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Italy and the Sanusiyya: Negotiating Authority in Colonial Libya, 1911-1931 Eileen Ryan Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2012 ©2012 Eileen Ryan All rights reserved ABSTRACT Italy and the Sanusiyya: Negotiating Authority in Colonial Libya, 1911-1931 By Eileen Ryan In the first decade of their occupation of the former Ottoman territories of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in current-day Libya, the Italian colonial administration established a system of indirect rule in the Cyrenaican town of Ajedabiya under the leadership of Idris al-Sanusi, a leading member of the Sufi order of the Sanusiyya and later the first monarch of the independent Kingdom of Libya after the Second World War. Post-colonial historiography of modern Libya depicted the Sanusiyya as nationalist leaders of an anti-colonial rebellion as a source of legitimacy for the Sanusi monarchy. Since Qaddafi’s revolutionary coup in 1969, the Sanusiyya all but disappeared from Libyan historiography as a generation of scholars, eager to fill in the gaps left by the previous myopic focus on Sanusi elites, looked for alternative narratives of resistance to the Italian occupation and alternative origins for the Libyan nation in its colonial and pre-colonial past. Their work contributed to a wider variety of perspectives in our understanding of Libya’s modern history, but the persistent focus on histories of resistance to the Italian occupation has missed an opportunity to explore the ways in which the Italian colonial framework shaped the development of a religious and political authority in Cyrenaica with lasting implications for the Libyan nation. -
Insight Into the Soil Seedbank Characteristics of the Arid Rangelands in Libya: a Case Study in Mar- Marica Plateau, Cyrenaica (Northeastern Part of Libya)1 Manam W
Libyan Journal of Science & Technology 9:2 (2019) 184193 Insight into the soil seedbank characteristics of the arid rangelands in Libya: A case study in Mar- marica Plateau, Cyrenaica (Northeastern part of Libya)1 Manam W. B. Saaeda,*, Yacoub M. El-Barasib, Nazeeha A. Elhashanib a The Higher Institute of Agricultural Techniques, El-Marj, Libya. b Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Benghazi University, Benghazi, Libya. Highlights This study was conducted in Daphna, an arid rangeland area lies in the far northeastern part of Cyrenaica. This area was used as a case study to investigate the soil seedbank characteristics in the arid rangelands of Libya. Using the floatation in a salt solution method, the seeds were extracted from the soil then counted and identified. The results illustrated that the area still retained an adequate density of soil seedbank, however, the majority were for therophytes. The depressions and dykes in valleys retained higher seed density than the open flat areas.. A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Article history: The current study was conducted in Daphna area, an arid region in Cyrenaica located at the Received 19 February 2019 northeastern part of Libyan Sea Coast at the Libyan-Egyptian Border. The soil was sampled in Revised 31 July 2019 40 different sampling sites along five different sectors through scraping the soil from 0-10 cm Accepted 02 August 2019 layer (2525 cm) in the Platea and from 010 cm and 1030 cm layers in the depressions and Available online 05 August 2019 valleys. -
LIBYA: Libya Administrative Map
LIBYA: Libya Administrative Map AL JIFARAH TRIPOLI AL JABAL AN NUQAT Az Zawiyah AL MARJ AL AKHDAR Abu Kammash AL KHAMS Ra's Ajdir !( !( !( AL MARQAB ⛡ Al Baydah Zaltan Mediterranean Sea !( Zuwarah Tripoli Ra's al Hamamah !( Tripoli !( !(!( !( ⛡ !(!( !( !( !( !(!(!( !( !( !( Al Bayda !( Al Athrun Riqdalin !( !( ⛡!(!( !( ⛜!( !(!( Azzawiya \ Susah !( Al Assah!( !( Janzur !( !( !( !( !( Mansur!(ah!( !( !( !( ⛡ !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( Darnah Al Jumayl !( !( Zawiyat al `Urqub !( !( Suq ad Dawawidah !( !( !( !( !( !(!(!( !( !(!( !( ⛡!( !( Al Fatih !( !( A⛜l Abraq !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( ⛡Derna !( !( !( !( !( !(!( !( Qasr Khiyar !(!(!( Al Khums !(!( QabilatS alimah !( Qaryat Sidi Shahir ad Din !( !( !(!( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( Ahqaf a!(l Jabhiya!(h ⛜ !( !( !( !( !( !(!( !( !(!( !(!( !(!( Suq al Khamis !( !( !(!( !( !( !( !( !( Martubah!( Suq as Sab!( t !(!(!( !( !( Al Uwayliyah ash Sha!( rqiyah!( Qasr Libiya !(Zawiyat Umm Hufayn !( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( Al Aquriyah Khadra' !( !( !( Umm ar Rizam Al Watyah!( !( !( !( !( Al Bumbah North Air Base TUNISIA !( !(!( !( !( !(!( !( Okba Ibn Nafa Air Base !( !( Ki`am !(!( ⛜ Asbi`ah !( !(!( !( !( !( !( Misratah Al!( Mabni Qabilat al Kawarighiliyah !( !( ⛜ !( !( !( Marawah !( !( AlH uwayjat !( !( !(!(!(!(!(!(!(!(!( Tansulukh!( !( !( ⛡!(!(!(!(!(!(!(!(M!(!( isurata !( !( QaryatB uR uwayyah !( !( !(!(!(!(!(!( !( !( !( !( !( !( !( At Tamimi!( !( Mintaqat ad Daghdughi !( Bamba Bi'r al Ghanam Bu Ghaylan !(!( !( Qaryat ar Rus !( Al M!( arj !(!(!( !(!(!( !(!(!( !(!( !(!( !( !( !( !( Zawiyat al `Izziyat!( -
The Greatest Military Reversal of South African Arms: the Fall of Tobruk 1942, an Avoidable Blunder Or an Inevitable Disaster?
THE GREATEST MILITARY REVERSAL OF SOUTH AFRICAN ARMS: THE FALL OF TOBRUK 1942, AN AVOIDABLE BLUNDER OR AN INEVITABLE DISASTER? David Katz1 Abstract The surrender of Tobruk 70 years ago was a major catastrophe for the Allied war effort, considerably weakening their military position in North Africa, as well as causing political embarrassment to the leaders of South Africa and the United Kingdom. This article re-examines the circumstances surrounding and leading to the surrender of Tobruk in June 1942, in what amounted to the largest reversal of arms suffered by South Africa in its military history. By making use of primary documents and secondary sources as evidence, the article seeks a better understanding of the events that surrounded this tragedy. A brief background is given in the form of a chronological synopsis of the battles and manoeuvres leading up to the investment of Tobruk, followed by a detailed account of the offensive launched on 20 June 1942 by the Germans on the hapless defenders. The sudden and unexpected surrender of the garrison is examined and an explanation for the rapid collapse offered, as well as considering what may have transpired had the garrison been better prepared and led. Keywords: South Africa; HB Klopper; Union War Histories; Freeborn; Gazala; Eighth Army; 1st South African Division; Court of Enquiry; North Africa. Sleutelwoorde: Suid-Afrika; HB Klopper; Uniale oorlogsgeskiedenis; Vrygebore; Gazala; Agste Landmag; Eerste Suid-Afrikaanse Bataljon; Hof van Ondersoek; Noord-Afrika. 1. INTRODUCTION This year marks the 70th anniversary of the fall of Tobruk, the largest reversal of arms suffered by South Africa in its military history. -
Uprising and Post-Qadhafi Tribal Clashes, Displacement in a Fragmenting Libya
30 March 2015 LIBYA Uprising and post-Qadhafi tribal clashes, displacement in a fragmenting Libya The political instability and crimes against humanity that accompanied and followed the uprising which overthrew President Muammar Qadhafi in October 2011 drove tens of thou- sands into displacement. Those perceived to have supported Qadhafi or to have benefited from privileges he dispensed through tribal patronage networks were attacked in retalia- tion. They were often driven out of their cities, unable to return. Some 60,000 IDPs who had fled during the uprising were still living in pro- tracted displacement by February 2015. Civilians walk along Tripoli Street in Misrata. Photo: UNHCR/ H. Caux / June 2011 Following the failure of political processes, Libya’s situation became increasingly anarchic, culminating in the collapse of a fragile central authority and the emergence of two rival centres of power in mid-2014. Against this backdrop, and ensuing infight- ing among myriads of militias, violence increased. There was more than a six-fold rise in the number of IDPs, reaching at least 400,000 by December 2014, some eight per cent of the population. Precise figures are not available given lack of access and on-going pervasive chaos. IDPs’ basic needs for shelter, food and medical services remain grossly unmet. Their physical security has been seriously threatened by indiscriminate shelling, attacks on IDP camps and sieges that have pre- vented them from seeking security. The situation of tens of thousands of displaced migrants who remain trapped in Libya and are particularly vulnerable is a cause for serious concern. State collapse and fragmentation of Libya’s essentially tribal society have hampered an effective national response to displacement and coordination of policies to address IDPs’ needs. -
Libya: State Collapse Triggers Mass Displacement
30 March 2015 LIBYA State collapse triggers mass displacement The political instability and crimes against humanity that accompanied and followed the uprising which overthrew President Muammar Qadhafi in October 2011 drove tens of thou- sands into displacement. Those perceived to have supported Qadhafi or to have benefited from privileges he dispensed through tribal patronage networks were attacked in retalia- tion. They were often driven out of their cities, unable to return. Some 60,000 IDPs who had fled during the uprising were still living in pro- tracted displacement by February 2015. Civilians walk along Tripoli Street in Misrata. Photo: UNHCR/ H. Caux / June 2011 Following the failure of political processes, Libya’s situation became increasingly anarchic, culminating in the collapse of a fragile central authority and the emergence of two rival centres of power in mid-2014. Against this backdrop, and ensuing infight- ing among myriads of militias, violence increased. There was more than a six-fold rise in the number of IDPs, reaching at least 400,000 by December 2014, some eight per cent of the population. Precise figures are not available given lack of access and on-going pervasive chaos. IDPs’ basic needs for shelter, food and medical services remain grossly unmet. Their physical security has been seriously threatened by indiscriminate shelling, attacks on IDP camps and sieges that have pre- vented them from seeking security. The situation of tens of thousands of displaced migrants who remain trapped in Libya and are particularly vulnerable is a cause for serious concern. State collapse and fragmentation of Libya’s essentially tribal society have hampered an effective national response to displacement and coordination of policies to address IDPs’ needs. -
FRONTEX Led EU Illegal Immigration Technical Mission To
European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member States of the European Union FRONTEX-LED EU ILLEGAL IMMIGRATION TECHNICAL MISSION TO LIBYA 28 MAY-5 JUNE 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 FOREWORD..........................................................................................................................................3 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY....................................................................................................................4 3 BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................................6 4 INITIAL MEETINGS IN TRIPOLI ....................................................................................................6 5 THE MISSION TO THE DESERT SOUTHERN REGIONS ...........................................................7 6 MISSION TO THE MARITIME BORDERS .....................................................................................8 7 FINAL MEETINGS IN TRIPOLI........................................................................................................9 8 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURES AND UPDATE ON IMMIGRATION AND ASYLUM LAWS ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 9 9 BRIEF ASSESSMENT OF THE SITUATION RELATED TO MIGRATION FLOWS AFFECTING LIBYA..........................................................................................................................10 10 BILATERAL COOPERATION WITH FRONTEX .......................................................................15 -
EFORE Bardia Fell General Wavell Had Decided That Tobruk Also Shoul D B Be Taken, Partly Because the Possession of That Port Would Ease Hi S Supply Problems
CHAPTER 9 THE CAPTURE OF TOBRU K EFORE Bardia fell General Wavell had decided that Tobruk also shoul d B be taken, partly because the possession of that port would ease hi s supply problems . Lack of vehicles and the consequent shortage of food, water, ammunition and petrol in the forward area was a cause of anxiet y to the British staffs. To an extent the advancing army was living on the country; it was employing captured vehicles and consuming captured petrol and rations, but these were dwindling assets and if the harbour of Tobruk was secured most of the needed supplies could be carried forward fro m the base in Egypt by sea. It was with the object of advancing swiftly on Tobruk as soon as Bardia had fallen that General O'Connor ha d sought to keep the 19th Australian Brigade out of the fight there an d ready to move forward promptly with the armoured division . However, within a few days after the fall of Bardia Wavell received a warning from London that a halt might soon be called to the advance through Cyrenaica. On 6th January Mr Churchill wrote for his Chiefs of Staff an appreciation of "the war as a whole .71 In the course of it he said that when the port of Tobruk had been taken it should become a main supply base for the force in Cyrenaica, and land communications with Alexandria dropped "almost entirely." For a striking force in Cyrenaica, he wrote, "the 2nd and 7th British Armoured Divisions, the 6th Australia n Division, the New Zealand brigade group, soon to become a division , with perhaps one or two British brigades . -
Libya and Egypt
Luftwaffe Airfields 1935-45 Luftwaffe Airfields 1935-45 Libya (Tripolitania & Cyrenaica) & Egypt By Henry L. deZeng IV Benina/North 21.02.41 Shown: 10 hangars (7 of which are partially destroyed), administrative and related buildings, barracks, quarters, storage buildings and a number of others, airfield operations buildings and the munitions dump. Benina/South is at the bottom right of the photo Edition: March 2016 Luftwaffe Airfields 1935-45 Copyright © by Henry L. deZeng IV (Work in Progress). (1st Draft 2016) Blanket permission is granted by the author to researchers to extract information from this publication for their personal use in accordance with the generally accepted definition of fair use laws. Otherwise, the following applies: All rights reserved. No part of this publication, an original work by the authors, may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the author. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. This information is provided on an "as is" basis without condition apart from making an acknowledgement of authorship. Luftwaffe Airfields 1935-45 Airfields Libya and Egypt Introduction Conventions 1. For the purpose of this reference work, “Libya and Egypt” means the borders that existed on 10 June 1940, the date Italy declared war on Britain and France, with hostilities commencing along the Libyan-Egyptian border the following day. 2. All place name spellings are as they appear in wartime German, Italian and Allied documents with the addition of alternate spellings where known, these mainly being transliterated spellings from Arabic. -
The Development of Libyan Armed Groups Since 2014 Eaton, Alageli, Badi, Eljarh and Stocker Chatham House Contents
The Development of Libyan Armed of Libyan Since 2014 Groups The Development Research Paper Tim Eaton, Abdul Rahman Alageli, Emadeddin Badi, Mohamed Eljarh and Valerie Stocker Middle East and North Africa Programme | March 2020 The Development of Libyan Armed Groups Since 2014 Community Dynamics and Economic Interests Eaton, Alageli, Badi, Eljarh and Stocker Badi, Eljarh Alageli, Eaton, Chatham House Contents Summary 2 About this Paper 4 1 Introduction: The Development of Armed Groups Since 2014 7 2 Tripolitanian Armed Groups 15 3 Eastern Libya: The Libyan Arab Armed Forces 22 4 Armed Groups in Southern Libya 35 5 Mitigating Conflict Dynamics and Reducing the Role of Armed Groups in the Economy 51 About the Authors 63 Acknowledgments 64 1 | Chatham House The Development of Libyan Armed Groups Since 2014: Community Dynamics and Economic Interests Summary • Libya’s multitude of armed groups have followed a range of paths since the emergence of a national governance split in 2014. Many have gradually demobilized, others have remained active, and others have expanded their influence. However, the evolution of the Libyan security sector in this period remains relatively understudied. Prior to 2011, Libya’s internal sovereignty – including the monopoly on force and sole agency in international relations – had been personally vested in the figure of Muammar Gaddafi. After his death, these elements of sovereignty reverted to local communities, which created armed organizations to fill that central gap. National military and intelligence institutions that were intended to protect the Libyan state have remained weak, with their coherence undermined further by the post-2014 governance crisis and ongoing conflict. -
Highlights Climate & When to Go Itineraries
© Lonely Planet Publications 126 lonelyplanet.com LIBYA •• Highlights 127 HIGHLIGHTS HOW MUCH? Libya Leptis Magna ( p134 ) Tread softly through one of the world’s best-preserved Roman Museum admission US$2.40 cities, with exceptional bath complexes, theatres and forums in a stunning seaside Tripoli–Sebha flight US$30 location. Colonel Qaddafi watch US$4 to US$32 Tripoli ( p131 ) Lose yourself in the delight- Internet connection per hour US$0.80 ful, whitewashed medina replete with 4WD hire per day US$71 Libya is a crossroads of history, continents and ancient empires. Home to the Mediter- Ottoman mosques and houses and the ranean’s richest store of Roman and Greek cities – Sabratha, Cyrene and, above all, Leptis world-class Jamahiriya Museum. LONELY PLANET INDEX Magna – each of which is overlaid by remnants of Byzantine splendour, it’s a place where Ghadames ( p137 ) Find the oasis town of history comes alive through the extraordinary monuments on its shores. Every corner of your imagination in the labyrinthine, 1L petrol US$0.10 palm-fringed old city and the most en- cosmopolitan Tripoli resonates with a different period of history. It’s where the Sahara meets 1L bottled water US$0.80 chanting caravan post in the Sahara. the Mediterranean. Jebel Acacus ( p137 ) 4WD through the Bottle of (nonalcoholic) beer US$1.20 striking mountain range which is home Souvenir T-shirt US$9 Libya is also home to Africa’s most exceptional and accessible desert scenery. The Sahara to the indigenous Tuareg and magnifi- Shwarma US$0.80 engulfs over 90% of the country, offering up vast sand seas the size of small European cent 12,000-year-old rock art. -
ENTREPRENEURSHIP in CONFLICT ZONES Doctorate of Business
ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN CONFLICT ZONES (LIBYA AS A CASE STUDY) BY BADREDDIN A ABDUGADER AKREIM Doctorate of Business Administration 2020 DISSERTATION Submitted to the International University of Leadership in Partial Fulfillment, of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctorate of Business Administration December, 2020 1 Copyright © 2020 Abstract This study emphases on the Entrepreneurship opportunities in Libya and discusses in depth its related features. The research explores the concept of entrepreneurship, its evolution, forms and theories. A special case of entrepreneurship has been carefully taken where the entrepreneurship opportunities in conflict zones have been studied and the case of Libya has been chosen. Where, an investigation has been made for a potential entrepreneurship opportunity for anyone who is interested in taking any opportunity available in Libya whether Libyan citizen or a foreigner. The research helps in drawing conclusion whether the opportunities available in Libya are indeed affordable for a potential entrepreneur or not? For this purpose, a special questionnaire has been established to collect the data from a sample population of 319 potential entrepreneurs who have already started business in Libya or willing to start in near future. Results of the study provides significant output and highlight that doing business in Libya requires lots of experience as well as some motivation behind given the concentration of security risk. Data shows that on average each potential candidate who wants to do business in Libya has on average five family members to take care of. This highlights the drastic situation in Libya which may signifies the high unemployment levels in Libya and a person may be willing to start his/her own business to support the family rather than waiting to find an employment opportunity.