Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-021-00480-x

RESEARCH Open Access Exploration of ethnomedicinal plants and their practices in human and livestock healthcare in Haripur District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan Zeeshan Siddique1†, Nasir Shad2,3† , Ghulam Mujtaba Shah3, Abid Naeem4, Liu Yali5,6, Muhammad Hasnain7, Arshad Mahmood8, Muhammad Sajid9, Muhammad Idrees1 and Ilyas Khan10*

Abstract Background: The utilization of plants and plant resources for various ethnobotanical purposes is a common practice in local towns and villages of developing countries, especially in regard to human and veterinary healthcare. For this reason, it is important to unveil and document ethnomedicinal plants and their traditional/folk usage for human and livestock healthcare from unexplored areas. Here we advance our fndings on ethnomedicinal plants from Haripur District, Pakistan, not only for conservation purposes, but also for further pharmacological screenings and applied research. Methodology: Information of ethnomedicinal plants was obtained using a carefully planned questionnaire and interviews from 80 local people and traditional healers (Hakims) in Haripur District, Pakistan, from 2015 to 2017. Informed consent was obtained from each participant before conducting the interview process. Quantitative ethno- botanical indices, such as relative frequency of citation (RFC), use value (UV) and Jaccard index (JI), were calculated for each recorded species. Correlation analysis between the RFC and UV was tested by Pearson’s correlation, SPSS (ver. 16). Results: A total of 80 plant species (33 herbs, 24 trees, 21 shrubs and 2 climbers) belonging to 50 families were being used in the study area to treat livestock and human diseases. Lamiaceae was the most dominant family with 7 species (8.7%), followed by Fabaceae with 6 species (7.5%), and Moraceae with 5 species (6.2%). Local people used diferent methods of preparation for diferent plant parts; among them, decoction/tea (22 species) was the popular method, followed by powder/grained (20 species) and paste/poultice (14 species). It was observed that most of the species (~ 12 to 16 species) were utilized to treat human and livestock digestive system-related problems, respectively. The Jaccard index found that plant usage in two studies (District Abbottabad and Sulaiman Range) was more compara- ble. Local people mainly relied on folk medicines due to their rich accessibility, low cost and higher efcacy against diseases. Unfortunately, this important traditional knowledge is vanishing fast, and many medicinal plants are under severe threat. The most threats associated to species observed in the study area include Dehri, Garmthun, Baghpur, Najafpur and Pharala.

*Correspondence: [email protected] †Zeeshan Siddique and Nasir Shad have contributed equally to this work 10 Department of Mathematics, College of Science Al‑Zulf, Majmaah University, Al‑Majmaah 11952, Saudi Arabia Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

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Conclusion: The study has indicated that local people have higher confdence in the usage of ethnomedicinal plants and are still using them for the treatment of various ailments. Comparative analysis with other studies may strongly refected the novel use of these plants, which may be due to the deep-rooted and unique socio-cultural setup of the study area. However, awareness campaigns, conservation eforts and pharmacological and applied research are required for further exploration and may be a step in the right direction to unveil prospective pharmaceuticals. Keywords: Ethnobotany, Ethnoveterinary, Human healthcare, Medicinal plants, Livestock, Traditional knowledge, Haripur District, Pakistan

Introduction provides afordable therapy and easy accessibility in Humans have a long history of utilizing plants to ful- comparison to western medicines [15]. fll various daily requirements. Plants are used as Pakistan is an agricultural country, and about 80% of medicines, food, fodder for livestock and materials its population depends on farming and livestock. Paki- to construct houses [1]. Te application of medicinal stan is the world’s ffth-largest milk-producing country plants and herbs for therapeutic purposes is a global because of its high reliance on farming and livestock [16]. practice, and almost every country has beneftted from About 84% of Pakistan’s population depended on tradi- their useful therapeutic and medicinal elements [2]. tional medicine in the early 1950s, and a rapid decrease Herbal medicines play a distinctive role from the primi- was recorded in recent years from traditional knowl- tive period until today in healthcare systems. Te frst edge, now limited only to remote areas of Pakistan [17, ethnomedicinal plant in sub-continent history was 18]. Resource-poor farmers of Pakistan substantially recorded in Rigveda during 4500–1600 BC and Ayur- depend upon traditional medicine because of their mini- veda 2500–600 BC [3]. Te concepts of ethnobotanical mal access to modern-day healthcare systems and lack of medicines are thought to have originated from Greece well-developed basic healthcare units in their areas [3]. and adopted by Arabs, thereafter learned and spread by While much work has been done worldwide on docu- Indians and Europeans [4–6]. Medicinal plants are an menting ethnoveterinary practices, in Pakistan, very little important part of the conventional healthcare system, attention has been given to documentation of plants used as various allopathic drugs are extracted or derived as EVM, and there is an immense need to document this from medicinal plants [7, 8]. Te utilization of alter- knowledge [19]. native medicine may increase due to its low costs, While literature has revealed that many ethnobot- higher efcacy and increased faith in herbal remedies. anical researchers have visited most parts of Pakistan Although allopathic medicines can treat several dis- in recent years, but no/less areas has been thoroughly eases, they are often more expensive and may have explored regarding the EVM [20]. A similar trend is evi- adverse efects, which forces common people to take dent in human medicinal plant inventories, where many advantage of herbal medicines, which may have fewer researchers and ethnobotanists have visited most parts side efects [9]. Scientifc investigations on medicinal of Pakistan and contributed to the records [20–26]. Still, plants have been underway in various countries due to much information and traditional knowledge remain to their vast therapeutic potential and are also used as an be recorded. Te main aim of this study was (1) to docu- alternative therapy in various healthcare systems [10]. ment the traditional knowledge of ethnomedicinal plants Traditional veterinary medicine was frst practiced from Haripur District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), around 1800 B.C. during the age of King Hammurabi an unexplored area which lacks such documentation, (2) of Babylon, who formulated laws and introduced a to report the traditional folk knowledge, ethnomedicinal veterinary fee structure for treating animals [11]. Eth- plant utilization along with recipes, mode of preparation, noveterinary medicine (EVM) is the major source for parts used, used form in veterinary and human health- the treatment of diseases in livestock throughout the care by local and ethnic communities, (3) to identify world, even today. Humans have used herbal remedies potential conservation threats, (4) to compile the data of to treat diferent diseases in domesticated animals since traditional knowledge of ethnomedicinal plants by using the advent of civilization. It is estimated that medicinal quantitative ethnomedicinal indices like UV, RFC and JI plants, for several centuries, have been widely used as in order to evaluate the most frequently used species and a primary source of prevention and control of livestock access their matching with other studies published from diseases [12, 13]. Many studies have been carried out Pakistan in traditional ethnomedicinal plant utilization. on treating specifc ailments in livestock with herbal It is hypothesized that studies conducted in surround- medicines and their derivatives [14]. Traditional EVM ing areas may more similar to present study which can be Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 3 of 22

evaluated by JI value; and (5) to provide further research Khanpur and Ghazi) and subdivided into 44 Union baseline to pharmacologists, phytochemists and conser- Councils. Haripur District has distinct geographical sig- vationists for further research studies. nifcance as its boundaries touch Districts Abbottabad, Mansehra, Attock, Torghar, Swabi, Buner, Rawalpindi Materials and methods (Punjab province) and the capital of Pakistan (Islama- Tis study was authorized by the Department of Biosci- bad) [27]. According to the National Institute of Popula- ence and Ofce of Research, Innovation and Commer- tion Studies (NIPS), the district’s estimated population cialization University of Wah (ORIC-UW), Wah Cantt, was 1,003,031 in 2017, having a population density of 580 Pakistan. Informed consent was obtained from each residents per square kilometer. Te dominant caste or informant before conducting the semi-structured inter- tribe of District is Awan followed by Gujjar and Tanoli. view process. Te Haripur is largely a rural district, and about only 12% Te research study was completed in four phases as of the population resides in urban areas. Te temperature follows, (1) description of the study area, (2) ethnome- in the area ranges from almost 39 °C in summer to less dicinal feld survey (primary data), (3) plant’s identifca- than 10 °C in winter. Agriculture is the primary source of tion and statistical analysis (secondary data) and (4) data livelihood of the rural population of the study area. Te compilation/documentation. area’s economic growth depends on pastures, crop diver- sity, cultivation of fodder species and the development of Study area medicinal plants and livestock diversity. Haripur District is under the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa prov- ince of Pakistan, situated between 33° 44ʹ–34° 22ʹ N Field survey and data collection latitude and 72°–35ʹ to 73°–15ʹ E longitude, at approxi- Te entire study area was regularly and seasonally mately 610 m above the sea level (Fig. 1). Te district’s (spring, summer, winter and autumn) visited from Janu- total area is 1725 ­km2, divided into sub-districts (Haripur, ary 2015 to January 2017. In the study area, the primary

Fig. 1 Map of the study area showing sampling site of Haripur District, Pakistan Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 4 of 22

target sites were Muslimabad, Barkot, Jatti Pind, Tofkian, system proposed by Raunkiær [31, 32], and modifed Khanpur, Kalinjar, Barella, Hattar, Qazipur, Ghazi, Najaf- by Brown [33], was followed to categorize the collected pur, Jabri, Nara Amazai, Rehana, Teer, Syria, Sirikot, plant specimens into their habits and life forms. Plants Bagra, Beer and Dingi. Te feld survey aimed to gather were submitted to the Herbarium, Department of Botany, feld data and activities, such as (1) plant’s collection, Hazara University Mansehra (Pakistan), and vouchers (2) local knowledge concerning plants, (3) identify- were issued. For voucher specimen, standard herbarium ing associated consequences to plants through personal techniques [34, 35] were strictly followed. observation and interviews, (4) photography and (5) medicinal plant uses along with recipes, through semi- Quantitative and correlative analysis of ethnomedicinal structured questionnaires, interviews, keen observations data and group discussions. Te questionnaire and interview Te collected ethnomedicinal data were analyzed using method helped to document indigenous folk knowledge diferent quantitative analyses, including relative fre- by involving knowledgeable persons, traditional healers quency citation (RFC), use value (UV) of medicinal plant (Hakims) and local people (Table 1). Respondents were and Jaccard index (JI) analysis by comparing the present chosen by random selection of residents who were con- study with published work to access knowledge variation siderably connected to plants and were interested in tra- among diferent communities. Te obtained data were ditional healthcare. Interviews were conducted mostly presented in percentages and proportions. in felds, and photographs were shown for identifcation with local plant name. Women were interviewed indi- rectly through male family members. Participants were Relative frequency citation (RFC) briefed about the research objectives and were allowed Te RFC was calculated without taking into account the to discontinue the interview at any time. Each informant use categories by following the formula [36]. was interviewed regularly every season. Te national lan- FC RFC = (0 > FRC > 1) guage of Pakistan (Urdu) and the native language of the N study area (Hindko) were used as a medium of communi- cation. Tereafter, an English language questionnaire was RFC shows the importance of each species in the study flled for each informant (Additional fle 1). area given by the FC (FC is the number of local inform- ants reported the uses of plant species) divided by the Plant identifcation total number of informants (N). Collected plant species were identifed with the help of Flora of Pakistan, Flora of West Pakistan [28] and Flora of Use value (UV) of plant species Punjab [29], and online Flora (www.​efor​as.​org/). Plants names were also identifed through literature, plant list Use value (UV) determines the relative importance of (www.​thepl​antli​st.​org), Medicinal plant names services plant species uses. It was calculated using the following (https://​mpns.​scien​ce.​kew.​org/​mpns-​portal/) [30]. Te formula [37]. UV = Ui/N Table 1 Demographic data about informants of the study area where “UV” indicates the use value of individual species, Variable Demographic categories Numbers Percentage “Ui” is the number of uses recoded for a given species by Gender Male 70 87.5 each informant and “N” represents the number of total Women 10 12.5 informants. Experience Traditional healer 5 6 Herdsmen 17 21 Pearson’s correlation Farmer 52 65 Pearson’s correlation, SPSS (ver. 16), tested correlation Local people 6 8 analysis between the RFC and UV. Age groups 20–40 15 19 41–60 40 50 Jaccard index (JI) Above 60 25 31 Education Illiterate 21 26 To compare the study with published literature and Primary 21 26 to access the similarity and dissimilarity of traditional Middle 16 20 knowledge among diferent communities and areas, the Matric and above 22 28 Jaccard index was calculated using the following formula [38]. Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 5 of 22

c × 100 JI = Furthermore, life spans for the majority of plants were (a + b)−c recorded as perennial (62, 77.5%), followed by annual (16, 20%) and biennial (2, 2.5%) (Fig. 3). Among these, 40 where ‘a’ represents the total number of species in area plant species were used for livestock healthcare, and 49 A (our study area), ‘b’ represents the number of species plant species were used to treat human diseases, includ- from other published area B and ‘c’ represents the num- ing 9 plant species which were commonly used for both ber of common species in both A and B. (human and livestock). Complete information about each plant species includes botanical name, family, local name, Results voucher number, habit, life span, locality, part used, Description of medicinal plant families either utilized to treat human or animal diseases or both, Te high diversity of plant families in the study area can and their recipes are listed with RFC and UV in Tables 2, be deduced from the presence of 50 diferent families. 3 and 4. Among them, Lamiaceae was the largest family having 7 species, followed by Fabaceae (6 species), Moraceae (5 Plant part(s) used species), Apocynaceae (4 species), Asteraceae, Euphor- Locals utilized diferent plant parts (either in combi- biaceae, Rhamnaceae and Solanaceae (3 species each), nation or separately) in the study area for the manage- Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Malvaceae, ment of livestock and human diseases. Among them, Meliaceae, Menispermaceae (2 species each) (Fig. 2) and leaves (47.9%) were the most commonly used part in remaining families with one species each. herbal preparations, followed by fruits (16%), whole plant (8.5%), roots (7.4%), seeds (4.3%), bark (3.2%), gum, bulb, Medicinal plant enumerations twigs, fower, resin (2.1% each), spines and pods (1.1% Eighty plants were recorded covered in this study; each) (Fig. 4A). In combination, leaves were the most herbs (33, 41.2%) were dominant, followed by shrubs common plant parts combined/utilized with fruits (3), (21, 26.2%), trees (24, 30%) and climbers (2, 2.5%). fower, roots, seed and gum, twigs and stem (1 each). Te

Fig. 2 Distribution of medicinal plant species according to their family in the study area Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 6 of 22

Fig. 3 Description of medicinal A plant enumeration, B plant habit and C plant life span of the study area

combination of gum with the spine was utilized only one Quantitative analysis time (Fig. 4B). To analyze ethnomedicinal data, quantitative value indi- ces were determined in this study. Te RFC value ranges Mode of preparation, administration and application from 0.07 to 0.81 for the recorded species, and the high- Te remedies/recipes preparations of the 80 plant spe- est value of RFC was recorded for Melia azedarach, cies are categorized according to their type of prepara- Dodonaea viscosa, Grewia optiva and Mallotus philip- tion, which revealed that decoction/tea (22 species) was pensis (0.81, 0.77, 0.71 and 0.7), respectively. a widely used preparation method by locals, followed by Te UV of plant species determines the relative impor- powdered/grinded (20 species), paste/poultice (14 spe- tance of plants in the study area. Te UV values for cies), directly eaten (12 species), juice/extract (09 spe- Curcuma longa, Adhatoda vasica, Viola odorata, Ber- cies), roasted/cooked (07 species), crushed (04 species) beris lycium, Achyranthus aspera, Melia azedarach and and chewed (one species) (Fig. 5). It was also recorded Chenopodium album were 1.06, 1.01, 1.03, 0.98, 0.93, that the local people use preparations/recipes of ethno- 0.91, 0.88, 0.87, 0.87 and 0.85, respectively, Phyllanthus medicinal plant, both as externally (25%) and internally emblica and Catharanthus roseus (0.82 each), Ama- (75%) application. ranthus viridis, Cannabis sativa, and Cynodon dactylon (0.81 each), and Ailanthus altissima and Solanum surat- Species richness for the management of human tense (0.8 each). Te other remaining plant species were and livestock diseases recorded with a UV value of < 0.81, which indicated that Local people of the study area used 49 medicinal plants they were less exploited by local people (Table 2). RFC to treat 42 diferent ailments related to humans. Tese 42 and UV were signifcantly correlated (Pearson’s test; ailments were further categorized into 12 major diseases p = 0.01), and the correlated values explained approxi- categories. It was found that single medicinal plant spe- mately 31% of the data (Additional fle 2: Table S1). cies can treat several human ailments, and several medic- inal plant species can treat single disease. In the study Comparison and Jaccard index area, 34 livestock ailments were identifed to be treated Te comparative analysis exhibited a signifcant difer- by 40 medicinal plants. Tese 34 ailments were further ence in the medicinal plant utilization among diferent categorized into 07 major disease categories (Table 5). communities of Pakistan. Twenty national studies from Te ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were utilized diferent areas of Pakistan were compared with the pre- mostly for cows (35%), followed by bufaloes (34%) and sent study. Overall, 49 species were reportedly used to goats (31%). manage human diseases. Similarity percentages ranged Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 7 of 22 0.4 0.31 0.23 0.43 0.42 0.45 0.18 0.3 0.82 0.81 0.21 0.77 0.43 0.31 0.56 0.52 0.8 0.87 UV 32 25 19 35 34 36 15 24 66 65 17 62 35 25 45 42 64 70 ∑ Ui 0.31 0.16 0.2 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.36 0.2 0.17 0.16 0.27 0.28 0.18 0.16 0.15 RFC 25 13 16 12 13 14 12 13 12 29 16 14 13 22 23 15 13 12 Quantitative Quantitative indices FC Fruit is eaten Fruit Resin is applied externally Fruit is eaten Fruit Powdered fowers and leaves and leaves fowers Powdered used as an ointment are Leaves are chewed are Leaves Leaves are crushed and applied are Leaves Grinded root is takenGrinded root g of fruit powdered is taken 10 g of fruit powdered with water Leaf juice is applied Leaf One cup of stem juice is takenOne cup of stem thrice times a day Decoction is taken of leaves Young fowers are cooked as a are fowers Young and eaten vegetable Powder (1 spoon) form of fruit (1 spoon) form Powder orally everyday with water, 10-g with twigs powdered taken thrice are water times a day One cup of seed or leaf tea is One cup of seed or leaf tea used thrice a day Two bulbs are eaten with a meal eaten bulbs are Two Bark Juice (½ cup) mixed with Bark Juice (½ cup) mixed milk and taken External application of fresh twice one week for paste root a day Ethnomedicinal recipes Ethnomedicinal Blood defciency Cuts and wounds Cuts Chest phlegm Bleeding piles Cough Wounds Stomach problem Stomach Stomach problems Stomach Wasp-sting Diabetes Diabetes and jaundice Diabetes Stomach Tonic Stomach Diabetes Hepatitis Cough and tonsillitis Cough High blood pressure Dysentery and Diarrhea Tonsillitis Diseases treated FR RE FR FL, LE LE LE RT FR LE ST LE FL FR TW LE BB BA RT Part used P P P A P P P P p P P P P P A B P P T T T H S C H T H H H T T H H H T H Life Life habit/ span life Ranjha Khanpur Shah kabul Dara Dhuniya Dhuniya Kotla Najafpur Bagra Karwali Barkot Garam thoon Pakshai Joulian Jabri Khanpur Dartian Choi Locality Anjeer Gond Amlok Datura Shakardana Phalaan jarhi, Ghora-sum Phalaan Kasni Batkhar Sadabahar Chong It-sit Kalyarh, Kachnar Nim Afsanteen Khatmi Thoom Darawa Puth-Kanda, Lehndi Booti Puth-Kanda, Lehndi Local name Local - - Ethnomedicinal plant used to treat human diseases in District Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan human diseases in District treat Ethnomedicinal plant used to Haripur, L. (Moraceae), 78-Z carica Ficus Labill. globulus Labill. Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae), 67-Z Diospyros lotus L. (Ebenaceae), Diospyros 60-Z L. (Solan - stramonium Datura aceae), 58-Z Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Colebrookea (Lamiaceae), 44-Z L. (Menisper Cissampelos pareira maceae), 42-Z Cichorium intybus L. (Aster aceae), 37-Z auct. non L. australis Celtis (Ulmaceae), 30-Z (L.) G.Don roseus Catharanthus ( Apocynaceae) , 29-Z (Edgew.) Benth. edulis (Edgew.) Caralluma (Apocynaceae),ex Hook.f. 23-Z Boerhavia difusa L. (Nyctagi - naceae), 17-Z L. (Fabaceae; L. (Fabaceae; Bauhinia variegata 14-Z subfamily Caesalpinioidea), A. Juss. (Meli - A. Juss. indica Azadirachta aceae), 13-Z Artemisia vulgaris L. (Asteraceae), 12-Z Althaea ofcinalis L. (Malvaceae), 10-Z L. (Alliaceae), Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae), 07-Z Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle 06-Z (Simaroubaceae), - L. (Amaran aspera Achyranthus thaceae), 04-Z Taxonomic name/ family, name/ family, Taxonomic no voucher 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 Table S. no Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 8 of 22 0.53 0.32 0.52 0.45 0.52 0.48 0.31 0.56 0.42 0.56 0.4 0.77 0.43 0.3 0.4 0.56 UV 43 26 42 36 42 39 25 45 34 45 32 62 35 24 32 45 ∑ Ui 0.2 0.1 0.12 0.3 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.13 0.15 0.28 0.2 0.07 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 RFC 8 6 16 10 24 15 13 13 11 12 23 16 13 13 13 13 Quantitative Quantitative indices FC - Tea of shade dried leaves is of shade dried leaves Tea taken Leaves infusion is given Leaves Dried powdered (½ spoon) of Dried powdered fruit, taken in the morning and with water evening The powder of whole plant powder The being before with butter mixed applied Fruit is eaten Fruit ½ cup of bark decoction is taken daily Resin is applied externally Tea of dried fruit is taken Tea Powdered leaves are applied as are leaves Powdered a poultice Leaf tea is used tea Leaf Leaf juice is applied Leaf Cooked vegetable of leaves is of leaves Cooked vegetable eaten Fruit is eaten Fruit Leaf tea is used tea Leaf One cup of leaf tea is takenOne cup of leaf tea 2–3 times a day The fruit is left over The in the water in as a frst food night and eaten the morning Ethnomedicinal recipes Ethnomedicinal Asthma Chest infection Diabetes and kidneyDiabetes stones Wounds Carminative Jaundice Skin problems Chest infection and cough Chest infection Skin infammations Skin pimples Skin care Constipation, diuretic and diuretic Constipation, obesity Anthelmintic Fever, dysentery and vomiting Fever, Chest infection and asthma Chest infection Blood defciency and abdomi - nal problems Diseases treated LE LE FR WP FR BA RE FR LE LE LE LE FR LE LE FR Part used A A P P P P P A A P A P P P B P H H S S S T T H H T H H S H H T Life Life habit/ span life Najafpur Kot-jandaan Rajdhani Old Khanpur Ranjha Chasklawaan Bagla Halli Halli Garam thoon Desra Chaskalawaan Najafpur Bhamala Kohala Ranjha Locality Kach mach Khub kalan Gangeeri Chita Kanda, Bamboli Garacha Kangur Chir Khashkhash Khat-matra Kaho Niaz-bo Tara meera Tara khokonr Chita podna Khabazi Phagwari Local name Local - (continued) Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae), 260-Z Sisymbrium irio L. (Brassicaceae), 257-Z (Osbeck) Sageretia thea (Osbeck) M.C.Johnst. (Rhamnaceae), 252-Z Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Albert (Lami - V.A. Scheen & aceae), 192-Z L. (Rosaceae), Rubus fruticosus 235-Z subsp. chinensis subsp. Pistacia integerrima (J.L.Stewart) Rech.f. 218-Z (Anacardiaceae), Sarg. (Pinaceae), (Pinaceae), Sarg. roxburghii Pinus 212-Z Papaver somniferum L. (Papaver Papaver aceae), 202-Z - L. (Oxali corniculata Oxalis daceae), 197-Z Olea ferruginea Royle (Oleaceae), 186-Z Ocimum basilicum L. (Lami - aceae), 174-Z W.T.Aiton Nasturtium ofcinale W.T.Aiton (Brassicaceae), 155-Z - L. (Primula Myrsine africana ceae), 148-Z Mentha longifolia L. (Lamiaceae), 131-Z L. (Malvaceae), sylvestris Malva 120-Z . palmata Forssk Ficus (Moraceae), 79-Z Taxonomic name/ family, name/ family, Taxonomic no voucher 34 33 32 26 31 30 29 28 27 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 2 Table S. no Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 9 of 22 0.47 0.75 0.56 0.91 0.41 0.62 UV 38 60 45 73 33 50 ∑ Ui 0.16 0.4 0.11 0.33 0.16 0.28 RFC 9 13 32 27 13 23 Quantitative Quantitative indices FC Paste of grinded leaves are are leaves of grinded Paste applied One spoon of dried or fresh One spoon of dried or fresh is taken daily seeds powdered A poultice of leaves is applied A poultice of leaves externally Leaf tea is taken tea Leaf A few leaves are soaked for a soaked for are leaves A few and while in a glass of water times daily taken three Juice of pulp is drunk daily Ethnomedicinal recipes Ethnomedicinal Wounds Jaundice Skin diseases Cough, cold and fu Cough, Male sexual weakness Fever and liver tonic and liver Fever Diseases treated LE SD LE LE LE PP Part used P P A A P S S/T S H H T Life Life habit/ span life Sarhadna Halli Shah Kabul Kharian Neelan bhoto Bees ban Locality Beri Timber Taawi, Dhawi Taawi, Ba-nafsha Gokhru Imli Local name Local (continued) (Burm.f.) Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) & Arn. (Rhamnaceae)Wight , 281-Z Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Zanthoxylum (Rutaceae) , 280-Z (L.) Kurz fruticosa Woodfordia 279-Z (Lythraceae), L. (Violaceae),Viola odorata 277-Z - L. (Zygophyl terrestris Tribulus laceae), 274-Z L. (Fabaceae), L. (Fabaceae), indica Tamarindus 268-Z Taxonomic name/ family, name/ family, Taxonomic no voucher 40 39 38 37 36 35 2 Table S. no Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 10 of 22 0.68 0.23 0.42 0.31 0.81 0.98 0.23 0.85 0.56 0.31 0.56 1.01 0.48 0.88 0.81 0.43 UV 55 19 34 25 65 79 19 68 45 25 45 81 39 71 65 35 ∑ Ui 0.22 0.15 0.77 0.15 0.51 0.46 0.16 0.16 0.37 0.38 0.15 0.16 0.13 0.43 0.16 0.16 RFC 18 12 62 12 41 37 13 13 30 31 12 13 11 35 13 13 Quantitative Quantitative indices FC A paste of prop root along root of prop A paste with honey is given Powdered leaves and seeds leaves Powdered with water given are Leaves are heated and heated are Leaves then tied with soil, mixed the fracture over Leaf paste with a little paste Leaf amount of salt is given Plant juice is given twice a juice is given Plant a week for day A decoction of leaves is A decoction of leaves 3 days for given Root and leaves decoctionRoot and leaves 5 days for is given The paste is applied to is applied to paste The wounds Dried pod powder is given is given Dried pod powder orally Leaves are crushed and fed are Leaves Fresh leaves are fed are leaves Fresh Latex is applied externallyLatex Paste of stem bark mixed bark of stem mixed Paste with turmeric (haldi) and applied The powdered root bark is root powdered The It wounds. is also applied to internal injury for given A decoction of leaves is A decoction of leaves with a small amount given of salt Grinded bulb mixed with Grinded bulb mixed with black salt is given water Ethnoveterinary recipes Ethnoveterinary Diarrhea and dysentery Food poisoning Food Bone fracture Diarrhea Hematuria Wound healing Wound Antidiuretic Wound healing Wound Asthma and pneumonia Asthma Foot and mouth disease Foot Loss of appetite Loss Wounds Dislocated bones Dislocated Wounds and internal injuryWounds Milk Production Mouth infections Animal disease treated Animal Goat, bufalo and cow Goat, bufalo and cow Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Bufaloes, cow and goat cow Bufaloes, Cow and goat Cow Bufaloes Goat and cow Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Goat, bufalo and cow Goat, bufalo and cow Bufalo and cow Goat, bufalo and cow Animal treated Animal RT LE and SD LE LE WP LE LE, RT WP PD LE LE LA ST, BA ST, RT LE BB Part used P A P P P P A A P P A P P P A P T H S T H H H H T S S S T S H H Life Life habit/ life span Bandi KotnajibUllah Garam Thoon Bareela Nara Amazai Khanpur Beer Kohala Ranjha Choi Hattar Ghazi Daboola Dartian Jabri Khanpur Locality Bohr Chhatri Dodak Sanatha Taali, Sheesham Taali, Khabal Haldi Dhania Bthawa Kinjal, Amaltas Garinda Pang, bhang Pang, Akk Sambal Simbulu Chaleray Payaz Local name Local - Ethnomedicinal plant used to treat livestock diseases in District Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan diseases in District livestock Haripur, treat Ethnomedicinal plant used to Ficus benghalensis L. Ficus (Moraceae), 76-Z L. helioscopia Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae), 70-Z (L.) Jacq. Dodonaea (L.) Jacq. viscosa (Sapindaceae), 65-Z Roxb. ex DC. sissoo Roxb. Dalbergia 55-Z (Fabaceae), (L.) Pers. dactylon (L.) Pers. Cynodon 54-Z (Poaceae), Curcuma longa L. (Wild)Curcuma 49-Z (Zingiberaceae), - sativum L. (Api Coriandrum aceae), 46-Z Chenopodium album L. 34-Z (Chenopodiaceae), L. (Fabaceae; fstula L. (Fabaceae; Cassia subfamily Caesalpinioidea), 28-Z Stapf ex opaca Carissa Haines (Apocynaceae) , 26-Z - L. (Canna sativa Cannabis baceae), 22-Z W. T. Aiton T. W. procera Calotropis 20-Z (Asclepiadaceae), L. (Bom - Bombax ceiba bacaceae), 19-Z Royle (Ber Berberis lycium beridaceae), 16-Z - viridis L. (Ama Amaranthus ranthaceae), 11-Z L. (AmarylliAllium cepa - daceae), 08-Z Taxonomic name/ family, name/ family, Taxonomic no voucher 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 3 Table S. no Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 11 of 22 0.51 0.47 0.35 0.16 0.11 0.8 0.57 0.5 1.03 0.68 0.43 0.45 0.65 0.36 1.06 UV 9 41 38 28 13 64 46 40 83 55 35 36 52 29 85 ∑ Ui 0.23 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.07 0.21 0.13 0.2 0.56 0.1 0.28 0.65 0.7 0.12 0.71 RFC 9 6 8 19 13 11 17 11 16 45 23 52 56 10 57 Quantitative Quantitative indices FC Decoction is given Warmed leaves are tied over tied over are leaves Warmed bones the fractured Leaves poultice is applied Leaves externally decoction is used form 4 days continuously for The whole plant is fed The Crushed plant mixed with Crushed plant mixed four is given Decoction is given Seed oil is given along with Seed oil is given fodder Decoction is given The dried powdered plant is driedThe powdered in a small with water given quantity Decoction is given Fresh leaves along with leaves Fresh given black salt are Dried powdered fruit is Dried powdered 3 days for given Decoction is given Leaves are fed are Leaves Ethnoveterinary recipes Ethnoveterinary Dysentery Fractured bones Fractured Infammation and swellings Fever Milk defciency Fever Internal injuries Constipation Anthelmintic Stomachache Mastitis Dysentery Intestinal worms Joint pains Easy delivery Animal disease treated Animal Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Goat, bufalo and cow Goat, bufalo and cow Goat, bufalo and cow Goat, bufalo and cow Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Goat, and bufalos cow Goat Goat, and bufalo cow Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Goat, bufalo and cow Goat, bufalo and cow Bufalo Animal treated Animal LE LE LE ST and LE WP WP RT SD LE and FR WP FR and LE LE FR LE and TW LE Part used P P A P P A P P P P P P P P P T S H C H H H Sb S S T H S S T Life Life habit/ life span Karwali Choi Halli Kotla Dara Khoi Kaman Kohala Mang Barkot Najafpur Dara Bhamala Noorpur Hattar Babootri Locality Bairi Somali, MarvanI Kali booti Gulo Hand Mohree Kallijari Arand Daruna Kundair Chita toot Podina Kamila Chandni Dhaman Local name Local (continued) Ziziphus jujuba Mill . (Rham - naceae), 283-Z Vitex negundo L. (Lami - aceae), 278-Z Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Trichodesma 275-Z (Boraginaceae), Br. (Willd.) cordifolia Tinospora Miers. (Menispermaceae), 271-Z F.H. ofcinale F.H. Taraxacum 270-Z (Asteraceae), Wigg. Burm. f. Burm. f. Solanum surattense (Solanaceae), 264-Z Wall. ex Wall. Salvia moorcroftiana Benth (Lamiaceae), 254-Z Ricinus L. communis (Euphorbiaceae), 230-Z - L. (Puni granatum Punica caceae), 221-Z Nerium oleander L. (Apocyn - aceae), 162-Z (L.) Roxb. Morus alba (L.) Roxb. (Moraceae), 144-Z Mentha arvensis L. (Lami - aceae), 130-Z Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) (Euphorbiaceae) , Arg. Müll. 114-Z L. (Verben camara Lantana - aceae), 102-Z J.R. Drumm. ex J.R. optiva Grewia (Tiliaceae),Burret 90-Z Taxonomic name/ family, name/ family, Taxonomic no voucher 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 3 Table S. no Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 12 of 22 UV 0.68 0.5 0.93 0.4 0.46 0.87 0.31 0.82 ∑ Ui 55 40 75 32 37 70 25 66 c RFC 0.2 0.16 0.21 0.17 0.46 0.81 0.21 0.18 Quantitative Quantitative ­ indices FC 16 13 17 14 37 65 17 15 Ethnomedicinal recipes Ethnomedicinal A decoction of leaves and A decoction of leaves 3 days for seeds is given Gum is fried with wheat is This ghee." four in "desi known in the as "Halwa" local community and given after women especially to delivery A decoction of spines is 3 days for given Powdered gum at 10-g Powdered is takenwith milk/water externally application of poultice leaves One cup of leaves juice is One cup of leaves taken in a day Powdered roots are given given are roots Powdered 4 days for with water Leaf gel is burnt over gel is burnt over Leaf the frypan and applied externally Leaves are roasted and roasted are Leaves twice for a day fed cooled, 3 days Leaf tea is used tea Leaf Crushed leaves are fed fed are Crushed leaves along with bamboo leaves 1 spoon of powdered fruit 1 spoon of powdered is taken at night with water Dried powdered leaves are are leaves Dried powdered given Ripped fruit is eaten Powdered fruit with Powdered Ocimum is basilicum leaves orally given The fruit is cooked in “lassi” “lassi” fruit is cookedThe in and eaten Disease treated Delivery Backache Colic pain Colic Stomach ulcer Stomach Wounds and infamma - Wounds tions Diabetes and jaundice Diabetes Gastro-intestinal Skin problems Diarrhea Throat problems Throat Intestinal- and stom worm ach fatulence High blood pressure Laxative Cough and throat infection and throat Cough Anthrax Fever Organism treated Organism Cow and bufalo Cow Human Cow and bufalo Cow Human Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Human Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Human Goat, bufalo and cow Human Human Bufalo and cow Human Bufalo cow and goat Bufalo cow Human b ­ used Part LE, SD GM S P, GM LE LE RT LE LE LE LE LE LE FR FR FR a P P P P P P P P Life Life habit/ life ­ span T T S H H T T T Locality Dartian Najafpur Halli Dara Neelan bhoto Sarhadna Dara Daboola Local name Local Phulai Kikar Bhaikur, Aroosa Bhaikur, Kanwar-ghandal Barhami Daraik, Bakain Kala She-toot toot, Amla Ethnomedicinal plant used to treat human and livestock diseases in District Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan diseases in District human and livestock Haripur, treat Ethnomedicinal plant used to Taxonomic name/family, name/family, Taxonomic no voucher Wall modesta Wall Acacia subfamily (Fabaceae; Mimosoideae), 03-Z (L.) Delile nilotica Acacia subfamily M. (Fabaceae; Mimosoideae), 02-Z Nees. Nees. vasica Adhatoda 05-Z (Acanthaceae), Aloe barbadensis Mill. (Lili - aceae), 09-Z (L.) Urb. (L.) Urb. asiatica Centella 33-Z (Apiaceae), (L.) Pers (L.) Pers Melia azedarach (Meliaceae), 124-Z L. (Moraceae), Morus nigra 145-Z - L. (Phyl emblica Phyllanthus lanthaceae), 208-Z 4 Table S. no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 13 of 22 UV 0.38 ∑ Ui 31 c RFC 0.11 9 Quantitative Quantitative ­ indices FC Ethnomedicinal recipes Ethnomedicinal The whole plant is fed The Powdered roots are given given are roots Powdered with water Disease treated Appetite Diarrhea Use = Use values Organism treated Organism Cow, bufalo and goat Cow, Human b ­ used sum of uses, UV sum of uses, Part WP WP = a P ∑ Ui Life Life habit/ life ­ span S Locality Najafpur Frequency = Frequency citation, Local name Local Katmal, Tehtur Relative frequency FC of citation, Relative = (continued) Taxonomic name/family, name/family, Taxonomic no voucher D.Don Rumex hastatus D.Don 238-Z (Polygonaceae), Plant Part(s); RT, Root; LE, Leaf; ST, Stem; FR, Fruit; SH, Shoot; WP, Whole Plant; BA, Bark; SD, Seed; RH, Rhizome; FL, Flower; GM, Gum; RE, Resin; BB, Bulb; TW, Twigs; PP, Pulp; SP, Spine SP, Pulp; PP, Twigs; TW, Bulb; Resin; GM, Gum; RE, BB, Seed; RH, Rhizome; FL, Flower; BA, Bark; Plant; SD, Whole WP, SH, Shoot; FR, Fruit; Stem; Leaf; Root; LE, ST, RT, Part(s); Plant Life Habit/Life span; S, Shrubs; H, Herbs; C, Climbers; T, Trees; A, Annual; B, Biennial; P, Perennial Biennial; P, B, A, Annual; Trees; T, span; S, Shrubs; H, Herbs; C, Climbers; Habit/Life Life Quantitative Indices; RFC Quantitative 4 Table a b c S. no 9 Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 14 of 22

Fig. 4 Utilization of A plant parts B plant parts in combination for management of livestock and human diseases

from 0 to 57.1%. Te similarity index (JI) value ranges medicinal plant or their parts are collected in diferent from 1.76 to 16.85 (Table 6). seasons depending upon their availability or frequency of Furthermore, 25 national studies from the diferent active constituent deposition. Te accessibility and avail- areas of Pakistan were compared with the present 40 ability of plant species may also involve their utilization reported species for management of veterinary diseases. rate, such as perennial plants having longer life cycles Te similarity percentage ranges from 0 to 60%. Te than other plant life cycles [1, 87–89]. Tus, indigenous degree of similarity index (JI) value ranges from 1.17 to communities in the present study area were more likely 32.78 (Table 7). to prefer perennial plants due to their long life-cycle and availability. Major threats to plant diversity Plant parts, modes of preparation and application play Plant resources are under severe threats; the major a signifcant role in herbal medicine [90]. Most herbalists threats (fres, overgrazing, overexploitation and mining believe that plant leaves have various bioactive chemical activities) were observed in the visited localities of the compounds which can be easily extracted [5, 91]. Leaves study area. Among them, the plant diversity of Garmt- were the most exploited part for medicinal purposes in hun, Najafour, Dartian, Baghpur dehri and Jabri was the present study and several other studies [92, 93]. Fur- exposed to all these major threats. Moreover, Sarae Neh- thermore, the collection of leaves may not threaten the mat Khan and Ghazi were less/non exposed to the threat plant survival compared to the collection of the whole activities except only overgrazing (Table 8). plant, stem, or roots, which can drive the plant species to extinction if over-collected [94]. While extraction Discussion from fresh material would be considered more useful Te utilization of medicinal plant species belonging to to avoid microbial fermentation [95], previous studies the dominant plant families (Lamiaceae, Moraceae, Apo- demonstrated that decoction is the most commonly cynaceae, Asteraceae, etc.) in the study area suggests that used preparation method for ethnobotanical medicines the families may have wide distribution, or the plant spe- by traditional healers in herbal recipes [96, 97]. Tis cies are well known to communities for their medicinal method may be commonly used due to its simplicity [98], purpose. Te traditional knowledge of various plant fam- or due to the heating process which speeds up biologi- ilies had been published around the world; among them, cal reaction and results in higher availability of bioactive Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Moraceae are well known compounds [99–101]. In our study area, other areas of for their medicinal purpose among the people of Paki- Pakistan [5, 82, 102, 103] and a few other countries [104– stan [20], and other parts of the world [3, 80–82]; this 108], the most frequently used method of plant-based knowledge may be transferred over many diferent com- medicine preparation is decoction. In regard to the vari- munities. In the traditional medicine system, herbaceous ous preparation methods documented in our study, other medicinal plant have been commonly used on a large studies have also revealed similar fndings; the most fre- scale compared to other types of plants [83–86]. Te quently used method of preparation in Azad Jammu and Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 15 of 22

Fig. 5 Commonly used methods in the preparation of plant recipes

Kashmir, Pakistan was decoction (18%), followed by pow- uses of Achyranthus aspera roots for tonsillitis, while der and juice (17%), paste (15.5%), chewing (11%), extract its leaves were previously practiced for wound healing (8%), infusion (7%) and poultice (5.5%) [97]. [109], Datura stramonium for bleeding piles, while in Te traditional knowledge of herbal remedies for the Haramosh and Bugrote Valleys, Pakistan, its leaves are management of various diseases may vary due to cul- practiced for injuries, wounds, bleedings and pains [52], tural diferences, areas and communities. However, it is Zanthoxylum armatum for jaundice, while in southern also believed that one plant species/part can treat various Himalayan regions of Pakistan, its branches are employed types of disease due to its diverse chemical constituents. for toothache and edible fruits in cardiac disorders [110]. Likewise, the present study demonstrated the traditional Moreover, in comparison with other studies revealed that some species have similar uses, and some plant species are exploited for diferent diseases [111–113], in addition Table 5 Major disease categories of human and livestock with to the folk herbal medicinal literature. number of remedies Likewise, some plant species we recorded in our study Disease treated No. of remedies area refect similar traditional veterinary uses compared to other traditional knowledge of ethnomedicinal plant Human Livestock ailments ailments studies. For example, Mallotus philippensis seed powder is used in abdominal worms to remove the threadworms Digestive system-related 12 16 [73], and Melia azedarach is used to reduce intestinal Dermal and wound problems 10 05 worm load in cattle, recoded with high a (100%) fdel- Liver tonic and jaundice 06 – ity level [114]. In contrast, some studies refect dissimi- Diabetes 05 – lar traditional uses of plants, such as Grewia optiva for Respiratory system-related 05 02 wound healing [58], leaves paste of Dodonaea viscosa is Circulatory system and blood-related 04 – used as tonic and for wound healing [62, 115], fruits of Mouth and throat infections 03 02 Solanum surattense are used for pregnancy improvement Excretory system-related 02 02 [115], and in curing myiasis [31], the leaves and shoot of Fever 02 02 Carissa opaca are fed to increase the milk yield in goats Animal and insect bites 01 – [116], Berberis lycium root and stem powder for treat Bones and joints related 01 06 trauma in livestock in Afghanistan [117], Punica grana- Reproductive system-related 01 05 tum is used in foot infection [118], fever, dehydration, Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 16 of 22 Citation [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 13 ] [ 41 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] [ 44 ] [ 45 ] [ 46 ] [ 47 ] [ 48 ] [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] [ 52 ] [ 53 ] [ 54 ] [ 55 ] [ 56 ] [ 57 ] JI 6.12 5.88 9.40 9.64 2.72 1.76 4.87 3.60 5.45 2.27 5.43 16.85 1.98 4.12 5.19 2.10 2.88 3.38 10.65 11.86 % of plants % of plants with dis-similar use 83.3 42.8 63.6 72.7 100 100 100 75 66.6 66.6 80 66.6 100 75 75 50 100 50 69.2 92.8 % of plants % of plants with a similar use 16.6 57.1 36.3 27.2 0 0 0 25 33.3 33.3 20 33.3 0 25 25 50 0 50 30.7 7.1 Species enlisted Species enlisted only in study area 74 73 69 69 77 78 76 76 74 77 75 65 78 76 72 78 77 76 67 66 Species enlisted Species enlisted only in aligned areas 30 53 59 56 36 37 10 39 42 58 22 39 25 25 90 19 30 46 68 66 5 3 4 Total species Total in both common area 06 07 11 11 03 02 04 04 06 03 15 02 04 08 02 13 14 3 Plants with Plants dis-similar use 05 03 07 08 03 02 04 03 04 02 04 10 02 03 06 01 02 09 13 0 0 0 0 0 Plants with Plants similar use 01 04 04 03 01 02 01 01 05 01 02 01 02 04 01 Number of plant recorded species 36 60 70 67 39 39 14 43 48 61 27 54 27 29 98 21 33 50 81 80 Study year Study 2017 2016 2014 2013 2012 2012 2012 2011 2011 2010 2010 2010 2009 2009 2008 2007 2007 2007 2007 2006 - - Comparative analysis between this study and other studies from Pakistan of medicinal plant used for human diseases management of medicinal plant used for Pakistan analysis between this study and other studies from Comparative 6 Table Area Chitral District Charsadda Indus river District Abbot tabad Hingol national park Neelum valley (AJK) Khushab District Attock District Sialkot Kalat and Khuzdar District Bannu District Abbot tabad Northern Pakistan Tehsil Chakwal Tehsil Gilgit District Mianwali Bagh (AK) Mahal (Kohistan) M2 motorway Siran valley Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 17 of 22 Citation [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 60 ] [ 61 ] [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 16 ] [ 69 ] [ 70 ] [ 71 ] [ 72 ] [ 19 ] [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] [ 27 ] [ 76 ] [ 77 ] [ 78 ] [ 79 ] JI 12.69 13.88 13.33 3.38 6.14 10 11.82 8.46 32.78 8.08 2.08 11.11 16.9 20.5 3.15 5 10.8 8.97 5 1.17 0.98 2.83 5.94 2.04 16.85 % of plants % of plants with dis-similar use 87.5 86.6 91.6 100 71.4 87.5 81.8 81.8 40 87.5 100 55.5 68.4 42.8 100 100 72.7 42.8 80 100 100 66.6 83.3 100 80 % of plants % of plants with a similar use 12.5 13.3 8.3 00 28.5 12.5 18.1 18.1 60 12.5 00 44.4 31.5 57.1 00 00 27.2 57.1 20 00 00 33.3 16.6 00 20 Species enlisted Species enlisted only in study area 64 65 68 76 73 72 69 69 60 72 78 71 61 66 77 75 69 73 75 79 79 77 74 78 65 7 Species enlisted Species enlisted only in aligned areas 78 58 34 46 48 16 35 72 21 35 20 19 70 16 21 30 43 12 30 24 32 33 22 39 Total species Total in both common area 16 15 12 04 07 08 11 11 20 08 02 09 19 14 03 05 11 07 05 01 01 03 06 02 15 1 Plants with Plants dis-similar uses 14 13 11 04 05 07 09 09 08 07 02 05 13 06 03 05 08 03 04 01 02 05 02 12 0 Plants with Plants similar uses 02 02 01 00 02 01 02 02 12 01 00 04 06 08 00 00 03 04 01 00 01 01 00 03 Total Total species recorded 94 73 46 50 55 24 46 83 41 43 22 28 89 30 24 35 54 19 35 08 25 35 39 24 54 Study year Study 2018 2018 2017 2017 2017 2016 2015 2015 2014 2014 2014 2014 2013 2012 2012 2012 2012 2012 2010 2010 2009 2009 2009 2007 2006 Comparative analysis between this study and other studies from Pakistan of medicinal plant used for the management of livestock diseases the management of livestock of medicinal plant used for Pakistan analysis between this study and other studies from Comparative 7 Table Area FATA, Pakistan FATA, Bajaur Agency, Bajaur Agency, Pakistan District Pakistan Jhang, Neelum Valley, Pakistan Valley, Neelum Chail valley, Pakistan Chail valley, Hangu, Pakistan Hangu, Karak, Pakistan Peshawar, KPK, Peshawar, Pakistan Sulaiman Range, Pakistan DI Khan, Pakistan Tharparkar, Pakistan Tharparkar, Malakand valley, Pakistan Lesser Himalaya, Lesser Pakistan Bafa, Pakistan Allai, Pakistan Jhang, Pakistan Jhang, Northern Pakistan Poonch Valley, Azad Valley, Poonch Kashmir Hilly Pakistan area, Suleiman region, Suleiman region, Pakistan Sargodha,Pakistan Cholistan dessert, Pakistan Faisalabad, Pakistan Faisalabad, Kashmir Himalaya, Pakistan Samahni valley, Samahni valley, Pakistan Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 18 of 22

Table 8 Major threats to the medicinal plant observed in District Indigenous knowledge of the people may vary greatly Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan due to discrepancies in their origins and cultures. Doc- Locality/threat Mining Over Over grazing Fire umenting and comparing this knowledge may reveal activities exploitation a considerable depth of knowledge among communi- Khanpur ties, resulting in novel sources for drug development + − + + Beer [124]. Such studies also illustrate the value of indigenous − + + + Garmthun medicinal plant information, with disparities between + + + + Najafpur areas arising as a result of ecological [125], historical + + + + Hattar [126], phytochemical and even organoleptic diferences − − + + Jabri [127]. Similar in terms of their cultural values and cli- + + + + Baghpur dehri matic conditions to the study area, the Jaccard index + + + + Dartian showed signifcant results; the highest degree of similar- + + + + Nilan Bhoto ity index was with studies by Abbasi et al. [49], Shah and − + + − Khan [57], Ahmad [56], Mussarat et al. [13], with JI values Babotri − + + + 16.85, 11.86, 10.65 and 9.40, respectively, for the man- Pharala + + + − agement of human diseases. Likewise, Tariq et al. [66], Ghazi − − + − Abbasi et al. [69], Ch et al. [79],, Badar et al. [60] had JI Kohala + − + + values of 32.78, 16.9, 16.85, 13.88 and 13.33, respectively, Sarae Nehmat Khan − − + − for ethnoveterinary medicinal plant. Te studies might Nara Amazai − + + − have a cross-cultural exchange of knowledge between the Data: presence, absence + − communities through any means, historical and ecologi- cal factors, common ethnic values and similar vegetation types. Te lowest JI values were for the studies conducted internal parasite, tonic, indigestion, paralysis, gastric by Ahmad et al. [43], Afzal et al. [50], with JI values 1.76 troubles, burns, fatulence and several other diseases [32, and 1.98, respectively, for human disease management. 118, 119], Adhatoda vasica leaves are used for cough in Likewise, Dilshad et al. [27], Raziq et al. [75], Khuroo cow and goat [120], Cynodon dactylon leaves are used in et al. [78] and Mirani et al. [68] had JI values of 0.98, 1.17, burn injuries [121], leaves of Mentha arvensis are given to 2.04 and 2.08, respectively, for ethnoveterinary medici- the animal if he stops taking food and also to cure bloat nal plant. Tese fndings are in agreement with studies [116], Curcuma longa rhizome and Acacia modesta gums carried out by Kayani et al. [128]. Tis might be due to are used for skeleton-muscular ailments [122], and Ama- a greater diference in ethnobotanical knowledge due to ranthus viridis fresh plant was given to cattle as purgative diferences in population size, species diversity, habitat in case of constipation [19], Furthermore, Acacia nilotica structure, or less chance of exchanging cultural knowl- is used to treat jaundice and dysentery [123], which may edge between the areas. Te Jaccard index analysis may refect the novel and the new uses of plant species in the strengthen the value of reported medicinal plant species present study area. Comparing present fndings with pre- with their matching uses to other studies, which may vious studies shows that the same medicinal plant are provide a baseline for phytochemical, and pharmacogno- used in diferent parts of the country for diferent dis- stic studies. eases. Moreover, people also used diferent plant parts of On the other hand, the JI analysis may refect the novel the same plant for similar or diferent diseases. uses of medicinal plant from the present study area, Use value and RFC value are dynamic as it changes which may be due to the areas: (1) unique phytogeog- with area and depend on the traditional knowledge of the raphy, (2) distinguished indigenous culture and history, local people, so the UV and RFC value may vary within (3) remarkable phytodiversity, (4) existence of diferent the same area or area to area and community to commu- tribes and castes, (5) diferences in methods of medici- nity [90]. Te plant species with low UV or RFC value is nal plant collection, their processing, preparations, considered less important species for the local people; in usage and storage, (6) ethnobotanical knowledge varia- fact, young people may have limited knowledge to these tions, (7) less chance of the exchange of cultural knowl- species and may consider them unimportant, which is edge between the study area to other areas may be due an alarming risk to traditional knowledge that is depend- to restricted movement of people because of their resi- ent on transference from generation to generation. As a dences in remote and hilly areas, (8) absence of a proper result, this knowledge may gradually disappear. system of documentation, sharing and conservation of Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 19 of 22

folk knowledge, (9) least interest of the younger gen- Supplementary Information eration in folk knowledge and practices, (10) diferences The online version contains supplementary material available at https://​doi.​ in plant parts used, diseases treated and recipes, such org/​10.​1186/​s13002-​021-​00480-x. as our study area’s preparation methods, are diferent from other areas of Pakistan for the same plant part and Additional fle 1: File S1. Sample of questionnaire used during feld survey for obtaining ethnobotanical information treated disease, and (11) ethnomedicinal use of plant Additional fle 2: Fig. S1. Description of the study area, Haripur District, in our study area may not be documented or published Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Fig. S2. Images of some ethnoveterinary from other study areas. medicinal plant of District Haripur. Table S1. Relationship between Rela- During surveys, it was observed that local plant tive frequency of citation (RFC) and Use Value (UV) resources are severely threatened by forest fres in sum- mer, overgrazing (nomadic and normal), overexploita- Acknowledgements tion and mining activities. People living in the far-fung The authors thankfully acknowledge the free participation of the traditional healers and other local respondents who provided relevant information about mountains of the area have no/or less modern health- the medicinal plant and made this survey possible. The authors also extend care system, so most people rely on medicinal plant, and their thanks to Russell Gray (Wildlife Ecology & Conservation Consultant) for unsustainable collection may drive the fora to extinction the English language editing of the manuscript. [129–131]. During our study, it was also unveiled that Authors’ contributions over time, important folk indigenous knowledge about N.S. and A.N. contributed to conceptualization; G.M.S., Z.S. and N.S. provided plants was limited to older people only, as the younger methodology; N.S. provided software; Z.S., M.H. and A.M. performed valida- tion; N.S. and Z.S. carried out formal analysis and investigation; A.N., M.S. and people have less interest in folk knowledge and tradi- L.Y. performed data curation; Z.S. and N.S. performed writing—original draft tional practices due to transforming lifestyle and culture; preparation; N.S., G.M.S. and A.N. performed writing—review and editing; this can be inferred from the informant’s knowledge by G.M.S. and M.I. done supervision; I.K. contributed to funding acquisition. All authors read and approved the fnal manuscript. age, which showed informants 6.2%, ≤ 30 years of age. Funding This research received no external funding. Conclusion Availability of data and materials In summary, the current study reported the important All the data are in manuscript and supporting documents. ethnomedicinal plant practiced in veterinary and human healthcare by the local people of District Haripur, Paki- Declarations stan. Like the rural population of other countries, the local people also rely on medicinal plant to treat livestock Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was authorized by the Department of Bioscience and Ofce of and human diseases may due to traditional culture, easy Research, Innovation and Commercialization University of Wah (ORIC-UW), availability and cheaper sources. Comparative analysis of Wah Cantt, Pakistan. the present study and their matching with other studies Consent for publication from Pakistan may refect the novel use of these plants, All authors read and approved the fnal manuscript for publication. which can provide a base line for pharmacognostic stud- ies. Scientifc and experimental validation of traditional Competing interests knowledge is necessary to ensure safety and efcacy; The authors declare that they have no competing interests. therefore, the phytochemical, toxicological and clinical Author details studies on the documented fora are recommended for a 1 Department of Biosciences, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan. 2 Key Laboratory of Silviculture, Collaborative Innovation Center of Jiangxi Typical better understanding. In the study area, ethnomedicinal Trees Cultivation and Utilization, College of Forestry, Jiangxi Agricultural Uni- plant are also under severe threats, and combined eforts versity, Nanchang 330045, People’s Republic of China. 3 Department of Botany, should be made to secure both the plant resources and Hazara University, Mansehra 21300, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. 4 Key Laboratory of Modern Preparation of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ministry folk knowledge. In this regard, awareness campaigns, of Education, State Key Lab of Innovation Drug and Efcient Energy‑Saving conservation eforts and pharmacological and applied Pharmaceutical Equipment, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, research studies are required. Nanchang 330004, Jiangxi, People’s Republic of China. 5 Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 818 Meiling Road, Nanchang 330006, People’s Republic of China. 6 Science and Technology College, Jiangxi University Abbreviations of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 818 Meiling Road, Nanchang 330006, 7 EVM: ethnoveterinary medicine; RFC: relative frequency of citation; FC: People’s Republic of China. State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory frequency citation; ∑Ui: sum of uses; UV: use values; S: shrubs; H: herbs; C: of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, climbers; T: trees; A: annual; B: biennial; P: perennial; RT: root; LE: leaf; ST: stem; Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130117, People’s Republic of China. 8 FR: fruit; SH: shoot; WP: whole plant; BA: bark; SD: seed; RH: rhizome; FL: fower; Soil Science and Plant nutrient Unit, Brunei Agricultural Research Center, 9 GM: gum; RE: resin; BB: bulb; TW: twigs; PP: pulp; SP: spine. Kilanas, BG 1121, Brunei Darussalam. Department of Agriculture, Hazara University, Mansehra 21300, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. 10 Department Siddique et al. J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine (2021) 17:55 Page 20 of 22

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