Mauritania Catherine Taine-Cheikh

To cite this version:

Catherine Taine-Cheikh. Mauritania. M. Eid, A. Elgibali, K. Versteegh (editor-in-chief), M. Woidich & A. Zaborski. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics (EALL), vol. III (Lat-Pu), Brill, pp.169-176, 2008. ￿halshs-00564246￿

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Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics

General Editor Kees Versteegh

Associate Editors Mushira Eid Alaa Elgibali Manfred Woidich Andrzej Zaborski

Volume III Lat-Pu

B R I LL

Référence de l'article publié :

Taine-Cheikh, Catherine (2008), "Arabic of Mauritania", vol. III (Lat-Pu), pp. 169-176, in K. Versteegh (editor-in-chief), Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics (EALL), Leiden : Brill.

Mauritania

In 1960, Mauritania, a French colony along its linguistic effects were variable. Although the Atlantic Coast in West Africa, achieved a perfect command of Classical Arabic is independence under the name of the Islamic strongly recommended for every good Muslim, Republic of Mauritania. The name ‘Mauritania’, this perfect command was (and still is) often once used as the name of the Roman colonies of much more limited than expected. The ancient North Africa (Mauretania), was reintroduced populations of Mauritania were no exception by the colonial administration to designate to this rule, although a relatively large number this western part of the Saharo-Sahelian zone, of people apparently became literate. This is which was called in Arabic literature bilàd probably due to the history of the region and the ”inqì† ‘country of ”inq솒, tràb al-bì:àn ‘land of social organization of the different ethnic groups. the Whites’ (Taine-Cheikh 1990), or bilàd as- The Islamization of the Saharo-Sahelian part sayba ‘country of anarchy’. of West Africa was linked with the Almoravid The borders of the country are as arbitrary movement, initiated in the 11th century by as its name. Indeed, they do not follow at all the Berber tribes of the region, according to the territorial limits of the Moorish Arabic- local traditions, somewhere between the Adrar speaking country, which extended far beyond and the Senegal delta. This movement was those borders, especially in the north, in to be very successful in Morocco and Spain the region of the Rio de Oro and of the (Norris 1972, 1986). The name ‘Almoravid’ is Sagya el-£amra, occupied by the Spanish. supposed to have come, through the Spanish The Senegal River, chosen as the southern language, from muràbi†ùn; it probably does border, is inhabited on either side by the same not signify ‘those from the ribà† “fortified black African populations, which have Pulaar, monastery”’, as has been supposed for a long Soninke, or Wolof as their mother tongue. time, but rather ‘those who wage a holy war’ Originally, Mauritania was conceived as (participle of the verb ràba†a). a ‘transition’ country between ‘arabity’ and Nevertheless, the penetration of Islam does ‘africanity’ (Baduel 1990), hence the situation not begin with the armed fighters of Ya™yà of Arabic is particularly complex but also, as in ibn ±Ibràhìm al-Gdalì. In fact, conversions had other places, subject to ceaseless change. already taken place since the middle of the 8th century, especially among the Lemtuna Berbers 1. Historical background: The and the Soninké of the Ghana empire. This religious ‘Arabization’ peaceful Islamization was linked with trade (in particular with the Kharijite Mzab) but remained A variety of Arabic (£assàniyya) is currently the quite superficial. The local sources do not always mother tongue of a majority (usually estimated distinguish it from the traditions concerning between 70 and 80 percent of a total of 2.9 the Bafour, the mysterious population from the million people) of the Mauritanian population. Adrar that is sometimes associated with the This is the consequence of the abandonment breeding of dogs. The preaching of Ibn Yàsìn, of the Berber language (Zenaga), at the end spread by the Almoravid troops, was a message of a very long process of Arabization, which of faith, but it also aimed at eradicating the seems to have begun at the end of the 14th and strong influence exerted until then by Ibadite beginning of the 15th century but has not yet Kharijism in the Sahara and on its southern been completed even today. The first contacts (and northern) borders. Henceforth, the aim with the Arabic language took place at the was to attain a deeper knowledge of the sacred end of the 1st millennium, through the Islamic texts and a more orthodox practice of religion, religion, and concerned all the ethnic groups of in particular through the banishment of the the region. pleasures of music and dance. For all societies concerned, Islamization Apart from the Almoravid episode (and, later, represented a global cultural phenomenon, but some Peul Jihadist movements), the conquests

EEALL_Mauritania-b8.inddALL_Mauritania-b8.indd 1 33/21/2007/21/2007 6:30:556:30:55 PMPM 2 mauritania did not play a very important role in the that time, the Islamic religion had already diffusion of Islam in sub-Saharan Africa. Yet, the reached an important breakthrough in the numerous conflicts, between the communities region, paving the way for a certain adaptation to as much as between the tribes, and even within the Arabic language. The only Arabic-speaking the tribes, resulted among other things in social communities, though, still seem to have been fissure and tribal or ‘lineage’ specializations. made up by small groups of traders coming Some tribes chose to relinquish their arms and from the Maghreb. In all cities with a Berber dedicate themselves entirely to the study and majority, whose destiny was unquestionably teaching of the religious sciences, particularly linked to the road taken by the trans-Saharan at the end of the Surbubba war that in the trade, the Azer language – probably a variety of 17th century opposed two tribal coalitions in Soninke as spoken by Zenaga speakers – may southwest Mauritania. The ‘learned’ tribes are have played a key role as lingua franca, despite the zwàya among the Arabic speakers and the the weakening and finally the disappearance of gu:ayën (literally ‘qadis’) among the Zenaga the Ghana empire. speakers. In addition, among the neighboring The influence of Arabic-speaking groups only Pulaar speakers, the influence of the Torobe began to be felt in the Sahara from the 15th group, representing the majority, relies partially century onward. At the end of the 14th century, on its religious status. Ibn Xaldùn had pointed out the presence of In all ethnic groups (including the Soninke the Banù £assàn in the Dra wadi (wàd dar≠a) and the Wolof), the learned men had at their in the south of Morocco. In constant rivalry disposal a unified corpus of reference, based with their cousins, the ”banàt, they oppressed on the triad of Màlikism, Aš≠arism, and Sufi their neighboring Berber tribes (Ould Cheikh brotherhood, and applied largely similar 1995:43). Ibn Xaldùn traced back the genealogy methods to transmit knowledge. These methods of their chief, £assàn, to a certain Ma≠qil, but made a strong demand on memory and used all he did not specify the relationship between possible memorization techniques: repetitions the latter and the Banù Hilàl. One should be and recitations (supported by rhythmic move- careful not to take at face value a history of ment of the body), poetry (even about abstract the Banù Ma≠qil, even if certain authors tend to topics such as grammar), and copying of texts. present them as a group distinct from both the Writing was at the center of learning, but Banù Hilàl and the Banù Sulaym. transmission took place from the master’s voice The testimony of Arabic and Portuguese to the student’s ear. The performance was travelers provides some information about the less an oralization, corresponding to a real migration of the Banù £assàn to the south command of Classical Arabic as a language and their slow penetration into the Sahara. of oral communication, than an auralization, Nevertheless, there is, unfortunately, a lack of meaning the recitation of literary Arabic (Taine- data for the reconstruction of the history of this Cheikh 1998; Ould Cheikh 1998). Over the ‘dark age’, during which the dominance of the years, however, teaching has diversified and Arabs over (part of) the local Berber populations deepened thanks to a more frequent recourse was established. Although the traditions and to the mother tongue in order to explain the the local denominations encourage simplistic meaning of the text. Altogether, the level of equations – ‘warlike tribes = Arabs’ vs. ‘mara- Arabo-Islamic culture was significant, especially boutic tribes = Berbers’, or more recently, but not exclusively in the traditional schools ‘aristocratic = Arabs’ and ‘those who pay (ma™à:ër) of the desert. tribute = Berbers’ – there is some evidence that history has given rise to a complex society 2. The dialectal Arabization whose culture probably achieved some kind of symbiosis between ‘arabity’ and ‘berberity’, The four major Mauritanian caravan cities of even though generally speaking, only the Arabic the 2nd millennium (Wadàn, ”ingì†i, Tišìt, and part of the heritage is claimed. Walàta) were founded around the 12th and 13th As regards the language, the name £assàniyya centuries, as the decline of âwdàÿust (probably (or klàm ™assàn lit. ‘the language of £assàn’), to be identified with modern Tägdàwëst, in assigned to the spoken Arabic of Mauritania, southeast Mauritania) was already sealed. At clearly suggests that this dialect is a legacy from

EEALL_Mauritania-b8.inddALL_Mauritania-b8.indd 2 33/21/2007/21/2007 6:30:566:30:56 PMPM mauritania 3 the £assàn tribes. In view of what is known (former) Berber speakers. Between the 17th about Arabization in the Saharo-Sahelian century and the first half of the 18th century, zone, this identification is not surprising in four emirates (Trarza, Brakna, Adrar, and itself. Because all Arabic-speaking groups that Tagant) were established, which corresponded came to settle in this area claim to be of to the early stages of political concentration, the same origin, it is not too far-fetched to when a family of warriors (coming from the think that the fundamental characteristics of Banù £assàn, except in the case of the Tagant) the Mauritanian dialect were already present in exerted their authority on the tribes of the the 15th century. This is all the more plausible region. Starting at the end of the 18th century since even today for £assàniyya speakers and flourishing above all in the 19th century, an mutual comprehension seems to be easiest with era ensued that seems to have been propitious the Bedouin in the whole Arabic world, not for the development of culture and literature. only from the Maghreb but also from the Inscriptions in tifinaÿ characters seem to have Middle East (especially Jordanians). Besides, ceased around the 15th/16th centuries. Between the £assàniyya language shows a remarkable the arrival of the Banù £assàn and that of the homogeneity from east to west and from north European colonizers, virtually all writing was to south (and even beyond the Mauritanian done in Arabic characters, probably most of it in borders). This fact would seem to support Classical Arabic because there are few traces in this theory, although it does not explain one Mauritania of Berber manuscripts written of the rare important regional differences, the in Arabic characters (did they disappear?), occlusive or fricative pronunciation of /ÿ/. although there did exist literary productions in Of course, even if the £assàniyya language Soninke and Pulaar, some of which, such as the has retained many characteristics from the beytol, were written with an Arabic alphabet. dialect once spoken by the Banù £assàn, Broadly speaking, the concept of written this does not mean that it has gone through literature is applicable to all intellectual the centuries without changes. Even without productions recorded in the familial libraries. mentioning the most recent evolutions, the These were extremely numerous, even if they numerous borrowings from local dialects, were often limited to the contents of a trunk. especially Zenaga, show the lexical enrichment In the case of the literate Moors, the trunk produced by the contact with the Berber was carried around on camels when the camp substrate language. was moving. The £assàniyya speakers of the Various morphosyntactic innovations are western Sahara take a lot of pride in the fact particularly characteristic of the £assàniyya that they were one of the rare nomadic societies language, especially the passive voice, the in the Arab world to be strongly attached to the diminutive, and the elative (¤ £assàniyya book and to the study of Muslim Arabic culture Arabic). Despite certain similarities with (Bonte and Claudot-Hawad 1998). Zenaga, the neologisms of the £assàniyya In the last few decades, some collections language cannot be interpreted as a simple have been institutionalized, for both material calque but must be regarded as an internal and political reasons. The attention of the evolution of the Arabic dialect. Although institutional power and the public was focused it is even harder to understand the general on this small number of libraries, particularly in uniformity of innovations than the permanency the ancient cities of the Sahara. Such sedentary of conservatisms, the successful innovations establishments may not have been the general must have corresponded to particularly rule, but the inventory of their contents gives important needs of expression for the Moorish an idea of the texts that were bought or copied society. most frequently. Between ”ingì†i and Wadàn, for example, 3. Written literature in the twelve family libraries can be counted. The classical age contents are variable in size, from several pages to hundreds of pages, and the 1,106 documents The dispersal of the Banù £assàn and their are unequally shared between the libraries. The settlement in Saharan Mauritania led to new library of the ±Ahl £abät from ”ingì†i alone relations between the Arabic speakers and the contains more than half of these documents,

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most of them purchased. Founded by Sìdi in a strictly literary sense, Mauritanian cultural Mu™ammad wëll £abät in 1845 upon his production was of variable value. Indeed, there return from his Mecca pilgrimage, the library is not a lot of prose literature, and it is often is said to have contained up to three thousand badly represented. Globally, works on ±adab books. As in most libraries, the great majority are rare. The only real prose writer seem to of the books date from the 19th century, but a have been aš-”ayx Sìdi Mu™ammàd al-Kuntì considerable number date from the 17th and (d. 1826), who wrote a biography of his father 18th centuries. Some are even more ancient; (the great mystic aš-”ayx Sìd al-Muxtàr) and a indeed, five copies of manuscripts made prior number of treatises. to the end of the 15th century are listed, with On the other hand, poetry is both abundant ten copies realized in the 16th century. The and of high quality, as demonstrated by ±A™mad oldest document kept in Mauritania can also be ibn al-≠Ayn aš-”ingì†i. In Cairo, he wrote from found here, a copy (made in 480/1087–1088) memory a book on his country of origin, al- of a commentary on the Qur±àn written by Wasì† fì taràjim ±udabà± ”inqì† “the best [book] the Iraqi author ±Abù Hilàl al-≠Askarì (d. 395/ on the work of poets and men of ”inq솔 (Miské 1004–1005). 1970), including no fewer than 4,500 lines of The books contained in the libraries of ”ingì†i verse. This anthology brings together 82 poets, and Wadàn are mainly about religion and divided into 18 tribes (all maraboutic), most of jurisprudence: about 40 percent on theology them from the 19th century, testifying to the (fiqh, ±ußùl, qawà≠id, nawàzil ) and almost 30 vitality of the classical qaßìda of the Moorish percent on the Qur±ànic sciences (copies of literate elite and of their high level in literary the vulgate, the exegesis, the words of the Arabic (Ould Bah 1971:26–48; ¢ulba 2000). Prophet, and the hagiographical stories) and Since Classical Arabic poetry belongs to the mysticism (taßawwuf ). Among the remaining domain of written (or ‘auralized’) literature, 30 percent, mathematics (1.70%) and logic presumably the entire oral literature in Arabic (2.78%) are relatively well represented, more is expressed in dialect. Indeed, despite the so than history, astronomy, and medicine. But numerous isomorphisms between the written linguistic topics (na™w, ßarf, luÿa, and ±adab) and the oral spheres, the separation between are particularly popular (23.77%). The great the two fields coincides almost exactly, at least lexicographical corpus al-Qàmùs al-mu™ì†, for until the 20th century, with the distinction instance, gathered by the scholar from ”iràz, between the two varieties of Arabic in use in Mu™ammad ibn Ya≠qùb al-Fìrùzàbàdì (d. 817/ Mauritania. 1835–1836), was written in calligraphy for the The first resemblance to note is the preemi- library of the ±Ahl £abät over the course of nence of poetry as literary genre (Martin- several years (the copy of the two first volumes Granel a.o. 1992; Bariou a.o.1995). Even dating from 1251/1835–1836 and of the last though Classical Arabic poetry is called ši≠r, two from 1260/1844). in £assàniyya it has the generic name of ÿnä. With regard to Mauritanian scholars, no The metrical system of oral poetry (Taine- writings are known before the 18th century (al- Cheikh 1985) presents many common points Bartalì 1981; Ould Bah 1981; £àmidun 1990; with the classical meters in its general principles Rebstock 2001). With the apparent exception (regularity of the number of syllables per meter, of a Wadanian scholar of the 16th century quantitative distinction between short and long who left a written commentary on the Qur±àn, syllables, constant presence of a rhyme). More the most ancient Moorish author known is precisely, there may even be a fundamental the great faqìh of ”ingì†i, Mu™ammad wëll common opposition between ascending rhythms al-Muxtàr wëll Billa≠maš (1625–1695). This (with a metrical accent on the long second major figure of the cultural history of the syllable of the watid majmù≠ ‘rising foot’: short western Sahara wrote, among other things, a + long) and descending rhythms (with a metrical commentary on a book about the foundations accent on the long first syllable of the watid of the dogma and one on astronomy. mafrùq ‘descending foot’: long + short). It is precisely because the Moorish books are Despite the obvious resemblance between so recent that the middle of the 18th century the two metrical systems, there are important appears as the beginning of a new era. However, differences as well. The first of these is the

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general tendency to simplify in the ÿnä, through of poetry took place in a context of rhymed a reduction of the number of syllables per meter exchanges between people of equivalent status, and through an increase of the proportion of they assumed the form of sparring matches short syllables compared to the long ones, the (the g†à≠, which imposed certain rules of meters latter tending to remain only in rhyme. The and rhymes). As these matches often played a second one is the adaptation of the principle role in the rivalries between the tribes, certain of quantity to the vocalic system of the dialect. warriors, including the chiefs, distinguished Open syllables of the CV type having almost themselves in it. However, more generally (and disappeared in £assàniyya, closed syllables with the exception of the very particular case CVC or long vowels CV are counted as short in of the mad™ ën-näbi ‘the praise of the Prophet’, contrast with the ‘extra-long’ syllables CVCC which was composed and sung only by the (twice closed) or CV:C (closed with a long former slaves and the ™rà†ìn), eulogies as well vowel). The third difference concerns the use as satire were inseparable from the very closed of rhyme in a verse unit that seems peculiar to social group of the musician-singers (Norris the dialect, even if it shows some similarities 1968; Guignard 1975). It was their role not with other forms of poetry expressed in dialect. only to sing the ÿnä (which is not necessarily On the one hand, the gav is made up of sung, despite the meaning of its root ÿ-n-y), four hemistichs with alternating rhymes ab- but to do and undo reputations. According to ab, and on the other hand, the †al≠a is made certain local traditions (Ould Bah 1971:14), up of six hemistichs (aa-ab-ab), differing from their ancestors, in the 18th century, were the quatrain through the two first identical responsible for the most ancient verses known rhymes. in Moorish poetry. The long poems with epic Until the 20th century, the great themes of accents that some griots like Säddùm wëll the ÿnä (Taine-Cheikh 1994) were very close Ndyartu or ≠Alì wëll Mànu composed in honor to those of the ši≠r, in spite of the difference of their warrior chiefs constitute a particular in name. Put simply, one might say that there genre (thäydìn) of Moorish poetical heritage, were eulogies (madì™ or μanà± for the ši≠r, šëkr quite esoteric but also highly regarded. for the ÿnä) and satire (šatm or hijà± in Classical Nonpoetic genres exist, of course, but not Arabic, šätm or ≠ayb in £assàniyya), on the one all are represented. In the field of the narrative hand, and elegies and love poems (respectively forms, there are mainly fairy tales and stories. nasìb and ÿazal, although these apply mostly Of great variety, they are not limited to wisdom to ši≠r), on the other. The last two themes, very fairy tales and marvel stories intended for frequent, were practiced by authors (mÿannyìn) children (Tauzin 1993; Ould Mohamed Baba who belonged more or less to all social classes. 2000–2001; Ould Ebnou n.d.). In the discursive Many anonymous poems belong to common field, mainly short forms can be noted. Among culture, even if they sing about a particular the dialogic, playful, and/or didactic forms, region, the one of the poet (Sìdi Bràhìm 1992). there is the one, quite common, of the riddle Others have well-known authors (Ould Zenagui (t™àži) – often around wordplay – and the more 1994), sometimes very famous, including, in specific one of the pastoral enigma (Taine- certain cases, those known for their knowledge Cheikh 1995) in which the playful rivalry or for their poetry in Classical Arabic. The between shepherds expresses itself (this is called verses may be purely elegiac or only about love, zärg, like the riddles students of Classical Arabic but very often they are both simultaneously. posed to one another). Finally, proverbs and The expression of feelings of love always respect sayings (±amμàl) are also found in large numbers the laws of decency (Tauzin 1982, 1990) and (Ould Ebnou n.d.), which demonstrates the often are limited to mention of places formerly strong fondness of £assàniyya speakers for frequented by the loved one (always a woman, gnomic speech. as the men traditionally kept for themselves the right to compose ÿnä, leaving to women only 4. Oral literature the minor, and historically more recent, form of the distich called tëbrà≠). Mauritanian Arabic literature peaked in the The writing of eulogies and criticism was 19th century, but the seeds of change were subject to even more constraints. If the recitation already present before that time. The influence

EEALL_Mauritania-b8.inddALL_Mauritania-b8.indd 5 33/21/2007/21/2007 6:30:576:30:57 PMPM 6 mauritania of France began to develop in the south in and the number of students attending them 1857 and soon led to a tight control of the continued to diminish. whole Senegal River valley. The beginning of The nascent republic was qualified as the colonial conquest itself took place at the ‘Islamic’, based on the idea that religion beginning of the 20th century. As of 1920, was the common denominator of the entire Mauritania was officially regarded as a French population of Mauritania, but the language of colony, governed from Saint-Louis in Senegal. administration and the education system were The effects of colonization were felt for a long French, even if at the time this concerned only time after the granting of independence. a small minority of children. Very soon, this For several decades, colonization, which official predominance of a foreign language was was carried out essentially from the strategic denounced by the Moorish community. perspective of pacifying the region, remained Ever since its creation, Mauritania has superficial. Its impact was especially weak on belonged to various organizations uniting the the nomadic world, which only experienced black African countries formerly colonized by indirect administration (enlistment in the France. Its recognition by the other Arabic goums, particular groups of military nomads, countries and its entry into the Arab League taxes imposed on the tribes, etc.). During were less immediate because of the opposition that time, the sedentary black Africans of the voiced by Morocco. Only by the end of the earlier colonized valley were already subject to 1960s did the Moroccan claims cease, opening conscription and scheduled taxes. The Moors the possibility for a readjustment between Arabic offered a particularly tenacious resistance to and the black world, more in accordance with the French education system, and the most the wishes of the Moorish community (Ould aristocratic people did not hesitate to send the Cheikh 1995:32–33). However, the changes children of their slaves or their dependents to were fought by the black African communities school instead of their own children, when of Mauritania, who regarded them as harmful pressure became irresistible. As the back- to their vested benefits, inherited from wardness of £assàniyya speakers increased, colonization, and perceived them as contrary the colonial authorities agreed to open special to their elementary political rights. schools, known as medersas, for the sons from If one considers the education system of good Moorish families, in which Arabic was Mauritania, which is usually the first stumbling given an important place. These schools were block in contacts between the ethnic groups, it abolished in the 1940s, but as compensation becomes clear that the country has never ceased a few hours of Arabic were introduced in all to Arabize since its independence. The first schools attended by £assàniyya speakers. This measures were directed at the whole student measure tended, however, to be withheld from body: Arabic was imposed on all secondary the black Africans, under the pretext of making school students, at least as a second foreign a distinction between the Arabic language as a language, and before the primary cycle a first ‘language of culture’ (reserved for speakers of year was added, entirely in Arabic, under the Arabic) and as a ‘language of religion’ (excluded pretext of introducing Qur±ànic Arabic. Soon, from the French state school system). the influence of Arabic nationalist movements, One of the effects of the colonial policy was affected by events in the Middle East, was that of modifying social relations, weakening reinforced by the massive settlement of the power of the warriors and supporting the nomadic people. Ruined by years of severe position of the marabouts (zwàya). It is no drought, Moorish cattle breeders were asking accident that the first president of Mauritania, for schools for their children and possibilities Mokhtar Ould Daddah, and most of the of employment in the administration for those Moorish executives of the young state belonged who were educated in the ma™à:ër. Under these to the literate tribes, in particular those of circumstances the number of hours of Arabic the Southwest, who had been schooled before were increased considerably, facilitating the the others. However, the securing of the integration into the state education system of latter’s loyalty was realized to the detriment teachers coming from the traditional system. of traditional education, and, in the course of One of the two curricula put in place – the one the 20th century, the influence of the ma™à:ër dominated by the Arabic language – was then

EEALL_Mauritania-b8.inddALL_Mauritania-b8.indd 6 33/21/2007/21/2007 6:30:576:30:57 PMPM mauritania 7 invaded by students who were total beginners Guignard, Michel. 1975. Musique, honneur et plaisir in the French language. In the 1980s, the au Sahara. Paris: Geuthner. £àmidun (ibn), Muxtàr. 1990. al-£ayàt aμ-μaqàfiyya contrast deepened between the ‘Arab’ course of fì Mùrìtàniyà. Tunis: ad-Dàr al-≠Arabiyya li-l-Kitàb. study, compulsory for all £assàniyya speakers Martin-Granel, Nicolas, Idoumou Ould Mohamed and with a minor place for French, and the Lemine, and Georges Voisset. 1992. Anthologie de ‘bilingual’ one, leading generally only to a la littérature mauritanienne contemporaine. Paris: L’Harmattan. master’s degree in French and attended by a Miské, Ahmed-Bâba. 1970. Al Wasît: Tableau majority of the black African population. de la Mauritanie au début du XXè siècle. Paris: This system, which through two different Klincksieck. courses of study was supposed to lead to Norris, H.T. 1968. 'inqì†ì folk literature and song. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Arabic/French bilingualism, was finally aban- ——. 1972. Saharan myth and saga. Oxford: doned because of the costs involved and the Clarendon Press. inefficiency (Taine-Cheikh 2004). The balance ——. 1986. The Arab conquest of the western Sahara. of power became extremely unfavorable to Beirut: Librairie du Liban. Ould Bah, Mohamd El-Moktâr. 1971. “Introduction the black Africans after the ethnic conflict of à la poésie mauritanienne (1650–1900)”. Arabica 1989, the most violent since independence. 18.1–48. Consequently, the government decided to ——. 1981. Littérature juridique et évolution du malékisme en Mauritanie. Tunis: Université de abolish the bilingual course of study. The Tunis. effect of the measure was softened by the Ould Cheikh, Abdel Wedoud. 1989. Eléments existence of a private educational system that d’histoire de la Mauritanie. Nouakchott: Centre was increasingly successful. Additionally, the Culturel Français. ——. 1995. “La Mauritanie: Un pays qui descend?”. French language was not removed entirely from Bariou a.o. (1995:22–35). the educational system, although the precedence ——. 1998. “Cherche élite, désespérément: évolution of the Arabic language was affirmed. This was du système éducatif et (dé)formation des ‘élites’ facilitated by the adoption of Arabic as the only dans la société mauritanienne”. Bonte and Claudot- Hawad (1998:235–252). official language as early as 1991, one of the Ould Ebnou, Moussa (ed.). N.d.(a). al-£ikàyàt consequences being a significant Arabization wa-l-±asà†ìr aš-ša≠biyya al-mùrìtàniyya. 2 vols. of toponyms, often to the detriment of French Nouakchott: Commission Nationale pour la and Berber names, which had long been in use Collecte et la Publication de la Culture Populaire. ——. (ed.). N.d.(b). al-±Amμàl wa-l-™ikàya aš- (Ould Cheikh 1995:33–34). ša≠biyya al-mùrìtàniyya. Nouakchott: Commission The 21st century seems to have opened a Nationale pour la Collecte et la Publication de la new era in which Arabization will once again Culture Populaire. experience considerable progress, probably Ould Mohamed Baba, Ahmad-Salem. 2000–2001. “Cuentos de los Wlàd Däymàn: Sutil socarronería”. being marked as much by education as by the Estudios de Dialectología Norteafricana y Andalusí Arabic media (in particular satellite television). 5.253–264. The future will tell what the result will be for Ould Zenagui, Cheikh El-Bou. 1994. La poésie de Mohamed Ould Adebba. Nouakchott: Institut the practice of literary Arabic, of the £assàniyya Mauritanien de Recherche Scientifique (Projet dialect, and of its ‘modernized’ version, the TOTEM). local version of standard Arabic (Taine-Cheikh Rebstock, Ulrich. 2001. Maurische Literatur- 2002, 2004). geschichte. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. 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(1990:90–105). Bonte, Pierre and Hélène Claudot-Hawad (eds). ——. 1994. “Pouvoir de la poésie et poésie du 1998. Nomadic Peoples (NS) 2:1–2. (Repr., Les pouvoir: Le cas de la société maure”. Matériaux Cahiers de l’IREMAM 13–14, 2000.) Arabes et Sudarabiques 6.281–310.

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——. 1995. “Quand les bergers maures se lancent des ‘colles’”. Littérature orale arabo-berbère 22–23. 173–204. ——. 1998. “Langues, savoirs et pouvoirs en milieu maure”. Bonte and Claudot-Hawad (1998:235– 252). ——. 2002. “De la variation linguistique dans le prêche populaire mauritanien”. Language contact and language conflict in Arabic: Variations on a sociolinguistic theme, ed. Aleya Rouchdy, 177– 203. London: Routledge Curzon. ——. 2004. “La Mauritanie: Vers une nouvelle politique linguistique?”. Revue d’Aménagement Linguistique (“Aménagement linguistique au Maghreb”) 107.205–226. Tauzin, Aline. 1982. “Autour de la poésie amoureuse des Maures de la Mauritanie et du Mali”. Littérature orale arabo-berbère 13.129–146. ——. 1990. “À haute voix: Poésie féminine contem- poraine en Mauritanie”. Baduel (1990:178–187). ——. 1993. Contes arabes de Mauritanie. Paris: Karthala. ¢ulba (Ibn a†-), M. 2000. Dìwàn. Nouakchott: ±A™mad Sàlim ibn ab-Bùh.

Catherine Taine-Cheikh (LACITO – UMR 7017 of the CNRS)

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