reduced consume then others foods (see also perishability of many fermented FAO Diversification booklet No. products also offers increased 18 Selling street and snack foods). advantages to both sellers and The flux of many daily workers consumers. Demand for fermented from rural to urban areas, offers, yet products is high, this being especially another ready market for fermented the case during particular social and products as meals can be either cultural events as well as during bought from rural areas and taken celebrations, such as weddings. In to cities for meals or bought from rural areas markets can be found in retailers in urban areas and then close vicinity of farms and in local sold to daily migrant workers. Some village markets. Commonly demand traditional fermented products, for is high as many fermented products example such as Kefir (fermented sold fit in well with social and cultural milk drink), are also finding ready culinary traditions. Fermented markets in supermarkets in larger products are seen as having higher cities. Other fermented products are value by many consumers compared now being certified with origin-based to other foods and in some instances geographic indication brands.

12 ■ egtn wrns aot the to about intended awareness is heighten booklet This forth. so and licensing labelling, control, quality in reliability and consistency equipment, hoc ad more production, for including facilities larger as aspects such with pre-requisites contend several to needs products fermented of potential market level, village and villages. local beyond surrounding However, in local and on their area in found steps opportunities door markets farmers’ by many provided the access ■ Purpose ofthebooklet easily can farmers Small-scale diversification option. livelihoodsuccessful a achieve to strategies selling and marketing different and farm, on operations associated fermentation formal more as well as activities, small-scale challenges with opportunities and the highlights It preservation quality. nutritional improved and through security food to contribute beverages and It factors. food fermented how at looks also cultural and social important of, on, respect full in and building income, farmers’ small-scale to contribute can that enterprise viable a as beverages and foods fermented of potential 13

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Box 5. by illustrated as 800BC, as back far sustainable cultural as since preservation, to and evolution contributed also have to beverages Fermented development. preservation small-scale contributes food in applying fermentation of benefit preservation social and economic the technology, food appropriate an As locally. materials raw their sell to farmers allow and on imports, food populations urban and rural of dependency the reduce they addition, (FAO,shortages in regions that are vulnerable to food to vulnerable are that regions in particularly food nutrition, and to security substantially contribute small-scale fermentation technologies and America Latin and Asia Africa, across countries numerous in staples foods dietary to contribution major a make Fermented quality. and overall acceptability wholesomeness, as such of aspects objectives with major fermentation, the of foods one of is shelf-life the Extending Fermentation andsustainablelivelihoods

1998),

see Box 3. In 3. Box ■ nie, o rln ter shelf-life (FAO, 1999). their prolong to ensiled, otherwise or week, a within fed and cool stored be to need but vitamins, soluble water and protein degradable un- of source good yeast. a provide These dried as and grains” such “brewers brewing, of the by-products include examples known Well system. livelihood the strengthening nutritionally to supplement livestock, thereby further fed which safely of be can examples by-products many fermentation exist there to make food safe to eat. Furthermore, factors anti-nutritional removing and products be food edible produce to used can that materials the raw of range increasing preservation, food improved through achieved is This 3). Box (see groups vulnerable and marginalised particularly world, the around people of millions of security food the ensuring in role important an play technologies Fermentation ■ importance Food securityandcultural 15

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods BOX 3 Fermented foods for survival in Sudan

During the 1983-85 famine in Sudan, relief workers found that people survived by producing specific traditional fermented food products, especially Kawal. An estimated 60 percent of the fermented foods of Sudan are famine or survival foods, and the strong link between fermented foods and food shortages is revealed by the fact that when a family becomes rich a number of fermented foods are no longer prepared. The techniques used are very effective methods of food preservation. The products can be preserved for years through the double action of fermentation itself (which produces anti-microbial acids) and sun-drying. Sudan is probably the hottest and driest country in Africa, and through the years women have made full use of this free solar energy: shade temperatures in the summer reach 45-50 °C and the hot sands outside the shade reach more than 70 °C. Dried and fermented foods together with the seeds and fruits that can be gathered from the wild have saved lives, especially those of children, in times of shortage both past and present.

Source: FAO. 1998. Fermented fruits and vegetables: A global perspective, by M. Battcock & S. Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin N.134, Rome

Fermentation is a cheap and inappropriate for use on the small- energy efficient means of preserving scale: for example, small-scale perishable raw materials, which canning of vegetables can have is accessible to even the most serious food safety implications marginalised, landless, physically given contamination with botulism incapacitated rural, peri-urban and is a possibility; and freezing fruit urban poor. Following harvest, fruit and vegetables is not economically and vegetables, for example begin viable at the small-scale (Holzapfel, to deteriorate, especially in the 2002). Fermentation however, humid tropics where the prevailing requires very little sophisticated environmental conditions accelerate equipment, either to undertake or the process of decomposition (see subsequently store the fermented FAO Diversification booklet No. 11 product, and has had a major Growing vegetables for home and impact on nutritional habits, market and FAO Diversification traditions, and culture. As such, booklet No. 16 Fruit products for traditional fermentation still serves profit). There are several options for as a substitute for refrigeration or preserving fresh fruit and vegetables otherwise safekeeping of food, and including drying, freezing, canning is also directly utilised to make and pickling, but many of these are good of edible leftovers (see Box 3).

16 fermented products are often associated fermented products are often associated many - foods processed and fast style western- surpass which - nutritional advantages many (Hammes, the Despite 1990). processes fermentation refining for developed been have skills traditional error, and trial through characteristics, and these enhance and contribute to activities, metabolic their of virtue by enzymes, and organisms Micro- 2002). (Holzapfel, properties processing and cooking improved and attributes, their pleasant flavours, aromas, for textures, appreciated are generally and wholesome and palatable as Rhizopus with of micro-organisms culture a mixed using waste oftahu.Ontjomisprepared waste andthesolid press cake,tapioca from wastegroundnut Ontjom isproduced cocovenenans incubation temperatureof 37 ºCis optimal for the mould andprevents the growthof P. 2days,andan or plasticsheetsinadarkroomforabout leaves on banana placed with press-cake acidified soaked, the of tempeh-bongrek production from thefermentationofsoyabeans. is similartotraditionaltempehproduced The product final the and extraction, oil after remaining press-cake, coconut and peanut Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletinN.134,Rome Source: FAO. 1998. Fermentedfruitsandvegetables: A globalperspective,byM.Battcock&S. semayi, whichiswidelyconsumedinIndonesia. or milk,canbefermentedbyBacillussubtilis of coconutcream income groups.Freshcoconutresidue,leftoverfromtheproduction those fromthelower an importantdailyfooditemforthewestJavanese,particularly Java whereit is consumed as a side dishinthe form of deep fried slices. It forms products. In Indonesia a variety of waste productsarefermentedtonutritiousfood produce BOX 4 Fermented foods are described described are foods Fermented

Utilising left-oversandby-productsinIndonesia or Neurospora Tempe-bongrek , whichproduces species predominating. is a protein rich food made in Indonesia byfermenting isaproteinrichfoodmadeinIndonesia is a mould fermentation, initiated by inoculation of byinoculation fermentation, initiated isamould bongkrek Rhizopus toxin. e n mg polm fr example, for kimchi problem: image an be will there that unlikely is it strong, are cultural food fermented the to attached Where values 2002). (Holzapfel, fermentation home out carrying from away moves it foods, processed buy to food, and as soon as a family can afford mans” “poor a being of stigma the with were being made in Asia in 800 BC. BC. 800 in Asia in made being were and ferments various of distillates primitive importance, cultural significant is ahighlyvaluedfood(FAO, 1998). such as and meals all of ingredient vital heritage in the Republic of Korea: it is a , in an alkaline fermentation, toproduce , inanalkaline Fermented beverages also have have also beverages Fermented species. are cakes The inoculated Ontjom is mainlyproducedinwest is considered part of the national 17

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Examples included: Skhou, in the food and beverages has developed Caucasus from kefir (mare’s milk); over a long period of time, and age-old Sochou/Shochu, in Japan from sake indigenous fermentation techniques (rice); Saut/Sautchoo in China from underpin cultural sustainability in tehoo (rice, millet); Arrack in India many areas of the world, facilitating from toddy (rice with molasses or palm the development of nutritious food sap); Arika by Tartars from koumiss items which can not only cope with (mare’s milk). More recently, from 1 environment conditions, such as 000 AD onwards there are records of inhospitable high altitude areas of the forerunners of brandy being produced Himalaya (Roy et al., 2004), but are an in Europe, and later in the 15th century, integral component of many indigenous cognac in France and Whiskey in cultures (see Box 5). Scotland. Fermentation as an enterprise also and importantly encourages the Cultural and social well being: preservation of cultural tradition related As is well documented, the indigenous to food security in many countries (see knowledge of producing fermented Case Study 4).

BOX 5 Fermented beverages and cultural evolution

Recent research suggest the possibility that alcoholic beverages, instead of bread, could have played a more decisive role in causing our ancient ancestors to switch from hunter-gatherers to farmers: the fermentation process was discovered by humans at the beginning of the Neolithic period. Water and alcoholic beverages are refreshing and fill us up, but alcohol versions do even more, containing nutrients, flavours and aromas. They relieve physical pain, can remove harmful alkaloids and kill harmful bacteria, retarding food spoilage. The inherent benefits of alcohol were discovered by experience rather than education: in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, Rome and Greece, medical practitioners used fermented drinks not only for pain relief, but also to treat a variety of ailments, and alcohol was used to dissolve or dispense medicinal herbs or spices. It is reported that such ancient wonders as the Egyptian pyramids, Incan royal cities and vast irrigation networks were built with labourers amply rewarded with fermented beverages. Instead of being educated about alcohol’s antiseptic, anti- oxidant properties, our ancient ancestors seemed to know it had life-extending benefits because they witnessed them first hand. In the 21st century, however, we know that as an addiction it can shorten life or have other negative benefits that help tip the scale between good and bad.

Source: Adapted from Bachelor, R.E. 2010. World’s oldest known alcoholic beverage, (Available at http://archaeology.suite101.com/article.cfm/worlds-oldest-known-alcoholic-beverages)

18 emne wl lgm leaves, legume “ wild fermented meal. a of flavour overall the enhance to and condiments pickles as used often chutneys as such fermented vegetables with appealing, more otherwise much an diet repetitive and bland, dull, make can products food fermented of flavours strong The 1998). (FAO, seeds “ sorrel red and cake, “ as such diets: their in meat replace to have products developed women Sudanese years, the over meat- example, for and a flavour, like create particular, in and food, of appearance and flavour the improve can fermentation security, fretd eae press- sesame fermented sigda” through biotechnology, African JournalofBiotechnologyVol. 4(5),pp.375-380 Source: Adapted from Achi,O.K. 2005.Thepotentialforupgradingtraditionalfermentedfoods indigenous Nigerianfoodswillbeindispensableforthegrowthandsurvivalofindustry. The developmentofappropriatetechnologiesaimedatupgradingthequality consumers associatewiththem. other formsofutilitywhich and of transportation ease shelf-life, attractive form,long appeal. Manyconsumersprefertheimportedandexoticfooditemsbecauseof of origin. Almost incontrast, many offermentedfoodslackthis the localindigenous in theircountries and development of research from decades products asderiving to paytheseprices.Consumerssee are willing consumers and manyNigerian products. of importedprocessed highpricetags These productsaresoldwithrelatively it isnowamixedgrillofbothforeignandlocaldishesaspertheintroduction However Traditionally in Nigeria fermented foods are a significant proportion of the national diet. CASE STUDY 4 n diin o mrvn food improving to addition In fermented furundu”

in Nigeria Fermented productsandchangingtastes kawal” ■ wide suffer from iron-deficiency iron-deficiency from anaemia (FAO, 1998). suffer wide world- women of percent 40 least at and energy of requirements daily their than less consume 30 women of and percent approximately children infants: women, weaning are groups nutritionally vulnerable most of are The group disadvantaged. who a create individuals to eating compound or feeding for available time limited misconceptions, taboos, and reduced. greatly Availability of food, dietary restrictions is and work achievements for capacity an sub-optimal, individual’s are diets when and and balanced supply of food and water, individuals is dependent upon a regular of nutrition and health optimum The ■ Nutritional value

19

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Foodstuffs: food safety and digestibility. Fermented foods contribute to about By acidifying porridges with one-third of the diet worldwide lactic acid fermentation, starch is (Campbell-Platt 1994), and cereals hydrolysed into shorter chains of are particularly important substrates glucose and dextrose, which reduce for fermented foods around the the viscosity of the porridge and globe. Fermentation of both cereals increase its energy density, helping and fruits and vegetables, can make the child to better meet its energy otherwise inedible food stuffs safe, requirements (FAO, 1998). nutritious, and palatable, improving digestibility of protein and Anti-nutritive compounds: carbohydrates, removing natural Cereal based diets, including toxins, and decreased cooking maize, sorghum and millet, contain times (see Box 6). Specifically, a number of anti-nutritive factors, lactic acid fermented foods are including reduced availability of the traditional means for weaning minerals, including calcium, iron, infants in many developing magnesium and zinc, as well as countries, as they improve both deficiencies in essential amino

BOX 6 How fermentation processes can result in increased vitamin levels in the final product

• Sorghum beer in Southern Africa contains relatively high levels of riboflavin and nicotinic acid, which are important for people consuming a high maize diet. Pellagra (a vitamin deficiency disease associated with high maize diets) is unusual in communities in which sorghum beer is consumed. Even children benefit from consuming the dregs which contain relatively little alcohol but are rich in vitamins. • Palm wine in West Africa is high in vitamin B12, which is very important for people with low meat intake, and who subsist primarily on a vegetarian diet. • Pulque (a fermented plant sap) is an important source of vitamins for the economically deprived in Mexico. The fermentation process involved in Pulque production increases its vitamin content. For instance the vitamin content (milligrams of vitamins per 100g of product) of Pulque increases from 5 to 29 for thiamine, 54 to 515 for niacin and 18 to 33 for riboflavin (Steinkraus, 1992) during fermentation. • Idli (a lactic acid bacteria fermented product consumed in India) is high in thiamine and riboflavin.

Source: FAO. 1998. Fermented fruits and vegetables: A global perspective, by M. Battcock & S. Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin N.134, Rome

20 emnain my ep reduce and help these anti-nutritivecompounds. germination may fermentation, soaking, traditional as such in processing, household-level steps Essential toxins, as with cassava (see Box occurring naturally inactivating by value staples, food of quality protein and nutritional the improve to serve may malnutrition. fermentation However, exacerbate and further availability, mineral reduce include furthercan which tannins and acids foods legume of and cereal typical anti- components Other nutritive proteins 2002). serve for (Holzapfel, blocks which building as methionine, and tryptophane lysine, including acids Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletinN.134, Rome Source: FAO. 1998.Fermentedfruitsandvegetables: A global perspective,byM.Battcock&S. period offermentationtoabout 6-8 hours. fromapreviousfermentationisusedasstarter,The liquor the thereby reducing off.toxins aregiven the remaining this processmost,ifnotall oil. During some palm with or flame a over alone pan iron an in fried are particles starch fine the and sieved then is product flavour. The characteristic its develops also cassava The hydrolysed. over andbythethirdday90-95percentofchemical willhavebeen the dangerous lactii), organisms (Cornibacterium whichcantoleratethe acidic environmentthen take existinsuchamedium. as theycannot the micro-organisms Astrain ofmicro- second candida to speedupthefermentationprocess. of thefermentation, At thebeginning as thishelps or rasped grated days. Itissometimes three sacks forabout in fermented (as about 60-70percentof the poisonisinpeel)andthen soakedinstagnantwateror peeled first is cassava The it. remove can processing correct but body, the into eaten raworimproperlyprocessed,thissubstancereleasespotentiallyfatalcyanide Cassava contains anaturallyoccurringchemical:cyanogenicglucoside,andwhen BOX 7 acts on the cassava, tending to make the product acidic, which finally kills off kills finally which acidic, product the make to tending cassava, the on acts

Removing cyanidebyfermentation

7).

Traditional medicinalvalue medicinal benefits (see the section on associated salt have many products fact, fermented in adding and drying, sun and boiling, contamination, reduce including to fact in designed are processing traditional exemplify in steps the Nepal of Several 1998). (FAO, from Gundruk and India from pickle lime both as low moisture contents or high acidity, foods are inherently safe as a result of fermented many as overstated, often is which one however concern, valid traditional a sometimes is This activities. scale safe small- from produced how are foodstuffs and to as taboo hygienic some is There Hygiene: Geotricum ). 21

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Beverages: permitted preservatives to have a Most beverages typically contain a long shelf-life after opening. lot of water and while not necessarily adding nutrients to the diet, they Alcoholic importantly help prevent dehydration. Typically, alcoholic beverages Many fruit drinks contain significant have no nutritional value, but are sugar adding energy to the diet, and consumed and associated with in some cases, provide vitamins cultural traditions or for the effect and minerals. Alcoholic drinks are they instil! The most common judged both in terms of flavour and examples of alcoholic beverages are the stimulant effect they produce, and fruit or cereal based wines, and beers, in many countries alcohol production usually made from cereal. is strictly controlled by government agencies and it may be difficult ■■Benefits to small-scale farming to obtain the necessary permits to systems produce such beverages legally A fermentation enterprise fits (Fellows and Hampton, 1992). very well into small-scale farming systems. The cost of entry to Non-alcoholic such an enterprise is minimal and A wide range of drinks can be commonly uses produce from the manufactured from pulped fruit or farm and does not interfere with juice, and many are drunk without farm production and labour as most the addition of other ingredients, and of the job in fermentation is done others are diluted with sugar syrup. by micro-organisms. Fermentation For simplicity, fruit drinks can be utilizes micro-organisms for the divided into two groups: transformation of raw materials into useful products (FAO, 2000). • Those that are drunk immediately It is a viable way for smalls-scale after opening, requiring no farmers at kitchen level enterprise preservative if processed and to use produce that has not been packaged properly; sold or may not be acceptable to • Those that are used little by little sell in terms of physical and visual from bottles which are stored quality, for example the shape and between use, and therefore size of fruits. Importantly it can use contain a certain amount of raw materials from other processes

22 ■ be appliedtosoilasfertilizer. also can processes fermentation such prosperity for Pigs No. booklet (see Diversification FAO homestead the in cooking for small-scale many gas example, for producing, farmers for energy of source excellent an be to proven has costs. and mortality and reducing veterinary health, thus reducing risks of sickness their improve and nutrition livestock enhance to used be can products – by some In it’s and products husks. fermented instances rice example by-products, for farm and 8) Box (see farmer, compared to the sale of fresh of sale the to farmer,compared the to income and price selling the increase by- potentially can It its products. and produce farm adding to and value chain down supply food further the moving farmer the involves enterprise fermentation A ■ Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletinN.134,Rome Source: FAO. 1998. Fermentedfruitsandvegetables: A globalperspective,byM.Battcock&S. flavour andcanbeusedinthesamewayasothervinegars. vinegar.provide sit forabouteightdayswill pineapple is ofadistinct,light The vinegar ofwaterandaddingsugaryeastlettingit and wastefruitincontainers peelings This wasteismainlycomposedofthepeelandsomepartsfruititself.Placing of wastecanbegenerated. amount a considerable pineapples peeled In preparing BOX 8 emnain f ietc waste livestock of Fermentation Adding value

Making vinegarfrompineapple . eius of Residues ).

15 ■ knowledge. farmers’ small-scale many of reach the within are and complex are too not technologies” “processing the because enterprise kitchen-scale a in easy relatively also is addition value This products. of portfolio farmer’s differing flavours with increasing and expanding the different sold be provides to products also It 1998). (FAO, palatable more food as making well as food of appearance and texture aroma, flavour, the improve and protein substrates (FAO, 2000). carbohydrate It can low-value nutritional from products of food stable very production enriched, the in results often Fermentation produce shelf-life. extends and commodities nutil e us rcs, prepare, process, ups set industrial be to considered are that of enterprise Fermentation are millions world. the in many people of enterprises employers Fermentation ■ Employment benefits 23

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods package, market and in some cases Typically a small-scale enterprise brand products and employ many that is set up on farm will provide thousands of people. However employment benefits for those in in comparison, the majority of the immediate family: a farmer’s employment comes from small- wife, sons and daughters. They will scale fermentation enterprises find ready employment on their door that employ one or two people, step and will have the opportunity commonly members of the same to increase their knowledge in family. Traditional and small-scale fermentation practices, thus fermentation enterprises have a becoming competent and skilled in good employment record, especially a profession. Moreover if subject to in remote areas, even where access training in fermentation processes, to sophisticated equipment is process management, quality control, limited. For example in sub-Saharan business matters and so forth their Africa more than 60 percent of the capacity will increase as new workforce is employed in the small- knowledge will be gained and will scale food processing sector (see have more transferable skills should Box 9). As a result of increased and the need arise. continual popularity of fermented Such an enterprise may also products’, such small-scale create indirect employment benefits enterprises potentially have the by possibly requiring other inputs not capacity of generating even more found on farm, for example sugar and widespread employment options. thus contribute to the employment

BOX 9 The global importance of employment from the fermented food sector

In Asia fermented food preparation is a widespread tradition, and Kimchi (fermented cabbage) is the major food product of the Republic of Korea. Soy sauce (fermented legume) is economically important from Indonesia to Japan, with over a billion litres produced each year in Japan alone, over 2 000 million litres in the Republic of Korea, and over 150 million in Taiwan. More than 560 000 tonnes of miso (fermented legume product) is produced each year in Japan, and in Latin America, fermented cereal products, alcoholic drinks, and fermented milk products, are three of the most important sectors of the economy.

Source: FAO. 1998. Fermented fruits and vegetables: A global perspective, by M. Battcock & S. Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 134, Rome

24 ■ areas. remote and rural in others to benefits employment provide indirectly also will this and market weekly town or village a in products fermented the sell to able be to paid fees market or marketing, and/ of rented be to need may transport terms In others. of short cycle. into investment potentially saleable products within a money materials, and raw time of conversion the enable thus and days few a only in some ready are In products fermented cases requirements. fuel thus and cooking for need the it decreases commonly as costs reduces also quality acceptable levels for consumption. Fermentation have and are they safe that provided enterprise, fermentation the in used successfully other be be can activities farm from and left-overs cannot by-products that marketed, commodities as efficiently more also produce It farm uses commodities. selling just then family farm the to money more value a adding activity and hence can provide is Fermentation rewards. and financial numerous for provide level can the kitchen start compared to initial investments made at to capital business any if little requires enterprise fermentation A ■ Financial rewards f hc fretd rdcs are products fermented which of be estimates accurate more provide may information to This dislikes. and likes farmers their and them about knowledgeable allows village level, at example for consumers, the farmfamily. for power purchasing more as well as enterprise, the in re-investment or savings for money of source good a times, hard in of net safety sense a security, greater a enable income sources increased and Diversified income. in increase the greater potentially the and risks marketing in reduction the is greater the farm the from originates that produce sell to more money. more sales and hence potentially make earn to farmer a for opportunities more allowing to also but offering consumers, product the products, diverse enriching of range a offer also can enterprise fermentation The involved. were intermediaries if then prices atlower sell and profit more have to farmer the enable will level, village at example for consumers, to farming. In the case the of selling directly then basis usual harvest-sales cycles common to regular more a on operate can a enterprise as fermentation family farm the to ensured is en i drc cnat with contact direct in Being The more options that are available money of supply regular more A 25

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods liked more and those which are liked it has low start-up costs, does not less. This will provide a farmer with require the possession of particular what are the potential opportunities assets, and nor is it sufficiently of earning income from providing physically demanding. Women certain fermented products. This will are traditionally knowledgeable of enable better production planning, fermentation processes as passed less waste, reduction in costs and down for generations from mothers potentially making only products to daughters. The processing side that have a good demand and thus of the enterprise requires low increase the likelihood of selling labour inputs, which means that and earning income. Moreover by it is highly combinable with meeting with customers regularly can domestic responsibilities such help develop a farmer’s local sales as childcare and allows flexible network. hours. On the marketing side of It has to be clear that the level the enterprise it enables women of investment in a fermentation to leave the homestead to earn enterprise will be commensurate with income for the farm family, but also its earnings. A kitchen- fermentation and importantly for themselves. enterprise investment is small and This provides women with more consequently so will be the income. independence, become more However this can be seen as a confident, interact with other ‘stepping stone’ initiative, and by women, allows for business and re-investing some of the income in other social relations to develop and the enterprise, it can then grow to overall gives them more status and become a micro-scale processing a greater say in a family, as well as enterprise. This clearly means that improved status in the community. along the way more money needs Earnings made can provide for to be invested, but also more money family needs, for savings as well as will be made. a safety net in case of abandonment and widowhood. ■■Gender development Marketing carried out by Fermentation activities undertaken on women introduces them to new farm represent an important economic knowledge from interactions with opportunity in particular for women. different types of people, including A fermentation enterprise has little customers, other vendors and or any entry barriers for women as suppliers and so forth. Managing the

26 homestead. the and enhancetheirroleinthefamily in the enterprise of say matters of financial more them far enable have to can This making. decision- in role active an have and from operations organize homestead, the work can fermentation They a enterprise. in part active play an still can women the homestead traditions leaving from women religious impede or cultural as a way to increase family income. seen be may it as incentives more provide and families women’s to palatable more example, safety,for and quality basic on programmes training in participation make may an enterprise expands its operations Moreover the needs for new skills as become earnings. enterprise of result a as it to for pay can be need illiterate if and literate are who women those encourage numeracy. will This and literacy minimal require necessity by will enterprise Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletinN.134, Rome Source: FAO. 1998.Fermentedfruitsandvegetables: A global perspective,byM.Battcock&S. bacteria (Svanberg,1992). forming by lacticacid bacteria of pathogenic to theinhibition owing gruels, unfermented than those fed of diarrhoea with fermentedgruelshada33percentlowerincidence Aof intheUnitedRepublic study conducted Tanzania showedthat children fed BOX 10 n onre wee social, where countries In

Children andfermentedfoods ■ found infantailments(seeBox10). beneficial for preventing becommonly to found been also have foods fermented Further 1998). (FAO, cancer of effects development the against protective have to been found also 1998). have foods (FAO, Fermented bacteriocins and have antibiotics produce to moulds found been and bacteria acid lactic Certain inhibits of bacteria. food poisonous the and rid can foods and spoilage of acidity increases fermentation that found thus the immune and system. Other of studies have effectiveness nutrition the increase better for digestive providing food, the assimilate foods system bacteria help and fermented support beneficial in contained the that demonstrated have studies value.Some medicinal and have foods beverages fermented some that beliefs traditional are there world the around communities many In ■ Traditional medicinalvalue 27

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods aig rcrmn o consistent of procurement making consequently yields, low in resulting subsistence for purposes, commercial for than rather small-scale a produced on often are materials Raw is 1997). (FAO, countries variable and seasonal developing most and in successful production be Agricultural sustainable. to likely activities are determinant fermentation fermentation whether key to the is substrate and suitable locally-sourced sufficient, to access and otherlivestock. for poultry for fodder nutritious example by-product, useful a even produces cases, some in and activities domestic and horticultural farming, other with compatible are activities fermentation level, household a At households. urban or and rural as landless, farmers well as land, including limited with everyone for suitable are activities fermentation such as and purchased, or collected grown, locally usually are materials Such safer, preserve. to foods easier and tastier make to foodstuffs, supplement diet with are more digestible to and nutritive materials fermented plant globally of variety A t n nepie ee however, level enterprise an At Essentials offermentation ■ season ofproduction(FAO, 1997). the during production, agricultural of processing source the to close conducted that be dictate generally facilities storage inappropriate high and inadequate and infrastructure with road underdeveloped costs, coupled transportation agricultural high raw produce, and of bulkiness perishability The 2002). Satin, and (Rolle difficult somewhat materials agricultural raw of supplies process is used to produce alcoholic produce to used is process of action micro-organisms is desirable, and the the that implies usually under Fermentation thereof, conditions. anaerobic combination a or or dioxide bacteria, yeasts, using acids carbon to organic and carbohydrates alcohols of the in conversion essentially is Fermentation processing food 1998). (FAO, disadvantageous and advantageous changes both be can the fermentation by caused and origin”, micro- or animal plant “slow of by enzymes, or organisms induced the organic substances of process is decomposition Fermentation ■ fermented foodsandbeverages What’s involved:Keystepsin 29

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods beverages such as wine and beer. with physical disabilities are fully Fermentation is also employed in capable of accomplishing most of the preservation techniques to create lactic necessary tasks in most fermentation acid in sour foods such as sauerkraut, activities, even if some modifications yogurt, or vinegar. As such, where in construction, equipment and tasks controlled, fermentation is a relatively are required. Fermentation can also efficient food preservation process be a feasible livelihood activity for which gives beneficial results, and chronically ill or weak people, who is therefore a highly appropriate may benefit from working, particularly technique for use in developing in rural settings, in a cooler, shaded countries and remote areas where environment with minimal physical access to sophisticated equipment is exertion, in contrast to the more limited (see Box 11). arduous work input often associated with other agricultural horticultural ■■ Fermentation skills and products. techniques Many societies have considerable Fermentation activities are not labour traditional knowledge and skills which intensive and can be undertaken is a critical component for successful as an additional livelihood activity fermentation activities. Additional which fits around other tasks. People overarching qualities deemed useful

BOX 11 The most common groups of micro-organisms involved in food fermentations

• Bacteria - The most important bacteria in desirable food fermentations are the lactobacillaceae which have the ability to produce lactic acid from carbohydrates. Other important bacteria, especially in the fermentation of fruits and vegetables, are the acetic acid producing acetobacter species; • Yeasts - Like bacteria and moulds, yeasts can have beneficial and non-beneficial effects in foods, and the most beneficial yeasts for desirable food fermentation are Saccharomyces, playing roles such as the leavening of bread and the production of alcohol and invert sugar; • Moulds are also involved in the food processing industry, both as spoilers and preservers. Nearly all food fermentations are the result of more than one micro- organism, either working together or in a sequence, but growth is generally initiated by bacteria, followed by yeasts and then moulds.

Source: FAO. 1998. Fermented fruits and vegetables: A global perspective, by M. Battcock & S. Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin N.134, Rome

30 into preservativeorganic acids. leaven bread, and sugars in vegetables beer, into to dioxide carbon grains into carbohydrates wine, into and juice sugars converting of e.g., carbohydrates, other conversion the is fermentation of benefit primary The meats. and fish dairy, honeys, fruits, vegetables, grains, beans, A including product. fermented, globally is the food of variety upon considerably depending differs fermentation processing (RolleandSatin,2002). food small-scale of development the a supportive economic infrastructure for have of not do majority countries developing A permit. conditions where refined being or complex to relatively infrastructure, basic lack that areas in simple very from widely vary used Technologies country. region or particular support a within institutional systems, existing and development technological of level the to related highly is sophistication public relation skills. good have and presentation, marketing, product pricing, logistics, particularly of understanding a have basic to involved, is trade where and, safely, food and hygiene vigilant about detail, to attentive be time, on procedures out carry to ability the include fermentation, successful for The process for achieving achieving for process The fermentation of level The on the basis of multifunctional multifunctional of basis considerations (Holzapfel,2002). the selected cultures on starter of through use the improved may significantly foods be fermented traditional of acceptability and safety Quality, safe. considered be otherwise would which products food in risks health unexpected creating pathogens thereby survive, and result fails, it may if quality spoilage but foods, hygienic of safety the and improve to considered generally is Fermentation 2004). (FAO, cultures starter selected well using by overcome, at part in least be could some variability of and problems preferences, suit individual to processes different using consequence of a actually however quality, is in variability as to referred 2002). Furthermore, what is sometimes (Holzapfel, conditions ambient under acceptable way, and extends traditionally food keeping quality improves a in safety fermentation correctly, done if because, primarily countries developing numerous in constituents dietary major as treasured are foods fermented However, quality. variable such can result as in products of low yield and and it, initiate to substrate, and fermentation the or environment, the uncontrolled from micro-organisms on dependent typically processes are fermentation Traditional Safety andquality 31

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Use of a starter culture to kick-start and when adapted to the substrate, fermentation: a typical starter improves control Experience has shown that back- of the fermentation process and slopping (inoculating the materials predictability of its products to be fermented with residue from (Holzapfel, 1997). a previous batch), accelerates the initial phase of fermentation. In ■■Overview of fermented fruits many traditional processes, starter and vegetables from around the cultures are not purchased, but world an effective means of achieving a There are many examples similar goal, is to recycle material worldwide of fermented foods and from a previous successful batch beverages, which are specific to the which helps initiate a new process, region and culture from which they shorten the fermentation process, come. Below are some examples and reduce the risk of fermentation of different products arising failure. Spontaneous fermentations from bacterial, yeast and mixed – in the absence of back-slopping or traditional fermentation techniques. a starter culture - have been applied for millennia and identified through Bacterial fermentation trial and error, and much small- There are a variety of traditional scale fermentation in developing fermented foods products from countries is still conducted this bacterial fermentation, including way. However, it takes longer and pickled fruits and vegetables, can be associated with a high risk including olives, beetroot, cabbage for failure (Holzapfel, 2002). (See and other leafy vegetables. Pickling, Box 11 and Case Study 5 for the using lactic acid bacteria, is still opportunities and challenges of carried out at a domestic level but using a starter culture, and some industrial scale processes have examples of different cultures been developed for the production from around the world.) A starter of most types of pickles. Local culture may be defined as a pickling is undertaken by storing preparation or material containing prepared vegetables in a weak large numbers of variable micro- brine solution, by dry salting, or by organisms, which may be added to allowing the vegetables to ferment accelerate a fermentation process, without salt (see Case Study 6).

32 used in the fermentation of sorghum and other cereal beers in andothercereal used inthefermentationofsorghum 1989). Africa (Holzapfel, Bakers yeastiscommonly level. at thehousehold of wine the production and brewing in breadbaking.It and storage.Bakersyeastisusedworldwidein also applied drying during micro-organisms essential of preservation the facilitates hennep, of flax in Westcountries Africa. consists of rope, which The inertsurfaceofthebeltorwoven belt, typicalofGhanaandsome One exampleofapreservedstarteristheinoculation inthat forarewidespread region. the useofapproaches inoculation back-slopping information isavailableonstarter culture traditionsinsub-Saharan Africa, however, little Relatively production). kuschuk forkishkand is usedasaninoculum beer laban In some countries of the Near East (Egypt, Iraq) and North Africa dried kishkor and Rhizopusspp. balls occurs. Slow drying duringthe rainy season,resultsinlargenumbersof Mucor rice the of desiccation gradual which during conditions, ambient under period day five cloth (Malaysia)orwithferns(Himalayas).Microbialgrowthtakesplaceoveratwoto and water and flour rice trays andeithercoveredwithmuslin on bamboo into ballswhichareplaced moulded from prepared paste the over inoculum an as sprinkled is ragi fromapreviousbatch proprietary bymanufacturers.Powdered are maintained production doesnotincorporatetheuseofequipment,ragiformulations specialised 1997; Steinkraus, 1999, Fujio, and pastes (Lee and Tamang,1998). ragi Although for centuries intheproductionof a variety of sweet andsouralcoholicbeverages culture doughinocula,suchastheragi-typestarter cultures whichhavebeenused be foundinthedifferentof regions true forthemixed- Asia, andthisisparticularly are to and distribution Some oftheoldesttraditionsstarterculturepreparation CASE STUDY 5 months. well, theproductcanbekept forseveral curries orothermainmeals,andifprocessed with have asourandsaltytaste.Itiseatenascondiment which or palelimepeels, a salty, spicyliquor, gravy,like asemi-solid redincolourwithyellow and isbrownish in India,PakistanandNorth Africa. The pickleismadefrompiecesoflimepackedin Lime picklesareproducedin Asia, Latin America and Africa, and particularly popular CASE STUDY 6 197– 212. scale fermentationindevelopingcountries,InternationalJournalofFoodMicr Source: Adapted from Holzapfel,W. H.2002. Appropriate starterculture technologiesforsmall-

Processing limepickle the world Examples oftraditionalstarterculturesaround obiology , Vol. 75, 33

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods CASE STUDY 6 Processing lime pickle (Cont.)

Preparation of raw materials Only fully ripe limes without bruising or damage should be used, and all limes need to be washed in clean cold water, and drained. The limes are then dipped in hot water (60-65 °C) for about five minutes, and cut into pieces in order to expose the interior and allow salt to be absorbed more quickly.

Processing The prepared limes are covered with a brine solution, causing the water to be drawn out of the pieces by osmosis. It is important to ensure that the surface is covered with juice, and left for 24 hours, and if necessary, the fruits should be pressed down to hold them below the liquid. Once the limes have been placed in the brine, there is a rapid development of micro-organisms and fermentation begins. Following fermentation, the limes are dried in the sun, for two or three days, until the skin becomes brown.

Packaging and storage The limes are mixed with spices and oils according to local taste and tradition, and the pickle can be packed in small polythene bags and sealed or in clean jars and capped, keeping well if stored in a cool place.

Source: FAO. 1998. Fermented fruits and vegetables: A global perspective, by M. Battcock & S. Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin N.134, Rome

CASE STUDY 7 Cocoa Powder – from Africa, Latin America and Asia

Raw material preparation Cocoa beans are the seeds of the cocoa plant (Theobroma cacao): the pods are cut from the cocoa tree, and the beans removed. Only fully ripe and undamaged beans should be selected, and it is important that the beans are processed quickly.

Processing It was formerly believed that cocoa beans were fermented to remove the pulp, but a good flavour in the final cocoa or chocolate is dependent on good fermentation. Fermentation is carried out in a variety of ways but all depend on heaping a quantity of fresh beans with their pulp and allowing micro-organisms to produce heat (Beckett, 1988). The majority of beans are fermented in heaps although better results are obtained using boxes, which result in a more even fermentation. Fermentation lasts from five to six days, during the first day the adhering pulp is liquified and drains away with the temperature rising steadily, and chemical changes cause the temperature to

34 aiu pat at, hc are which parts, of plant fermentation various yeast made the of wines, from examples and beers many popular are There Yeast fermentation in below Case Study7. detailed is production powder Cocoa only). fermentation (enzyme tea cocoa and coffee, products, vinegars, products dominant various single include and no where micro-organism, is is there fermentation Mixed Mixed fermentation humid climates,andliddedtinsorsealedpolythenebagsshouldbeused. As cocoa powderpicksupmoisturefromtheair, it needs toin be protectedespecially Storage: take placetomakethecocoapaste. until roastingwhichhappensat a lower temperature,andthenvarious otherprocesses the cocoapowder.produce for themanufactureofchocolate, The processisidentical industry to remove the cocoa, andthe cake from the mill is ground ina hammer millto to 90%forlowfatpowder!Extrusion,expeller, orscrewpressesareusedinthecocoa powder inaplate mill, andsomeof the cocoabutterisremovedto make powder–up and then cooled quicklyto prevent scorching. These roasted“nibs”aregroundintoa roasting, even to produce minutes over 90 ºC – 150 even heatof120 an requiring process,ideally the beanstheyareroasted,whichcanbequiteatechnical cleaning only slightlysticky, dryers. they arereadyfordryingoutinthesunorindustrial After and theyare orange-brown a moreuniform becomes once theircolour and darkening, of the beansfrompinkishincolourwithacoveringofwhitemucilage,gradually amino acidsandcarbohydrates)to mix freely. Fermentation changesthe appearance rise inexcessof50 CASE STUDY 7 Azam-Ali, FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletinN.134,Rome Source: FAO. 1998. Fermentedfruitsandvegetables: A globalperspective,byM.Battcock&S.

C which kills the beans, allowing enzymes and substrate (mainly enzymes and the beans, allowing kills °C which and Asia Cocoa Powder–from Africa, Latin America (Cont.) “ example, Africa, For America. Latin Asia, and across consumed a t poue cer whitish clear, a produce to sap the fermenting and season, rainy the during shoots bamboo young the tapping by made “ulanzi”, or wine, bamboo is example known and (Agaveatrovirens cacti various of juices the to given name the – “ fermenting by obtained “ make to distilled be the can and is Mexico, of drink national beverage acidic viscous , mly sihl foamy, slightly milky, a pulque”, . nte well Another A. americana). ”. It is It mescal”. aguamiel”

35

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods drink with a sweet and alcoholic depending on the strength of the flavour. The bamboo shoots should final product desired. As is often the be young to achieve a high yield of case, the shelf-life is short, at only sap: the growing tip is removed and a day or two, but may be extended a container fixed in place to collect a little, if stored under refrigerated the sap. As always, collection conditions (FAO, 1998). containers should be clean to Toddy and palm wine are other prevent contamination of the alcoholic beverages made by fresh sap (which can produce off- fermenting the sugary sap from flavours), and the raw material is various palm plants – a process an excellent substrate for microbial which is easy to do with the correct growth and fermentation usually yeasts, temperature and processing starts immediately after collection. conditions. Throughout the world, Bamboo wine fermentation can alcoholic drinks are made from take between five and twelve hours the juices of locally grown plants

FIGURE 1 Bottles of mead (Photo: FAO/19183/M Marzot)

36 0 o dtie eape o Palm of examples detailed for 10 guineense vinifera ( including palms raphia other of trunk, the from collected sap, fermented the to refers wine the Palm country. country to from – varies drinks terminology describe alcoholic to used similar both are wine palm and 8) Study Case (see toddy terms The palm. kithul and palm raphia palm, nipa palm, date wild palm, oil palm, coconut including (Photo: FAO/19182/M Marzot) FIGURE 2 ad h ol am ( palm oil the and )

Raphia hookeri ). See Case Studies 4 and 4 Studies Case See ). Mead onsale or Elaeis R. R. (70°F -80°F). beer than temperature higher a at and months, several some ferment, to beer than percent longer takes It proof!). 18 – (10 content alcohol a to closer elevated its beer,given a than wine is fermented which beverage, honey-based ancient an “mead”, fermentation, yeast of more similartobeer. is which but beverage, fruit palm fermented another Chicha, details 9 study Case wine. Asai and wine Figures 1 and 2 show the product 37

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods CASE STUDY 8 Palm Toddy – made from fermented flower sap

Toddy Toddy is an alcoholic drink made by the fermentation of the flower sap from a coconut palm (Cocus neusifera). It is white and sweet with a characteristic flavour, containing between 4 and 6 percent alcohol, but has a short shelf life of about 24 hours, unless refrigerated. Principles of processing and preservation A natural fermentation takes place due to yeasts that are present in the sap and those that are added from a previous batch of toddy (back-slopping). The sugar in the sap is partly fermented to alcohol, which helps to preserve the product. The collecting pots should not be washed out, and that way they retain a small amount of starter culture for future fermentations. However, it is important to ensure that they, and the fermentation vessels are kept clean and do not become contaminated by other bacteria. Raw material preparation The sap is collected by slicing off the tip of an unopened flower, which should be clean and free from infection or mould, and they can be used until they cease to provide sap or become infected. The sap oozes out and is collected in a small pot tied underneath. Fermentation By retaining a small amount of toddy from the previous days batch, will start the fermentation. The collecting pots are emptied into a larger vessel and the fermentation continues for six to eight hours. Packaging and storage The product is usually packaged into clean glass or plastic bottles, and should be kept in a cool place away from direct sunlight. It is not usually stored, but sold immediately or transferred to a refrigerator to extend its shelf life for one or two days. Toddy can be distilled to make a brandy-like spirit (known as Arrack in Sri Lanka). However, distillation requires a special licence and is banned in some countries, so a check with local authorities beforehand is essential.

Source: Adapted from Azam-Ali, S. 2008.Toddy and palm wine, fermented plant saps, Practical Action Technical Brief, Rugby, United Kingdom

CASE STUDY 9 “Chica” a latin American fermented palm fruit beverage

“Chica”a fermented drink, similar to beer, and popular throughout much of Latin America is made from the fruit of the Bactris gasipaes palm, which is harvested once a year. The fruit is peeled, cooked mashed and fermented. Traditionally, and until today, the fruit was preserved mainly in an ensiled form for out of season consumption, and is still stored in trench silos made in the ground. A month after being covered over it is ready for consumption, or can be stored until the next harvest. This fermented material

38 leaves duringjourneys,thendilutedinwater. in carried wrapped mixed withwaterasacooldrink,andtraditionally was consumed CASE STUDY 9 (Photo: FAO/CFU 000845/RFaidutti)(Photo:FAO/ CFU000846/RFaidutti) Bactris gasipaesfruit.Ecuador FIGURES 3&4Preparing chicha,alocally produced fermenteddrinkmadefrom

beverage “Chica” alatin American fermentedpalmfruit 39

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods CASE STUDY 10 Açaí “wine”

The assai or açaí fruit is highly valued throughout the Amazon, as a juice, or as a “wine” (which is not traditionally fermented!) The dark purple juice is an important and popular dietary complement, and is extracted from the small round fruit, after soaking the seeds in water to soften the thin outer shell. The seeds are then squeezed and strained to produce a tasty, dense purple liquid which is commonly served ice cold with sugar and tapioca flour. It is a nourishing and refreshing beverage: açaí berries are amongst the most nutritious foods of the Amazon, rich in B vitamins, minerals, fiber, protein and omega-3 fatty acids, and reported to harness antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties, and cardiovascular system benefits. Assai is considered to have the best nutritional value of any fruit on earth!

FIGURES 5 & 6 Processing assaí palm (Euterpe oleracea) wine (“vinho de açaí”). (Photo: FAO/ CFU 000627/ R Faidutti) ( Photo: FAO/ CFU 000629/ R Faidutti)

40 CASE STUDY 10 (Photo FAO/ CFU 000631/RFaidutti)(PhotoFAO RFaiduttiCFU000630) FIGURES 7&8Sellingassaípalm(Euterpeoleracea) wine(“vinhodeaçaí”).Brazil

Açaí “wine” (Cont.) 41

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods ■■Overview of fermented grains particularly important substrates for and cereals from around the these, in addition to providing staples world in the Indian subcontinent, in Asia, Important cereal crops worldwide and in Africa (Campbell-Platt, 1994). include wheat, rice, maize, barley, As discussed earlier, fermentation sorghum, oats, millet and rye. causes changes in food quality Cereals have a variety of uses as indices including texture, flavour, food: wheat and rye are suited to appearance, nutrition and safety, and the preparation of leavened bread, benefits may include improvement while cereals in general cooking are in palatability and acceptability by used either directly in the form of developing improved flavours and grain, flour, starch, or as semolina, textures; preservation; enrichment etc (see Box 12). Another common of nutritive content by microbial use of cereals is in the preparation synthesis of essential nutrients and of alcoholic drinks such as whiskey improving digestibility of protein and beer (barley; sorghum), vodka and carbohydrates; removal of anti- (wheat), American bourbon (rye), nutrients; and decreased cooking Japanese sake (rice), etc (FAO, 1998). times. A variety of unique, indigenous fermented foods are also produced Africa from cereals, across the globe. An The main cereals grown in Africa estimated contribution of about one- are maize, rice, sorghum and millet. third is made to worldwide diets by Cereals are more widely utilized as fermented foods, and cereals are food in African countries, than in the

BOX 12 Examples of fermented foods made from different cereal substrates using Lactobacillus and different yeasts

wheat-based foods- bouza, kishk rice-based foods - busa maize-based foods - ogi, bread, kenkey millet based foods - kunuzaki sorghum based foods - pito, ogi, bogobe, kisra, burukutu, kisra, injera barley based foods - beer

Source: FAO. 1999. Fermented Cereals: A global perspective, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 138, Rome

42 itr sals o aut: examples adults: for staples dietary as and infants for foods weaning as important particularly are these and fermentation, natural by processed cereal- are Africa in traditional consumed foods based of majority A substantially to dietary protein intake. contributing and calories of majority vast the providing world, developed TABLE 3 Burukutu PitoKaffir beer beer) Busaa (maize Malawa beer beer opaquemaize Zambian Merissa Seketeh Bouza Talla Kishk Product name

Alcoholic beveragesin producedfromcereals Africa Nigeria (north) Ethiopia Northern Ghana Ghana Nigeria (Bendel) South Africa Uganda East Africa Zambia Sudan Nigeria (south) Egypt Egypt Ethiopia Production Area of and cassava Guinea corn and maize Guinea corn maize) Kaffir corn(or Maize Maize Sorghum Sorghum Maize maize Wheat or Wheat andmilk Sorghum Substrate in Table 3. below highlighted are which of some beverages, numerous also are there cereals, fermented from made foods injera). (FAO, 1999). ( breads and (kenkey, agidi), ( gruels uji pito, burukutu, mahewu, of mixture a include In addition to the many fermented bacteria Yeasts andlacticacid Lactobacillus sp. Moulds, yeastand yeasts Lactobacillus spp.and Lactobacillus spp. Yeasts and Candida krusei Yeast acetic acidbacteria Lactic acidbacteria, Unknown spp. yeasts andBacillus Lactobacillus spp., Unknown Unknown Starter ), doughs ), kisra, ogi, 43

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Indigenous fermented foods are under laboratory conditions (FAO, produced at the household level 1999). This of course would be in a majority of African countries, subject to enabling policy and and as such represent an accessible infrastructural environments, and option for increasing food security extensive technical and financial and through trade, a contribution external support. to household income. It is however expected that increasing Asia- Pacific Region industrialization and urbanization The consumption of rice as trends in these countries may a staple food, and the high necessitate some scaling up of population density which limits production of fermented foods animal husbandry practices in this of consistent quality. The scope region, has resulted in a typical for improving such household food processing technology - activities would likely involve the cereal fermentation with moulds following steps: – where fermentation starters (referred to as chu in Chinese) • Isolating and identifying the are commonly prepared from micro-organism involved in the growth of moulds on raw or fermentation, determining it’s cooked cereals. role, and select for improved Indigenous fermented foods traits; may be classified in many • Improve quality and quantity ways: according to the raw of fermented foods by materials used; the major type manipulating environmental of fermentation taking place; factors (temperature, moisture the usage of the product; and content, aeration, pH, acidity the district of production, but in etc); general, fermented products are • Improvement in the quality classified according to use and of raw materials used in the type of fermentation e.g. alcoholic production of fermented foods. foods and beverages, vinegars, breads, fermented porridges and Following the successful snacks, and lactic acid fermented implementation of the above steps, fish products. The most important it may be appropriate to explore the fermentation products of cereals production of fermented products in the Asia-Pacific region are

44 of thesweettypeinjera. product. bread-like Yeastsin thefermentation involved arethemajormicro-organisms from over-fermented paste, and hasa sour taste. The paste is baked or grilled to give a fermentation for12-24hours;(iii) only minimal injera, whichisreddishincolourwithasweettaste, is a‘tef’ pastethat has undergone thick (ii) flour fermented original the of ‘absit’’as portion a with mixed turn, in is, which a productknown to yield pastewiththreepartsofwaterandboiling fermented sorghum of a portion from mixing (i) thinresulting are distiguishable: Three typesofinjera milled toflourwhichissubsequentlyusedinthepreparationofinjera. ‘solo’ in Walaytigna. The manuallyorand sorghum grains aredehulledmechanically production in Ethiopia,isreferredtoas‘ production breadofEthiopia. national undisputed on thelocalityof The bakedproduct,depending is the with averysourtaste,and product inEthiopia baked is themostpopular Injera CASE STUDY 11 No. 138,Rome Source: FAO. 1999.FermentedCereals: A global perspective,FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletin (Fermented yellowishliquidsavedfrompreviouslyfermenteddough) greased claygriddlemetaltillholesbegintoformontop

Flow diagramforthepreparationofinjera Ethiopia. Making “injera”fromfermentedsorghumbread, Add waterandallowtostandfor1h Knead toformadough Mix withwater, 4:1w/v Ferment for48h Mix withstarter Sorghum Bake onhot Add water INJERA Knead bidena

flour komtata-type injera,whichisproduced ”in Oromigua,‘taeta’ inGiragigua,and 45

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods acids and alcohols, which are more commonly prepared in both flavour compounds and Southeastern countries (FAO, food preservatives, and serve as 1999). Indigenous processes an important source of nutrients for the preparation of vinegars (FAO, 1999). are natural or spontaneous Asian beer utilizes rice fermentations brought about by with moulded starters as the the growth of Acetobacter on raw material, and the clear alcoholic substrates under aerobic products generally referred to conditions, and traditionally poor as shaosingjiu in the People’s quality rice-wines were used to Republic of China, chongju in produce low-grade household the Republic of Korea and sake in level vinegars. Japan, contain at least 15 percent In addition to beverages, many alcohol - and are designated as different types of fermented rice-wine. The incubation period foods are produced and consumed and brewing process length for in the region. Dietary staples rice wine varies from two days to consumed throughout this vast one month, and wine is generally region include acid leavened made when the temperature bread, pancakes, noodles, etc. is lower, in the autumn (see See Table 4 for examples. The Figure 9). By contrast, cereal- storage life of perishable fish and beers which are abundant in meats is also extended by lactic micro-nutrients including B acid fermentation, with added vitamins which are formed during carbohydrates and salts, in the fermentation, are brewed at form of rice, millet, flour and higher temperatures (20ºC) for a even syrup or sugar. Fermented few days (FAO, 1999). pork, nham, is a popular food in Ancient fermentation methods Thailand, consisting of fresh pork also produce rice vinegar, rice- meat that is trimmed, minced, wine filtercake vinegar and mixed thoroughly with salt, rice malt vinegar, particularly in and seasoning and either wrapped Northeastern Regions. Vinegars in small banana leaf packets, from tropical fruits (coconut, or stored for several months in sugar cane and pineapple) are wooden barrels.

46 FIGURE 9 Add sporesofAspergillusoryzae

Wash andsteep Flow chartforthe JapaneseSake brewing process Polished rice Ferment Steam Cool Koji Filter anddiscardfiltercake Ferment forabout3weeks Fresh sake Main mash Add water Yeast seedmash Sake yeast Water 47

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods TABLE 4 Examples of acid-leavened bread and noodles used in Asia-Pacific region

Product Country Major Appearance Micro-organism Name of Use Ingredients & Usage

South rice grits; L. mesenteroides India black gram S. fecalis Idli Sri Lanka powder; T. candida T. pullulans

rice flour; L. mesenteroides black gram S. faecalis griddled Dosa India powder; T. candida pancake T. pullulans L. mesenteroides rice S. faecalis Dhokla India bengal steamed cake T. candida gram T. Pullulans India pretzel-like Jalebies Nepal wheat flour S. bayanus confection Pakistan

Mantou China wheat flour Saccharomyces steamed cake

Kichudok Korea rice, takju Saccharomyces steamed cake

L. mesenteroides Puto Philippines rice, sugar S. faecalis steamed cake yeast

glutinous Brem Indonesia cake rice China L. mesenteroides Mungbean Thailand/ L. casei starch noodle Korea L. cellobiosus Japan L. fermenti Lactobacillus sp. Khanomjeen Thailand rice noodle Streptococcus sp Lactic acid sour food Me Viet Nam rice bacteria ingredient

(Source: FAO. 1999. Fermented Cereals: A global perspective, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 138, Rome)

48 er, rnial a achlc and non-alcoholic beverages. Throughout of alcoholic as hundreds principally years, for the in form consumed fermented been America have Latin and in important very maize are Mexico, in origins its particular has which in crops, Cereal Latin America TABLE 5 Chica Champuz Cachiri Atole agrio grains Ecuador Fermented rice requemado Arroz Agua-agria Acupe Abati Name

Fermented Cerealbasedfoodsandbeveragesconsumed in Latin America cinnamon andcloveareadded. 4 days,followingwhichbrownsugar, black maizedough.Itisfermented for pineapple, barleysteepliquorand Alcoholic beveragebasedon or rice Fermented beveragebasedonmaize pots manihot orfruits.Itisproducedinclay Fermented beveragebasedonmaize, maize doughfermented4-5days Non alcoholicporridgebasedonblack maize dough Atole Nonalcoholicporridgebasedon ground maizeandwater Non alcoholicbeveragebasedon fermented andsweetened Beverage basedongerminatedmaize, Alcoholic beveragebasedonmaize Description and harvestfestivals. sun rain, various and rites, in fertility role a played has 9, Study Case see drink), fruit fermented the with “chicha drink maize the region, Andean the in and significance, magical and religious profound has maize America Latin (o t b mistaken be to (not ” Mexico Colombia, Peru Brazil Mexico Mexico Mexico Venezuela Paraguay, Argentina Country 49

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods TABLE 5 Fermented Cereal based foods and beverages consumed in Latin America (Cont.)

Name Description Country

Alcoholic beverage based on “pulque” syrup, chili Charagua and toasted maize leaves, heated slowly and Mexico fermented

Fubá Germinated maize grains fermented in water Brazil Bread based on maize fermented for 3-6 days Jamin-bang Brazil and cooked as a cake. Beverage based on germinated,ground and Napú Peru fermented maize

Alcoholic beverage based on maize juice and Ostoche Mexico “pulque”or brown sugar

Non-alcoholic acidic beverage based on maize Pozol liquor. Balls prepared from fermented dough are Mexico enveloped in banana leaves

Quebranta Alcoholic beverage based on maize juice toasted Mexico huesos maize and pirú fruits (Schinus molle)

Alcoholic beverage (beer-like) based on germinated maize and red chili. Dough is Sendechó Mexico resuspended in water, boiled, bestowed, cooled and inoculated with Sendechó

Sora Alcoholic beverage based on germinated Peru

Tepache Alcoholic beverage based on maize grains Mexico

Alcoholic beverage (beer-like) based on Tesgüino Mexico germinated maize Dessert based on maize fermented for 2-3 Tocos Peru months and cooked

Zarzaparrilla Alcoholic beverage based on maize beer and Mexico bark wine zarzaparrilla bark

Alcoholic beverage based on toasted barley and Zambumbia water; fermented for 3-4 days, following which Mexico brown sugar is added

50 Description: CASE STUDY 12 No. 138,Rome Source: FAO. 1999. FermentedCereals: A globalperspective,FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletin rinsed withwater,a “ producing anddrained off.easily peeled to berelatively thepericarp swell allowing The kernelsarecooled, in apotcontaining1to 2 litresof calcium hydroxidesolution,duringwhichthekernels for anhour cobs, boiled maize by shelling are obtained 1 -1.5kgofkernels generation. to from generation down handed procedures to traditional scale according commercial Preparation: superficial infectionsandwounds. mixing it with waterandhoneyto reduce fevers, control diarrhea,andevenincuring grains. cooking ofthedehulled by additional groups There arerecordsofindigenous and a Indians by theindigenous prepared traditional-type classes.Twosocial by all to beconsumed a are distinguishable: types ofpozol basic by theMayacultureandcontinues use ofpozolisrecorded dietary andceremonial during workinghours,at meals, orasarefreshmentatanyhourof the day. The individuals by low-income particularly from pozolisconsumed prepared beverage communities. Salt, toasted groundchilipods,sugar, or honeymay be added. The state asabasicfoodinthedailydietoflarge which isconsumedintheuncooked porridge a whitish with watertoproduce balls arediluted pozol Oaxaca). Fermenting Southeastern states of Mexico (Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, Veracruz, and and by indigenous is consumed which sizes and fermentation. Sometimes groundcoconut,orcacaobeans,isaddedtothedoughprior depending onconsumerpreference. to preventdrying,andfermentedfor114days,ormore, leaves in banana wrapped metal millto obtain acoarsedough, andmanuallyshapedintoballs. These are then Pozol is a fermented maize dough formed into balls of various shapes of various formed intoballs dough is afermentedmaize Pozol Pozol is prepared eitherdomesticallyfor Pozol isprepared consumptionoronasmall

Preparation ofPozol,Mexico nixtamal populations typically in the in typically mestizo populations ” whichisgroundinamanual mestizo-type,characterized 51

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods ■ the wide consumer acceptance of of acceptance fermented productsinmanycountries. consumer wide the and requirements infrastructural and energy minimal scalability, their cost, of low light in industry food the in considerable development stimulating for offerspotential Furthermore, fermentation generation. income to contribute and commodity tradable generate a to opportunities provide and to farmers reliable small-scale for way a effective offer technologies fermentation small-scale Traditional reduce the likelihood of making and making of likelihood the reduce will but operations, risk commercial eliminate in not Such will activity products. an popular most the be may what and locals of dislikes and likes potential the products, for ascertaining demand of method viable a is demand local Researching products. farm fermented for be may there in demand what of understanding and minimal a roads requires markets rural village along viable. up stall setting be a neighbours, to to Selling demand requires level, market even household farm enterprise, at fermentation A Strategies for successfulincomegeneration ■ Market appraisal il rvd ifrain n the operations expanding on of This feasibility information provide research. will more market far a in-depth conduct is to it necessary enterprise more processing a formal into operations kitchen enterprise expand to will a or desire indeed between “market-place”. or markets, information and producers of only the source often are intermediaries market areas, remote activities in located Where are barrier, a of less presents or problematic less often is produce is high, a lack of information for demand Where to information. this respond to capacity need the have also to in activities involved fermentation those and not sufficient, is however alone Information markets. in new markets, remaining entering and markets for essential different is and in particular products of characteristics price and quality quantity, the to relating be obtained? And soforth. to can prices to? What sell Where to sell? Who produce? to much How produce? to product What example, for about, decisions wrong the taking oee we tee s a is there when However Market information can be varied, 53

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods and may well save money in intended with a view to learning about how investments, such as equipment the product is received in terms and machinery that may not work of acceptable quality, price and at capacity as a result of lack of selling location: a test market. consumer demand. Establishing This allows for modifications and managing a small processing to be made if required, but it is business involves calculated risk worth remembering that changes taking so it is important to use tools to the product as a result of that provide the information needed customer feedback may not to understand and mitigate those always mean increasing the risks. The following steps can help in quality, as the target group may the information gathering process: prefer a more standard product at a lower price. • Conduct a survey – focus on • Meeting needs better than customers not markets competitors Market research typically Markets are not static and even provides a picture of what the micro-enterprises with good market is like for a product, and popular fermented products including information about may soon find them copied. It competitors and likely demand. is important to research what However the focus needs to possible competition there be mainly set on consumers. may be in the area and find This will provide valuable information about what products information on how well a are been marketed, what prices product is likely to do in the are being offered, what quantities market place – providing for the are being sold and so forth. “who, what, where, how and how • Location much” questions and enabling to Where products are sold is make more informed decisions very important and small-scale regarding enterprise expansion. farmers needs to ascertain • Test the market where the best locations to sell Once a consumer survey is their products are. This could completed the next step is to be, apart from farm gate sales, produce a batch of products setting up a stall on a road side, which will meet the stated participating in village markets expectations of the target group, and/or in town markets, selling

54 ■ result in mistakes including sour beer can and environments, predictable expensive less in take place traditional practises whereas quality, known a of product are using consistent a in resulting technology, processes fermentation controlled and the equipment industrial modern applications, In production. particular traditional small-scale a for is problem and products, demand for local effect adversely can control In quality inadequate 2002). nutritional addition, Satin, and inferior (Rolle of value often are which products, food imported from competition serious facing products these in resulted have improvement of lack their toward the geared research market and markets local in to addition, the poor image of fermented contribute products In challenges. marketing often road poor availability networks and transportation limited of poorly are developed: countries developing most in systems marketing Domestic ■ Marketing strategies enterprise. the operationsofafermentation making processinexpanding important partofthedecision- and wheretheyliketobuyisan Knowing wherecustomersare products toretailersandsoforth. • • • • may include: fermented goods. marketable produce to turn creates confidence to in their ability activities, increase their income status, which in fermentation scale small- undertake who communities and households help can approach 2002). Satin, and (Rolle pickles mouldy and tp t scesu marketing successful to Steps marketing successful A and collaboratingwithother Becoming betterorganized to pasteurize(seeBox13); sauces, extracts,etc,orlearning through drying,pickling,making products by improving processing the shelf-lifeoffermented Adding valueandincreasing cooperatives; or eventoshopsfarmer wholesalers, localrestaurants, market intermediaries,regional traders, intolocalmarkets,to directly tolocalcustomers, transport infrastructure-selling and beverages–dependingon options forfreshfermentedfoods Exploring variousmarketing buyers aboutit; prices, etc–throughtalkingto texture, flavour, volumeand – intermsofquality, packaging, Being awareofmarketdemand 55

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods fermented good producers so as hygienic products and contribute to bulk up on volume and the to the success of a small-scale variety of products available, to fermentation enterprise. Appropriate attract regular traders on the basis quality control procedures need to of supplying reliable produce; be developed and implemented, and • Sharing knowledge and importantly, these procedures need experiences with other fermented to be developed with farmers who good producers and, if a problem must understand and apply them. or constraint is consistent and Food quality has both objective widespread, collectively source and subjective issues to consider. external advice and input; The objective quality issues are • Reducing initial capital related to the minimum standards investment by recycling pieces of safety and hygiene, while the of equipment and sourcing subjective nature of quality is locally, and sharing costs through based on consumer preference. For informal or formal groupings; example, what is acceptable to one • Identifying existing markets and customer may not be acceptable to trading routes, which may include another. It is important to carry out market niches, such as organic participative research to identify fermented products, products for ways to improve the quality control export to “nostalgic” markets procedures for fermented food (where a significant proportion of products. the once resident population now Areas of focus may include: reside). • Selecting good quality raw Successful marketing strategies materials (fermentation may differ across regions, with substrates); transport infrastructure, market • Processing under correct accessibility and consumer conditions (sterile, with good preferences. They will also require healthy fermenting cultures); different approaches depending • Ensuring high standards of on whether the fermented goods personal hygiene; have an extended shelf-life. • Ensuring the fermentation and However whatever marketing processing areas are sufficiently system found locally quality control clean; procedures are essential for safe and • Using appropriate packaging.

56 TABLE 6 Additional storagerequirementstoaddress and storage requirements, Tableof different7 thesuitability options. typesofcontainer all beveragesiscontainthemwithoutanyleakage. Tablessome additional 6outlines Beverages havediffering needs withregardto storage, butthemost pressing needfor Packaging required forpasteurizationwilldependontheproductandbottlesize. of thebottle. the shoulder around water withthewater-level The timeandtemperature bottles. The filled bottles, with the lids loosely closed, are stood in a large pan of boiling in their pasteurized be can Some products steel pans. stainless heat in a direct over out carried best is Pasteurization bottles. sterilized clean into filling before minutes 5 0.5 and for between it atthattemperature and holding to atemperatureof80-90°C have ashelf-lifeofinvolvesheatingtheproduct more thanafewdays.Pasteurization Liquids suchas fruit based drinksandjuicesmay need to be pasteurizedif they are to Pasteurization are commonlywashed,sometimespeeled,boiled,andthensundried. steps in the production of dry fermentedfoodssuchas bread. Fruits and vegetables based “gruels”,whilemillingandsievingarerequiredas pre-fermentation processing of fermentedcereal in thepreparation steps applied processing pre-fermentation is sun-dried. “grains”, Treatmentsare sieving and milling steeping, suchaswashing, to fermentation,suchas prior dried to be needs In mostcases,anysubstratewhich Drying as blenderscanbeused. available, or if electric power is available, multi-purposekitchen-scaleequipmentsuch by hand or by using a pestle andmortar. A wide rangeofpulpersare hand-operated pulped be easily can bananas, and as papaya Soft fruits, such wines. and soft drinks of for themanufacture from fruitisthestartingmaterial or thepulp Either thejuice Pulping • • • • Extracting juicefromfreshfruitandvegetablescanbeundertakeninseveralways: BOX 13Processingandpreserving by squeezingthefruit,aswithcitrus,usingcomparativelysimpleequipment by steamingthefruit; or plasticsieves; by crushing/pulpingwithamortarandpestlethensievingthroughmuslincloth with afruitpress,millorhandpulper/sieve; Fruit juice,cordialetc. Wine Beer Soft drinks some Light • • Air • • • Heat • • organisms Micro • • • • Insects • • • • 57

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods BOX 13 Processing and preserving (Cont.)

TABLE 7 Relative suitability of different types of container options

Plastic Glass Metal can film/pot/ Ceramic pot bottle/jar pouch Fruit juice, cordial etc. • Lacquered • • Beer Coloured Lacquered • • Wine • • Soft drinks • •

The choice of containers for packaging fermented foods and beverages for small- scale producers is often restricted by what is locally available, and may include leaves, vegetable fibres, earthenware pots and newsprint, but the limitations of these are reduced shelf-life and while acceptable for local consumption, do not help with marketing and product placement in local markets (Rolle and Satin, 2002). Glass bottles are popular medium for packaging beverages, but can be expensive, so many small-scale producers re-use the bottles. To prevent contamination the bottles must be sterilized and cleaned properly, with at minimum a simple hand-held bottle-brushes. The type of closures used depends upon the type of product and its particular use (e.g. for glass bottles does it need to withstand internal pressure from carbonation). Metal ‘crown’ caps are commonly used for beers and fruit juices, whereas squashes, carbonated drinks and spirits are more frequently packaged using re-sealable metal screw-caps. Wine is preferably sealed with a cork, but plastic stoppers are effective and can cost less (Hampton and Fellows, 1992). There have been many technological advances in the field of packaging materials, and larger commercial manufacturers favour “tetrapak” style of waxed cartons for many beverages, especially fruit juice, on account of their convenience and cost. However, the cost of the equipment needed to form and seal the cartons is prohibitively expensive and presently out of reach for the small-scale producer. Cheaper alternatives as plastic or foil laminated pouches, provided sealed correctly, can be a very convenient way of packaging. (Hampton and Fellows, 1992).

Other equipment Small-scale fermenting enterprises do not need expensive equipment and some may be shared between producers. Wine and beer making requires little specialist equipment, but all equipment used should be of food grade and thoroughly cleaned before use.

58 • • • routes. These mayinclude: marketing principal few a typically fermentation are there goods, their sell and market to small-scale aim which activities, For Marketing channels TABLE 8 An overviewofthetypesprocessingequipmentwhichmaybe BOX 13Processingandpreserving(Cont.) to bothlocalanddistantmarkets. which offers easy market linkages another producerorganization, belong toacooperativeor markets; onto eitherlocalormoredistant sell toanagentwhothensells market; either atthefarmgateorlocal selling directlytoconsumers Boil, andorsterilizingequipment Juice pulping/extraction required Processing stage Filling Fermentation Carbonation Pasteurize Mashing Mixing Filter into bottles Open boilingpan,Steamjacketed Filters, filterpresses,sieves,strainers, Fermentation bins/jars,plasticbucket utrl n sca ast are assets direct the social determining for important and Cultural Local networks competition (Millard,1995). less and to subject usually quicker; are products be should payment export); with (associated restrictions and documentation absence complicated the of more in easily market and closer quickly a fulfil for to orders ability costs; distribution fewer as consumer the to price products; lower appropriate develop requirements and to respond to including: easier export over advantages Fruit pressorPulper/juicer, knives Boiling h dmsi mre hs many has market domestic The Carbonating Liquid Fermentation bins pans, largemetaldrums Equipment cotton cloths Pasteurizer Mixers fillers Funnel equipment 59

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods and indirect benefits of all livelihood extremely helpful in establishing activities, but are especially or strengthening organizations and important for the sustainable trade social networks. and marketing of fermented products. Good organization of both Households undertaking small-scale individuals and producer groups can fermentation for trade can strengthen increase knowledge and technical their market position through capacity, and reduce vulnerability organization and association with and risk. Effective organization other households to share techniques, can also help achieve consistent contacts and costs. However, in qualities of fermented products and addition to the informal and formal larger more appropriate volumes. contacts which individuals have Furthermore, operating on a “larger which reduce vulnerability and economy of scale” can collectively strengthen access to a variety of help share the burden of costs, such supporting resources and business and as transport, which may overcome technical information, “cultural know the challenges of trading bulky, how” is embedded in, and indigenous perishable goods with limited tradition often inherent for successful shelf-lives. Organization may take fermentation. Many societies possess various forms, including community considerable traditional knowledge partnerships, and community and skills, without which it would not collaboration with companies, or be possible to successfully produce organizations which provide credit and importantly market many of the and technology. fermented foods and beverages the Where successful, organization world over. can help small-scale producers of fermented products in several ways, ■■Organization for the enterprise including: The ability of individuals or a community to organize itself for • improving product quality trade is influenced by numerous (including grading), quantity factors including existing social (including consistent quantities), cohesion, the presence of other and diversification; kinds of community organization, • providing more cost-effective and the presence of charismatic transportation and overcoming leaders who can motivate people large distances to the point of to action. External support can be sale;

60 • • • ■ • • ciiis n srnte their strengthen contribution tosecurelivelihoods: and fermentation activities of sustainability the to contribute can which factors key The following points summarise some ■ cultures, equipment,etc. sources ofsubstrate,starter information flowsaboutquality important toensureeffective producers andbuyersare good relationships between Effective communicationand easily. thereby attractingbuyersmore qualities offermentedproducts, and predictablequantities producers toprovideconsistent external support-allowing acquired orimprovedthrough knowledge -butmayalsobe usually basedontraditional the fermentationprocess, A goodunderstandingof Summary fairs. different markets,andproduct promoting theproduct,e.g.at market chain; negotiate withotheractorsinthe thereby increasingtheabilityto acting uponmarketintelligence, accessing marketinformationand level ofmarketdemand. Identification ofareliable Most • • • • more resilienttoexternalshocks, fermentation activitiestobe Organization labour. their productioncosts,including by producersshouldreflect overcome this. The pricereceived producer organizations mayhelp of marketpowerandgood often linkedtotheconcentration defining therulesoftrade,is both insettingpricesand High levelsoftransparency, shorter chains. trade, andmaybegreatestfor influence theresilienceofany Length ofmarketingchaincan be vitaltomaintaintrade. supporting innovationswhichcan are particularlyimportantin External actors,likeNGOs, to thesustainabilityoftrade. and orproducts,isimportant fermentation techniques,cultures, introducing neworimproved Ability toinnovate,by potential. factor determiningtheirmarket are promotedisanimportant areas wherefermentedgoods level ofmarketdevelopmentin be challenging. The general establishing newchainscan chains aredemanddriven,and other naturalresourcesmarket agricultural, horticultural,and canhelp 61

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods and markets may also be made capacity building and improving accessible by community fermentation techniques, thereby organization. Such organizations assisting in empowering poorer can also help with training, and more marginalised producers.

62 ■ packaging, and or sources of equipment credit, which to access facilitate help or training, adequate deliver to unable and funded under themselves on 2002). reliant usually are which services extension typically Satin, is sector and The (Rolle weak principles on safety food and often knowledge nutrition basic also and are limited, skills and marketing business operational, sector, and technologytransfer information for countries developed on Consequently, dependent often are 2002). institutions Satin, and processing (Rolle food requirements marketing and local to by linked poorly usually conducted is institutions research equipped, these the poorly and generally laboratories are regional university, and national Furthermore, research results. of adaptation the for processing, and food on development and and research of support in planners funding national little by with policy-makers, priority in low given generally sector is countries many food-processing The ■ n h salsae fermentation small-scale the In Public policy Support servicestopromote fermented foods andbeverages n niiul aaiiis As capabilities. individual on impact will development, skills and infrastructure, communication and transport health, education, rural in investment and activities, an out to carry capabilities people’s have on impact Public therefore infrastructure. investments other and markets electricity, rural roads, telecommunications, as and such goods, public are activities horticultural business small through agricultural, livelihoods for their to improve producers small-scale prerequisites enabling fundamental technical assistance. seek to resources no have otherwise would who processors small-scale to specifically support, follow-up by accompanied processing, food nutrition and on programmes training of delivery consistent the support - services extension funding in food through role indirectly or directly to – processing significant fermentation a plays traditionally where a need for governments - in countries their livelihood activities. in As such, there is invest to small- processors of scale ability the limit further oe eeal, ay f the of many generally, More 63

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods their capabilities increase, so does who could directly or indirectly efficiency, while costs, risks and be adversely affected by it; vulnerability diminish. • developing incentives for Possible government lending institutions to invest interventions to support fermentation in small or community run activities at the policy level include: businesses, through the provision of basic accountancy and • implementing livelihood support marketing training, and make policies which provide cross- credit provision accessible for sectoral support to agriculture, small-scale farmers to get started. natural resources, and development sectors, enabling ■■Technical training rural and urban food processors Traditional fermentation processes alike to implement diversified were developed largely as an and sustainable livelihood art, rather than through scientific strategies; principles, and although procedures • developing specific policies and equipment used by these to provide clear support and processes are relatively simple, guidelines on how to improve microbiological and biochemical and maintain small-scale food aspects of a number of these processing quality, safety, and processes are complicated and not standards; fully understood (Ogunmoyela and • developing policies to help Oyewole, 1992). Even with simple, small-scale producers promote small-scale fermentation, some trade of their fermented physical aspects such as temperature, beverages and foods, through relative humidity and level of branding and other mechanisms; agitation and aeration, are often • developing legislation to prevent poorly controlled and production irresponsible consumption techniques are not standardised of alcoholic beverages, and (Rolle and Satin, 2002). recognising that while policy There is a need in particular support for the traditional to provide training as to good beverage sector is required for hygiene practices which prevent livelihood based enterprise contamination, and on how to diversification, there is a need improve fermentation efficiency to regulate it and protect people to deliver consistently acceptable

64 ■ a in product wider marketplace. the place better shelf-life, and extend help newsprint, also would and fibres, pots vegetable earthenware leaves, purely than materials appropriate more products, in fermented of packaging shelf-life. adequate on product’s knowledge Improved consequently the extend and the stop fermentation, which and/ refrigeration, or pasteurization or drying, undertaking efficient more include which technologies appropriate in training through shelf-life increase to possible be and also may quantity It quality. of terms in outputs skills are required where small-scale producers. goods fermented useful amongst all qualities are - detail to and attention risks, take and experiment to self- including ability and willingness a confidence, – personal and characteristics required, often are skills numeracy and bookkeeping Even for trading at local level, basic activities. fermentation successful on impact significant a have can and init activities, engage income-generating to an determining capacity as in people’s factor accepted important is Education ■ oe nacd entrepreneurial enhanced More Business skillsdevelopment ■ world situations. real to training the during it apply importantly but theory, not taught only are trainees where approach” doing “learning-by the be to found has practice and acumen business acquire to methods successful the more of One skills. negotiation and requirements; and distribution, as well as marketing transport of legal coordination logistical cultures; meeting starter requirements; packaging and managing and of substrate materials fermentation as well as supplies equipment, administration; of fermentation and management bookkeeping; planning include may Such skills business. small a into trade, local beyond activities fermentation their “grow” to wish entrepreneurs rvd mr hg technological high to more used be provide example, can funding For external efficiently. more support and more refined methods to operate thereby technical to and access needs income, for traded reliably be can that outputs produce to scales-up enterprise an of size the as important more become however trade, will resources Financial undertake. local to assets financial minimal requires for beverage and fermentation food Small-scale ■ Financial Services 65

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods equipment, facilitate information Considerations for sustainable and exchange visits, and provide transfer of fermentation technologies training to expand cultivation skills. A considerable amount of hard The types of credit available vary work and commitment is involved between countries, but central and in the transfer of technologies to local governments, some private developing countries, with individual organizations, and cooperatives preferences, rather than technical are normally good sources for criteria, dictating the adoption of establishing small-scale enterprises. technologies and their products Although food biotechnology has (Rolle and Satin, 2002). Thus, any been used for a long time in much technology selected for transfer of the developing world, it may must grow out of the needs and require a change of image, as well as practices of its beneficiary society the availability of funds, to become and the level of technology and tools more commercially viable (FAO, transferred must conform to both the 2004). socio-cultural environment and to the resources of the beneficiary country ■■Technology transfer (FAO/ & WHO, 1996). Efficient transfer and adaptation Every country, region, and of technologies is often limited producer and processor community by inadequate basic scientific varies in technical ability, and knowledge of the processes before facilitating any technological involved, a lack of appropriate transfer, it is prudent to undertake a starter cultures, and process controls systematic approach for technology for these technologies. Building the transfer to developing countries. This institutional capacity in developing might include the following stages: countries to facilitate research and development geared toward a better • a technical, socio-economic, and understanding of the technologies institutional capacity assessment applied in small-scale traditional of the country situation is fermentations is essential, as is the required to evaluate the type and encouragement of governments scale of technology which would to formulate supportive national be appropriate to introduce; policies, which promote small-scale • selection of an appropriate scale agro-industrial development (Rolle and level of technology - in and Satin, 2002). deciding how best to support

66 CASE STUDY 13 available withinthecountry. necessary to advise entrepreneurs on howto utilise andaccess credit facilities ofbothbusinessandproductmarketingplans. Often, and inthedevelopment it is products. Once and its thetechnology of the technology in acquiring entrepreneurs to facilitate it maybenecessary adopted, use the in benefit clear a of technology, technology anditsontherecognition by usersofthe products ishighlydependent FAO’sof any transferhas shownthattheadoptability withtechnology experience Facilitating accesstothetechnology access toinformation. scientists, researchers andextensionistsalsofacilitates informationdisseminationand printed materialsmaybemoreeffective.among small-scaleprocessors, Networking and in others,brochures insomecases,while may beappropriate and television) countries, andtheirlevelsofeducationinfrastructure.Use of local media(radio most effectiveand communities individual upon depends approach dissemination The success. activity ultimately and acceptance product increase which refinements and preparationofthefermentedproductwhichcanleadto fermentation technology in theformof workshops, shortcoursesanddemonstrations-onboththeusesof and itsproducts. of thetechnology absorption throughtraining This isoftenachieved the wider technical,marketingandbusinessskillsto facilitate implementation Once have appropriate technologies beenselected,it is usuallydesirableto increase the capacityforresearchand along withanassessmentof and technicalsupportservices, education, locallyavailableskills product), andevaluatelevelsof and marketsforthefinished of rawmaterialsandstorage networks inrelationtosources supplies, transportationandroad (energy andcleanwater the supportinginfrastructure and manufacturingpractices, to assesscurrentprocessing based activities,itissensible small-scale fermentation

and informationdissemination Improving accesstotechnologythroughtraining • • eal scesu apoce to approaches technological transfer. successful details and incentives; and relevantgovernmentpolicies development withinthecountry e Cs Suy 3 which 13 Study Case See 2002). the technology(RolleandSatin, and thefacilitationofaccessto cultural practicesofthecountry; the contextofsocialand appropriate technology, within and disseminationofthemost implementation, demonstration 67

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods CASE STUDY 13 Improving access to technology through training and information dissemination (Cont.)

Role of FAO in technology transfer FAO’s focus in supporting the transfer of small-scale food fermentations to developing countries is geared primarily toward building capacity through training designed to upgrade technical, marketing and management skills; providing technical support and advising governments on the selection of appropriate technologies, rural credit schemes and marketing approaches. In addition, FAO provides advisory services to governments on the formulation of national programmes and policies in support of small-scale technologies and fosters technical cooperation among countries, and helps to support the establishment of technical information networks and databases.

Some of the activities of the Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division (AGS) focus on adding value to agricultural produce, the conservation of food, creation of employment, and providing and facilitating access to and exchange of information on issues of relevance to agro-industries and post-harvest. One of AGS’s main emphasis is on the development of small-scale rural industries based on the use of locally available raw materials. AGS’s work on fermentation technology currently focuses on assisting developing countries in building and improving traditional fermentation processes, and documentation of fermentation technologies, which are rapidly being lost (FAO, 1998, 1999, 2000). In addition, FAO seeks to promote wider interest in fermentation technology for the enhancement of food security and food safety, for upgrading nutritional standards in impoverished regions and for the prevention of food losses.

Source: Rolle, R.. & Satin, M. 2002. Basic requirements for the transfer of fermentation technologies to developing countries. International Journal of Food Microbiology Vol 75, pp. 181– 187.

Future priorities and research: scale producers could supply FAO (2004) makes the following their products to expanded recommendations for an integrated markets – is a better option approach to the development of small- than “industrialization” of food scale / traditional fermentation, which production, based on a highly includes raw material preparation, capital- and labour-intensive fermentation monitoring\control and transformation of production product recovery: processes. As such, many markets for fermented food • improved commercialization of products from several countries food production – where small- could be developed which

68 ■ • • initiatives: fermentation small-scale peri-urban and rural to assistance of programme a planning when considered be may technologies (FAO, 2004). units might help in popularizing these processing food of establishment and training building, capacity creation, awareness disseminated: well not are products fermented and fermentation of benefits the of documentation The ■ n umr, h floig steps following the summary, In roles Advisory facilities. in researchandlearning application, andanimprovement emphasise biotechnologyandits and highereducationto in teachingcurriculaoffurther building throughimprovements effective and appropriate capacity the ruralareas; equipment andtechnologiesinto biotechnology techniques,skills, the introductionofsimple income prospectsthrough improving employmentand in developingcountries,thereby substantial capitalinvestment) industries (whichdonotrequire rural-based processing development ofsmall-scale international; could benational,regionalor • • • • • • • consistent, andsafe; and productqualitiesaremore efficiency, toensureyields traditional fermentation identify howbesttoimprove transformations, andhelp fermented foodandbeverage processes responsiblefor support todocumentthe activities; small-scale fermentation on scalingupandimproving the provisionofspecialistadvice fermentation; on practicalmethodsof conducting “fielddays” such aspasteurization; and poorlyunderstoodprocesses, commonly fermentingproducts radio andashardcopies-for dissemination viatheinternet, develop information–for advantage ofthem; along withtheknow-howtotake cultures atanaffordable price, and orprovideaccesstostarter productive microbialstrains, selection ordevelopmentofmore support –whereneeded-the villages, towns,etc; setting uppilotdemonstrationsin management skills; technical, businessand of appropriateandnecessary support forthedevelopment 69

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods • providing practical advice where individuals or on successful marketing and communities are interested, business strategies; in order to improve access to • assistance in establishing finance, capacity building, and fermentation cooperatives, better market links.

70 s ul a taiinl fermented traditional needs products. as local fully meet as not may otherwise and materials and equipment of importation on dependence and raw know-how, local unique of loss arts, in traditional of displacement materials, substitutions nutritionally less adequate areas, some employment in less processing, food in involvement local less problems, in distribution production, result centralised may countries, affluent more in developed technologies with countries, traditional developing in of foodstuffs displacement Any support. to of forms other access and training provide and reduce producers, help small-scale for risk and can vulnerability wholesalers or universities agro-industries, regional with partnerships or ventures joint in working and organization, good available. Successful activities require account what assets and resources are and culturally sensitive, and take into activities should be carefully planned any livelihood promote but to interventions activities, fermentation some of efficiency the up improve and scale to exist do Opportunities Opportunities andchallenges of sale. However, in addition to the to addition in However, sale. of point at attractive being or shelf-life prolonging for unfavourable often while acceptable for which, local consumption, are materials available locally in products fermented their package producers small-scale many Likewise, shelf-life. limited a render and can products susceptible to which contamination or pasteurized refrigerated) not dried, hygiene, (poorly poor improper post-handling fermentation with associated somewhat is approach fermentation rural the of economy. development the to contribute the significantly has to it potential sector sub a As 1999). (Dietz, industry food small-scale of development the foster of to need recognition the growing a is food-processing there countries, developing in large-scale enterprises to medium many of failure widespread the of of result a as development but agro-industry, the than policy- makers and planners more by countries given attention been developing historically has of sector h cret o technical low current The production agricultural The 71

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods technical constraints facing small- potential effects via warning labels scale processors, are a number of and consumer awareness campaigns. institutional constraints, including an In addition to legislation inadequacy of governmental policies pertaining to consumption, to promote and support small- producers of traditional fermented scale food processing; a sometimes beverages are also being increasingly insufficient raw material supply; obliged to meet various legislative inadequate infrastructure typically requirements. These may take associated with rural poor areas; and various forms including taxes and limited access to external inputs and “certification of origin”. In the case technical support (Dietz, 1999). of Mexican Mezcal, for example, there is a requirement for the product ■■Public policy: Regulations and to originate from one of seven named laws states in Mexico which has had a There exists a responsibility to significant impact on local producers, ensure an effective means is in pushing small-scale distillers out place to regulate and encourage of business or into clandestine sensible consumption, and protect production (Marshall, Schreckenberg those who could be indirectly or and Newton, 2006). directly adversely affected by alcohol consumption. This may take the form ■■Safety and quality of community norms and rules, or be The challenges of implementing more formalised such as legislation, measures to safeguard safety and will vary across cultures and and quality in the real world are countries. There are many examples numerous. There is a notable role of public laws and educational for tailored public and indeed private policies to prevent abuse in existence support for ongoing training and today, and include minimum education as to the importance of drinking age; what is permissible to quality and standards not only for do under the influence of alcohol (vis successful trade, but also in terms of a vis opertating machinery, driving social responsibility. a vehicle, etc); restricting sales through taxation or more specifically ■■Gender issues at certain periods of time or events; Small-scale fermentation represents and improving knowledge of the a suitable and empowering income

72 ■ and children. women from largely comes activities distilling livelihoods other and for labour periods, harvesting an during how is and activity, mezcal male exclusively of production the where 2, Study Case See beverages. alcoholic of sale or consumption the particular in activities, fermentation deem in participation female inappropriate, or exclude traditions self-esteem. where societies many exist there and However, independence not financial increase help can skills new is is and physically demanding. The gaining home, of duties, at undertaken domestic with combined traditional be can it because women, as society,such of members marginalised or vulnerable more the for particular in option, generating pin o pol wt disabilities, with people for option accessible an in is it such As required. modifications some construction, equipment and tasks are if even activities, fermentation most in of tasks capable necessary the of most fully accomplishing are physical with disabilities People tasks. other complementary around fits which activity livelihood as undertaken be not can many intensive, labour generally are activities fermentation As ■ People withdisabilities • • • • ■ • • • dpain r cniee, where necessary. considered, and are training adaptation specialist provided include: plan during business a addressed of development the be to need and enterprises, fermentation small-scale to relevance particular of those business, but any of sustainability the Variouschallenge to combine factors ■ Enterprise sustainability poor productionplanning; consumers; of qualityrequirementsby assurance andpoorunderstanding inadequate hygieneandquality for productdiversification; little recognitionofopportunities retailers; networks withsuppliersand of trustingrelationshipsand negotiating, andanabsence assertiveness insellingor lack ofconfidenceand management; inadequate financial planning skills; knowledge, resourcesand poor marketandtechnical characteristics; skills andentrepreneurial management andothertechnical under-developed business 73

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods • lack of capital for expansion; then design and implement local • and use of inappropriate training programmes in a way that technologies for the desired is affordable and meets the time market. constraints of the enterprises. Other approaches to supporting enterprise The difference in nature of sustainability may include longer- these factors means that different term initiatives such as the creation approaches and types of support for of networks involving Government each are needed. Some constraints institutions, NGOs and private will be largely addressed by sector, and undertaking advocacy providing training and information work to make policies more resources, however, the high cost enabling and supportive, and then of training can be prohibitive and implement training in targeted a way forward can be to identify phases, once needs have been fully and train selected trainers who can identified.

74 FAO. FAO. 2009.BarleyMaltBeer,Agri-businesshandbook,FAO,Rome . FAO. 2010.Meatprocessingtechnology FAO.2011. Cambell Platt,G. Agar, J.1999.MarketingfortheLocal Market, Achi,O.K Bachelor, R.E.2010. Dietz, M.H.1999.Thepotentialofsmall-scalefoodprocessingfor FAO. Medina &H.S.Garcia,Rome(Unpublished). pp. 375-380. foods through biotechnology,AfricanJournalof Biotechnology alcoholic-beverages http://archaeology.suite101.com/article.cfm/worlds-oldest-known- Development Vol.10No.4. countries benefit? rural economies, And Guide Perspective, FAOAgriculturalServices Bulletin summary.htm). Agriculture (Availableat 2004. 2000a. Fermented Grain Legumes, Seeds andNuts:AGlobal 2000a. FermentedGrain . 2005. The potential for upgrading traditionalfermented . Butterworths,London Manufacturing fruitwines-apracticalguide Biotechnology applications in food processing: candeveloping Selected further reading

FAO Electronic Forum onBiotechnology inFood and Courier 174,pp.89–92. 1987. ). World’s oldestknownalcoholicbeverage Fermented FoodsOf The World–ADictionary http://www.fao.org/biotech/logs/C11/ , Bangkok. No. 142,Rome. , by J. DeLaCruz , by Small Enterprise , (Availableat Vol.4(5), 75

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods FAO.2000b.Grain legumes, seeds and nuts: rationale for fermentation. Fermented Grain Legumes, Seeds and Nuts: A Global Perspective, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No 142, Rome.

FAO. 1999. Fermented Cereals—A Global Perspective, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No 138, Rome.

FAO. 1998. Fermented Fruits and Vegetables—A Global Perspective, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No. 134, Rome.

FAO. 1997. The agro-processing industry and economic development. The State of Food and Agriculture, Rome, pp. 221–265.

FAO. 1996. Value added products from beekeeping, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No 124, Rome.

FAO. 1995a. Fruit and vegetable processing, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No 119, Rome.

FAO. 1995b. Sorghum and millets in human nutrition, Rome.

FAO. 1993. Rice in human nutrition, Rome.

FAO. 1992. Maize in human nutrition, Rome.

FAO. 1990a. The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries, FAO Animal production and health paper No. 85, Rome.

FAO. 1990b. Roots, tubers, plantains and bananas in human nutrition, Rome.

FAO. 1985. Small-scale sausage production, Rome.

FAO. 1977. Cassava processing, Rome.

76 Holzapfel, W.H.2002.Appropriatestarterculturetechnologiesfor Hammes, W.P.1990.Bacterialstarterculturesinfoodproduction,Food Hammes, W.P., Brandt, M. J.,Francis, K. L., Rosenheim, J.,Seitter, Marshall, E.,Schreckenberg, K. & Newton,A. Jones, A. 1994. The ancient art of biotechnology, Food Chain Vol. 13, Holzapfel, W.H.1997.Useofstarterculturesinfermentation on a FAO& WHO.1996. Millard, E. Fellows, P. &Hampton, A Fellows, Hui, Y.H of FoodMicrobiology small-scale fermentation indevelopingcountries, Biotechnology 4,pp.383–397. fermentations, TrendsinFoodScience&Technology M. F.H.,&Vogelmann,S.A.2005.Microbialecologyofcereal Taylor &Francis,NewYork,UnitedStatesofAmerica. household scale, pp. Intermediate Technology Publication,Rugby,UnitedKingdom. makers, UNEP-WCMC,Cambridge,UnitedKingdom. influencing factors Bolivia: and Conclusions andPolicyRecommendationsforDecision- Research success. Mexico in products forest non-timber of South Africa,WHO/FNU/FOS/96.pp.1-79. Technology toImproveFoodSafety,11–15December,1995,Pretoria, as aHousehold of aJointFAO/WHOWorkshoponFermentation United Kingdom. appropriate equipment,IntermediateTechnologyPublications,Rugby,

3–5. .

2004. 1995. The handbook of food and beverage fermentation technology, The handbookoffoodandbeverage Export marketing for a small handicraft business Food Control8,pp.241–258. , Vol.75,pp. Fermentation: assessmentandresearch . 1992.

197– 212. Small-scale food processing - A guide for - A Small-scalefoodprocessing 2006.Commercialization 16,pp.4–11. International Journal , Oxfam/ , Report 77

Traditional fermented food and beverages for improved livelihoods Motarjemi, Y. 2000. The impact of small-scale fermentation technology on food safety in developing countries, International Journal of Food Microbiology 75, pp. 213-229.

Practical Action. 2008. Banana Beer: Technical Brief. (Available at http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info. php?cPath=28_41&products_id=68&osCsid=pfba17e488u13jiqvnlihn h5a4&attrib=1).

Rolle, R. & Satin, M. 2002. Basic requirements for the transfer of fermentation technologies to developing countries, International Journal of Food Microbiology Vol 75, pp. 181– 187.

Roy, B., Prakash Kala., Nehal, C., Farooquee, A. & Majila, B. S. 2002. Indigenous Fermented Food and Beverages: A Potential for Uttaranchal, J. Hum. Ecol., 15, pp. 45-49.

Steinkraus, K.H. 1996. Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods, Marcel Decker, New York, United States of America.

78 http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/index.php?cPath=28_41 Technology Briefs Practical Action http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/ags-division/en/ Information NetworkonPost-harvestOperations(INPhO) http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/post-harvest-management/en/ Post-Harvest management http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/food-and-agricultural-industries/en/ Food andagriculturalindustries http://www.fao.org/documents/en/docrep.jsp An importantsourceofinformationonfermentedfoodsandbeverages The Food andAgricultureOrganizationofthe United Nations (FAO) can befoundinavastrangeofpublications. Sources offurther information and support 79

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