Somenotes on Maghribi script @ ^*I. adn denBoogert

In writing the presentstudy, I wanted it to servea Apart from this generalcharacteristic, the distinctive doublepurpose. featuresof Maghribi script are the following: In the first place,it is intendedas a concisemanual l. the final aliJ is drawn from top to bottom; for the reading of Maghribi manuscriptmaterial, 2. the stems of alif, lam, lam-alif and ta'lza' have which often posesproblems, even for nativespeakers club-like extensionsto the left of their top point; of .The cursivestyle of Maghribiscript as well 3. the ioop of ;adlQad is identical with that of n'l 'tooth'; as the calligraphicstyle contain many letterforms and za', i.e. it has no ligatureswith which the averagereader of Arabic is 4. the stemof la'lZA'is drawn diagonally; unfamiliar. 5. qa/ andfA'have unconventionaldiacritical points; Secondly,this article, and especiallythe list of 6. final and separate dalldhAl are very similar to letterformswhich constitutesthe largestpart of it, is initial and medial kaf, especiallyin the earlier mss; meant as a possiblestarting-point of further, more more differentiated forms developed later; thorough researchinto the paleographyof Maghribi These are the features that distinguish Maghribi script. Attention is focusedon the individual letter- script from the Mashriqi scripts(. c.s.). 'la forms which makeup the script. Houdas (p. 95) states that différenceque I'on The manuscriptmaterial on which the notes on constate entre les formes du maghrébin et celles du diacriticpoints and vocalisationand the list of letter- neskhy n'est pas très profonde'. The differencesde- forms are basedhas beenlimited to specimenspro- scribed above however, though they are indeed not duceddurins the l9th and 20thcenturies. very profound, give valuable indications about the origin of the script: it is preciselythese featuresthat are found in a certain angular formal bookhand THE ORIGIN OF MAGHRIBI SCRIPT ('Kufic') which was usedin the Middle East in the Sth- lOth centuriesAD. This bookhand is exemplifiedby The origin of Maghribi script has been investigated Yajda2 plates 4 and 53. In Arabic it is sometimes by O. Houdasl. In his essayhe examinesthe historical referred Í"oas murabba'. The most formal form of circumstancesunder which the introduction of the this hand is representedby the Quranic script which is 'Eastern 'Qarmatian', in the Maghrib took place, and usually called Kufic' or see compares a few 9th-century Maghribi Lingsa,plates ll-21. This angular bookhand, to which written on vellum. He comes to the conclusion that Maghribi script is apparently closely related, should 'Kufic'. Maghribi script is a direct descendantof He be distinguishedfrom a more rounded bookhand (kld 'une even goes so far as to call Maghribi script légère mudawwar) which existed in the same period, and transformationdu coufique' (p. 96). which was primarily used for copiesof the (see 'Kufic' The term is somewhatambiguous. In gene- Vajda, plates1,2 and 6ab, and Lings platesl-9). 'formal ral. it should be taken to mean the bookhand At the time Arabic script was introduced into the 'cou- of the 1th - 10th century AD'. Houdas uses Maghrib (8th/ AD), it had already split 'neskhy', fique'in opposition to which term he usesas into two different styles in the Mashriq: a formal a genericname for the cursive scripts of the Mashriq style used for copies of the Quran, works of law and (naskh, , etc.). jurisprudenceand the like, and a cursivestyle, used in That Houdas' conclusionabout the origin of Magh- correspondenceand administration. Both these styles ribi script is correct, though perhaps stated a little were developmentsof one original style, the archaic imprecisely,becomes clear when one takes a closer Arabic script of the 6th and early 7th centuriesAD. In look at the distinctivefeatures of this script.A generai the 7th and 8th centuriesdifferent stylesdeveloped for characteristicof Maghribi script is what Houdas calls the various applications of the script. The formal, 'la nature du trait': Maghribi is written with a sharp calligraphic style ('Kufic') soon becamemore or less pointed pen which producesa line of even thickness, standardisedand hardly changed during the time it while in the Mashriq the point of the pen is cut in the remainedin use.The cursivestyle on the contrary was form of a chisel,producing a line of varying thickness. not standardiseduntil the 10th centurv AD. when.

Manuscriptsof the Middle East4 ( 1989) Q Ter Lugt Press,Donkerstee g 19,2312 HA Leiden.Netherlands, 1989 ISSN0920-0401 a1 N. VAN DEN BOOGERT.NOTES ON MAGHR]BI SCRIPT il

under the pressureof the exigenciesof more speedier Secondly,the scribesof the Maghrib had the habit ways of writing, severalcursive styleshad developed, of imitating the specimensthey were copying, which all quite different from the formal style. It was Ibn could have beenwritten in another region or country; Muqla (d. 940 AD) who elevatedthe cursivestyles to this is, of course,to a large extent a result of the lack the calligraphic level by devising a system which he of a calligraphicstandard. called al-khatt al-mansub.With this systemthe letter- Thirdly, the massiveremigration of Muslims from forms of the cursivestyles could be standardised.This Spain definitely muddled up the different styles,as far made their use for non-casual applications such as as they existed. and lawbooks possible, and the old formal Finally, the number of dated manuscriptsfrom the style or Kufic soon went out of use(l lth century AD), Maghrib is relativelysmall. exceptfor ornamentalapplications. After describingthe four calligraphic styles which Houdas arguesthat only the old formal style of the he distinguishes,and naming each of them after its Arabic script ('Kufic'), was introduced into the possibleplace of origin, Houdas says (p. 110): ,... Maghrib. From the centresof Islamic learningsuch as mais il faut bien remarquer,que le nom de cesécritu- and Fes, the use of the script spread over res n'implique nullement la nécessitéqu'elles aient été the Maghrib, and after a time it beganto be applied to tracéesdans I'une ou I'autre des deux villes auxquelles purposesfor which in the Mashriq the cursive scripts ellesdoivent leurs appellations'. were used. Around the beginning of the llth century Houdas also tries to give a classificationof the AD the formal bookhand as a whole had changedinto cursive Maghribi scripts. These he divides into four a more cursiveform, which could be written fasterand geographicaltypes:'tunisienne','algérienne','maro- 'soudanienne'. easierthan the old form and which has remained in caine' and Bearing in mind the prob- useuntil the present. lems already encountered in trying to classify the calligraphicalstyles, these names could at best be used to roughly indicate the area where a particular ms. DIFFERENT STYLES was produced; they do not tell us anything about the featuresof its script. Houdas also tries to describethe characteristicsof The possibilitiesof making a more definitie classifi- the various stylesof Maghribi script. He first makes a cation of the different stylesof Maghribi script seem difference between two levels: the calligraphic level to be small. ('l'écriture soigné')and the non-calligraphicor cursive The best prospectsare perhaps offered by a close level.He then dividesthe calligraphicscript into three examination of the script used in legal documents, styles.Each of these styleshad as its place of origin especiallythe more luxurious ones. These documents one of the cultural and intellectual centres of the usually bear a place and date, and it is improbable Maghrib. These are: Qayrawànr (from Kairouan), that they have been copied from specimensfrom an Fàsi (from Fès) and Andalusr (from Cordoba). entirely different region. From the list of letter forms Houdas also distinguishesa fourth style, Sldáni, (see below) it becomes clear that Maghribi script which originated in the Timbuktu area, and is nowa- containsa wealth of peculiarletter forms and ligatures days usedin the entire sub-Saharanzone lrom Senegal (see for instance the lam-alif and the atif + tam-alif to northern Nigeria. This styleis treatedby Houdas as ligatures).If these forms could be dated, they might cognatewith the other three stylesof Maghribi script. give a clue as to the place and date of origin of But judging by the very distinct characterof Sfidánr, undated MSS. which is easily recognisable,this style probably de- velopedparallel to, but independentfrom the script of THULUTH MAGHRIBI the Maghrib, and should be treated as cognate with Maghribi script as a wholes. Sldáni is therefore not In many Maghribi MSS a script different from present dealt with in the arricle. Maghribi script proper is usedfor the writing of titles, For each of these styles Houdas mentions a few chapter headingsand the like. This is often done in characteristics(pp. 108-112),about which he himself red, green or blue ink. This script is characterisedby says, 'Toutes however: ces indications sont un peu the very looseform of its letters,which makesit easily vagues,mais il est impossiblede leur donner une plus distinguishablefrom Maghribi proper. grande précision.' Houdas gives various reasonsfor Also, severalof its individual letter forms are dif- this difficulty in establishingthe features of each of ferent,e.g.: thesestyles in a more definite way. 1. the alíf and the lam have a top-serif to the right Firstly, a standardisedform or a calligraphicideal, insteadof to the left: such as existedfor the stylesused in the Mashriq, has (tA never come into being in the Maghrib. According to l| lt Houdas, this is a result of the aversion against regu- I tï larity and symmetry prevalent among the artisans of ( )))) the Maghrib. v/ J./. MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EAST4 íI989)

2. the final alif is drawnfrom bottom to top: A clusterof three points written above the line or a cluster of two or three points written under the line may be replacedby a flourish similar to an inverted comma: c gf*o shahr 3. the ta'lza' has a vertical stem insteadof a diago- nal one: (í.J É rttatirtt -;; "/,,r-G,

VC| *) bavna

4. the kaJ'hasa flag-liketop stroke,and usually a serif 2. Shadda at the top of the stem: Two systemsare in usefor the notation of shadd. @@ The conventionalsystem was only found to be used in \\ \\ the QuranicMSS examined: \\ 6 shadda+ farha 11 ww 5. unconnecÍed dal and initial and final stn and ba' shaddaI kasra (etc.)also have serifs: 3 ooN N w snadd1 * dumma G2è A second system, of which the place and date of origin still remain to be established. 6. the lam-alif has the followins form. with two r.rn_'"t- was found in the serifsto the right: other MSS. In this system,a V-shapedsign is used. This sign is written in different positions with a varying orientation to represent both shadd as the foilowing vowel: li,tt cm-nas 7. the pointing of the ./a' and the qaf is often done in U' the conventionalway in this script (seefor instance (.' t SJ ad-dtn Lings plate 712: ,surat al-qari'a, and plate I l3: sadaqallahu I-'aVtm). jlta,-nur This script is sometimescalled maghribí mujawhar For extra clarity or, more commonly, íhuluth maghribt.It is the Magh- a vowel sign may be added, although this is ribi interpretation of thuluth, one of the six canonical not strictly necessary: /- sty\es(al-aqlam as-sitta) used in the Mashriq, whence vu/v it was imported into the Maghrib, probably around , _shadda + fatha the 13thcentury AD or later. ': shuctcta damma Thuluth maghrihï was also often used for inscrip- :L + tions.e.s. in the . TrTshaddalkasra

3. Wasla DIACRITICAL POINTS AND VOCALISATION The conventionalwasla (") doesnot occur in the 1. Diacriticalpoints examinedMaghribi texts.Instead, to indicaten,asl a smalldot can be written The diacriticalpoints of two connectedletters are overthe alif6,e.g.: v,' often written togetherin a cluster.This can only be done, however,when one of theseletters has two ,(l.l I q.íD hu*attah diacriticalpoints and the otheronly one,i.e. no clusters In fully vocalisedtexts, the final vowel sign of the of more than threepoints are formed: preceding word is written a second time with the atif ''nn al-wasl. A repeatedfatha is then placed between the *"Corl dot and the alif, and a repeatedkasra is written below lhe ali/. When the final vowel sign is a QP boY'o damma, a small horizontal line similar to fatha and kasra is drawn 1t, through the middle of the alif : N. VAN DEN BOOGERT.NOTES ON MAGHRIBI SCRIPT 33 i: When lhe alif is contained in Ihe lam-alif ligature, (,^1 j.=,-Én A sadaoa ilI \/' llcjh the is placed inside the lam-aliJ or before it, Yal o e.g.: J\D, J.^^) bisni ltatt \- éót al- att r Yri:.ï A JT ^,ÓJ-> hnh:nhu aL'an .:- llah OlJ.l 6. Long a When alif al-v,asl stands at the beginningof a verse or sentence,its usualprothetic vowelis written with it: A long á, which in Modern StandardArabic (MSA) o. -o-11 is regularly spelleddefectively or, in vocalisedtexts, is 'dagger .4 \-/..sJ I al-vawm indicated by a ali/', is frequently spelledplene L in Maghribi texts,e.g.: 4. Hamza lJ tó hadha Hamza is frequently omitted, even in partially vo- d s to hadhihr calisedtexts. When written at all. it takes one of the following forms: J=JIsaturiruo

9t 9 e àDl',,uns The form e is possiblya graphicdevelopment The long a in , however,is always spelled of 9: defectively. 9 In vocalisedtexts the defectivelyspelled long ais 9 ?e representedby fatha followed by a small separatealí' which is placedabove the line, e.g.; When the chair of the hamzais an initial or medial 't .va',the hamzais placedbelow the line. The diacritical (-*h-I=J l,l-ktah points of the ya' are often written together with the hamza: When precededby a lam. this separate alif is drawn 'á7*b diagonally through the lam,e.g.: aa tra vra-lakin sa'ír 2r.)*' The long a in allah is representedby .fatha only: = ï'i uàtrÈlal-jaza'ir c^JJ I allalt 7. Vowelsigns 5. Madda The vowel signsJatha, kasra and dammaand the The madda (*) is used to mark a long vowel tany;ïnare written in a conventionalway: which is followed by hamz or by a doubled consonant, _Q e.g.: "' vT ó S L madda 2u rí l- s l+ ia'o l-an e Ein ó (2 han. n partially vocalised texts the madda may be written 2un while the harnzais omitted: 8. Adaptedletters T )\,re ma The phonemeg that occursin the spokenArabic of the Maghrib is written either with jïm qaf. The combination of hamz plus long a, which in or or with oneof the adaptedletters conventional Arabic spelling is representedby alíf ..*., 5, U , with madda 1T;, is written in Maghribi script with èt, alif precededby hamza, e.g.'. gish t2i.i;? Qayshl i. (9 gum(quv'm) Wle'a,,r, ,i aLqu,'a, Gannun(name) blt{l OJjJ 5+ MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EAST4 íI989)

The sound v that occurs in French loanwords is 6. a small dot indicates the point where the letter written either wthfa' or with the adaptedletter (, forms are connectedto the preceding and/or fol- e.g.: 1. lowing letter form; ,*Alavrit 7. cursive forms are given only when there is a con- siderable difference between them and the more 9. Numbers calligraphicforms. Europeannumerals have beenin common usein the ALIF Maghrib alongside conventional , sinceat leastthe beginningof the l8th century. In fact, they came to be preferredto their Arabic counterparts o"l-f tr during the l9th centurye.They are written in a charac- teristicstyle: (l) 1231567t5e0 tr The form of the numeral8 is typical. sep. Letter no.17 in Houdas (1891)contains a date writtenin the so-calledghubart numerals: tr

lz ío ,tuo _l- I tr In a note on this letter Houdas says that these ghubarï 't' numeralsare much usedin easternAlgeria - -l- and in Morocco.In the manuscriptmaterial examined for this article,however, they occuronly once. tr '-t-' 10.Paragraph markers tr@ The sign :? ir commonlyused to mark theend of a paragraph. To mark the end of a paragraphor of a wholetext, E @ theabbreviationlP f., may be used. (j&lintaha M LIST OF LETTER FORMS tr This list, though not exhaustive,gives a good clue to the variety of letter forms one encountersin the average Maghribi . It is arranged as fol- tr lows: 1. for each letter all variants are given which were found for its initial form (abbreviated in.), its (r) V medial form (med), its final form ffin.) and its separateor unconnectedform (sep.): Occursfrequently in: 2. the basic forms are followed by ligatures (if pre- sayyidund sent),which are arrangedalphabetically and which 6-- can be found under the first of their two compo- bi-íarkh(seenote 5) nent parts; . 1í9Y. 3. variants of a certain letter form are arranged in a (g.*", _r,a horizontal line if they strongly resembleone an- f" other, or if one is a graphicaldevelopment from the aÁ'1rÁ'1ruÁ', N7lv (initialand medialTt.YÁ' lini- other: tial and medial) 4. variants of letter forms between which there is a considerabledifference, or which have each devel- (2,3) oped into widely different new forms, are arranged in a vertical line; 5. letter forms marked with a small letter c were found in cursivetexts onlv; trlolo' N, VAN DEN BOOGERT,NOTES ON MAGHRIBÍ SCRIPT 35

le fin. tr / tW bi-rartkh The ra'is sometimesconnected through: 'Ágt tr hi-rarrkh sep. Thisligature i, urrÍuri u, u rrr,t., abbeviationof: .11 tr á f.ercetera.: \-. t-,-l .) 'ila'akhirihí l'l / t- -b-j -b-d (6) (6) -b-mtr This form is extremelyambiguous. It wasfound to representthe followingletters and ligatures: b-j (s) bA'@rc.)or sïnfshïn + jtm (etc.): tr ^lr:J bi-taríkh (2) ./ ' ri In the , the initial ba' often has the same as-shavktt height as the lam: l\-,'iJl st =_d.IJ :r_I . lJ bismi,ah bbi-farh t- (3) ZlÀl an-nusakh 'bridge' L The form of initial ba' (eLc.),which in the bà'(etc)+ datldhat: scriptsof the Mashriqsuch as naskh and ruq'a is used A when it is followed by jrmlhA'lkhA',mïm or ha' Z'..V bi-.t'ud (medial),occurs in Maghribi script only in the fol- ^ lowingcombinations: ba (etc.)I mtm,e.g.: <,Yjayyid r ba'(etc) or stnfshtn * mím: I-€. ui-na "l aLmo,sim * khàtuttt 1t"-)l f ba' (etc.) + (final),e.g.: #tlar-,attt,,t I aat'. (-nl ibn(see also note 26) ba' (eÍc.)-l ra'fzay, e.g.: #twa-ba'd uf (f barta bi-hadha 'normal' But in all thesecases the form is alsoused. {\^-, and seemsindeed to be preferred: L- 4*l(gat-'ahart C dal + ya': iun 7g1 SIdI gt barrd (4) I 'bridge' The form of medial ba' (etc.\ and of initial 4lathclhí and medial sínlshtncan be used when it is followed kaf + mrm(with or withouttop stroke): by jím (etc.),mtm, ha' (medial) or ya'(final). Seealso ligaturesunder (6). .ara).kunt 1_/\tJ-c, (5) Occurs frequently in: #LL-p,abukum JO MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EAST4 íI989) lam * jtm (etc.): ,u, {i)nstin ltl lam + mím'. .'EW ,to* *l (7) The dalldhal may easily be confused with kaJ, nu 1nÀ'1 xnÁ' sincetheir forms are sometimes very similar, especially in cursivetexts. Complete homography, however, is in usuallyavoided, e.g.: tr 9J5ana*o (8) med. To avoid confusion with final ra'f zày, a small dal trtr is sometimesadded to f,nal dalidhat: h-qatt fin. trtr (e) :P Occursfrequently in:. (6) Í f,l.ÍD hadha v tr (10) Occursfrequently in : sep. ')latbdhr Jl, tr oL rr DALIDHAL nÁ'12Áv o'[-altr l.cl,u,, o"17 trtr Ld (') ,.p IJ:l [-/ I rrrr ,.pF.l 'hF]w t--_-l tr tÍ_l tr ,.NEIV .0.[Glter ,,Fltr (12) d'F:l EAa dvEtriT"o' ,r[?tr trtrÁ trÁ N. VAN DEN BOOGERT.NOTES ON MAGHRIBI SCRIPT )l

(ll) Unconnectedra' may be connectedto the following letterin: trtr@ -- AW bi-tartkh(see also note 5) sep E ^re rahma (12) Thisligature also represents-rzn in: trE i, a, P asnrtn -s-r (.16) \- trtr sfuisH1ï ,'Fllro, q-vtra (t7) í14) The initiai and medialforms of sad anddàd have 'tooth', no asin the Mashriqi (l3) scripts. (l5) e The vertically elongatedform of medial gadl/act may be usedwhen it is followedbyjtm (etc.)or rmm, med. trtrG) yandiju fin. trtr (l6) Occursfrequently in: '7. sep. trtr b 9>' l-tudr't (13) The diacritl"ut po* of the dad issometimesplaced Occursonly in: insidethe loop: "r shaykh er,;.;.a.; v (17) sallama This ligatureoccurs frequently in: v ,-tAU I ut-qadr sÁo1oÁo TA'tZA'(18) ''le(14) '" tr a[,.] -'dFl(14) tr trEI ",.0i;l tr (15) a n'Fl tr 38 MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EAST4 íI989)

(20) 'ayn .n, The height of the loop of the initial may be trtrtr[El equal to that of the lam. fin. tr FÁ'Qt) in trt @ tl trtr med.tr tr@ tr fin. (22) sep.tr tr sep.t-c-l(22) g t't QÁFQt) trtrK in. (l8) tr The diacritical point of the ;a' is usually piaced to med the left of the stem. tr (le) While in the Mashriqi scripts the stem of the ta'l za' is only added after the loop and the lettersdirectly tr connectedto it have been written, in Maghribi script fin. the stem is usually written first. This explainsthe wild (22) forms into which lhe ta'lza'have developed. tr AYNIGHAYN sep.g (22) (20) er\ tr The bestknown characteristicof Maghribi script is the differentpointing of fà' andqAf: fa'has onepoint trtr underthe line and qa/ has one point abovethe line. (22) med. The diacriticalpoints of final and unconnectedfa', trtr qal and nun are regularly omitted. While diacritical t-l pointsare not strictlynecessary here, since in theory l*'l these letters are all written differently in final or unconnectedposition, the differencebetween them is oftenhard to see,even in calligraphicspecimens. fin. tr KÀF tr (23) sep.tr N, VAN DEN BOOGERT.NOTES ON MAGHRIBI SCRIPT 39

LAM med.tr(23) 'i-r o' [I [f l-'l med. trH (27) (24) tr fin. trtr fin. tr(23) t-l E E l-'l tr sep.trtr trtr u -r-j (6) trtrtrtrJ"cl,s,-l-m E í75\ (.26) w The short, curved form of initiai lam is usedwhen is followedby jtnlhA'lkha' or mtnt,e.g.: sep. (23) 8 L?l at-madt C)l'v at-hizh trtr (27) A shortenedform of medial lam is often used in trtr xil ,,uo (23) MIM Thetop strokeof thekaf is sometimesdoubled: It in. ,5J5 ritka tr j at-karthiba ;J l(lt med. (24) tr Only used when followed by flnal mtm, e.g.'. hukm tr Seealso (6) above. fin. tr (2s) Occursfrequently in: (6) /rt:,é'Jltanunm tr sep. The combination of initial lam and final kàf some- times has a dot added to it in order to distinguishit trtrtr from the ligature of alif plus lam-atiJ' e.g.: , -m-d (28) U s cthatika tr 40 MANUSCRIPTSOF TTIEMIDDLE EAST4 í]989)

(28) I--;---ltt_-l Occursfrequently in: L1!L:j tt 'Ahmad sep. (32) tir\l trtr "31at-hamct r--l ,Vt/t/ (initial and medial form: seeBÁ') L9-]tr t--t.-t frn. ()) \ E_l (30) V"n' Occursonly in the combinationshA' + alí'(seenote "oJ-ulU l) andha' + mïm(medial), e.g.: 1 rr (29], 14 161( | ul-huntàttt Occursonly in a smallnumber of very frequent (31) words and in the word-endins -tn: 'an The final ha' is sometimeswritten with a discon- nectedfinal stroke,especially in calligraphictexts (see ol for instance plates min Lings, l12 and ll3). In attah this (,/ alsooccurs in morecursive texts. e.s.: tt u1l ihn //\I) I attah (.32) alma rn The unconnected hà' is always drawn clockwise. u/€F:l which explainsthe way in which it can be connectedto HA' a precedingletter (e.g.dal or ru').

tn. trE WÁW trtr fin. tr tr sep.tr med.trtr trtr íll) Ir-_-l trtrtrtr E i-.r-iíll'l tr -w-h trE @(30) w-h E tr -.----l fin. É.1trtr -w-y trtra lz-_-l trtrJ[-{r",w-y trtr l4) N. VAN DEN BOOGERT.NOTES ON MAGHRIBI SCRIPT 4l E tr E E (33) Frequently usedfor w,àtt'* aliJ'al-v,iqo1'íl, e.g.: ll tlfrt'ditt'tl tr sep yÁ' (nitial and medial forms: seeBÀ) (34) trtrtr---l w fin. I c t-ë---r tr trE f_l |4r_l tr trtrg E tr (3s) g l---t E E] tr sep. E -l-'-m E (36) tr -l-'-h E (37) (36) tr Occurs1n: (34) The forms vra-salant of final and unconnected1a'which are S*, marked with an asteriskmay represent-r.a' as well as (371 ra'precededby initial or medialbà'letc.). e.g.: Occursin: èl ''m fugas-sutah ël'otrotr Ljanr 0kl"'lo,,uru )Nl at-rttaní L,lÀ>- kharorara

G liJ | ,tr-ttranr (35) LIST OF SOURCES Theshort forrn occurs frequently in The notes on diacriticalpoints and vocalisationsigns and 2Íï the list of letter forms are primarily basedon the annotated anthologiesof manuscript material from LÁM-ALI F the Maghrib that were publishedmainly at the end of the last century,and on fin. four collectionsof miscellaneousmanuscript texts from the library of Leiden University. The data yielded by these trtrE sourceswere then comparedwith ten 19th and 20th-century manuscriptsfrom the Leiden collection, with a few litho- g graphed Fes editions and with three recenrly published lacsimileeditions of the Quran. +//1 MANUSCRIPTSOF THE MIDDLE EAST4 (I9E9)

l9th-century copy l. Anthologies Or. 14169:Anon., Majmu'at nav'hat. (Witkam, Catalogue, PP.27 4-27 8) de langue urahe' 'ala Belkassemben Sedira, Manuel épistolaire Or. 141185:Muhammad b. Abr Sitta, Hashit'a tarttb in Alger 1893. Contains 76 letters and documenís Jacsí- musnadar-Rabt' b. Habrb, copy dated 127911862(Wit- vocabularr ntile, n'rost of them from Algeria, w'ith noíes, kam, Cat al ogue, pP. 29| -295) and transcription in standurdisedÁrahic suipt' lettres uraber Belkassem ben Sedira. Cours gradué de 4. Fèseditions: manttst'rites.Alger 1893. Contains 319 letíers and docu- books which were published in the ments in facsimile, m(tinlv-.from the Maghríb, but also These lithographed the beginning of the 20th some.fi'omSyria and EgtPt' second half of the 19th and relatively homogeneousscipt. Some Houdas, O. & G. Delphin, Ret'ueílde lettresarabes manus' century in Fès show a is given by P.Sj. van Konings- crítes,Alger 1891'.Coníains ll0 lettersand documentsin information on theseeditions in stqn- veld in Brill Catalogueno.5l0, Islamic Collections(Leiden .fac'sintile,riÍlt notes, vocabular.r-and transcription Fawzi'Abd altazzáq,Al-mathu'at al- clarclisetlArabic script o.f'the first 2l letter'sand parts of 1979),and recentlyby mu'a muqaddima ta'rrkhiyl'a the rentaíning letters. hajariyt'a .fi t-Maghrih. Fihris 'Algerisch-tunesische composition of the list of letter Rescher,O., Briefe in Faksimile und (Rabat 1989). For the reproductionsin this catalogue Transciption mit Anmerkungen', in'. Mítteilungen 'les forms. use was made of the of the following editions: Seminars.fiirorientalisc'he Sprachen :u Berlin,XX (1917)' (mainly of colophons),and al-ibtihaj.Fás l3l 7/ 1900 Contains 37 letters in facsimile. Bábá at-Tinbukti. t{41l Fás 1309/1891 Watin, L.. Recueilde tertes muroc'ains,Paris 1949'Contains Ibn al-Qádr,Jadhwut al-íqtibas, Saln'aÍal-'anf'as, Fás I 3 16/ I 898 ll2 specimensin facsímile, prohuhlr all v'rítten especiall-v al-Kattánr. and vocabu- for rhis hook b;' the sante scribe, Y'ith notes qf the lert'. Watitt also gbes a fëv' notes on the pet'ulíarities o.f 5. Facsimile editions Quran: Maghribi scriPt. (d. Qur'an, by al-haij Zuhayr Básh-maml[k 1305/1885); Mu'assasat Abdalkarïm b. Abdalláh, mi'scellanea(íron thc lihrary o.f 2. Collectionso.f n'tanu'scripr TÍnis 1403i1983 the Llniyersitt'of Leiden)', Qur'an, calligraphy by as-shartfAbd al-'Iláh al-Manjara ad-Dár alBaydá'1405/1985 Or. 14022. Collection of documents, 19th120thc' (Wit- as-Sa'di;Dár al-Kitáb, calligraphy anonymous; Dár at-Thaqáfa' ad-Dár kam. CataloguePP. 3 l-34) Qur'an, Or. 14066:Collection of letters,short texts and fragments, al-Bavdá'1405/1985 19thi20thc. (Witkam. Caraloguepp. 136-140) Or. 14048:Collection of severalreligious and magical texts in numerous Maghribi hands, 19th c' (Witkam. Cata- logue pp.72-89) Or. 14061:Collection of mysticaland religioustexts, copy dated 1299'1882(Witkam. Catalogue'pp'123-130) NOTES

(.from oí' the Univer'sitv of Lei- 'Essai 3. Manuscripts the lihrary 1 Houdas. O. sur l'écriture maghrébine',ir': l'{ou- detl): veauxmëlanges orientaux, IIe sérievol' xix, Publicationsde Vivantes Orientales (Paris 1886)' A Or. 1350-I: First volume of a five volume set of the I'Ecole des Langues article into Arabic by Abdalmajrd at- Muqaclclimaby Ibn Khald[n, calligraphic copy dated translation of this (1966)' p. 120) Turkr appeared in Hawliyyat al-iami'a at-tunisiyya 3 1236iI 821 (Voorhoeve.Handlist. 'Muháwala the title fï l-khatt al-magh- Or. 14006:Ibn Abr Zaf. Ravtl al-qirtas.copy dated 1903 pp.175-214,under (Witkam. Catalttgue.PP. l0-1 I ) ribi'. 2 Atbum de palëographiearabe, Paris 1958 Or. 14007:Abd ar-Rahmánat-Tilimsáni, two textson the G. Vajda, 3 ms' Leiden Or' 298, Gharíb al-hadlth , copy dated 1302i1885(Witkam, The well-known by Abu'Ubayd al-Qásim b. Sallám, is also written in this Catalogue,PP. l2-14) Or. 14010: Abdalláh b. Mulrammad at-Tr.fánI. miscella- scnpt. a Art of Calligraphy and lllumi- neous texts. copy dated 1212 1856(Witkam' Catalogue, M. Lings, The Quranic pp.14.15) nation.London 1976. of sultan s The relationshipbetween Sldánt and Maghribi script Or. 1402l: Anon., two texts on the activities 'The A.D.H. Bivar in of Muhammad b. Abdalláh B[ Sayf' copy dated 12691 is discussedby African LanguageReview VII (1968)' I 852-3(Witkam. Catalogue,pp.30-31 ) West Africa'. ó Maghribi MSS l'nsl was indicatedby a green Or. 14036: Collection ol of some rulers of the In older was indicated by a red or yellow dot. These Hafsids in Tunisia and their officials,copy dated 1304/ dot. while hamz dots used for the notation of v'asl and hamz wete I 887 (Witkam, Catalogue,PP. 62-63) coloured of a vocalisation system invented by Ab[ l- Or. 14050:Ahmad al-Mustafáb. Utwayr al-Janna.Rihlat a remainder (d. 688 AD), which consistedentirely of al-munà h'al-minna.19th century copy (Witkam, Cata- Aswad ad-Du'ali positionedcoloured dots. The greendot was later logue,pp.90-95) variously by a dot in the same colour as the rest of the Or. l+OO:: Non-calligraphiccopy of Muhammad Bello, replaced the red or yellow dot was replaced by the Infaq at-maysÍr. copy dated 1292!1875(Witkam, Cata- script, and hamza(e). logue,pp. I 32-133) conventional N, VAN DEN BOOGERT. NOTESON MAGHRIBI SCRIPT +-l

7 In Berber texts written in the Arabic script, this atif e In two of the threefacsimile copies of the euran which with horizontal line through the middre is often usedfor the were examined,the versesas well as the pagesare numbe_ notationof word-initialu. e.s.: red with European numerals. In the third copy the verses i;, urd have not beennumbered, while the pageshave European as L) | 8 well as Arabic numerals. In Berbertexts written in the Arabic script, the Berber , phonemes igi and lql are written witl

í O respectivelv.-'J' e.s-'È" \-/- o :, 1 /- 27 f-PfS-r I ors,,-