Trust, Trusting and Trustworthiness in Ethical Discourse
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Journal of Islamic Ethics 5 (2021) 1–29 brill.com/jie Trust, Trusting and Trustworthiness in Ethical Discourse Nora S. Eggen Faculty of Theology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway [email protected] Abstract In literary genres concerned with an ethics of character, scholars in the third through fifth/ninth through eleventh century wrote about social trust. In this article I examine the ethical thinking of four such scholars: Ibn Abī l-Dunyā (d. 281/894), al-Kharāʾiṭī (d. 327/939), al-Māwardī (d. 450/1058), and al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111). Locating concep- tualisations of the ethical concerns related to trust and mistrust, trustworthiness, trusting and misplaced trust, in a semantic field including the vocabulary of amāna, tawakkul, thiqa and ḥusn al-ẓann, I identify and discuss in this article some of these concerns, and I analyse in what ways the scholars’ respective conceptualisations of issues related to trust are similar, and how they differ from each other. While some scholars explicitly conceptualise the ethical value of trust in the concept of amāna, the juxtaposed social and spiritual aspects of the concept of amāna is more implicit with other scholars. Keywords trust – amāna – thiqa – ḥusn al-ẓann – virtue ethics – makārim – Ibn Abī l-Dunyā – al-Kharāʾiṭī – al-Māwardī – al-Ghazālī © Nora S. Eggen, 2021 | doi:10.1163/24685542-12340059 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC BY 4.0Downloaded license. from Brill.com10/03/2021 02:22:37PM via free access 2 Eggen الأمانة كمفهوم أخلاقي: الأمانة والثقة وحسن الظن في الخطاب الأخلاقي نورة س. أگّين اعتنى العلماء بين القرنين الثالث والخامس الهجريين/التاسع والحادي عشر الميلاديين بالأمانة الاجتماعية في مصنفاتهم ذات الصلة بالأخلاق. أدرس في هذا المقال التفكير الأخلاقي لأربعة من هؤلاء العلماء: ابن أبي الدنيا (ت. 281/894)، والخرائطي (ت. 939/327)، والماوردي (ت. 450/1058)، والغزالي (ت. 505/1111)، وذلك من خلال ضبط المفهومات الأخلاقية ذات الصلة بالأمانة أو عدمها، وحسن الظن، والأهلية للثقة وعدمها، ضمن حقل دلالي يشمل مفردات الأمانة والتوكل والثقة وحسن الظن – من بين مفاهيم – أخرى ، فأع ّرِفها وأناقشها في هذا المقال، مع تحليل مدى التشابه والاختلاف بين العلماء في ضبط مفهومها، ففي حين ي ُب ْ ر ِ ز ُ بعضهم صراحة الثقة كقيمة أخلاقية في مفهوم الأمانة، تبدو الأبعاد الاجتماعية والروحية لمفهوم الأمانة أشد صميمية لدى آخرين. الكلمات المفتاحية الثقة – الأمانة – أمانة – حسن الظن – أخلاق الفضيلة – مكارم الأخلاق – ابن أبي الدنيا – الخرائطي – الماوردي – الغزالي 1 Introduction In this article, I investigate positions on social trust in some works concerned with an ethics of character. My point of departure is the Qurʾānic notion amāna which, as I have argued elsewhere (Eggen 2011; Eggen 2014), pertains to two partly overlapping conceptual fields: the idea of a Divine trust (Q 33:72) and the idea of trust as a socio-ethical value (Q 4:58; 8:27; 23:8; 70:32). The notion of amāna is in this article inscribed into a broader conceptualisation of the ethical values of trust, trusting and trustworthiness, located in the literature in a number of lexical items which constitute a semantic field I identify by the metaterm “trust”. Other than the notion amāna, which may refer to the abstract noun “trust”, to the concrete noun “entrusted goods”, or to the quality “trustworthiness” (opposite nifāq “hypocrisy”, khiyāna “treason”), these include Journal of IslamicDownloaded Ethics from Brill.com10/03/2021 5 (2021) 1–29 02:22:37PM via free access Trust, Trusting and Trustworthiness in Ethical Discourse 3 the notion of tawakkul, which refers generically to “trust” and as a technical term to “trust in God”, the notion of thiqa which refers generically both to the abstract noun “trust” and the attribute “trustworthy”, and finally the composite ḥusn al-ẓann which may be translated “good assumption”, or “trust” (opposite sūʾ al-ẓann “bad assumption” or “mistrust”).1 The material investigated in this article pertains to the general field of an ethics of character (ʿilm al-akhlāq), concerned with character building through learning and habituation. As a generic notion, dispositions (akhlāq sing. khuluq) are qualified by positive attributes such as makārim (honourable) and maʿālī (excellent), or negatively by attributes like sifsāf (inferior) sayyiʾ (bad), glossed respectively as virtues and vices (Farès 1937, 414). Norms of praiseworthy con- duct through nurturing virtues and restraining vices, are explored in different literary genres. The material investigated here consists of makārim al-akhlāq works of Ibn Abī l-Dunyā (d. 281/894) and al-Kharāʾiṭī (d. 327/939), and of the analytical ethics of al-Māwardī (d. 450/1058) and al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111). Within the genre of makārim al-akhlāq, some 3–4th/9–10th century writers developed a virtue ethics calling for a practical manifestation of the ontologi- cal bond between God and the human being, through explicitly emphasising the ethical value of trust epitomized in the concept of amāna.2 Writers of a more analytically oriented virtue ethics literature in the 4–5th/10–11th century would share a theologically based motivation for moral conduct, would draw on similar source material, and would appreciate the value of trust in different parts of their ethical theories. However, the concept of amāna was in this liter- ature typically allotted a less prominent place. Without concluding decisively on the development of the use and understanding of the concept of amāna, I argue that the systematisations and conceptualisations inspired by the Greek philosophers may have contributed to this lesser prominence, and the inter- section of Divine trust and social trust in the works investigated in this article, was articulated in implicit rather than explicit ways. 1 The semantic field is identified with reference to the lexicographical literature and con- structed through the extensive cross-referencing between the relevant lexical items in this literature (Ibn Fāris 1979, 1:133–6, 2:231, 3:462, 5:454–6, 6:85; Ibn Manẓūr 1992, 10:359 and 371, 11:734, 12:272, 13:21–23 and 144; al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī 1998, 36, 405, 527; [Ibn] al-Anbārī 1987, 14; al-Sikkīt n.d., 108; al-Sharīf al-Jurjānī 1971, 37, 68, 77, 127). Cf. Eggen 2012, 38–56. 2 It should, however, be noted that this is not necessarily a general characteristic of the genre. Two other surviving makārim-works, of the traditionist Abū l-Qāsim Sulaymān b. Ayyūb b. Muṭayyir al-Lakhmī l-Ṭabarānī (d 360/971) (al-Ṭabarānī 1989) and of Raḍī l-Dīn al-Ṭabarsī (fl. mid-6th/12th century) (al-Ṭabarsī 2004) hardly touch upon concepts related to trust. In Abū Manṣūr al-Thaʿālibī’s (d. 429/1039) work, the concept of amāna is referred to in the chap- ter on keeping secrets (kitmān al-sirr) (Orfali and Baalbaki 2015, 72–73). Journal of Islamic Ethics 5 (2021) 1–29 Downloaded from Brill.com10/03/2021 02:22:37PM via free access 4 Eggen 2 Makārim al-Akhlāq Writers: Ibn Abī l-Dunyā and al-Kharāʾiṭī Among the earliest extant writings in the makārim al-akhlāq genre are the works belonging to Ibn Abī l-Dunyā (d. 281/894) and al-Kharāʾiṭī (d. 327/939) (Orfali and Baalbaki 2015, 3–5). Ibn Abī l-Dunyā (Abū Bakr ʿAbd Allāh b. Muḥammad al-Qurashī l-Baghdādī), was a respected Ḥanbalī traditionist and teacher in Baghdad writing for a broad readership (Kimber 1998; Schoeler 2002; Librande 2005). This productive scholar, sometimes compared to both al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 255/868–9) and Ibn Qutayba (d. 276/889), made an impact on later authors, and his writings have attracted both popular and scholarly interest. Abū Bakr Muḥammad al-Kharāʾiṭī, a ḥadīth scholar in Damascus, originally from Samaria, was likewise a scholar with a Ḥanbalī orientation (Vadet 1960; Giffen 1998). He is renowned for his contributions to the early theories of love (Gruendler 2004), as well as for his writings on ethics. Both Ibn Abī l-Dunyā and al-Kharāʾiṭī aimed at inciting a certain moral behaviour, although their authorial voice is limited to the selection and pre- sentation of the material, and to a particular organising principle providing an interpretational framework through the section headings. The bulk of the material in both makārim-books is transmitted sayings from the Prophet and the Ṣaḥāba (Companions),3 and both compilations are distinctly informed by a Qurʾānic terminology. Additionally, a general acknowledgement of the her- itage from the pre-Islamic Arabic culture is expressed, especially in Ibn Abī l-Dunyā’s book.4 Differences in the selection and organisation of the material suggest that the similarity between them is generic, rather than genealogic. 3 Trust in the Makārim al-Akhlāq Works Ibn Abī l-Dunyā and al-Kharāʾiṭī both introduce their accounts with lists of practically oriented virtues, such as the following list attributed to ʿĀʾisha (d. 58/678): The noble dispositions are ten: truthfulness in speech, truthfulness in the fortitude of obeying God, giving to the suppliant, repaying good deeds, 3 Notwithstanding that both writers seek to authorize their texts by providing chains of trans- mission, they must be considered men of letter (adībs) rather than ḥadīth scholars. As my concern here is not the historicity of the narratives, I omit isnāds and reliability discussions. 4 Ibn Abī l-Dunyā 1989, 39. The concept of makārim was known in the pre-Islamic culture (Farès 1937, 415; Izutsu 1966, 22). Journal of IslamicDownloaded Ethics from Brill.com10/03/2021 5 (2021) 1–29 02:22:37PM via free access Trust, Trusting and Trustworthiness in Ethical Discourse 5 keeping ties of kinship, fulfilling the trust (adāʾ al-amāna), protecting the right of the neighbour, protecting the right of the companion, hospitality to guests, and the foremost one is modesty.