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The Foreign Policy of Lyndon B. Johnson the United States and the World, 1963–1969

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The Foreign Policy of Lyndon B. Johnson the United States and the World, 1963–1969 The Foreign Policy of Lyndon B. Johnson The United States and the World, 1963–1969 Jonathan Colman Edinburgh University Press /BAB5898:DBFFCE 756D89 BD7BD9 .56D89A9DEF25ABA3B5FE697FFBF9.56D89.BD9 F9DEB:E9555695FFFCE 756D89 BD7BD9F9DE FFCE 756D89 BD7BD9CDB87F00....110.11, M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd iii 03/08/2010 15:14 To Tracy © Jonathan Colman, 2010 Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh www.euppublishing.com Typeset in Goudy by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire, and printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 0 7486 4013 3 (hardback) The right of Jonathan Colman to be identifi ed as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. /BAB5898:DBFFCE 756D89 BD7BD9 .56D89A9DEF25ABA3B5FE697FFBF9.56D89.BD9 F9DEB:E9555695FFFCE 756D89 BD7BD9F9DE FFCE 756D89 BD7BD9CDB87F00....110.11, M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd iv 03/08/2010 15:14 The Foreign Policy of Lyndon B. Johnson /BAB5898:DBFFCE 756D89 BD7BD9 .56D89A9DEF25ABA3B5FE697FFBF9.56D89.BD9 F9DEB:E9555695FFFCE 756D89 BD7BD9F9DE FFCE 756D89 BD7BD9CDB87F00....110.11, M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd i 03/08/2010 15:14 /BAB5898:DBFFCE 756D89 BD7BD9 .56D89A9DEF25ABA3B5FE697FFBF9.56D89.BD9 F9DEB:E9555695FFFCE 756D89 BD7BD9F9DE FFCE 756D89 BD7BD9CDB87F00....110.11, M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd ii 03/08/2010 15:14 Contents Acknowledgments vi Abbreviations vii Introduction 1 1. The Johnson White House and Foreign Policy 6 2. Vietnam: Going to War, 1963–5 24 3. Vietnam: Waging War, 1965–9 49 4. Two Allies: Britain and France 72 5. NATO Nuclear Sharing and Troop Offset 94 6. Two Adversaries: The Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China 115 7. Two Crises in the Middle East: Cyprus, 1964 and the Six- Day War, 1967 137 8. The Western Hemisphere: The Alliance for Progress, Cuba and the Dominican Republic 163 9. Dollars and Gold: Monetary and Trade Policy 187 Conclusion 203 Bibliography 210 Index 223 .AA47879CAEED 45C7:8 AC:AC8 45C7:838CDE14A2A4EDF58EEAE845C7:8AC8 E8CDA9FD8444584EEED 45C7:8 AC:AC8E8CD EED 45C7:8 AC:AC8CA7FE0.,/,0/../.,.. M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd v 03/08/2010 15:14 Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Martin Alexander, Gaynor Johnson, Andrew Priest, Len Scott, Michael O’Grady, Alaric Searle, Emma Whyte and Jake Widén for their helpful comments on portions of this book. Thanks are due to the anonymous referees for their comments on the proposal. My mother and late father helped to support my academic ambi- tions. The book is dedicated to Tracy, for her love and support. Any fl aws of this work are entirely the author’s own responsibility. Jonathan Colman Burnley, Lancashire, England January 2010 vi .378:DDAC 53497 957 349727CD0313DCE475DDD:734977 D7C8EC7333473D:DDAC 53497 957D7C :DDAC 53497 957AE5D/,// M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd vi 03/08/2010 15:14 Abbreviations ABM: Anti- Ballistic Missile ADST: Association of Diplomatic Studies and Training AID: Agency for International Development ARVN: Army of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) BAOR: British Army of the Rhine DCI: Director of Central Intelligence DRV: Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) EEC: European Economic Community FO: Foreign Offi ce FOIA: US Freedom of Information Act FRG: Federal Republic of Germany FRUS: Foreign Relations of the United States series GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade IMF: International Monetary Fund LBJL: Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library, Austin, Texas MACV: Military Assistance Command, Vietnam MLF: Multilateral Force NARA: National Archives and Records Administration NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization NSA: National Security Agency NSAM: National Security Action Memorandum NSC: National Security Council NVA: North Vietnamese Army OAS: Organization of American States OH: Oral history interview PDB: President’s Daily Brief PFIAB: President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board POL: Petrol, Oil, Lubricants vii /BAB588:DBFFCE 756D8 BD7BD .56D84ADEF25ABA3B5FE67FFBF.56D8.BD FDEB:E55565FFFCE 756D8 BD7BDFDE FFCE 756D8 BD7BDCDB87F101//0,01 M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd vii 03/08/2010 15:14 The Foreign Policy of Lyndon B. Johnson PRC: People’s Republic of China SDR: Special Drawing Rights SEATO: Southeast Asia Treaty Organization SIGINT: Signals intelligence TNA: The National Archives, Kew, Surrey UK: United Kingdom UN: United Nations VC: Viet Cong (Vietnamese communists) viii /BAB588:DBFFCE 756D8 BD7BD .56D84ADEF25ABA3B5FE67FFBF.56D8.BD FDEB:E55565FFFCE 756D8 BD7BDFDE FFCE 756D8 BD7BDCDB87F101//0,01 M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd viii 03/08/2010 15:14 Introduction Writers have praised President Lyndon B. Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ anti- poverty measures and his civil rights legislation,1 but there has been much less enthusiasm for his handling of foreign affairs. This reticence is largely due to the Vietnam War.2 Johnson sent American combat troops to support South Vietnam in 1965, but despite the presence of over half a million US soldiers by 1968 no victory was in sight. By the time the last American soldiers were withdrawn in 1973, some 58,000 American lives, plus countless times more Vietnamese ones, had been lost. South Vietnam collapsed in 1975. The military intervention generated powerful anti- war and countercultural movements, brought about the vilifi cation of the political institutions and gave rise to an anti- interventionist ‘syndrome’ in US foreign policy. Philip Geyelin wrote in 1966 that Johnson was ‘a swash- buckling master of the political midstream, but only in the crowded, well- traveled familiar inland waterways of domestic politics. He had no taste or preparation for the deep waters of foreign policy.’ Johnson was ‘king of the river and a stranger to the open sea’.3 According to Robert Dallek, the expansion of the commitment in Vietnam rested on ‘a combination of noble and ignoble motives that little serve’ Johnson’s ‘historical reputa- tion’ and led to ‘the worst foreign policy disaster’ in American history.4 Thomas Alan Schwartz has noted that the debacle in Southeast Asia has led many historians to depict Johnson as the ‘ugly American’ – crude, provincial and lacking in subtlety in the conduct of foreign policy.5 This view of Johnson was shared by some contemporaries, too, especially those associated with the Kennedy Administration. Lord Harlech, the British Ambassador to Washington and a close friend of John F. Kennedy, wrote in 1965 that President Johnson ‘basically has no feeling for world affairs and no great interest in them except in so far as they come to disturb the domestic scene’. He had ‘little sensitivity to the attitude of foreign- ers, as witness a statement of his that on the basis of his globe- trotting as 1 /BAB588:DBFFCE 756D8 BD7BD .56D84ADEF25ABA3B5FE67FFBF.56D8.BD FDEB:E55565FFFCE 756D8 BD7BDFDE FFCE 756D8 BD7BDCDB87F..0/,0.,./1. M2291 - COLMAN TEXT.indd 1 03/08/2010 15:14 The Foreign Policy of Lyndon B. Johnson Vice- President he was convinced that every country he visited the people would prefer to be Americans’.6 Employing a bureaucratic politics perspective, in 1992 Paul Y. Hammond argued, among other things, that Johnson never became ‘master in his foreign policy house’, and that his relationship with advisers was both deferential and distrustful. Diffi culties such as these contributed to poor decisions on issues such as Vietnam.7 Other accounts of Johnson’s foreign policies include a collection of essays edited by Warren I. Cohen and Nancy Bernkopf Tucker. While providing additional insights and nuance and drawing on newly released documents, the essays are generally critical of President Johnson. Waldo Heinrichs reiterates earlier views, stating that ‘lacking a detached critical perspective’, Johnson was ‘culture bound and vulnerable to clichés and stereotypes about world affairs. Strangely, this master of domestic politics was . aware of change but slow to discard early Cold War assumptions and unsure how to deal with new realities.’8 Nancy Bernkopf Tucker concludes that Johnson ‘remained captive of Cold War illusions shaped by a Munich analogy where distinc- tions between communism and fascism blurred and a strong America always ready to counter aggression was essential’.9 Gradually, more and more scholars, especially those who consider issues ‘beyond Vietnam’, have been inclined to see Johnson in a more favourable light. In 1995 H. W. Brands drew mainly upon documents from the Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library in Austin, Texas, to argue in a general account of Johnson’s foreign policies that although the President had ‘too much determination’ to defend South Vietnam ‘and not enough judgement’ about what the country was worth to American interests, he was on many other issues an effective manager of foreign affairs, dealing well with a complex international environment.10 Brands’ broad conclu- sion in a 1999 collection of ‘beyond Vietnam’ essays that he edited was that Johnson was intimately involved in the conduct of foreign affairs, and that ‘his efforts to secure American interests in various parts of the world sometimes succeeded and sometimes failed’.11 Recent work also includes a number of single- author studies focusing exclusively on Johnson’s policies ‘beyond Vietnam’. These works confi rm the general ‘revisionist’ tendency to evaluate Johnson’s foreign policies more favourably as time goes on, as a result of the increased availability of archival evidence and a growing
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