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102 | 1948 2017 to . Hundreds ofthousands fleeovertheborder lead torenewedmilitaryoperations. Insurgent attacksonpoliceposts in Rakhine 2017 protesting thecoupareshotandkilled. dictatorship. RangoonUniversitystudents turning Myanmarintoaone-partymilitary NeWinseizespowerinacoup, 1962 Kyi willrunthegovernment. Myanmar’s presidentbut,inpractice,Suu elections. NLD’sHtinKyawwillbe NLD winshistoriclandslideingeneral 2015 old ceasefirecollapses. Fighting eruptsinKachinstateasa17-year- 2011 peace effortswithEAOs. restrictions onthemedia,andrenewing reforms, releasingpoliticalprisoners,lifting New presidentTheinSeinlaunches 2011 bars SuuKyifrombecomingpresident. control overkeyministries.Thecons­ 25percentofseatsinparliamentand Undemocratic newconstitutiongrantsthe 2008 is arrestedagain. progovernment militiaskill70,andSuuKyi NLD tourinupperMyanmar.Attacksby Suu Kyi,releasedfromhousearrest,joins 2003 EAOs emergefromthesplinteredparty. is defeatedbytheMyanmarmilitary.Key The CPBsplintersalongethniclinesand 1989 Rakhine Stateforgenerations. Muslim Rohingyas,whohavelivedin Citizenship Lawdeniescitizenshipto 1982 continues. but progressisslow,andethnicviolence A secondroundofpoliticaldialogueisheld, 2017 fighting continuesinShan andKachinStates. Agreement, butmanygroups failtosign, and Eight EAOssigntheNationwideCeasefire 2015

titution

Saffron Revolution.Amilitarycrackdown series ofantigovernmentprotestscalledthe Former studentsandBuddhistmonksleada 2007 several NLDleaders. the militaryrejectsresultsandarrests (NLD) winsparliamentaryelections,but Suu Kyi’sNationalLeagueforDemocracy 1990 under housearrest. 3,000 protesters,andSuuKyiisplaced leader. Thegovernmentreactsbykilling of AungSanSuuKyiasaprodemocracy The 8888Uprisingseestheemergence 1988 emerge overthenext20years. Many ethnicarmedorganizations(EAOs) (CPB), killing17,600overfourdecades. military andtheCommunistPartyofBurma Civil wareruptsbetweentheMyanmar 1948 independence fromtheUnitedKingdom. Myanmar, thenknownasBurma,gains 1948 political dialogue. government’s 21st CenturyPanglong Most EAOsattend roundoneofthe 2016 displaced. to Bangladeshand20,000areinternally abuses. Seventy-fourthousandpeople flee to widespreadreportsofhumanrights Government retaliationinRakhineleads 2016 Police inRakhineState,killingnineofficers. with internationalties, attacks BorderGuard Harakah al-Yaqin, aRohingya guerrillagroup 2016 elections. Suu Kyi’sNLDwinsparliamentaryby- 2012 other partsofthecountryfollowingyear. Anti-Muslim riotsandviolencespreadto least 192.Almost120,000aredisplaced. Rohingyas, riotsandrevengeattackskillat After arapeandmurderbythree 2012 Aung SanSuuKyireleasedfromhousearrest. 2010 elections. predetermined victoryinparliamentary The military-backedUSDPpartywinsa 2010 kills 200.

* Rankingsarebasedonthelast15yearsandrelativetootherAsiancountries. Myanmar peace processforwardand manageongoingsubnationalconflicts. how the newly elected government under Suu Kyi’s leadership will move the a strong influence and significant roles in Myanmar’s governance, it remains to be seen military maintaining With the to massivedisplacement. military involvement,has led with State Rakhine in particular in violence, Intercommunal States. Shan and Kachin as in several areas,such continue still slow. Armedclashes has been implementation in movingtowards have notsigned,andprogress armed groups largest er, manyofthe EAOs signed the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement with the central government. Howev with EAOs.In agreements 2015, toreachpeace eight ment hasinitiatedseveralefforts civilian govern 2011, Since the organizations (EAOs). armed ethnic and forces security and ethnic autonomy, have resulted in protracted armed conflicts between government movements of suppression brutal rule, markedby authoritarian military of the nationstateamong thecountry’s ethnic groups andpoliticalfactions. Several decades constitutes what visions of contested address to military regimes successive of capacity Conflict and violence in Myanmar are longstanding, rooted in the lack of legitimacy and At a glance a At Overview High andautonomy Low withpotentialtorisemedium Transnational Decreasing from hightolow National politicalconflict Absent National civilwar Urban crimeandviolence High Local resource conflict Low Local politicalandelectoralconflict High Communal/ideological conflict Low - -

103 | Myanmar 104 | Myanmar groups emerged from the CPB, most notably the powerful United (UWSA), which which Army(UWSA), WaState United powerful CPB,mostnotablythe fromthe groups emerged tegrated after ethnic units mutinied against the CPB’s mostly Burman leaders. Key ethnic armed in 1989, defeat insurgentgroup.Thepartydisin the CPB was thecountry’slargestmultiethnic and the CPB’s armed forces caused at least 17,600 fatalities between 1948 and 1988. 2012 ( strators, 1991 and ethnicminorities, and were killedbythegovernmentarmedforcesbetween 100 deaths. fights between the ABSDF and the continued from 1990 to 1994, resulting in at least Democratic Front (ABSDF).Low-intensity All BurmaStudents semi-insurgent the and formed . ThestudentdemonstratorswhosurvivedthemassacreinRangoonpickedup arms in Myanmar, around 3,000 their lives. protestors lost , which saw the rise of as a leader of the democratic movement protestors on a number of occasions. During antigovernment riots in August 1988, known as the military hasattackedandkilled against thecoup.Sincethen, protesting who were opposing politicalgroups. and minorities ethnic of suppression the and by marked was rule . Both havestrongholdsalongtheChineseborder. can mobilize around 30,000 troops, and the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance (). Myanmar Following the military coup in 1962, soldiers shot and killed a number of Rangoon University figure 1 Source: 3 100 200 00 400 00 It is estimated that at least 4,000 civilians, including political opponents, demon opponents, political 4,000 civilians, including least at that estimated Itis led a military coup in 1962 that turned Myanmar into a one-party military League, General withintherulingAnti-FascistPeople’sFreedom a split Following From independence in 1948, themilitary has playeda central role in national politics. National politicalconflict 41 years. Intense fighting between the Myanmar military, known as the in for 1948 and lasted independence of Burma(CPB)beganimmediatelyfollowing Party Communist government inMyanmarandthe central the Civil warbetween National civilwar

0 EckandHultman,“Violence AgainstCivilians,”and Melanderetal.,“Organized Violence.” ). 1991

Figure 1. 1992

1994

Numberofcivilianfatalitiesinone-sided violence(1991–2012) 199

199

1997

199

1999 2000

2001

2002

200

2

After the riots, Suu Kyi was put under put was Kyi Suu riots, the After 2004

200

200

2007

200

2010 National level

2011 2012 Tatmadaw 1 Prior to its Priorto 4 - - , crackdown tookthelivesofupto200demonstrators. military The Revolution. Saffron the as known became that country the across demonstrations antigovernment of a series led Uprising, andBuddhist 8888 in the involved were who Generation, 88 the from students when 2007, in occurred civilians against violence state ilar killed intheviolence. were in May 2003, the party’s convoy was attacked by progovernment . As many as 70 people of several NLD leaders. When Suu Kyi was released and joined an NLD tour in arrest subsequent and the 1990 election for Democracy’s(NLD’s)victoryinthe National League constitutional amendments. also bars Aung San Suu Kyi from becoming president, The affairs. border and affairs, home defense, ministries: powerful three of control military the gives 2008 constitution undemocratic the parliamentary seats, military one-quarter of ing the Since 2011, much moresubstantive,butbarriers reforms havebeen remain. In addition togiv strengthened. for democracy,authoritarian rule NLD andciviliansupport the by threatened felt military the However, whenever liberties. and increasing elections, prisoners, allowing political to improveMyanmar’s image byreleasing military hadattempted past, the be reversed.In the fears thatreformsmight still there were regard todemocratizationandliberalization,but with triumphing ingeneralelectionsNovember2015.Nationalpoliticstookabroadlypositiveturn in the2012by-elections. NLD and Suu Kyi were allowed to resume political activities, which resulted in wins activity. The media andcivilianpolitical easing ofrestrictionsonthe prisoners andthe political of hundreds of release the reforms, including political of series a in March2011,launched he 2010, Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest. When President took office formed. Inlate was government Party (USDP),acivilian-led and Development ion Solidarity In practice,SuuKyihasrunthegovernment. been downplayed. Instead, Suu Kyi’s trusted friend, , became president in 2016. reforming the constitution to reduce military power or allow Suu Kyi to become president, have and cooperated to ensure a peaceful power transfer. Previous agenda items for Suu Kyi, such as military the towards and regionparliaments.The NLDhastakenaconciliatoryapproach state, Union, the in seats of percent 25 and bureaucracy the of parts significant controls still military power-sharing arrangementswiththemilitarythat stemfromthe2008 constitution. The and electionswerecancelledin3.4percentofvillagetractswardsacrossthecountry. and Kachin States were also unable to vote due to ongoing conflict and protracted displacement, as Shan areas such in ethnic people of Thousands disenfranchised. Myanmar fordecades—were in havinglived despite fromBangladesh immigrants illegal asRohingya—considered self-identify by observers as“freeandfair.” viewed generally and peaceful were elections The legislatures. andregional instate similar results landslide in the 2015 election. The party secured an absolute majority in and achieved After the 2010 election, in which the military backed the predetermined victory of the Un the victory of predetermined the military backed the in which 2010 election, the After the of rejection military’s the with continued movement democratic the of Suppression The NLD-led government facesvarious challengesincivilianizing thegovernment, given The fear of returning to authoritarian rule has significantly decreased sincethe NLD’s historic NLD The year2011 the marked atransitiontomilitary-civilianhybridgovernment,with national Islamist and jihadist groups in the region, such as the Islamic State (IS), State Islamic the as such region, the in groups jihadist and Islamist national Myanmar government and Buddhist groups, have triggered statements from trans the by Rohingyas self-identified of mistreatment the and violence, Anti-Muslim Transnational terrorism 5 Suu Kyi was arrested again, along with several NLD members. Sim 8 However, morethanamillionpeopleinRakhineState who 6 7 and it is very difficult to make 9 - - - -

105 | Myanmar 106 | Myanmar further 100,000wereinternally displacedwithinShanandKachinStates. a and , in camps long-term in resided people 100,000 over 2016, In government. the and EAOs between tensions and conflict by affected are people, million 12.4 than more taining alone. State Shan in 396 estimated an large numberofpeople. a displaced forcibly effort This villagers. local and families, their insurgents, recruits—between and to eliminatefourmain links—food, funds,intelligence, strategy, designed the “FourCuts” employing by opposition ethnic control to tried junta the 1962, in coup military the After sion. motivations varied,to outright seces fromseekinggreater autonomyandfair representation aligned with the government, such as the Shan, Chin, and Kachin, were also in open revolt. Their as part of the national army. However, by the 1950s and ’60s, ethnic groups originally independence. following immediately country. Addedtogether,ethnicminoritiesaccountforone-thirdofthecountry’spopulation. the border areasof mountainous in the are primarilyconcentrated They period. colonial ing the , and,toalesserextent,. funding. Members of ARSA have confirmed that their leaders are well connected in Bangladesh, degree with international groups, and tohave received some assistance such as training and to some to havecooperated appears group the explosives, of crude use warfare andthe guerilla (ARSA), is reported to be linked with international jihadist groups. Considering ARSA’s tactics of the Rohingya SalvationArmy name to its changed Movement, HaY),which Yaqin (Faith insurgent groupinRakhine local MuslimState,Harakah operational priority. However, the al al-Qaeda, andTehreek-e-TalibanPakistan. Several ethnic groups, such as the Karen, Mon, and Rakhine, took up arms to struggle for struggle to arms up took Rakhine, and Mon, Karen, the as such groups, ethnic Several It is estimated thattherearenowat least21 It isestimated EAOs alongwithmany groups,including many of which have a history of autonomous self-governance both before and dur both before self-governance many ofwhichhaveahistoryautonomous and culture, groups, eachofwhichhasitsownlanguage 135 ethnic recognizes officially country The diversity. cultural and ethnic great of country a is Myanmar Separatism andautonomy 12 11 Approximately 118 of Myanmar’s 330 townships, con Myanmar’s 330townships, 118 of Approximately 10 There has been little evidence that Myanmar is their TherehasbeenlittleevidencethatMyanmaristheir

Other ethnic groups have fought against such against fought have groups ethnic Other Subnational level 13 - - - RAKHINE CHIN KACHIN KAYAH MON KAYIN SHAN RAKHINE CHIN Naypyidaw Yangon KACHIN KAYAH MON KAYIN SHAN

107 | Myanmar 108 | Myanmar Liberation Army (TNLA), were still engaged in violent skirmishes with government forces, while stillengagedinviolentskirmisheswithgovernmentforces,while Liberation Army(TNLA),were Ta’angNational AllianceArmy(MNDAA),andthe MyanmarNationalDemocratic (AA), the of them,theArakan three Army because to signtheagreement not allowed sive. Six EAOswere revised ceasefireagreement. joining the peace talks. More talks before were government held the the following July with and ceasefire August, resulting bilateral in a a slightly enter must groups all that insisting demand, against the government in Kokang, an of northern . The government rejected the the final document, reorganization of its negotiation team, and inclusion of three EAOs fighting this draft was rejected in June 2015 by key EAO leaders, who demanded further amendments to UPWC signed a final draft of the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) in March 2015. However, UnionPeacemakingthe Working (UPWC).Committee Afterseveral meetings,the NCCT and the as known team, government the with negotiations inmultilateral members its represented which (NCCT), Team Coordination Ceasefire Nationwide the formed EAOs 16 2013, late In EAOs. ceasefire interruptionsandarmedclashesstillrecursporadically. militants, but the and co-opt arrangements tosubsume other special tral governmenthasmade Border GuardForce.Thecen into the and integrating weapons their to manygivingup leading a 17-year-oldceasefireagreementcollapsed( fightingerupted between theKachin Independence Organisation (KIO) andthe government after 2012,when 2011and during except intensity, low hasbeen EAOs and forces government between toll. death true the underestimate probably that figures 2015, and 1949 between respectively, deaths, 10,236 and 16,878 in resulted States Shan and battlegrounds in the central government’s with EAOs. The intense, violent clashes in Kachin at least 18,000 fatalities between 1949 and2013. between 18,000 fatalities least at . Armed conflict in Karen State, one of the longest-running internal conflicts, caused country’s eastern and northern border areas, such as Karen (also known as Kayin), Kachin, and In October 2015, only eight EAOs signed the NCA, making it neither nationwide nor inclu nationwide NCA, makingitneither the 2015, EAOs signed In October only eight After 2011, President Thein Sein’s government tried to negotiate peace deals with most major groups, armed several with deals ceasefire pursued government the ’90s, and 1980s the In the in place taken has forces government and EAOs between fighting heavy the of Much 100 200 00 400 00 00 700 00

0 2000

Figure 2. 2001

2002

Source: Numberoffatalitiesinseparatism conflicts(2000–2015) 200

2004 Melanderetal.,“Organized Violence”

200

200

figure 2 2007

14 200 been long also have States Shan and Kachin

). 2009 15

In recent years, most of the fighting the of most years, recent In 2010

2011

17 2012

201

2014

201 16 - -

We can do nothing without peace inourcountry.” peace We candonothingwithout first thingthe newgovernment will work on. Wewill try for the all-inclusive ceasefire agreement.… is the process peace “The stated, she election, the priority forhergovernment.After a top be will handover period, andshehasindicatedthatachievingpeace the 2015andlengthy elections nonsignatory EAOs. postponed theirdecisiontosigntheagreement. Thisledtosometensionsbetweensignatoryand the Wa National Organization (WNO), lacked significant troop strength. Union (LDU),and Lahu Democratic (ANC), the Arakan Council National the three, other the have been living in for generations, they are denied citizenship under the 1982 the under citizenship denied are for generations, they living inRakhineState have been Rakhine Buddhists. AlthoughRohingyas, whooriginated inpart ofBengal(current Bangladesh), population, andthe one-third ofthestate the RohingyaMuslims,whoconstitute between State 63 townships. in EAOs and government the between clashes 1,022 were there 2016, and 2015 In State. Shan sign theNCA,butthisannouncementmayhavebeenpremature. would (NMSP), Party State Mon New and (KNPP), Party Progressive National Karenni WNO, in May 2017. In March 2017, Suu Kyi announced that five more EAOs, including the ANC, LDU, every sixmonths, was held conferences andthesecondconference intention toholdsuchpeace government. the with ceasefire bilateral a entered not had 2016 with representatives from nearly all major EAOs except the AA, MNDAA, and TNLA, which Panglong, named for the historic of 1947, was first held in the early fall of in Rakhine, leading to a military response. With violence ongoing, UN officials stated that more the government. by operations of security to because (IDPs) hadnoaccess persons displaced tober 2016. 74,000 people fled to Bangladesh, and 20,000 were internally displaced in Rakhine State, in Oc Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) reported that approximately women andchildren, bygovernment security forces inthenorthern part ofthestate. brutal beatings, , andotherhumanrightsviolations againstRohingya populations, including documented allegations cases of extrajudicial killings, arbitrary has detention, (OHCHR) forced Rights disappearance, for Commissioner High the of Office Nations United The State. of humanitarian man services innorthern rights abusesandatemporarysuspension Rakhine hu of serious reports to widespread crackingon Rohingyainsurgents,has led response, down attacks. Rohingya minority, The government’s has beenblamedforthedeadly the persecuted of members by formed ARSA, officers. police nine killed which 2016, October in Police Guard and sporadicviolencebetweentheBuddhistMuslimcommunities. displaced. internally were people destroyedover 8,500 houses. Sein, a series of violent clashes that took place in 2012 killed 192 people, injured 265 others, and Thein by President Rakhine State. AccordingtotheRakhineInquiry Commission, established dhist woman by three Rohingya men in June 2012, riots and violent retaliation broke out across and murderofaRakhineBud rape the Following persecuted. Law, andareseverely Citizenship The new administration led by Suu Kyi has inherited a peace process that was in stasis during The security situation in Rakhine State grew increasingly volatile after attacks on the Border increasingly volatileafterattacksonthe situation inRakhinegrew State The security of parts northern and State Kachin in particularly continues, violence meantime, the In 25 While humanitarian services resumed in some areas, an estimated 30,000 internally quences. quences. In particular, intercommunal violence has intensified in Rakhine (Arakan) conse years, havegrownin with deadly the pastfew Religious andethnictensions BuddhistsandMuslims. historyofcommunalmistrustbetween Myanmar hasalong Large-scale communalandideologicalconflicts 26 In August 2017, violence broke out after ARSA fighters attacked police posts police attacked fighters ARSA after out broke violence 2017, August In 22 Nearly 70 percent of those killed were Rohingyas. Almost 120,000 23 Since then, Rakhine State has experienced growing tensions growing has experienced then, RakhineState Since 19 The Union Peace Conference– Conference–21st TheUnionPeace 20 The government has expressed its expressed has government The 21 18 Theremaining groups 24 The United The United - - - -

109 | Myanmar 110 | Myanmar violence, thisconflictislikelytobecomemoredestabilizing andprotracted. communal sporadic continuing and society, and state the by community Muslim the against discrimination With ongoing strategy. and development an overarching political and develop in the country, the government led by Suu Kyi has failed to address the underlying causes prayer hallbyamobof500peopleinnorthernMyanmarJuly2016. including the destruction of a mosque in in June 2016 and the burning of a Muslim have continued, of attacksonMuslims cases Muslims. Isolated hatred of to greater contributing that the was contributing to anti-Muslim violence, but accepted that it might be Wirathu denied Muslim businesses. movement preachesintoleranceandadvocatesboycotting ment (GAD). instead of being appointed by the high-level officials of the Government Administration Depart ward and village tract administrators (WA/VTA) tobeelectedbycommunity representatives of the 969 Movement, led by prominent Buddhist monks including Wirathu and Wimala. , Rakhine, Shan, andYangon. Anti-Muslimsentiments andviolence grew withtherise Ayeyarwady, Bago, including announced insixstates/regions, were and curfews of emergency boarding schools, and housesand killed Muslims with machetes, chains, bricks, and stones. A state otherinpartsMyanmar, of wheremonksBuddhist andrioters torchedseveral mosques, Muslim massacred atanIslamicschool. teachers and several dead, including22 students 44 people Muslim neighborhoodsandleavingatleast of destruction in widespread situation, resulting the escalated brutal killingofaBuddhist customers. The owner andBuddhist -shop a Muslim between a dispute Region, following country. In March 2013, violence flaredup between Buddhists andMuslims inMeiktila, Mandalay the firsttwoweeksafterviolenceerupted,withthesenumbersincreasingsincethen. in killed been have may thousand a than more and Bangladesh to fled Rohingya 270,000 than Despite international pressure for theMyanmar government toimprove thecondition of Since the2012to otherpartsofthe riots inRakhineviolence hasspread State,anti-Muslim Thein Sein passed the Ward and Village Tract Administration Law, which required Tract AdministrationLaw,which Ward andVillage the Thein Seinpassed ofPresident government In 2012,the overlooked. often are andgovernance politics national level,local at the changes political recent giventothe to theattention Due Local politicalconflictandelectoralviolence 31 Following the enactment of the new law, the first WA/VTA elections were held in 28 Anti-Muslim riots continued for anothersixmonths Anti-Muslimriotscontinued 30 Local level 27 29 The - reportedurbaninanState. Mon ward of USDP was NLD andthe the between WA/VTA second dispute tant inthe elections, apolitical impor more became affiliations party As elders. and representatives community by with dealt be to something considered were which elections, local thanthe important andrelevanttothem more as national elections the viewed citizens formed. Ingeneral, be would NLD government donors,andinternational organizations,andlocal aselected newly everyone the how on focused reported, duetotheabsenceofanyformalelectionobservation. groups. among opposing disputes ongoing with late 2012 and early 2013. Some voting irregularities and local conflicts were reported in villages in the first eight months of 2016. areas. security forcesandseveralwerearrested. against the copper mine, more than 100 protesters were injured by government from 2012 2014, of force. Forexample, to of in aseries use arrest andexcessive with met often and mining.Large-scalelandconfiscationhasalsodisplaced thousandsofvillagers. pipelines, oil and gas projects, dam over TNLA, the and KIA, the State, Shan of Council ration including the Democratic Karen Benevolent Army, the Shan State Progressive Party, the Resto EAOs, local and forces armed government between up flared clashes 2013, In displacement. complaints, only5percentof8,478casesfiledhadbeensettledasFebruary2014. it is responsive to people’s grievances by setting up a committee to investigate land confiscation acres) and (1.4 million acres). Even though the government has tried to show that country. the across awarded the country. of east government armedforcesandlocalEAOsin the between clashes to renewed have led government, but central and the communities local between tensions have generated only not hydroelectric dams, and mining, to seaports and special economic zones. Many of these projects pipelines, and production gas and oil from range Megaprojects country. the across investment reformsand economicliberalization began in2011, Myanmarattractedhas unprecedented foreign political Since importance. national of deemed projects any for land confiscate arbitrarily and adopted subsequently give the central government the right to accommodate foreign investment of alllandinMyanmar. ownership Several otherlaws state upholds 2008 constitution and the increasingly fractioussincethe2015nationalelections. have become criteriatostandforelection.Localelections education the did notmeet candidate The second WA/VTA elections, in January 2016, were also largely ignored by the media, the by ignored largely also were 2016, January in elections, WA/VTA second The Protests against land grabs, and displaced villagers who attempt to returntheirland,are villagers whoattempt against land grabs,anddisplaced Protests forced and conflict violent to lead also can confiscation land large-scale involving Projects hadbeen concessions oflarge-sale millionacres than5.2 more By mid-2013, 38 reported that there were 117 murder and 130 rape cases in Yangon in cases rape 130 and murder 117 were there that reported Myanmar Frontier Acquisition Act gave the central government the right to take land away from people, Acquisition Actgave thecentral government theright totake landawayfrom people, Land 1894 The minorities. ethnic and government central the between conflict of center at the been have always Rights toandcontroloverlocalnaturalresources Local conflictover resources andcommunityrights Region is particularly urbanized, with 70 percent of its population living in urban in living population its of percent 70 with urbanized, particularly is Region Pyi Taw.Yangon Nay lation livesinurbanareas, primarily Yangon,Mandalay,and Even thoughMyanmar remains predominantly rural, about30 percent ofthepopu Urban crimeandviolence 34 The majority of land was allocated in Region (1.9 million 39 Official statistics on civilian crimes unrelated to political and 33 The local NLD branch argued that the USDP’s winning TheNLDlocalUSDP’sbranchwinning the argued that 37 32 No specific incidents of electoral violence were 36 35 - - -

111 | Myanmar 112 | Myanmar were the highest in five years, making rape the second-most commonly reported serious crime serious reported commonly second-most the rape making years, five in highest the were can demandsexwheneverhewants. a husband that belief entitlement—the men’s sexual to related closely ,whichwas violenceandpartner sexual reportedNetworkintimate EqualityexperiencingGender(GEN) the by in asurvey respondents women of home. Overhalf within the solved be should violence adailyoccurrence. was home in their or witnessed physical violence within families, and 62 percent of them reported that the violence and women,experienced men including both respondents, survey the of percent areas. Ninety conflict-affected in still higher and minorities, ethnic among girls and women for IPV of rate survey, carried outbythePalaungWomen’s Organization (PWO) in 2011, ahigher suggested of violence. Another their experience survey didnotseekformalactionfollowing women inthe of 12 course months. violence, fromtheirintimatepartnersoverthe logical experienced one or more incidents had of surveyed physical violence, women and 69 of percent had percent experienced 27 psycho that reported Region Mandalay in conducted survey hold limited, anumberofstudieshaveshownthatGBVisprevalentinthecountry. and natureofGBVremains scale data onthe lives. Whilestatistical in theirprivateandpublic abuse, various forms ofviolence,suchasphysical,sexual,verbal, or psychological experience resolved throughnegotiations. 377, and605.Itisnotclear ifpolicerecordsincluderapesbymilitaryperpetrators. women or involving children. The cases figures rape for the 654 years from were 2007 there to 20112012 were,in respectively, 471, police, 430, 384, Myanmar the to According murder. after in 2015, low byregionalandglobalstandards. 100,000 2.4 per people only of rate homicide intentional a national Myanmar had (UNODC), Crime and Drugs on Office Nations United the to According cities. in violence and crime urban of magnitude the determine to hard is it therefore, Myanmar; in scarce is conflict communal Rape of women and girls is also prevalent in the country. Nationwide for 2012 Rape ofwomenandgirlsisalsoprevalentin rape statistics the country. Nationwide practice. A2005 randomized house acceptable Intimate partnerviolence(IPV) is deemed mate of permissiveness around violating women’s . Women and girls Women and human rights. violating women’s around permissiveness of mate a cli and impunity of a culture discrimination perpetuates gender normalized and entrenched probleminMyanmar,where Gender-based violence(GBV)isapersistent Domestic andgender-based violence 41 43 44 Three-quarters of the respondents believed that domestic thatdomestic believed respondents ofthe Three-quarters 40 However, or many are crimes gounreported 42 Over 90 percent of Over90percent 45 - - - State were committed by officers, ranked corporalShan to major, in front ofin other troops. cases rape of majority the that found (SHRF) Foundation Rights Human Shan the populations. civilian local and groups, opposition rebels, subjugate and terrorize to forces security the by with insurgencies. security forces as a military strategy against ethnic minorities and populations associated bygovernment systematically used hasbeen violence, ofsexual forms other and rape ing includ women, against violence 1990s, early the Since areas. conflict-affected in particularly the government’s refusal toinvestigate, whichresults inwidespread impunityfor perpetrators. to due potentially forces, security government by violence sexual of use systematic continuing is there that indicate reports old. These years as eight involving victimsasyoung forces security to 2013, primarily in Kachin and northern Shan States, including 47 gang by government The Women’s League ofBurma (WLB) over 100 and itspartnersdocumented cases from 2010 ofuptofourmonths. forperiods repeatedly andraped detained were women cases, Insome rape. involved gang cases the of percent Sixty-one see. to communities for local displayed deliberately were bodies dead The death. in resulting percent 25 with suffocation, and mutilation, beating, torture, of acts by accompanied was violence sexual cases, EAOs. Inmost by rape of cases also For example, a 2002 study carried out by the Shan Women’s Action Network (SWAN) and Network Shan Women’sAction the by out carried a 2002 study For example, GBV at the hands ofstate and armed-group actors is reported tobea chronic problem, 46 Some studies suggest that sexual violence is condoned as a weapon of war as aweapon violence iscondoned that sexual suggest Somestudies 47 Thereare 48 -

113 | Myanmar 114 | Myanmar 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 14 1 Notes Dataset’s low estimates (best estimates not available) not estimates (best estimates low Dataset’s of deathsiscalculatedusingthe PRIO BattleDeaths and Melander etal., “Organized Violence.” The number Lacina“Trends inGlobalCombat,” See andGleditsch, Ibid. mar The AsiaFoundation, Ibid. rakhine-state.pdf net/283-myanmar-a-new-muslim--in- 2016), ICG, State Rakhine in Insurgency Muslim International CrisisGroup(ICG), power-rohingya minorities-denied-vote-as-aung-san-suu-kyi-claims- network/2015/nov/26/myanmar-millions-of-ethnic- theguardian.com/global-development-professionals- power,” claims Kyi Suu San Aung as vote denied Myanmar in David BaulkandMatthewSmith,“Ethnicminorities 2015-English.pdf /2016/02/PACE-Final-Report-Myanmar-Elec​ 2016), Report: Myanmar Elections, 2015 (PACE), Elections for Credible Alliance People’s spouse orchildtoholdtheofficeofpresident. a foreign with anyone allow not does The constitution 2007-uprising-in-burma/ 9, 2017, Burma,” Burma Campaign UK website, accessed in Revolution Saffron Burma: in Uprising “2007 /2993196.stm June 16, 2003, Simon Montlake,“Burma’s ‘Black Friday,’” uu.se/downloads/ 2017, 9, April accessed website, (UCDP) ConflictDataProgram Uppsala onthe is available dataset violence one-sided The 727–742. (2016): 1989–2015,” Violence, “Organized Themnér, Lotta and Pettersson, Therése Melander, Erik and 233–246; (2007): 2 no. inWar,” Civilians Against “Violence Hultman, Lisa and Eck Kristine significant underestimates. will be unreliable, andmostofthenumbersreported isparticularly fatalities, especially Data onviolence, Lacina andGleditsch, “Trends inGlobalCombat.” ma-0#.U_CMGfmSxPU freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/bur 2017, 9, April accessed website, House (2012):Burma,”Freedom inthe “Freedom The-Battle-Deaths-Dataset-version-30/ www.prio.org/Data/Armed-Conflict/Battle-Deaths/ 2017, 9, April accessed website, (PRIO) Oslo dataset isavailableonthePeaceResearchInstitute armed conflict is significantly higher. The battle deaths withassociated deaths of number the believethat calculate thenumberofbattledeaths.Mostanalysts available, thelowestestimate numbers were usedto not was estimate best the While 145–166. (2005): deaths,” battle of dataset Anew combat: inglobal trends ing Gleditsch,Petter“Monitor Nils Lacinaand Bethany (Yangon:TheAsiaFoundation,2017). http://pacemyanmar.org/wp-content/​uploads http://burmacampaign.org.uk/about-burma/ Guardian, European Journal ofPopulation Journal European https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront. . Journal of Peace Research http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific . . . . 26, 2015, 26, November Journal ofPeaceResearch Journal The Contested AreasofMyan . . Myanmar: ANew (Yangon: PACE, . http://www. http://www. http://ucdp. (Brussels: BBC News 53, no. 5 21,no.2 https:// tions- Final 44, - - , ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ 19 18 17 16 15 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 Online, Online, peaceprocesswill begovernment priority,” Kyi “Suu 2016. January Yangon, in headquarters Speech tomark Independence Dayat NLD party cations/2015-isdp-backgrounder-myanmar-nca.pdf ISDP, 2015), Myanmar’s Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement Institute forSecurityandDevelopmentPolicy(ISDP), See Melanderetal.,“OrganizedViolence.” Wa NationalOrganization. Army,and NationalLiberation Army–North, Ta’ang State Party/Shan Progress ShanState Organization, Liberation Pa-ONational Party, State Mon New Army, Alliance Democracy Union, MyanmarNational Democratic Lahu Council, Peace KNU/KNLA Union, National Karen Party, Progressive National Karenni Organization, Independence Kachin Army, nevolent Be Karen Democratic Front, National Chin Army, Liberation Party, , Arakan The NCCT member organizations include: Arakan Melander etal.,“OrganizedViolence.” period between1989and1993. Battle-Related DeathsDataset’s bestestimatesfor a UCDP the and 1988, 1949and between aperiod for AsiaReport No.251 (Brussels:ICG, 2013), 12, Transition: Violence Against Muslimsin Myanmar International Crisis Group (ICG), ladesh-surge-270000-170908090357860.html com/news/2017/09/rohingya--numbers-bang 2017, 8, September Jazeera, Al UN: 270,000 Rohingya fled to Bangladesh in two weeks,” -and-the-pacific/myanmar/report-myanmar/ 263–267, 2016/2017 , “Myanmar,” in northern-rakhine-flash-update-no-1-8-march-2017 https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/myanmar- itarian Affairs (OCHA) website, accessed April 12, 2017, 8 March 2017),” Office for the Coordination of Human “Myanmar: Northern Rakhine FlashUpdateNo.1 (asof ments/Countries/MM/FlashReport3Feb2017.pdf 2017), OHCHR, York: 2016 Fleeing fromMyanmarsince9October (OHCHR), Rights Human for Commissioner High the of Office 39. Ibid., mission_Report-en-red.pdf http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs15/Rakhine_Com Taw:Pyi (Nay Rakhine Inquiry Commission, 2013), 20, on SectarianViolence in Rakhine Commission State Rakhine Inquiry Commission, burma/five-unfc-members-sign-nca.html 2017, 30, March to SigntheNCA,” “Five UNFCMembers alogue.pdf myanmar-s-peace-process-getting-to-a-political-di 2016), ICG, Brussels: and No.149(Yangon Asia Briefing Process: GettingtoaPoliticalDialogue International Crisis Group (ICG), HjMAFwyM.dpufv peace-process-will-be-government-priority#sthash. com/news/story/549934/news/world/suu-kyi-says- https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/b149-​ , 2016, 4, January . https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/ (New York: Amnesty International, 2017), International, Amnesty York: (New Flash Report:InterviewswithRohingyas http://isdp.eu/content/uploads/publi https://www.irrawaddy.com/news/ . http://www.ohchr.org/Docu http://www.gmanetwork. . Final Report of Inquiry http://www.aljazeera. Myanmar’s Peace The Dark Side of Annual Report Annual Report , Crisis Group . Irrawaddy GMA News News GMA (Yangon: (Yangon: https:// . (New says . . . . - - , , ​ ​ ​ ​

​ 32 31 30 29 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 Susanne Kempel and Aung Tun, Aung and Kempel Susanne by secretballot. also of households, by heads leaders, whoareelected 10 household ballot by secret by WA/VTAs are elected tween-muslims-and-buddhists-06242016155224.html destroyed-in-myanmar-village-as-tensions-flare-be http://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/mosque- Buddhists,” and lims Mus in MyanmarVillageasTensionsFlareBetween Zarni Tun and Roseanne Gerin, “Mosque Destroyed Ibid. transition-violence-against-muslims-in-myanmar.pdf d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/the-dark-side-of- es for Change: Domestic Violence and Gender Palaung Women’sOrganization (PWO), 00170.x. no. 3 (2005): 244–271, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-839X.2005. Myanmar,” causes and consequences of domestic violence in antecedent “Prevalence, Kanai, Atsuko and Kyu Nilar Htun Khaing,“Thecrimewavethatwasn’t.” menu ofcountriesandclick pop-up Myanmar fromthe (2000–2015)/, select then Criminal Justice/Homicide/Homicide counts and rates Myanmar’s homicide rate in 2015, goto/Crime and 2017, 9, June on lastupdated website, (UNODC) andCrime Drugs on Office Nations United population,” 100,000 per “Myanmar: intentional homicide, counts and rates net/en/the-crime-wave-that-wasnt Myanmar wasn’t,” that wave crime “The Khaing, Htun Migration_insidepages_FINAL_lowrespreview.pdf http://myanmar.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/ 108, 2016), Population, and Immigration, Labour, of Migration and Urbanization ulation and Housing Census: Thematic Report on Population,of Department Ibid., 6. Ibid., 4–7. fiscation%20in%20Burma_5%20May%202014.pdf PDF%20Format/Thematic%20Briefers/Land%20Con ALTSEAN,2014), 2, CommunitiesResponsible & Investment Local to Threat A Myanmar: in Confiscation Land Alternative AseanNetworkonBurma(ALTSEAN), uploads/Conversion_Timber_in_Myanmar.pdf 13, 2015), Trends, Conflicts Land and Timber, in Myanmar: Links toDeforestation, Conversion Woods, Kevin Myanmar_Elections_WEB.pdf 6, 2016), hagen: Danish Institute for International Studies, and villagetractelectionsin2016 on ward McCarthy, Gerard and Harrisson, P. Annika Kyed, M. Helene tor_Elections_2016_NPA_Jan2016.pdf ​/Report_Ward_Village_Tract_Administra uments www.themimu.info/sites/themimu.info/files/doc (Myanmar: Norwegian People’s Aid, 2016), 12, overview ofthe role, the lawsandthe procedures Elections 2016: An and VillageTractAdministrator http://pure.au.dk/portal/files/108219871/ , October 24, 2016, Local Local Democracy in Myanmar: Reflections Asian JournalAsianofSocial Psychology Commercial Agriculture Expansion https://data.unodc.org/ http://forest-trends.org/releases/ Free Radio http://www.altsean.org/Docs/ The2014 MyanmarPop (Washington, DC: Run Report. http://frontiermyanmar. (Nay Pyi Taw: Ministry . . Myanmar Ward , June 24, 2016, , June . (: .To view (Copen Frontier http:// Voic . . 8, 8, . - - - - - . . ​ ​ ​ ​ 48 47 46 45 44 uploads/2014/01/SameImpunitySamePattern_Eng (WLB, 2014), not stopuntilthere is agenuine civilian government will Army Burma bythe abuses Sexual Patterns: Same Women’s League of Burma (WLB), women.org/reports/36-license-to-rape (SWAN and SHRF, 2002), 9–10, (SHRF),RightsFoundation Human Shan Women’sActionNetwork(SWAN)and of Politics19,1:4-21. Journal Feminist International Violence.” der-based Gen and Sexual Conflict-related Reporting and ing Count of Politics “The 2017. True. J. and S.E Davies, dy.com/news/burma/reports-rape-rise-burma.html Irrawaddy Lawi Weng, ofRapeOntheRisein Burma,” “Reports SilenceFullReportEnglish.pdf genmyanmar.org/publications/Behind%20the%20 Myanmar lence: Violence Women andtheirResilience Against Gender Equality Network (GEN), reports/Voices-for-Change-25Oct2011eng.pdf land: PWO, 2011), 12, in the Palaung Area Discrimination lish-final.pdf (Yangon:GEN,2015),32, ,November 25, 2013, . http://womenofburma.org/wp-content/ http://en.palaungwomen.com/ . https://www.irrawad http://www.shan Same Impunity, (MaeSot,Thai LicenseRapeto Behind the Si . http://www. . . - - - - ​ ​

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