KAY 492 Turkish Administrative History

Week 6 Konu: Ottoman Territorial System Ortaylı, 2007, pp. 113-166 The Anatolian Seljuk Empire : An Overview

 Replaced the Seljukids

 Seljuks became the vassal of Iranian Ilkhanid Mongol Empire after the Kösedağ War (1243)

 Benefited from freedom of the border areas

 First extended its terrritories in the Balkans

 A social, economic and cultural unity reminiscent of Romans, East Romans and Abbasids Ottoman Empire at Its Height Ottoman Empire: An Overview

 Strongest/brightest period th  Between the 15th and 17 Centuries

 Pax Ottomana (Ottoman Peace)

 Its power began to decline starting from the 18th Century

 It left its place to many (how many?) nation states

Why the Ottoman Principality?

 Sprit of Gaza

 Holy war, military campaign in the name of Islam

 Mission to advance to the West

 Environment of the border regions

 Warrior and entrepreneurial lifestyle

 Continuation of the state tradition by Seljuk Empire bureaucrats Why the Ottoman Principality?

 Demographic factors

 Continuous flow of Turkic people

 Partial assimilation of native people

 East Romans occasionally resorting to Ottoman military aid

 Alleviation of taxes and aggravations on the conquered lands

 Freedom of religion for non-Muslims through the zımmet system Ottoman Conquests-1

 1354 Gallipoli

 1361 Edirne

 1387 Thessaloniki

 1396

 The Battle of Niğbolu and the conquest of Bulgaria

 Beyazid I (Yıldırım) Period (1389-1402)

 Western Anatolian principalities, Karaman & Burhaneddin principalities were conquered

 1402- 1413 Fetret (Stagnation) Period

 Timurian invasion

 Other states (i.e. Iran & Mamluks) were also weakened Expansion of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Conquests-2

 1444- Varna, 1448 II. Kosovo victories

 Absolute dominance in the Balkans

 1453 Conquest of Istanbul

 1460 Mora

 1468 Annexation of the Karaman Emirate

 1473 Otlukbeli War - Akkoyunlular

 1475 The Crimean Khanate was taken under Ottoman ptotection

 1514 Çaldıran Victory

 1516 Merc-i Dabık, 1517 Ridaniye againts Mamluks

 1526 Mohaç Victory – Domination of Hungary

Religion in the Ottoman Empire-1

 After the conquest of Istanbul, Gennadios, who opposed the unification of Western and Eastern churches, was declared patriarch

 A patriarchate was given to Armenians as well

 Bogomolism in Bosnia

 Jesus Christ was believed to be only a prophet

 Resisting church hierarchy, resistance to monastic feudalism

 Catholic Persecution

 After the Ottoman conquest (1463), people began to convert to Islam

 Similar situation in Albania Religion in the Ottoman Empire-2

 Ottoman Empire adopted a Sunni mission during Selim I and Suleyman I periods

 Interest in the Renaissance during the Mehmet the Conqueror period

 His son Beyazid II restored Ottoman institutions according to Sharia

 Shari'a order gained strength within the state

 The power of religious bureaucrats has increased

 In 1517, the Governor of Mecca delivered the signs of caliphate to Selim I

 Ottomans used the competition between Habsburgs and France + Protestants System-1

 Similar to the system in Sasanid, Eastern Roman, Arab Empire and Seljukid periods

 Two main social groups

 The distinction between administrators (controllers) and the administered (producers, obeyers, reaya)

 All or some of the tax revenues of one location are given in return for service

 A system with financial, administrative and military purposes

 Not only land income, but other taxable items are used for timar

 Exceptional regimes have been applied in some parts of the country Timar System-2

 Why use the Timar System?

 Inadequacy of the bureaucracy in size & function

 Tax collection was difficult

 Failure to switch to a monetary economy

 Difficulties in transportation, communication & record keeping

 As the empire grew, all the conquered lands were not distributed to combatants but retained for the state

 Miri land Timar System-3

 Immediately after the conquest, tahrir process was applied

 The estimated income of the land, and the decision to whom the timar/yield will be given

 Becomes valid with the the sultan’s approval

 Timar was given to Christian soldiers as well Land Types in the Ottoman Empire

1. Miri Land

 Has

 For the Sultan and the high officials

 As a rule, it was not inherited to the administrators’ sons, but in practice it was

 Zeamet (20,000 akce and more)

 Sipahi dirlik, which could be inherited

 Timar (3,000-20,000 akce) 2. Foundation Lands 3. Private ownership, emlak (real estate) lands Taxes in the Ottoman Empire-1 1. Şer'i Taxes

 Zekat

 Öşür

 Land tax from Muslims

 Between ½ & 1/10

 Collected by the sipahi of that timar

 Haraç

 Land tax from Christians

 Cizye

 Head tax

 It depends on the financial situation

 It is taken to the treasure

 Its collection was left to non-Muslim community leaders after the Taxes in the Ottoman Empire-2

2. Traditional Taxes

 With Sultan’s Ordinance (Ferman)

 Qualities and quantities vary by region

 Regulated by every sancak's own laws

 Dirlik owners collect it as money or service

 Ex: the head tax from Christians: İspençe 3. Other taxes that evolved over time

 Ex: Land register duty (tapu resmi)

 Increased over time, causing corruption and irregularities 4. Emergency (Avarız) Taxes

 It has become continuous over time

 Constantly increased when the timar system deteriorated, removed with Tanzimat

 Some exemptions for strategic service and substance producers Social Classes in the Ottoman Empire

 Administrators and the administered

 Administrators, exempt from tax

 Military Class

 Palace officials

 Divan

 Central government officials

 Beylerbeyi, sancakbeyi and their households

 Ulema (Religious bureaucrats)

 Administered

 City tradesman

 Agricultural producers in rural areas

 They are forbidden from carrying weapons and participating in administration Rural Life in the Ottoman Empire

 Conflicts between East Romans & Iranians & Arabs, Mongol Ilkhani occupation

 It ruined the village life and the villages

 Anarchy has increased, people have withdrawn from public & commercial life

 Roads became unsafe

 Colonization of Anatolia

 Settling of nomadic people

 Sipahi corruption

 Rebellions of Turkmen nomads and peasants

 Ex: Jalali rebellions

 Foundations and zaviye villagers

 Spiritual feudalism

 Villages left to monasteries’ administration

17th Century and Beyond

 Development of firearms

 Shift of trade routes

 Silver money inflation

 End of the 15th century

 Expansion of the system

 From the 16th century onwards, villagers were forced to pay tax in cash

 Formation of local influential groups

 A strong bourgeois group did not emerge because the agricultural wealth did not increase

 Absentee landlords

 The effects of the Atlantic economy

 Trade-prohibited raw materials started to leave the country

 The country started to buy cheap produce