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Optimal Utilisation of Thermal Springs in South Africa

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Optimal Utilisation of Thermal Springs in South Africa OPTIMAL UTILISATION OF THERMAL SPRINGS IN SOUTH AFRICA Report to the WATER RESEARCH COMMISSION by Jana Olivier & Nelia Jonker UNISA WRC Report No. TT 577/13 November 2013 With inputs from the team: Ernest Tshibalo, Memory Tekere, Peter Nyabeze, Humberto Saeze, Bisrat Yibas, Matome Sekiba,Tshepo Motlakeng, Isaac Rampedi, Jaco Venter & Hannes Rautenbach Obtainable from Water Research Commission Private Bag X03 Gezina, 0031 [email protected] or download from www.wrc.org.za The publication of this report emanates from a project entitled Optimal Utilisation of Thermal Springs in South Africa (WRC Project No. K5/1959). DISCLAIMER This report has been reviewed by the Water Research Commission (WRC) and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the WRC nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. ISBN 978-1-4312-0481-6 © WATER RESEARCH COMMISSION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Thermal (hot) springs have been used for religious and/or medicinal purposes for hundreds, if not thousands of years. Many of these developed into flourishing centres of culture, health and tourism. Although some remained popular over time, many have fallen into disuse. Even the most spectacular of these phenomena (such as geysers) were perceived as having only limited development potential – merely as tourist resorts. Consequently, most research focused on the geological characteristics of this natural phenomenon. However, during the last few decades, their potential as versatile natural resources has become increasingly apparent. In addition to being popular tourist resorts, recent thermal spring uses include: the generation of electricity (geothermal power) and for agriculture, aquaculture, bottling, the extraction of rare elements, and the use of thermophilic bacteria for industrial purposes. Moreover, the natural health industry is expanding rapidly and the possible therapeutic properties of thermal spring waters are being reinvestigated by scientists in many different countries. In South Africa, about half of the documented 74+ thermal springs have been developed as family leisure and recreational resorts alone, while the rest remain undeveloped. Thus, in comparison with global trends, South African geothermal resources appear to be under-utilized. Decisions regarding the viability of alternative and optimal uses of a thermal spring resource are largely based on their physical and chemical characteristics but, apart from research carried out on thermal springs during the early and mid-20th Century, little is known about their existing characteristics. The principal aim of this project was to determine the optimal uses of thermal springs in South Africa. The following three objectives were used to accomplish this: 1. Determination of the geological, biological, physical and chemical characteristics of the thermal springs in South Africa; 2. Identification of current uses of the springs and assessment of whether these are suitable with regard to national water quality guidelines; and 3. Evaluation of their suitability for recognized applications of low enthalpy thermal resources. The intention here was to identify uses for small-scale developments so as to generate income and empower communities with knowledge, skills and resources. This report comprises 6 chapters, the first of which gives an overview of the nature of thermal spring resources as well as past and present trends in resource use – both globally and in South Africa. Chapter 2 provides a brief note on the geological and biological characteristics of South African thermal springs with emphasis on the results obtained in the course of this project. Details of these results are provided on the CD. This is followed by a summary of the current situation regarding resource use and an assessment of their potential risk to human and animal health. Chapters 4 and 5 form the crux of the report. The former uses the physical and chemical properties of the springs to identify springs with potential for bottling, agriculture (e.g. greenhouse heating, crop drying and irrigation), aquaculture (for the production of tilapia, Spirulina and oysters), in the cosmetic industry, for mineral extraction, geothermal energy production and for the health and wellness industry. This information is then used in chapter 5 to suggest possible applications for development at two sites i in Limpopo Province. The final chapter presents a summary of the project and assesses the outcomes and outputs in terms of the “knowledge tree”. Numerous field trips were undertaken to collect water samples from thermal springs throughout the country. A number that had been documented and mapped during the 1950s were found to have dried up. A few ‘new’, previously unrecorded thermal springs were found including seven in the Kruger National Park. These data, together with that sourced from literature were used to compile a comprehensive database of the physical and chemical properties (Addenda A and B) and to map their location. All addenda are included on the CD. The hottest thermal spring/borehole was found to be that at Siloam in the Limpopo Province (~71°C) followed by Brandvlei (64°C). These temperatures are low in comparison to those found in countries with volcanic activity, such as Iceland, New Zealand, Indonesia and Japan. Flow rates are mostly meager (< 5 l/s) with a few reaching more than 30 l/s. The single exception is Brandvlei with a flow rate of 126 l/s. Geophysical and isotope studies added to the body of knowledge regarding the origin and age of thermal spring waters of Limpopo Province, the structural geology controlling the location of springs and the geochemical processes occurring at depth. Further proof was offered for the meteoric origin of the waters. Results of magnetic, electrical and electromagnetic surveys indicated that all thermal springs in Limpopo Province are associated with faults and impenetrable dykes or sills. The most important hydrogeochemical process controlling the chemical composition of thermal groundwater was found to be water-rock interaction and to a lesser extent, crystallization. The geochemical processes affecting the carbon isotopes are natural decay and isotope exchange between soil CO2 and aquifer matrix – thus placing the age of the waters in the Holocene. Deliverables reflecting this research can be found in the CD. This project provided the first opportunity to investigate the bacterial and algal diversity of South African thermal springs. Bacterial identification was conducted using 454 genome sequencing. Most of the microbes found in these springs also occur under mesophilic conditions and are not true thermophiles. However, there is a possibility that some thermal springs in Limpopo might contain novel species. If so, they could have considerable industrial potential. A full dataset with the results of the 454 sequencing is included as Addendum C (on the CD). The major focus of this report was on the current uses of springs and their development potential for alternative or supplementary uses. Decisions regarding the fitness for use of thermal springs for a particular use were based solely on the physical and chemical characteristics of the waters. A simple rating scale was used to indicate conformity (a score of 1) and non-conformity (score = 0) to known and accepted standards. A formula was used to calculate the Total Suitability Score (TSS). This is explained in Chapter 4. Application of this rating scale showed that the majority of thermal spring waters, barring those in the Western Cape, have unacceptably high concentrations of fluorine and are not suitable for consumption. Ingestion of large amounts of fluoride-rich waters over an extended period of time may pose a health hazard to humans or animals. Despite non-conformity of water for recreational use at some resorts (due to high fluoride levels), the small amount of water ingested during recreational activities such as swimming should not pose a hazard. Nevertheless, resort owners ii should take cognisance of the presence of these and other toxic minerals such as mercury and arsenic. However, even those springs which were fit for consumption, do not conform to South African National Bottled Water Association (SANBWA) standards and are thus not suitable for bottling. This apparent contradiction is due to the use of different suitability criteria (such as bromine) by Department of Water Affairs (DWA) (previously Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, DWAF) and SANBWA. The suitability assessments in Chapter 4, reveals that each thermal spring can be used for a number of different purposes. At some springs, multiple alternative or supplementary uses could be implemented. All of the springs can be used for agriculture and aquaculture; some springs are suitable for niche markets such as bottled spring water, balneology, for the cosmetic industry, while a few can be used to generate electricity. In the majority of the cases it is the thermal energy that is useful rather than the water itself. This implies that – although the water quality may not be suitable – thermal spring waters could be used (for example) for the production of aquatic crops such as Tilapia fish or spirulina. In addition, the utilization of the heat from the geothermal resource could ensure crop production (including greenhouse crops) throughout the year. In general, the hottest springs suitable for a greater variety of uses. Only the hottest
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