6 X 10.Long New.P65

Home , Calcitroic acid, Menadiol

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-12221-4 - Nutritional Biochemistry of the Vitamins, Second Edition David A. Bender Index More information

Index

abetalipoproteinemia, 36, 125 adenosylhomocysteine, 290f absorption, 9 adequacy, criteria, 10–2 biotin, 325, 329 adequate intake (see also reference intakes), 21, calcium, 93 23 carotene, 35, 40–1, 42 adipic acid oxidation, 191–2 folate, 273–4 adipocytes, vitamin D, 97 iron, 369 adipose tissue, carotene, 72 niacin, 203 retinol, 37 pantothenic acid, 346 vitamin D, 106 phosphate, 93 cADP-ribose, 219–21 riboﬂavin, 175–6 ADP-ribose cyclase, 219, 220f thiamin, 150–1 ADP-ribosyltransferase, 204f, 206, 215–7 vitamin A, 35–6 adrenal gland, lycopene, 71 vitamin B6, 234 adriamycin, 194, 195f vitamin B12, 300–1, 314 advanced glycation endproducts, 264 vitamin C, 361 aglycone, 402 vitamin D, 83 agmatine, 240t vitamin E, 113 AI (adequate intake, see also reference intakes), vitamin K, 133–4 21, 23 accessory food factors, 1 β-alanine, 266 Accutane®,72 alanine, transamination, 242t acetomenaphthone, 132f alanine-glyoxylate transaminase, 20t acetyl choline, 165, 221, 390f alcohol, 62, 151 acetyl CoA carboxylase, 330, 333t dehydrogenase, vitamin A, 38 acetylator status, 355 aldehyde dehydrogenase, 235 N-acetylglutamate, 306 aldehyde oxidase, 41f, 188, 207 activation coefﬁcient, glutathione reductase, alfacalcidiol, 107 197 alkaline phosphatase, 96, 103, 104t, 235 transaminases, 251–2 allicin, 402f transketolase, 168–9 alliin, 402f acute phase proteins, 64 allinase, 401 acyl carnitine excretion, 306 allithiamin, 149f, 150 acyl carrier protein, 350 alloxan, 219, 229–30 acyl CoA dehydrogenase, 185, 191–2 all-R-tocopherol, 112 acyl CoA:retinol acyltransferase, 36 allyl sulfur compounds, 401–2 acylation, proteins 352 alopecia, 97, 101, 337 S-adenosyl methionine, 284, 289, 290f Alzheimer’s disease, 130, 169–70, 346, 356 decarboxylase, 267 amadorins, 264

463

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-12221-4 - Nutritional Biochemistry of the Vitamins, Second Edition David A. Bender Index More information

464 Index

amide groups, peptide hormones, 366 ARAT (acyl CoA:retinol acyltransferase), 36 amine oxidases, 186, 189 arecoline, 165 amino acid, decarboxylation, 237t, 239, 240t arginine, decarboxylase, 240t metabolism, vitamin B6, 237–45 hydroxylation, 296–7 oxidases, 186 transamination, 242t racemization, 237t, 241 ariboflavinosis see riboflavin deficiency side-chain reactions, 244 aromatic amino acid decarboxylase, 209f, 240t, p-aminobenzoic acid, 277f, 355 243–4, 264, 365f p-aminobenzoylglutamate, 276 hydroxylases, 294–6 γ -aminobutyric acid (GABA), 156–7, 165, 240t, arrestin, 53 247 arthritis, diabetic, 263 shunt, 156–7, 164 ascorbic acid (see also vitamin C), 358f aminocarboxymuconic acid semialdehyde, phosphate, 359 209f sulfate, 359 aminolevulinic acid synthetase, 250t ascorbyl palmitate, 359 aminomethyltransferase, 281 aspartate transaminase, 242t, 247–8 aminotransferases, 237t, 241–4 β-decarboxylase, 266, 351–52 amitriptyline, 195f β-hydroxylase, 367 cAMP-dependent protein kinases, 59 ataxia, 125 amygdalin, 5 atherocalcin, 136, 142 androgens, 102 atherogenesis, homocysteine, 293t anemia, hemolytic, 125 vitamin E, 121 megaloblastic, 152, 308 atherosclerosis, 263 pernicious, 308 Gla protein, 136, 142 riboflavin deficiency, 193–4 vitamin D, 97 sideroblastic, 250t ATP synthase, 90t vitamin B6 deficiency, 246–7 atrophic gastritis, 300 vitamin C deficiency, 373 availability, 8–10 vitamin E deficiency, 125 biotin, 326 angular stomatitis, 191 carotene, 40–1 anhydroretinol, 32f, 33, 55–6 niacin, 203 anthocyanins, 7 vitamin B6, 234 anthycyanidins, 403 AVED (ataxia with vitamin E deficiency), 125 antibiotics, vitamin K requirements, 145 avidin, 326, 341–3, 337 antibodies, intrinsic factor, 309 anticoagulants, dietary, 401, 402 bacterial toxins, 215–7 vitamin E, 128 barbiturates, rickets and osteomalacia, 86, vitamin K, 141, 145–6 99–100 anticonvulsants, folate, 312, 319 vitamin A, 40 vitamin D, 86 vitamin D, 86, 99–100 antidepressant,s 194–6 bathorhodopsin, 50–1 antiestrogens, 404–6 Benserazide, 225 antioxidant, carotene, 43, 72–4 beriberi, 148, 161–3 riboflavin, 187 acute infantile, 163 status, 126–7 acute pernicious, 162 vitamin C, 371 cardiac failure, 162 vitamin E, 116–8 dry, 161–2 synthetic, 123t fish, fermented, 166 apo-carotenals, 39, 43–5 fulminating, 163 apo-carotenoic acids, 73, 74 shoshin, 162 apo-lipoproteins, 263, 352 wet, 162 apoptosis, poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase, 218 betaine, 283, 291, 309, 391f retinoids, 61, 71 bile, folate, 274 vitamin D, 96–7 retinoyl glucuronide, 39 vitamin K, 142 taurine, 398

Index 465

vitamin A, 39 metabolism, 324–7 vitamin B12, 302 metabolites, 326f vitamin D, 86 plasma concentration, 340 vitamin K, 134 plasma protein binding, 325, 334 biocytin, 325 protein ligase, 332–4 bioflavonoids, 7, 362, 402–3 receptors, 335 biological activity, carotenes, 35 requirements, 341 retinoids, 35 status, 340–1 biological availability see availability synthase, 328–9 biopterin synthesis, 277f, 278 unavailable, 326 biotin, 325f biotinidase, 325, 334–5 absorption, 325, 329 biotinylation, histones, 337 availability, 326 bisphosphonates, 102 biosynthesis, 327–9 Bitot’s spot, 63 catabolism, 326f, 327 bleaching, rhodopsin, 50 cell surface receptors, 335 blind staggers, 166 deficiency, 337–40 blood clotting, vitamin K, 139–41, 142, 144 alopecia, 337 bone, aging, 101–3 chicks, 338 healing, vitamin K, 146 cot death, 339 matrix Gla protein, 136, 141–2 dermatitis, 337 metabolism, vitamin D, 94–6 fatty acid synthesis, 338 mineral, 95, 141 fatty liver and kidney syndrome, 338 mineralization, vitamin D, 98–101 glucokinase, 338 pain, vitamin C deficiency, 373 gluconeogenesis, 338 peak mass, 102 glucose homeostasis, 338, 339 resorption, 95–6, 136 holocarboxylase synthetase, 335 vitamin A, 55, 68 hyperammonemia, 336 vitamin C, 367–8, 373 hyperglycemia, 338 vitamin D, 94–6, 98–101 hypoglycemia, 338 vitamin K, 136, 141–2, 146 odd-carbon fatty acids, 341 bow legs, 99 organic aciduria, 333t bracken fern, thiaminase, 166 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 337, 341 branched chain oxo-acid decarboxylase, 158–9 pregnancy, 340 brushite, 141 pyruvate carboxylase, 338 burning foot syndrome, 354–5 sudden infant death, 339 γ -butyrobetaine hydroxylase, 387f, 367 hypoglycemic action, 336 intestinal bacterial synthesis, 329 cachexin, 90t metabolic functions, 329–37 cyclic ADP-ribose, 60 acetyl CoA carboxylase, 330 calbindin D, 90t, 93–4, 98 biotinidase, 334–5 calcidiol (see also vitamin D), 84f carboxylases, 330–2 1-hydroxylase, 84f, 85, 101 cell cycle, 336 24-hydroxylase, 84f, 85–6 cell proliferation, 336 hydroxylases, 90t, 87–9 enzyme induction, 335 pharmacological use, 100, 101 gluconeogenesis, 335 plasma concentration, 80, 103, 104t glycolysis, 335 receptor, 56–7 histones, 337 calciferol glucuronides, 82 holocarboxylase synthetase, 332–4 calcinosis, 82,195–6 methylcrotonyl CoA carboxylase, calciol (see also cholecalciferol; vitamin D), 78f, 332 79t propionyl CoA carboxylase, 330 25-hydroxylase, 84f protein synthesis, 335–6 calcipotriol, 107 pyruvate carboxylase, 331 calcitetrol, 79t, 84f RNA polymerase, 335 calcitonin, 88–9, 96

466 Index

calcitriol (see also vitamin D), 79t, 84f, 85 possible essentiality, 388 gene expression, 90t premature infants, 387 pharmacological use, 100 valproic acid, 387 plasma concentration, 80, 103 vitamin C, 372, 387 receptor, 90–1, 101 carotene, 34f vitamin D metabolism, 88 absorption, 35, 40–2 calcitroic acid, 84f, 86 adipose tissue, 72 calcium, absorption, 93 antioxidant, 72–4 balance, osteoporosis, 102 asymmetric cleavage, 43–5, 74 binding proteins, 135–9 availability, 40, 41 body content, 89 average intakes, 72 hypertension, 264–5 cancer, 72–4 intake, osteoporosis, 102 chylomicrons, 42 intracellular, 394 diabetes mellitus, 43 plasma concentration, 104t dioxygenase, 41–5, 74 reabsorption renal, 94, 142 antioxidants, 43 regulation, cADP-ribose and NAADP,220–1 dietary protein, 43 transport, vitamin D, 92 hepatic, 42 vitamin D metabolism, 89 non-intestinal, 42 calmodulin, 394 reaction specificity, 43–5 calnexin, 45 vitamin A deficiency, 43 cancer, carotene, 72–4 excentric cleavage, 43–5, 74 folate antagonists, 288–9 pharmacological uses, 72–4 deficiency, 311–2 plasma, 64, 65t supplements, 321 requirements, 67–8 hormone dependent, 405 retinol equivalents, 35, 41–5 lycopene, 72 carotenoids, 33–5 neopterin excretion, 278 cataract, 72 retinoids, 71–2 toxicity, 70 vitamin C, 370, 382 cascade, blood clotting, 139–41 vitamin D, 97, 107 cassava, cyanide intoxication, 300 vitamin E, 129 cataract, carotenoids, 72 candidiasis, 337 diabetic, 263 canthaxanthin, 34f, 43 vitamin E, 129 carbamazepine, 313 catechins, 403 Carbidopa, 225 cats, carotene dioxygenase, 42 γ -carboxyglutamate, 135–9 niacin requirement, 210 excretion, 144–5 CD-38, 219 carboxylase, vitamin K dependent, 136–9 γ -CEHC, 116 carboxylation, biotin-dependent, 330–2 cell cycle, tocotrienols, 116 carcinoid syndrome, 224 biotin, 336 cardiac failure, thiamin, 162 cell differentiation, vitamin D, 96–7 cardiomyopathy, taurine, 399 cell proliferation, biotin, 336 cardiovascular disease, homocysteine, 292–4 vitamin D, 90, 92, 96–7 vitamin C, 383 cell signaling, vitamin E, 121–2 vitamin E, 129 vitamin K, 136, 142 carnitine, 385–9 central nervous system, vitamin A toxicity, 68 acyltransferase, 385–6 cephalin, 389 biosynthesis, 386–7, 372 ceroid pigments, 124 deficiency, 396 Chastek paralysis, 166 ergogenic aid, 387 cheilosis, 191 excretion, 306, 387 chick ovalbumin upstream promoter (COUP) intake, 388 receptor, 56–7 metabolic functions, 385–6 chloride channel, thiamin triphosphate, 160 palmitoyltransferase, 192, 385–6 p-chlorophenylalanine, 224

Index 467

chlorpromazine, 195f corrinoid (see also vitamin B12), 298 cholecalciferol, (see also vitamin D), 78f, 79t corticosteroids, pantothenic acid deficiency, absorption, 83 353–54 25-hydroxylation, 83–4 cot death, 339 plasma concentrations, 80 coumarin anticoagulants, 132, 142 synthesis, 81 coumestans, 405f cholecystokinin, 221 COUP (chick ovalbumin upstream promoter) cholera toxin, 217 receptor, 56–7 cholestatic hepatobiliary disease, 125 CRABP (cellular retinoic acid binding protein), cholesterol, 7-hydroxylase, 372 47–9, 54–5 pantothenic acid, 354 CRBP (cellular retinol binding protein), 36, 38, plant sterols, 401 47–9, 54–5 tocotrienols, 113, 115–6 creatine, 392–3 choline, 389–92 kinase, 392f biosynthesis, 389–90 supplements, 393 catabolism, 390–1 creatinine, 392f, 393 deficiency, 391 criteria of adequacy, 10–2 dehydrogenase, 391f cryptochromes, 190 metabolism, 283 cryptoxanthine, 34f possible essentiality, 391 crystallin, 263 chondrocytes, vitamin D, 92–3 cubulin, 302 chromanol ring, 110 cyanide metabolism, 300 chylomicrons, carotene, 42 cyanocobalamin (see also vitamin B12), 299 vitamin D, 83 cyclic ADP-ribose, 60, 219–21 vitamin E, 113 cyclic GMP,vision, 50–3 vitamin K, 133 cystathionase, 244, 250t, 255f, 266, 290f circadian clock, 190 vitamin B6 deficiency, 247–48 9-cis-retinoic acid, 55–8 cystathionine, 250t, 251t 13-cis-retinoic acid, 70, 72 synthetase, 244, 250t, 255f, 266, 290f 13-cis-retinol, 35 cystathioninuriaa, 250t citric acid cycle, thiamin, 156–7 cysteamine oxidase, 397f CoA see coenzyme A cysteic acid decarboxylase, 397f cobalamins, 298 cysteine lyase, 244 cobalophilin, 301 oxidase, 397f coenzyme A, 346f sulfinate decarboxylase, 247–9, 397f biosynthesis, 347f, 348–50 oxidase, 397f catabolism, 350 sulfoxide derivatives, 401–2 coenzyme Q, 400–1 transamination, 242t coenzymes I and II, 214 cystic fibrosis, vitamin E, 125 cold, vitamin C, 383 cytochrome b, 90t collagen, 90t, 263 oxidase, 90t vitamin A, 55 P450, 185, 402, 403 vitamin C, 367, 372 retinoic acid, 39, 60 collagenase, 121–2 vitamin D, 83–6 color vision, 63 cytokines, tryptophan metabolism, 208 common cold, vitamin C, 383 vitamin B12 deficiency, 310 complement, 367 cytology, conjuctival impression, 66 cones (eye), 50 conjugase, 273, 312 daily reference values (see also reference conjuctival xerosis, 62, 63 intakes), 21 impression cytology, 66 dark adaptation, 54, 62, 64 conjunctivitis, riboflavin deficiency, 191–2 deficiency, biochemical, 11 connective tissue, homocysteine, 293t biotin, 337–40 connexin-43, 73 covert, 11 convulsions, vitamin B6, 246–9 disease, 10

468 Index

deficiency (cont.) diacylglycerol, 394 folate, 307–13 diaminopelargonic acid, 328f iatrogenic, 313 diarrhea, pellagra, 222 folate, 312–3 dicoumarol, 132f niacin, 225 dienoic acids, riboflavin deficiency, 191–2 riboflavin, 194–6 dietary folate equivalents, 271–3 vitamin A, 40 differentiation, vitamin A, 54, 55 vitamin B6, 249 vitamin D, 92, 96–7 vitamin B12, 313 vitamin K, 142 vitamin D, 99–100 dihydrobiopterin, 365f niacin, 221–25 reductase, 295–6 pantothenic acid, 352–5 dihydrofolate, monoglutamate, 277f riboflavin, 191–6 reductase, 278–9 thiamin, 161–6 inhibitors, 288–9, 312 vitamin A, 61–4 dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase, 281 vitamin B6, 246–9 dihydroneopterin triphosphate, 277f vitamin B12, 307–13 dihydropteridine, 277f vitamin C, 372–4 dihydropteroic acid, 277f, 288 vitamin D, 98–101 dihydroxyretinol, 32f, 55 vitamin E, 122–5 diketogulonate, 359, 363 vitamin K, 142–3 dimethylglycine, 391f dehydroascorbate, 358, 359, 362–3 dehydrogenase, 184, 185, 186 reductase, 360f diphenylhydantoin, 86, 312 tissue uptake, 361 diphosphopyridine nucleotide, 214 7-dehydrocholesterol, 80–1 diphtheria toxin, 217 dehydroretinol, 66 disaccharide permeability, 63 dementia, phosphatidylcholine, 391 disulfide oxidoreductases, 185–6 vitamin B12 deficiency, 307 DNA, hypomethylation, 69–70 demyelination, vitamin B12, 309 ligase, 218 deoxyhemoglobin, folate, 314 methylation, 312 deoxypyridoxine, 245 repair, 190, 218–9 depletion/repletion studies, 18 replication, 218 depression, folate deficiency, 307 synthesis, 308 pantothenic acid deficiency, 354–5 uracil incorporation, 314 pellagra, 222 vitamin C, 376 vitamin B6, 264 dococalciferol, 107 dermatitis, biotin, 337 docosahexaenoic acid, 52 pellagra, 221–2 dopa (dihydroxyphenylalanine), 365f photosensitive, 221–2 decarboxylase, 243–44 riboflavin, 190 dopamine, 240t, 365f vitamin C, 373 β-hydroxylase, 365, 372 dermatology, retinoids, 72 Down’s syndrome, 130 desamido NAD, 204f, 205 DPN (diphosphopyridine nucleotide), 214 dethiobiotin, 327–9 drug metabolism, pantothenic acid, 354, 355–6 DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), 52 vitamin C, 372 diabetes, biotin, 336 DRV (see also reference intakes), 21 carotene dioxygenase, 43 dUMP suppression test, 289, 292, 317 complications, 263–4 experimental, 219 E. coli enterotoxin LT, 217 gestational, 262 edema, thiamin deficiency, 162 inositol, 296 egg white injury, 341 nicotinamide, 230 egg, uncooked, 337 poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, EGRAC (erythrocyte glutathione reductase 219 activation coefficient), 197 vitamin B6, 263–4 elastin, 367 vitamin C, 361 electron transfer flavoprotein, 184–5 vitamin D, 106–7 transport chain, 400

Index 469

embryogenesis, retinoids, 55 fatty liver and kidney syndrome, 338 encephalopathy, Wernicke’s, 163–4 fenretinamide, 71 endothelium-derived relaxation factor, ferredoxin, 90t 296 fertility, vitamin A, 61 enrichment, folate, 320–1 vitamin E, 122 overage, 8 fetal resorption, 61, 122 thiamin, 164 warfarin syndrome, 141, 142 enterohepatic circulation, folate, 274 fibrin, 139 vitamin B12, 302 fibrinogen, 139 epidermal growth factor, 309 fibroblasts, vitamin E, 122 epilepsy, folate, 312, 319 fibronectin, 90t epithelia, ciliated, 54 FIGLU (formimino glutamate), 282f, 283, 316 vitamin A deficiency, 63 fish, beriberi, 166 epoxy-retinoic acid, 40 thiaminases, 166 equivalents, folate, 271–3 flavanones, 403 niacin, 202–3, 208 flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), 173f, 174, retinol, 35 183–9 ercalcidiol, 79t coenzymes, 172–5, 176t, 183–9 ercalciol, 78f, 79t mononucleotide, 173f, 174, 176t ercalcitetrol, 79t oxidases, 186–7 ercalcitriol, 79t radical, 183 ergocalciferol, 78f, 79t flavodoxine, 184–5 absorption, 83 flavokinase, 176, 177, 178, 194 food enrichment, 79 flavones, 403 ergogenic aids, 387, 393 flavonoids, 402–3 ergosterol, 78 carotene dioxygenase, 43 erythorbic acid, 358 vitamin C, 362 erythrocyte, folate, 275 flavonols, 403 fragility, riboflavin, 192–3 flavoprotein, electron transfer, 184 vitamin E, 126 reductases, dithiol linked, 138 glutathione reductase, 197 single electron transferring, 184 transaminase, 251t, 252 two electron transferring, 184–5 transketolase, 168–9 fluorouracil, 288 estradiol, 405f, 221 flushing, nicotinic acid, 228 estrogens, dietary, 404–6 FMN (flavin mononucleotide), 173f, 174, 176t, glucose tolerance, 263 183–9 kynurenine hydroxylase, 213 folate, absorption, 273–4 osteoporosis, 102 antagonists, 288–9 riboflavin metabolism, 177–8 anticonvulsants, 319 tryptophan load test, 254–5 bile, 274 ethane exhalation, 126–7 biosynthesis, 276 etretinate, 70, 72 catabolism, 312 exudative diathesis, 123 deficiency, 307–13 anemia, 308 Factor XII, 139–40 cancer, 311–2 FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide), 173f, 174, depression, 307 183–9 iatrogenic, 312–3 fat malabsorption, 9, 125 megaloblastic anemia, 308 fatty acids, binding protein, 90t neural tube defect, 310–1 branched chain, 310 prevalence, 307 desaturation, 116 dietary equivalents, 271–3 elongation, 116 digestion, 273–4 metabolism, muscle, 386 enterohepatic circulation, 274 odd-carbon, 306, 310, 341 epilepsy, 312, 319 oxidation, 191, 353 equivalents, 271–3 synthesis, biotin, 59, 306, 331, 338 excretion, 276 transport, carnitine, 385–6 food enrichment, 320–1

470 Index

folate (cont.) fortification, folate, 320–1 hemoglobin binding, 314 thiamin, 164 intake vitamin B12 deficiency, 308 intestinal metabolism, 274 GABA (γ -aminobutyric acid), 156–7, 165, 240t, metabolic functions, 279–94 247 serine hydroxymethyltransferase, 279–81, shunt, 156–7, 164 281f galactoflavin, 175 metabolism, 273–6 garlic, anticoagulant, 402 catabolism, 276 Gas6 (growth arrest specific protein), 136, dihydrofolate reductase, 287–9 142 homocysteine, 292–4 gastric ulcer, vitamin B12, 313 interconversion of one-carbon folates, gastritis, atrophic, 300, 315 283–6 Gc-globulin, 87 methionine, 289–94 gene expression, retinoids, 55–8 methyl folate trap, 291–2 vitamin B6, 245 methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase, genomic instability, 311 284–6 Gerovital, 5 poly-γ -glutamylation, 275–6 Gla (γ -carboxyglutamate), 135–9 sources of one-carbon folates, 279–83 excretion, 144–5 thymidylate synthetase, 287–8 glucagon, tryptophan dioxygenase, 212 tissue uptake, 274–6 glucocorticoids, osteoporosis, 102–3 utilization of one-carbon folates, pyruvate dehydrogenase, 155–6 286–94 tryptophan dioxygenase, 211–2 one-carbon substituted, 280f tryptophan load test, 253–4 pharmacological uses, 321 glucokinase, 335, 336 polyglutamate synthetase, 275–6, 313 biotin, 338 red blood cells, 275 pancreas, 336 reference intakes, 318–20 retinoic acid, 54 requirements, 318–20 gluconeogenesis, biotin, 338, 339 status, 313–8, 315t pyruvate carboxylase, 331 dUMP suppression test, 317 serine hydroxymethyltransferase, 279–81 erythrocyte concentrations, 314 vitamin A deficiency, 63–4 FIGLU, 283, 316 glucose, biotin, 338, 339 histidine load, 283, 316 6-phosphatase deficiency, 197 plasma concentrations, 314 tolerance, pantothenic acid, 354 supplements, 321 vitamin B6, 263 neural tube defect, 311 glucosinolates 7, 403–4 pregnancy, 311 glucuronic acid, 372, 359, 360f vitamin B12 deficiency, 320 glucuronidase, retinoyl glucuronide, 40 tissue polyglutamates, 276 glucuronides, vitamin D, 82 tissue uptake, 274–6 glutamate, decarboxylase, 240t, 247–8, 265, 398 upper levels of intake, 319 dehydrogenase, 156–7 vitamers, 271, 272f, 280f receptor, 164, 311 folic acid (see also folate), 271, 272f transaminase, 242t, 247 folinic acid, 271 glutamic semialdehyde, 242t food labeling, reference intakes, 27 glutamine, transamination, 242t foot drop, 162 glutaryl CoA dehydrogenase, 185 formate metabolism, 283 glutathione peroxidase, 117–8, 120 formimino tetrahydrofolate, 280f, 281f reductase, 185, 186f, 193 formyl tetrahydrofolate, 280f, 281f activation coefficient, 197 dehydrogenase, 292 riboflavin status, 196 erythrocytes, 314 S-transferase, 402, 403 synthetase, 283 glycation, nonenzymic, 263–4 formylglutamate, 283 glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, formylkynurenine formamidase, 209f, 248f 90t

Index 471

glycine, cleavage system, 281, 313 homocysteine, 255f, 256, 290f decarboxylase, 281 cardiovascular disease, 292–4 guanidotransferase, 392f cystathionine synthetase polymorphism, 244 N-methyltransferase, 69–70 folate, 284–5, 292–4, 321 overload, 398 metabolism, 304 transamination, 242t methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase, 284–5 glycocholic acid, 398 methyltransferase, 290f, 291, 309, 391f glycogen phosphorylase, 236, 244–5 nicotinic acid, 229 storage disease, 236 riboflavin, 286 glycoprotein synthesis, 58 toxicity, 311 glyoxylate, 242t, 247 vitamin B6, 261–2 cGMP,vision, 50–3 homocystine, 290f goblet cells, 63 homocystinuria, 250t, 261, 292 goitre, 404 homodimers, retinoid receptors, 55–8 goitrin, 404 homopantothenic acid, 356 goitrogens, 404 hopanthate, 346f, 356 G-proteins, ADP-ribosyltransferase, 217 hormone replacement therapy, 254 vision, 50–3 hydrogen peroxide, 187t, 190t gray hair, pantothenic acid, 353–4 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid, 209f group specific component, 87 hydroxyapatite, 95, 141 growth arrest specific gene (Gas6), 136, 142 24-hydroxycalcidiol, 84f, 86 growth spurt, adolescent, 99 biological activity, 90–1 GTP cyclohydrolase, 181–182f, 277f, 278 plasma concentrations, 80 guanidoacetic acid, 392f hydroxycalcidiol, 79t, 83 gulonolactone oxidase, 194, 359, 360f 1α-hydroxycholecalciferol, 83 gums, vitamin C, 373 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, 83–4 gyrate atrophy, 250t pharmacological use, 100, 101 hydroxyercalcidiol, 79t hair follicles, vitamin D, 97 hydroxyethylriboflavin, 181 haptocorin, 302 hydroxykynurenine, 248f Hartnup disease, 224 hydroxykynureninuria, 224 heart failure, thiamin, 162 hydroxylases, mixed function oxidases, 189–190 heme saturation, tryptophan dioxygenase, 211 hydroxylysine, 367 hemochromatosis, vitamin C, 364, 382 hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA (HMG CoA) hemoglobin A1C, 263 reductase, 113, 115–6, 401 binding, folate, 314 hydroxymethylriboflavin, 181 hemolysis, menadione, 145 hydroxyphenylpyruvate, 242t vitamin E, 123–4, 125 hydroxylase, 367 hemorrhagic disease, newborn, 143 hydroxyproline, 367 herbivores, carotene dioxygenase, 42 hydroxypyruvate, 242t heterodimers, retinoid receptors, 55–8 hydroxyretinoic acid, 39, 59–60 hip fracture, osteoporosis, 101 hydroxyretroretinol, 55, 56 histamine, 240t transmembrane signaling, 60–1 adenine dinucleotide, 219 hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 38 receptor antagonists, vitamin B12, 313 5-hydroxytryptamine, 208, 209f, 224, 240t, 264, histidase, 282f 265 histidine, catabolism, 281–2 thiamin deficiency, 165 decarboxylase, 240t, 266 hydroxytryptophan decarboxylase, 209f load, 316 hyperammonemia, vitamin B12, 306 metabolism, 316 biotin, 336 transamination, 242t hyperbaric oxygen, vitamin E, 125 histones, 90t, 218 hyperbilirubinemia, menadione, 145 biotinylation, 337 neonatal, 196 HMG CoA reductase, 113, 115–6, 401 phototherapy, 175 holocarboxylase synthetase, 325f, 332–4, 335 hypercalcemia, 82, 99, 105

472 Index

hyperglycemia, biotin, 338 integrin, 90t vitamin C, 361 interferon, 90t, 208 hyperglycinemia, 313 interleukins, 90t hyperhomocysteinemia see homocysteine vitamin D, 98 hyperoxaluria, 247, 250t vitamin E, 121 hypertension, homocysteine, 293t international units, 7 vitamin B6, 264–65 vitamin A, 35 vitamin D toxicity, 105 vitamin D, 79 hypervitaminosis D, 82 vitamin E, 111 hypocholesterolemic action, nicotinic acid, 229 intestinal goblet cells, vitamin A deficiency, 63 hypoglycemia, biotin, 338, 339 mucosal cell proliferation, 285 pantothenic acid, 353–54 intrinsic factor, 300, 309 hypoglycemic action, biotin, 336 iodide uptake, thyroid, 93 hypolipidemic action, nicotinic acid, 228, 229 iodopsin, 50 hypomethylation, DNA, 69–70 IP3 (inositol trisphosphate), 60–1, 394, 395f hypoparathyroidism, 100 iron, absorption, 369 hypophosphatasia, 235 metabolism, 193–4, 369 hypotaurine oxidase, 397f overload, 364, 382 hypotension, nicotinic acid, 228 pellagra, 222 hypothyroidism, riboflavin, 178–9 ischemic heart disease, 127–8 isoascorbic acid, 358 iatrogenic deficiency, folate, 312–3 isobutyryl CoA, 307 niacin, 225 isoflavones, 403, 405f osteomalacia, 99–100 isoleucine metabolism, thiamin, 158, 242–3 riboflavin, 194–6 isoniazid, 100, 225, 249 rickets, 99–100 isoprostanes, 126 vitamin A, 40 isothiocyanates, 403 vitamin B6, 249 isotretinoin, 72 vitamin B12, 313 isovaleryl CoA, 307 vitamin D, 99–100 iu (international units), 7 imidazolepyruvate, 242t vitamin A, 35 imidazolone propionic acid, 282f vitamin D, 79 imipramine, 195f vitamin E, 111 immune system, vitamin D, 98 vitamin A, 61–2 jowar, 223 vitamin E, 122 indoleamine dioxygenase, 208, 253–4 kallikrein, 139–40 indolepyruvate, 242t keratin, 58 infants, vitamin B6, 259 keratinization, 61–2 vitamin K, 143 keratinocytes, 96 infection, oxidative stress, 187 keto-acids, 241f, 242t pantothenic acid, 354 oxidative decarboxylation, 154–9 vitamin A, 61, 62 ketoglutarate, 242t inositol, 393–6 dehydrogenase, 156–7 biosynthesis, 394, 395f thiamin deficiency, 164 cell signaling, 394 hydroxylases, 367–8 diabetes, 296 ketosis, valproic acid, 356 hexaphosphate, 393 kinases, mitogen-activated, 92 possible essentiality, 394 kittens, taurine, 396 trisphosphate, 60–1, 394, 395f knock knees, 99 insulin, pyruvate dehydrogenase, 156 knock-out mice, retinoid receptors, 57–8 resistance, 97 Korsakoff’s psychosis, 163–6 secretion, cADP-ribose and NAADP,221 kynurenic acid, 248f, 251t, 253 retinoic acid, 54 thiamin deficiency, 164 vitamin D 97, 98 kynureninase, 209f, 213–4, 248f, 250t, 252–3 sensitivity, pantothenic acid, 354–55 vitamin B6 deficiency, 247–8

Index 473

kynurenine, 248f mannosidase acylation, 352 aminotransferase, 209f MAP kinases, 92 hydroxylase, 209f, 213, 248f maple syrup urine disease, 158–9 transaminase, 209f, 248f, 252 marginal compounds, 6 McArdle’s disease, 236 labeling, reference intakes, 27 megalin, 302 lactic acidosis, 333t megaloblastic anemia, 152, 308 thiamin deficiency, 163, 164–5, 169 membrane lysis, vitamin A, 46, 69 β-lactoglobulin, 45–6 vitamin E, 124 laetrile, 5 menadiol, 132f lecithin:retinol acyltransferase, 36, 39 menadione, 143 β-leucine, 306 toxicity, 145 leucine, aminomutase, 306 menaquinone see vitamin K metabolism, 158, 306 menopause, osteoporosis, 101–3 pellagra, 223–4 mercaptopyruvate, 242t transamination, 242t metabolic rate, riboflavin, 191 leucovorin, 271, 288 syndrome, 97 leukemia, menadione, 146 metalloproteinase, 121–2 lignans, 405f metallothionein, 90t lipid metabolism, riboflavin, 191 metarhodopsin, 50–1, 52 peroxidation, vitamin E, 118–9, 124 methemoglobin, 193 lipoamide, 154f, 186, 281 methemoglobinemia, 145, 198 lipofuscin, 124 methenyl tetrahydrofolate, 280f, 281f lipogenesis, NADPH, 159 methional, 175 lipopigments, 124 methionine, load test, 251t, 255–6 lipoprotein lipase, 114 metabolism, 289–91, 288f liver, nicotinic acid, 228 synthetase, 255f, 266, 290f, 291, 304–5, 309 vitamin A, storage, 36–8 polymorphism, 304 toxicity, 68 transamination, 242t loading tests, metabolic, 17 methotrexate, 272f, 288, 312 histidine, 282–3, 316 methoxypyrimidine, 166 methionine, 251t, 255–6 methyl aminopterin, 272f tryptophan, 248f, 252–4 N1-methyl nicotinamide, 206–8, 226, 227t valine, 316 ω-methyl pantothenic acid, 346f long-chain pufa, 116 methyl pyridone carboxamide, 206–7, 226, 227t LRAT (lecithin:retinol acyltransferase), 36, 48 methyl tetrahydrofolate, 274, 280f, 281f LTQ (lysyl tyrosylquinone), 266–7 methyl transfer reactions, 290f lumichrome, 175, 180f methylation, DNA, 312 lumiflavin, 175, 180f methylcrotonic acid, 333t lumirhodopsin, 51f methylcrotonyl CoA, 332, 340 lutein, 34f, 72 N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor, 164, 311 lycopene, 34f, 44, 72 methylene tetrahydrofolate, 185, 280f, 281f lymphocyte CD-38 antigen, 219 cyclohydrolase, 283 lymphocytes, retinoids, 60–1 dehydrogenase, 283 vitamin D, 98 reductase, 284–6, 313 lysine hydroxylase, 367 polymorphism, 284–5 transamination, 242t riboflavin, 198, 286 lysolecithin, 389 thermolabile, 199, 284–5 lysophosphatidylcholine, 123 methylfolate trap, 291–2, 308 lysyl oxidase, 293t methylglycine, 391f tyrosylquinone (LTQ), 266–7 methylmalonic acid, 305f, 309 macrophages, vitamin E, 121 methylmalonic aciduria, 306, 316 macular degeneration, 72, 128 methylmalonyl CoA carboxylase, 333t magenta tongue, 191 mutase, 305–6, 316 malaria, 192–3, 348 methyl-thiol-oxopropionate, 242t malondialdehyde, 124 metronidazole, 166

474 Index

microbiological assay, vitamins, 7 neural tube defect, 310–1, 313, 321 milk, sunlight flavor, 175 neuritis, peripheral, 161–2 mitochondrial calcium binding protein, 136 neurodegenerative diseases, 129–30 electron transport chain, 400 neuromotor disorders, 354 mixed function oxidases, 189–90 neuronal ceroid lipofuschinosis, 124 MODY (maturity onset diabetes of the young), neuropathy, thiamin, 161–3 336 vitamin B6, 259–60 molybdenum, flavoprotein hydroxylases, 188–9 vitamin B12, 308, 309 molybdopterin, 188–9, 272f, 297–8 neutrophils, hypersegmented, 308 monocytes, vitamin E, 121 newborn, hemorrhagic disease, 143 monodehydroascorbate, 117, 358f, 362–3 niacin, absorption, 203 morphogenesis, 54, 55 antidiabetogenic action, 229–30 multiple sclerosis, 106 cereals, 203 muscular dystrophy, nutritional, 123 equivalents, 202–3, 208 myc-oncogene, 71 excretion, 206–8 myopathy, 123 hypolipidemic action, 228, 229 myrosinase, 403, 404 metabolic functions (see also NAD; NADP), 214–21 N balance, riboflavin, 195–6 ADP-ribosyltransferases, 215–7 NAADP (nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide), cADP-ribose, 219–21 60 calcium regulation, 220–1 NAADP,219–21 nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), 202f phosphate, 219–21 catabolism, 205–6 poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase, 216f, 217–9 erythrocytes, 226, 227t redox reactions, 214–5 glycohydrolase, 204f, 205, 219, 220f metabolism, 203–8 intracellular concentration, 218 metabolite excretion, 226, 227t pyrophosphatase, 205 pharmacological uses, 229–30 redox functions, 214–5 reference intakes, 227–8 synthesis, 203–5 requirement, 227–8 kynureninase, 212–4 cats, 210 kynurenine hydroxylase, 212–4 status, 225–7 picolinate carboxylase, 210–1 toxicity, 228–9 tryptophan, 208–14 unavailable, 203 tryptophan dioxygenase, 212 upper levels, 228–9 NADase, 205–6 vitamers, 201–2 NADH dehydrogenase, 90t niacinamide, 202 NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide niacytin, 203 phosphate), 202f nicotinamide (see also niacin), 202f catabolism, 205–6 adenine dinucleotide see NAD; nicotinamide erythrocytes, 226, 227t nucleotides redox functions, 214–5 adenine dinucleotide phosphate see NADP; synthesis, 203–5 nicotinamide nucleotides kynureninase, 212–4 antidiabetogenic action, 219, 229–30 kynurenine hydroxylase, 212–4 deamidase, 204f, 205, 207f picolinate carboxylase, 210–1 diabetes, 229–30 tryptophan, 208–14 excretion, 206–8 lipogenesis, 159 metabolism, aldehyde oxidase, 207 oxidase, 187–8 nucleotides, 202f tryptophan dioxygenase, 212 catabolism, 205–6 neopterin, 278 erythrocytes, 226, 227t nephrocalcin, 136, 142 kynureninase, 212–4 nephropathy, diabetic, 263 kynurenine hydroxylase, 212–4 nerve conduction, thiamin, 159–61 picolinate carboxylase, 210–1 damage, vitamin B6, 259–60 redox functions, 214–5 growth factor, 90t synthesis, 203–5, 208–14

Index 475

tryptophan, 208–14 ornithine carbamyltransferase, 336 tryptophan dioxygenase, 211, 212 decarboxylase, 240t N-oxide, 207 transaminase, 242t, 250t phosphoribosyltransferase, 204f, ornithinuria, 250t 205 osteoblasts, 94–6, 141 schizophrenia, 230 osteocalcin, 90, 95, 103, 136, 141–2, 367 nicotinic acid (see also niacin), 202f undercarboxylated, 142, 144, 145 adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP), osteoclasts, 94–6, 136 60, 219–21 osteodystrophy, renal, 100 excretion, 206–8 osteogenic disorder, rats, 360 hypolipidaemic action, 228, 229 osteomalacia, 98–101 mononucleotide, 204f, 205 barbiturates, 86 phosphoribosyltransferase, 204f, 205 drug-induced, 99–100 nicotinoyl glycine, 207–8 genetic factors, 99 nicotinuric acid, 207–8 hypoparathyroidism, 100 night blindness, 63 iatrogenic, 99–100 nitric oxide, 221 renal failure, 100 synthase, 296–7 tumor-induced, 100 nitrite, vitamin C, 370 osteopontin, 90t nitrogen balance, riboflavin, 195–6 osteoporosis, 101–3 nitrosamine, vitamin C, 370 glucocorticoid induced, 102–3 nitrous oxide, 291, 313 phytoestrogens, 405 methionine synthetase, 304–5 vitamin D, 102 NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptors, 164, vitamin K, 146 311 22-oxacalcitriol, 107 no adverse effect level (NOAEL), 24, 26 oxalate, vitamin B6, 247–8 noradrenaline, 365 vitamin C, 364, 380 19-nor-calcidiol, 107 oxaloacetate, 242t nori, 303 oxidase, respiratory burst, 187–8 nutraceuticals, 385, 401–6 oxidative decarboxylation, oxo-acids, nutritional encephalomacia, 123 154–9 melalgia, 354 oxidative stress, infection, 187–8 status, antioxidant, 126–7 oxo-acids, 241f, 242t biotin, 340–1 decarboxylation, 154–9 folate, 313–8, 315t oxoglutamate, 242t niacin, 225–7 oxoglutarate, 242t pantothenic acid, 354–5 dehydrogenase, 156–7 riboflavin, 195–7 thiamin deficiency, 164 thiamin, 167–9 hydroxylases, 367–8 vitamin A, 64–6 oxoguanodiacetate, 242t vitamin B6, 250–6 oxohydroxybutyrate, 242t vitamin B12, 313–8, 315t oxoisocaproate, 242t vitamin C, 374–6 oxoisovalerate, 242t vitamin D, 103–4 oxomethylvalerate, 242t vitamin E, 125–7 oxoretinaldehyde, 55 vitamin K, 143–5 4-oxoretinoic acid, 32f, 33, 39, 55 nystagmus, 163 4-oxoretinol, 32f, 55, 56 oxygen radicals, carotene, 43, 72–4 OlestraTM,9 riboflavin, 187–9 oncogenes, vitamin D, 90t vitamin C, 371 opal terminator codon, 120 oxyhemoglobin, folate, 314 opsin, 49–54 oxythiamin, 149f, 150, 167 optimum status, 11 oral contraceptives, 254–5 PABA (p-aminobenzoic acid), 277f organic aciduria, biotin, 240, 333t palmitate, oxidation, 191–2 riboflavin, 185, 191, 198–9 vision, 52

476 Index

pancreatic atrophy, 121 peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor insufficiency, 301 (PPAR), 56–7, 155 pangamic acid, 5 peroxynitrite, 119 pantetheine, 350 pertussis toxin, 217 pantothenate kinase, 348, 349 pharmacological uses, carotene, 72–4 pantothenic acid, 346f folate, 321 absorption, 346 niacin, 229–30 antagonists, 346 pantothenic acid, 355 biosynthesis, 351–2 riboflavin, 198–9 blood, 355 thiamin, 169–70 coenzyme A, 351–2 vitamin A, 71 deficiency, 353–5 vitamin B6, 261–5 adrenal corticosteroids, 353–4 vitamin B12, 321 carnitine, 387 vitamin C, 382–3 duodenal ulcers, 354 vitamin D, 106–7 fatty acid oxidation, 353 vitamin E, 128–9 human, 354 vitamin K, 146 hypoglycemia, 354 phenobarbital, 312 stress responses, 353–4 phenothiazines, 194–6 erythrocytes, 348 phenylalanine decarboxylase, 240t metabolic functions, 352–3 hydroxylase, 294–6 metabolism, 346–50 transaminase, 242t, 266 pharmacological uses, 356 phenylethylamine, 240t renal reabsorption, 348–9 phenylketonuria, 295–6 requirements, 355–56 phenylpyruvate, 242t status, 355 phenytoin, 312 tissue uptake, 348 PHEX gene, 100 toxicity, 356 phosphate, absorption, 93 valproic acid, 356 excretion, 100 vitamers, 345 plasma concentration, 104t pantothenol, 346f, 349 vitamin D metabolism, 89 wound healing, 356 phosphatidylcholine, 389–90, 391 pantoyl GABA, 346f, 356 phosphatidylethanolamine, 240t, 389, 390f paralysis, Chastek, 166 phosphatidylinositol, 394, 395f parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, 91, 88, 100 phosphatidylserine, 389, 390f Parkinson’s disease, 129–30, 225 decarboxylase, 240t, 266 pellagra, 221–25 phosphatonin, 100–1 carcinoid syndrome, 224 phosphocreatine, 392f drug-induced, 225 phosphodiesterase, 53 fungal toxins, 223 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, 64, 335 gender difference, 254–5 phosphofructokinase, 335 iatrogenic, 225 phospholipase, 14, 97, 389, 390f, 394 iron deficiency, 222 phosphopantetheine, 350–51 leucine excess, 223–4 phosphopantetheinoyl cysteine decarboxylase, riboflavin deficiency, 193–4, 222 266 secondary, 222–4 phosphosphingolipid synthesis, 136 tryptophan metabolic defects, 224 photolysis, 7-dehydrocholesterol, 81 vitamin B6 deficiency, 222, 249–50 riboflavin, 175, 195 penicillamine, 249–50 photorhodopsin, 51f pentane exhalation, 126–7 photosensitive dermatitis, 221–2 pentose phosphate pathway, 152, 159, 160f photosynthesis, vitamin D, 80–2 peptide α-amidase, 366 phototherapy, hyperbilirubinemia, 194–6 peptidylglycine hydroxylase, 366 phylloquinone see vitamin K perhydroxyl radical, 187t, 190t phytate, 393 pernicious anemia, 308 phytic acid, 393

Index 477

phytoceuticals, 385, 401–6 propionyl CoA, 305 phytoestrogens, 7, 404–6 carboxylase, 305f, 330, 333t, 340 phytonutrients, 385, 401–6 N-propionylglutamate, 306 picolinate carboxylase, 209f, 210–1, 224 protein, intolerance, 306 pimeloyl CoA, 328f kinase, 90t, 92, 97, 121 PIP2 (phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate), 394, inhibitor, 90t 395f retinoylation, 59 PIVKA, 138 retinoylation, 58–60 platelet aggregation, vitamin E, 121 synthesis, biotin, 335–6 homocysteine, 293t vitamin B6 requirements, 257 poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, 204f, 206, 216f, protein-energy malnutrition, 46, 62, 64 217–9 prothrombin, 138, 139–41 retinoid receptors, 219 time, 142, 144 polychlorinated biphenyls, 45 undercarboxylated, 138–9 polymorphism, cystathionine synthetase, 244 proton pump inhibitors, 313 methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase, Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin, 217 284–5 psoriasis, 72, 96, 107 transferrin, 382 psychosis, Korsakoff’s, 163–6 transketolase, 164 pellagra, 222 vitamin D receptor, 102 pterin biosynthesis, 276 polyphenols, 7, 402–3 excretion, 276 polyterpenes, 7 pteroyl monoglutamate (folic acid), 271, 272f polyunsaturated fatty acids, biotin, 337, 341 putrescine, 240t vitamin E absorption, 113 pyridorin, 264 Population Reference Intakes EU (see also pyridoxal (see also vitamin B6), 233f reference intakes), 14, 20–1 pyridoxamine (see also vitamin B6), 233f population studies, vitamin requirements, 17 diabetic complications, 264 Porphyra tenera, 303 phosphate, 241f PPAR (peroxisome proliferation-activated pyridoxic acid, 233f, 235 receptor), 56–7, 155 excretion, 251–2 PQQ (pyrroloquinoline quinone), 266–7 pyridoxine (see also vitamin B6), 233f precalciferol, 81 glucosides, 233–4 pregnancy, biotin, 340 oxidase, 194, 197, 234 glucose tolerance, 262 pyridoxol, 233 riboﬂavin metabolism, 177–8 pyridoxyllysine, 234, 247 tryptophan niacin equivalence, 208 pyrimethamine, 312 premature infants, carnitine, 387 pyrimidine deoxynucleotide dioxygenase, 367 taurine, 400 pyrithiamin, 149f, 150, 165, 167 vitamin E, 125 pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), 266–7 preprothrombin, 138–9, 143 pyruvate, 242t antibodies, 144 carboxylase, 331, 333t previtamin D, 81 biotin, 338 PRI (see also reference intakes), 14, 2–21 dehydrogenase, 154f, 154–6 primidone, 86, 312 deﬁciency, 156 procollagen, lysine hydroxylase, 367 kinase, 155–6 proline hydroxylase, 367 phosphatase, 155–6 proconvertin, 139–40 regulation, 155–6 progoitrin, 404 enzyme active site, 266–7 proline, hydroxylase, 367 pyruvoyl enzymes, 266–7 reductase, 266 transamination, 242t quinacrine, 195f prooxidant, vitamin C, 371 quinolinic acid, 209f, 210–1, 263 vitamin E, 118–9 phosphoribosyltransferase, 204f, 205 prophylaxis, vitamin K, 145–6 quinone reductase, 137–9, 142 propionic acid, 333t quinoproteins, 266–7

478 Index

racemization, amino acids, 237t distribution, 20 RAR (retinoic acid receptor), 55–8 folate, 318–20 ras oncogene, 60, 401 infants, 23, 104–5, 125, 143, 259, RBP (retinol binding protein), 36–8, 45–7, 64, 387 65t niacin, 227–8 extrahepatic, 38 pantothenic acid, 355–6 renal loss, 62 population studies, 17 vitamin A deficiency, 62 riboflavin, 197 RDA (see also reference intakes), 20–1 thiamin, 169–70 USA/Canada, 15 vitamin A, 66–8 RDI (see also reference intakes), 20–1 vitamin B6, 256–9 RDR (relative dose response), 65t, 66 vitamin B12, 318–20 reactive oxygen species, riboflavin, 187–9 vitamin C, 376–80 receptor, calcidiol, 56–7, 90–1 vitamin D, 104–5 mediated uptake, vitamin E, 114 vitamin E, 127–8 retinoic acid, 55–8 vitamin K, 145–6 retinoid, 55–8 resorcylic acid lactones, 405f retinol binding protein, 46 resorption, fetal, 55 thyroid hormone, 56–7 respiratory burst, 121, 187–8 vitamin D, 56–7, 90–1 epithelium, vitamin A, 63 Recommended Daily Allowances USA/Canada response element, retinoid, 58 (see also reference intakes), 15 vitamin D, 91 Recommended Nutrient Intakes FAO/WHO retina, taurine, 396 (see also reference intakes), 16 retinal G-protein-coupled receptor, 52 reference intakes, 10–23 retinaldehyde (see also vitamin A), 32f children, 23 isomerase, 38–9 definition, 19–23 oxidation, 48 EU, 14 synthesis, 38, 41f FAO/WHO, 16 retinitis pigmentosa, 396 folate, 318–20 retinoic acid (see also vitamin A), 32f food labeling, 27 cADP-ribose, 221 infants, 23, 259 gene expression, 55–8 niacin, 227–8 genomic actions, 54 riboflavin, 197 hydroxylase, 39 thiamin, 169–70 insulin secretion, 54 UK, 13 metabolism, 38–40 USA/Canada, 15 morphogenesis, 54, 55 vitamin A, 67–8 non-genomic actions, 58–61 vitamin B6, 256–9 oxidation, 48 vitamin B12, 318–20 plasma, 65–6 vitamin C, 376–80 protein retinoylation, 58–60 vitamin D, 104–5 receptor (RAR), 55–8 vitamin E, 127–8 synthesis, 41f vitamin K, 145–6 taurine conjugate, 398 Reference Nutrient Intakes, UK (see also thermogenin, 54 reference intakes), 13 transmembrane signaling, 60–1 relative dose response, 46, 65t, 66 uncoupling protein, 54 renal failure, osteomalacia, 100 retinoids (see also vitamin A), 31 renal osteodystrophy, 100 binding proteins, cellular, 47–9 stones, oxalate, 247 plasma, 36–8, 45–7, 64, 65t vitamin C, 380 interphotoreceptor, 49, 52 requirements, 10–23 cancer prevention, 71–2 biotin, 341 dermatology, 72 carotene, 67–8 gene expression, 55–8 depletion/repletion studies, 18 intracellular trafficking, 47

Index 479

metabolism, cellular retinoid binding conservation, 178 proteins, 48 covalent binding, proteins, 173f, 174 receptors, 55–8 cyclic phosphate, 177 knock-out mice, 57–8 deficiency, 191–6 poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase, 219 anemia, 193 vitamin D, 91 dermatitis, 191 response elements, 58 erythrocyte fragility, 193 transmembrane signaling, 60–1 fatty acid oxidation, 192 X receptor (RXR), 55–8 iatrogenic, 194–6 retinol (see also vitamin A), 32f iron metabolism, 193 activity equivalent, 35 lipid metabolism, 191 adipose tissue, 37 malaria, 192–3 binding protein (RBP), 36–8, 45–7, 64, 65t organic aciduria, 185, 192 extrahepatic, 38 pellagra, 194, 222 renal loss, 62 phototherapy, 194–6 vitamin A deficiency, 62 secondary deficiencies, 193–4 carotene, 41–5 tryptophan metabolism, 194 dehydrogenase, 38, 41f vitamin B6, 193–4, 234 equivalents, 35 vitamin C synthesis, 193–4 esterification, 48 DNA damage, 195–6 isomerization, 49 excretion, 179–81, 196 liver content, 37 fluorimetric assay, 178 membrane lysis, 46 food color, 198 plasma, 64, 65t homeostasis, 178 release from liver, 37–8 hydroperoxide, 187t, 190t synthesis from carotene, 41f hypothyroidism, 178–9 testis, 55 intestinal bacteria, 176 tissue concentrations, 37 losses in deficiency, 178 uterus, 55 metabolic functions, 183–90 retinopathy, diabetic, 263 circadian clock, 190 vitamin E, 125 cryptochromes, 190 retinoyl CoA, 58–9 disulfide oxidoreductases, 185–6 glucuronide, 39–40, 59 electron transferring flavoproteins, taurine, 39 184–5 retinoylation, proteins, 58–60 flavin oxidases, 186–7 retinyl esters, absorption, 35 hydroxylases, 188–9 hydrolysis, 48 mixed function oxidases, 188–9 liver, 36 molybdenum enzymes, 188–9 retinyl phosphate, 58 radical trapping, 187 retrolental fibroplasia, 125 metabolism, 175–81 retroretinoids, transmembrane signaling, 60–1 estrogens, 177–8 retro-retinol, 32f pregnancy, 177–8 rexinoids, 31 methemoglobinemia, 198 RGR (retinal G-protein-coupled receptor), 52 methylene tetrahydrofolate reductase, 286 rhodopsin, 49–54 organic aciduria, 192, 198 acylation, 352 oxygen radical formation, 187–9 kinase, 52, 53 pharmacological uses, 198–9 riboflavin (see also FAD), 173f phosphate, 173f, 174, 176t, 183–9 absorption, 175–6 photolysis, 175, 181, 194–5 antagonists, 175 plasma protein binding, 176 binding protein, 177–8 production by fermentation, 181 biosynthesis, 181–182f radical, 183 catabolism, 179–81 redox reactions, 184f cell signaling, 176 reference intakes, 197–8 coenzymes, 172–5, 176t, 183–9 requirements, 197

480 Index

riboflavin (cont.) sickle cell trait, 193 status, 196–7 sideroblastic anemia, 250t glutathione reductase, 197 sleep, thiamin deficiency, 165 pyridoxine oxidase, 197 smell, vitamin A deficiency, 63 thermolabile methylene tetrahydrofolate smoking, vitamin C, 380 reductase, 199 snake venom protease, 144 thyroid hormones, 178–9 spermatogenesis, vitamin A, 55 thyroxine deiodination, 179 spina bifida, 310–1, 313 tissue uptake, 177 spinal cord degeneration, vitamin B12, 308, toxicity, 187, 198–9 309 unavailable, 176 squalene, 7 rickets, 98–101 status, antioxidant, 126–7 biochemical, 103 assessment, 12, 17 drug-induced, 99–100 biotin, 340–1 eradication, 99 folate, 313–8, 315t genetic factors, 99 niacin, 225–7 hypophosphatemic, 100 optimum, 11 iatrogenic, 99–100 pantothenic acid, 354–5 radiological, 103 riboflavin, 194–7 strontium-induced, 100 thiamin, 167–9 vitamin D, 100–1 vitamin B6, 250–6 resistant, 92, 97 vitamin B12, 313–8, 315t RNA polymerase, 218 vitamin C, 374–6 RNI (see also reference intakes), 20–1 vitamin D, 103–4 rods (eye), 50 vitamin E, 125–7 ROS (reactive oxygen species), 187–8 vitamin K, 143–5 R-proteins, 301 steroid hormones, vitamin B6, 245–6, 265 RXR (retinoid X receptor), 55–8 sterols, plant, 401 poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase, 219 streptavidin, 342 streptozotocin, 219, 229–30 safe levels of intake, 21 stress, pantothenic acid, 353–54 salicylates, 401 tryptophan load test, 253–4 sarcosine dehydrogenase, 185 strontium, calcidiol 1-hydroxylase, 85 saturation test, vitamin C, 374 rickets, 100 scavenger receptor, 121–2 succinate dehydrogenase, 185 Schiff base, 50, 239 succinic semialdehyde, 156–7 Schilling test, 314 sudden infant death, 339 schizophrenia, 230 sulfite, oxidase, 297 scurvy, 357, 372–4 thiamin cleavage, 149f, 150, 166 rebound, 381 sulfitocobalamin, 299 selenium, 120–1, 123t, 244–5 sulfonylriboflavin, 181 selenocysteine, 120–1 sunlight, vitamin D synthesis, 80–2 lyase, 244–5 flavor, milk, 175 selenoproteins, 120–1 superoxide, 187t, 190t semidehydroascorbate, 358f, 362–3 vitamin C, 369 sepiapterin reductase, 277f supplements, folate, 311 serine, catabolism, 279–81 upper levels, 26 dehydratase, 244 vitamin B6, 247 hydroxymethyltransferase, 243–4, 279–81, sweat, thiamin, 153 281f syndrome X, 97 palmitoyltransferase, 136 transamination, 242t tachysterol, 81 serotonin, 208, 209f, 224, 240t, 264, 265 tardive dyskinesia, 391 thiamin deficiency, 165 taste, vitamin A deficiency, 63 shoshin beriberi, 162 taurine, 350, 396–400 sialic acids, 352 biosynthesis, 396–7

Index 481

breast milk, 400 diphosphate, 149f cardiomyopathy, 399 excretion, 152, 167–8 central nervous system, 398–9 flour enrichment, 164 glutamate decarboxylase, 398 lipid soluble analogs, 150 kittens, 396 metabolic functions, 153–61 metabolic functions, 398–9 branched chain amino acids, 156–7 bile acid conjugation, 398 GABA shunt, 156–7 central nervous system, 398–9 oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, 156–7 heart muscle, 399 pentose phosphate pathway, 159, osmolyte, 398–9 160f possible essentiality, 399 pyruvate dehydrogenase, 155–6 retinoic acid, 39 triphosphate, 159–61 vegetarians, 399 transketolase, 159, 160f taurocholic acid, 398 metabolism, 150–3 tazarotene, 72 monophosphate, 149f TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reacting oxidative cleavage, 150 substances), 126 pharmacological uses, 169–70 teratogenicity, retinoids, 70–1 phosphorylation, 151 terpenes, 401 pyrophosphokinase, 167 testicular atrophy, 123 requirements, 169–70 testis, lycopene, 72 status, 167–9 testosterone synthesis, 55 sulfite cleavage, 149f, 150 tetrahydrobiopterin, 272f, 277f, 294–7, sweat losses, 153 365f thiol, 149f aromatic amino acid hydroxylases, 294–6 toxicity, 169 nitric oxide synthase, 296–7 triphosphatase, 152 tetrahydrofolate (see also folate), 272f triphosphate, 149f, 152, 159–61 one-carbon substituted, 280f, 281f vitamers, 148–50 thermogenin, 54 thiaminase, 149f, 166–7 thiamin, 149f thiaminolysis, 149f, 166–7 absorption, 150–1 thiazole, 149f antagonists, 166–7 thiobarbituric acid reacting substances biosynthesis, 153 (TBARS), 126 blood concentrations, 167–8 thiochrome, 149f, 152, 167–8 cleavage, 149f, 150, 166 thiocyanate, 403, 404 deficiency, 161–6 thiopropanal S-oxide, 401 acetyl choline, 165 thioredoxin reductase, 185–6 beriberi, 161–3 threonine transamination, 242t carbohydrate metabolism, 164–5 thrombin, 139–41 cardiac failure, 162 thromboplastin, 140f, 144 citric acid cycle, 156–7 thymidine dioxygenase, 367 edema, 162 thymidylate synthetase, 287–8, 308 encephalopathy, 161, 163–4 thymine dioxygenase, 367 GABA shunt, 156–7, 164 thyroid hormone, receptor, 56–7 heart failure, 162 riboflavin, 178–9 5-hydroxytryptamine, 165 vitamin D, 93 lactic acidosis, 164–5 thyroxine deiodinase, 120–1 neurotransmitters, 165 riboflavin, 179 nystagmus, 163 tiglic acid, 333t oxoglutarate dehydrogenase, 164 TMP synthesis, 317 psychosis, 161, 163–4 γ -tocopherol, metabolism, 116 serotonin, 165 tocopherols (see also vitamin E), 110f sleep, 165 plasma concentration, 125–6 Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, 148, 161, quinone, 114f, 116 163–4 radical, 114f dependency diseases, 156, 158–9 transfer protein, 113–4, 125

482 Index

tocopheroxyl radical, 114f metabolism, 264 tocotrienols (see also vitamin E), 110f cytokines, 208 cell cycle arrest, 116 pellagra, 224 cholesterol, 113, 115–6 riboflavin deficiency, 193–4 toe drop, 162 niacin equivalence, 208 topaquinone (TPQ), 266–7 oxygenase see tryptophan dioxygenase toxicity, carotenoids, 70 pyrrolase see tryptophan dioxygenase niacin, 228–9 transamination, 242t pantothenic acid, 356 transport, 224 riboflavin, 187, 198–9 nicotinamide nucleotide synthesis, thiamin, 169 208–14 vitamin A, 46, 68–71 tryptophanuria, 224 vitamin B6, 235, 259–60 tryptophanyl tryptophylquinone (TTQ), vitamin C, 380–2 266–7 vitamin D, 82, 99, 105–6 tubulin, 90t vitamin E, 128 tumor necrosis factor, 90t, 121, 309 vitamin K, 145 tyramine, 240t toxins, ADP-ribosyltransferase, 215–7 tyrosine decarboxylase, 240t pellagra, 223 hydroxylase, 294–6, 365f TPN (triphosphopyridine nucleotide), 214 vitamin C, 369 TPQ (topaquinone), 266–67 transamination, 242t transaminases, 237t, 241–4 activation coefficient, 251t, 252 ubiquinone, 7, 185, 400–1 transamination, enzyme inactivation, 243 vitamin E, 118 products of amino acids, 242t UGA codon, 120 transcalciferin, 87 UL see upper level transcobalamins, 301, 302 ulcer, pantothenic acid, 354 transcorrin, 302 vitamin B12, 313 transducin, 49, 51f, 53 ultraviolet, vitamin D synthesis, 80–2 transferrin, 370 uncoupling protein, retinoic acid, 54 polymorphism, 382 upper level (UL), 21, 24 receptor, 90t folate, 319 transketolase, 152, 159, 160f niacin, 228–9 activation, 168–9 vitamin A, 69t polymorphism, 164 vitamin B6, 260–1 trans-retinoic acid, 55–8 vitamin D, 106 transthyretin, 45, 64 vitamin E, 128 Tretinoin®,72 uracil, incorporation in DNA, 314 triglycerides, vitamin E absorption, 113 urea synthesis, 336 trigonelline, 207–8 urine glucose testing, 381 trimethoprim, 289, 312 urocanic acid, 282f trimethyllysine hydroxylase, 367, 387f US-RDA (see also reference intakes), 21 triphosphopyridine nucleotide, 214 uv, vitamin D synthesis, 80–2 trisomy 21, 130 Trolox, 110 valine, load, 316 tryptamine, 240t metabolism, 158 tryptophan decarboxylase, 240t transamination, 242t dioxygenase, 209f, 211–3, 248f, 253, 253–4 valproic acid, 313 glucocorticoids, 211–2 carnitine, 387 heme, 211 pantothenic acid, 355–56 induction, 211–2 vascular fragility, vitamin C, 373 hydroxylase, 209f, 224, 294–6 vascular smooth muscle, vitamin E, 121 load test, 248f, 252–4 vertebral crush fracture osteoporosis, 101 artifacts, 253–4 vision, dim light, 54 estrogens, 254–55 vitamin A, 49–54

Index 483

visual purple, 51f toxicity, 46, 68–71 vitamers, definition, 2 alcohol, 62 folate, 271, 272f, 280f glycine N-methyltransferase, 69–70 niacin, 201–2 teratogenicity, 70–1 pantothenic acid, 345 turnover, 67 thiamin, 148–50 upper levels of intake, 69t vitamin A, 31–5 vision, 49–54 vitamin B6, 233–4 vitamers, 31–5 vitamin C, 358–9 vitamin B1 see thiamin vitamin D, 78, 79t vitamin B2 see riboflavin vitamin E, 109–10, 111t, 113–4 vitamin B3,5,202 vitamin K, 132–3, 136 vitamin B4,5 vitamin A (see also retinaldehyde; retinoic acid; vitamin B5,5 retinol), 32f vitamin B6, 233f absorption, 35–6 absorption, 234 bone, 55 antimetabolites, 166 deficiency, 61–4 availability, 234 alcohol, 62 biosynthesis, 236 barbiturates, 40, 62 body pool, 256–7 carotene dioxygenase, 43 deficiency, 246–50 cellular immunity, 61 anemia, 246 dark adaptation, 62 apparent, 253–4 epithelia, 63 drug induced, 249–50 fertility, 61 enzyme responses, 247–9 fetal resorption, 61 iatrogenic, 249 iatrogenic, 40 kynureninase, 213–4 infection, 61, 62 oxalate, 247 keratinization, 61 pellagra, 222 polychlorinated biphenyls, 45 dependency syndromes, 250 prevalence, 61 excretion, 251–2 protein-energy malnutrition, 46, 62 glucosides, 233–4 retinol binding protein, 62 homocysteine, 293 zinc, 62 metabolic functions, 236–46 depletion/repletion studies, 66–7 amino acid metabolism, 237–45 excretion, 39–40 decarboxylation, 239, 240t fractional catabolic rate, 67 gene expression, 245–6 in foods, 31 glycogen phosphorylase, 244–5 international units, 35 racemization, 241 liver, secretion, 37–8, 45 steroid hormone action, 245–6 storage, 36–8 transamination, 237t, 241–4 metabolic functions, 49–61 metabolism, 233f, 234–6 gene expression, 54–58 aldehyde dehydrogenase, 235 non-genomic actions, 58–61 alkaline phosphatase, 235 retinoylation of proteins, 58–60 hypophosphatasia, 235 transmembrane signaling, 60–1 muscle, 236 vision, 49–54 pyridoxine phosphate oxidase, 234 pharmacological uses, 71 riboflavin deficiency, 193–4, 234 pregnancy, 70 muscle, 236 relative dose response, 46 pharmacological uses, 261–5 requirements, 66–8 depression, 264 status, 64–6 diabetic complications, 263–4 conjunctival impression cytology, 66 glucose tolerance, 262–3 plasma concentrations, 65t hyperhomocysteinemia, 261–2 relative dose response, 65t, 66 hypertension, 264–5 retinol binding protein, 65–6 premenstrual syndrome, 262

484 Index

vitamin B6 (cont.) leucine aminomutase, 306–7 pyridoxyllysine, 234, 247 methylmalonyl CoA mutase, 305–6 reference intakes, 256–9, 258t methionine synthetase, 304–5 requirements, 256–9 metabolism, 300–3 depletion/repletion studies, 257 methionine synthetase, 304–5 infants, 259 methylmalonyl CoA mutase, 305–6 metabolic turnover, 256 microbiological assay, 298 protein intake, 257–8 pharmacological uses, 321 status, 250–6 radioligand assay, 314 methionine load test, 255–6 reference intakes, 318–20 plasma concentrations, 251 requirements, 318–20 4-pyridoxic acid excretion, 251–2 status, 313–8, 315t transaminase activation, 251t, 252 dUMP suppression test, 317 tryptophan load test, 248f, 252–4 erythrocyte concentrations, 314 supplements, hyperoxaluria, 247 methylmalonic aciduria, 316 tissue uptake, 234–5 plasma concentrations, 314 toxicity, 235, 259–60 Schilling test, 314 turnover, 256 tissue uptake, 301–3 upper levels, 260–1 vitamin B13,5 vitamers, 233–4 vitamin B14,5 vitamin B7,5 vitamin B15,5 vitamin B8,5 vitamin B16,5 vitamin B9,5 vitamin B17,5 vitamin B10,5 vitamin Bc,5 vitamin B11,5 vitamin Bp,5 vitamin B12, 299f vitamin BT,5 absorption, 300–1 vitamin Bw,5 Schilling test, 314 vitamin Bx,5 algae, 303 vitamin C, 358f bile, 302 absorption, 361 binding proteins, 301–3 assay, 359 biosynthesis, 303 ascorbic acid, 358f deﬁciency, 307–13 phosphate, 359 CoA synthesis, 306 sulfate, 359 dementia, 307 ascorbyl palmitate, 359 demyelination, 309 blood, 362 fatty acid synthesis, 306 body pool, 378–9 FIGLU, 317 cancer, 382 folate, 308, 320 cardiovascular disease, 383 hyperammonemia, 306 common cold, 383 iatrogenic, 313 deﬁciency (scurvy), 357, 372–4 methyl folate trap, 291–2 anemia, 373 methylmalonic aciduria, 306 carnitine, 387 neuropathy, 308, 309 muscle fatigue, 387 pernicious anemia, 308 mutant rats, 360 protein intolerance, 306 rebound scurvy, 381 serum folate, 15 excretion, 363–4 spinal cord degeneration, 308, 309 food processing, 359 dUMP suppression test, 317 gastric secretion, 261 enterohepatic circulation, 302 leukocytes, 362, 374–5 gene expression, 310 metabolic functions, 362–72 histamine receptor antagonists, 313 antioxidant, 371 homocysteine, 293 cholesterol metabolism, 371 leucine aminomutase, 306–7 collagen synthesis, 367 metabolic functions, 303–7 dopamine β-hydroxylase, 365

Index 485

enzyme stimulation, 369 atherosclerosis, 97 iron metabolism, 369 binding protein, 81 nitrosamine formation, 370 bone, metabolism, 94–6 oxoglutarate-linked hydroxylases, 367–8 mineralization, 98–101 peptide α-amidase, 366 calbindin-D, 93–4 peptidylglycine hydroxylase, 366 calcidiol, 84f tyrosine hydroxylase, 369 1-hydroxylase, 84f, 85, 101 vitamin E, 371 24-hydroxylase, 84f, 85–6 xenobiotic metabolism, 371 hydroxylases, 90t, 87–9 metabolic turnover, 378–9 pharmacological use, 100, 101 metabolism, 359–64 plasma concentration, 80, 103, 104t iron overload, 364 calcitriol, 79t, 84f, 85 oxalate, 364 gene expression, 90t osteocalcin synthesis, 141 pharmacological use, 100 oxidation, 362–3 plasma concentration, 80, 103 oxygen radical formation, 371 receptor, 56–7, 90–1, 101 palmitate, 359 regulation of vitamin D metabolism, 88 pharmacological uses, 382–3 calcitroic acid, 84f, 86 pro-oxidant, 371 calcitonin, 88–9 reaction with nitrite, 370 calcium absorption, 93 reference intakes, 376–80 cancer, 97, 107 renal reabsorption, 364 cell proliferation, 96–7 requirements, 376–80 surface receptors, 92–3 minimum, 376 cholecalciferol, 78f, 79t high figures, 379 absorption, 83 metabolic turnover, 378–9 25-hydroxylation, 83–4 smoking, 380 plasma concentrations, 80 saturation test, 374 synthesis, 81 status, 374–6 deficiency, 98–101 diabetes, 361 barbiturates, 86 DNA damage, 376 biochemical, 103 leukocyte concentration, 374–5, 378 drug-induced, 99–100 plasma concentration, 374–5, 378 elderly, 81 saturation test, 374 eradication, 99 urinary excretion, 374 genetic factors, 99 superoxide formation, 369 hypoparathyroidism, 100 synthesis, riboflavin, 193–4 hypophosphatemic, 100 tissue reserves, 362 iatrogenic, 99–100 uptake, 361–2 radiological rickets, 103 toxicity, 380–2 renal failure, 100 hemochromatosis, 382 rickets, 98–101 iron overload, 382 strontium-induced, 100 oxalate, 380 tumor-induced, 100 renal stones, 380 vitamin D resistant, 92, 97 urine glucose testing, 381 osteomalacia, 98–101 vitamers, 358–9 diabetes, 106–7 vitamin E, 117 dietary sources, 82 wound healing, 377 differentiation, 96–7 vitamin C2,5 ergocalciferol, 78f, 79t vitamin D, 78f absorption, 83 absorption, 83 food enrichment, 79 adipocytes, 97 excretion, 86 adipose tissue, 106 food enrichment, 79 alopecia, 97 gene expression, 90t apoptosis, 96–7 glucuronides, 82

486 Index

vitamin D (cont.) requirements, 104–5 hair follicles, 97 resistance, 92, 100–1 1-hydroxylase, 84f, 85, 101 response element, 91 24-hydroxylase, 84f, 85–6 rickets, 98–101 25-hydroxylase, 83–4 seasonal variation, 80 hydroxylases, 90t, 87–9 status, 103–4 immune system, 98 synthesis, 80–2 infants, 104–5 tissue storage, 80 insulin secretion, 97, 98 toxicity, 82, 99, 105–6 interleukins, 98 upper, level of intake, 106 international units, 79 vitamers, 78, 79t keratinocytes, 96 vitamin dependency syndromes, metabolic functions, 89–98 250 apoptosis, 96–7 vitamin E, 110f bone metabolism, 94–6 absorption, 113 calbindin-D, 93–4 anticoagulants, 128 calcium reabsorption, 94 antioxidant, 116–8 cell proliferation, 96–7 atherogenesis, 121 differentiation, 96–7 binding protein, 113–4, 125 endocrine glands, 98 cancer, 129 gene expression, 90–2 cardiovascular disease, 129 immune system, 98 cataract, 129 non-genomic actions, 92–3 cell membrane, 115 nuclear receptors, 91 signaling, 121–2 osteoblasts, 95 collagenase, 121–2 osteoclasts, 96 deficiency, 122–5 response element, 91 fetal resorption, 122 metabolism, 79–89 human, 125 anticonvulsants, 86 premature infants, 125 barbiturates, 86 selenium, 123t hydroxylases, 90t, 87–9 synthetic antioxidants, 123t 1-hydroxylase, 84f, 85, 101 equivalents, 111–2 24-hydroxylase, 84f, 85–6 excretion, 115 25-hydroxylase, 83–4 fibroblasts, 122 regulation, 87–9 gene transcription, 121–2 multiple sclerosis, 106 immune system, 122 nomenclature, 79t interleukins, 121 non-genomic actions, 92–3 international units, 111 osteocalcin synthesis, 141 ischemic heart disease, 127–8 osteomalacia, 98–101 lipid peroxides, 114f, 118–9 osteoporosis, 102 macrophages, 121 parathyroid hormone, 88 metabolic functions, 115–22 pharmacological uses, 106–7 antioxidant, 116–8 phosphate absorption, 93 cell cycle arrest, 116 phospholipase, 97 cell signaling, 121–2 plasma, binding protein, 87 gene transcription, 121–2 concentrations, 80 hypocholesterolemic action, 115–6 protein kinase C, 92–3, 97 metabolism, 113–5 psoriasis, 96, 107 monocytes, 121 receptor, 91–2 neurodegenerative diseases, 129–30 deficit, 101 peroxynitrite reactions, 119 lymphocytes, 98 pharmacological uses, 128–9 polymorphism, 102 plasma concentration, 125–6 vitamin A, 56–7 plasma half-life, 114 reference intakes, 104–5 plasma lipoproteins, 113–4

Index 487

platelet aggregation, 121 epoxidase, 136–7 prooxidant actions, 18–9 reductase, 137–8, 142 protein kinase C, 121 excretion, 134–5 quinone, 116 hydroquinone, 137–9 radical, 114f, 117f menadiol, 132f glutathione peroxidase, 117–8 menadione, 132f, 143, 145 reduction, 117–8 menaquinones, 132–3, 135 vitamin C, 117 metabolic functions, 135–42 receptor-mediated uptake, 114 atherocalcin, 136 requirements, 127–8 blood clotting, 139–41 respiratory burst oxidase, 121 bone matrix Gla protein, 136, 141–2 scavenger LDL receptor, 121–2 carboxylase, 136–9 selenium, 120–1 cell signaling, 142 status, 125–7 Gas-6, 136, 142 stereochemistry, 112 nephrocalcin, 136 synthesis, 113 nuclear binding protein, 136 tissue uptake, 114 osteocalcin, 136, 141–2 tocopherol, plasma, 125–6 metabolism, 133–5 quinone, 114f, 116 nuclear binding protein, 136 radical, 114f osteoclasts, 136 transfer protein, 113–4, 125 osteoporosis, 146 tocopheroxyl radical, 114f pharmacological uses, 146 tocotrienols, 110f phosphosphingolipid synthesis, 136 cell cycle arrest, 116 phylloquinone, 132f cholesterol, 113, 115–6 prophylaxis, 143, 145–6 toxicity, 128 quinone reductase, 137–9, 142 tumor necrosis factor, 121 requirements, 145–6 ubiquinone, 118 serine palmitoyltransferase, 136 upper levels of intake, 128 status, 143–5 vitamers, 109–10 tissue differentiation, 142 protein binding, 113–4 toxicity, 145 relative potency, 111t turnover, 145 tissue retention, 114 vitamers, 132–3, 136 vitamin C, 117, 371 vitamin E, 128 vitamin K, 128 water soluble, 133, 145–6 water soluble, 110 vitamin L, 5 vitamin F,5 vitamin M, 5 vitamin G, 5 vitamin N, 5 vitamin H3,5 vitamin P,402 vitamin I, 5 vitamin P,5 vitamin J, 5 vitamin PP,5 vitamin K, 132f vitamin Q (see also ubiquinone), 5, 7 absorption, 133–4 vitamin R, 5 antibiotics, 145 vitamin S, 5 apoptosis, 142 vitamin T, 5 bacteria, biosynthesis, 135 vitamin U, 5 contribution to intake, 134 vitamin V, 5 blood clotting, 139–41, 142 vitamin W, 5 blood levels, 144 vitamin X, 5 body pool, 145 vitamin Y, 5 bone, healing, 146 vitamins, absorption, 9 resorption, 136 analysis, 6–8 carboxylase, 136–9 availability, 8–10 deﬁciency, 142–3 deﬁnition, 1, 2 infants, 143 discovery, 1

488 Index

vitamins, absorption (cont.) xanthurenic aciduria, 224, 250t food composition tables, 8 xenobiotics, metabolism, 402, 403 list, 3–4t taurine, 398 nomenclature, 2–6 vitamin C, 371 toxicity (see also toxicity; upper level), 24–6 xerophthalmia, 61–4, 63 unavailable, 9 xerosis, conjuctival, 62, 63

warfarin, 137–9, 141, 142–3 zeaxanthin, 34f Wernicke’s encephalopathy, 148, 161, 163–4 carotene dioxygenase, 43 wound healing, vitamin C, 373, 377 cataract, 72 wrist drop, 152 intakes, 72 macular degeneration, 72 xanthine, dehydrogenase, 188–9, 297–8 zinc, retinol binding protein, oxidase, 188–9, 297–8 47, 62 oxidoreductase, 189, 297–8 vitamin A, 47, 62 xanthurenic acid, 248f, 251t, 253 folate digestion, 273 glucose tolerance, 263 status, 274