Air University Space Primer

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AIR UNIVERSITY SPACE PRIMER

Air University Maxwell AFB, AL

August 2003

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD

Chapter 1 - SPACE HISTORY ...... 1-1

Chapter 2 - U.S. MILITARY SPACE ORGANIZATIONS...... 2-1

Chapter 3 - SPACE OPERATIONS & TACTICAL APPLICATION -U.S. NAVY...... 3-1

Chapter 4 - SPACE OPERATIONS & TACTICAL APPLICATION -U.S. ARMY...... 4-1

Chapter 5 - SPACE LAW, POLICY AND DOCTRINE...... 5-1

APPENDIX D - DOD Space Policy

Chapter 6 - SPACE ENVIRONMENT...... 6-1

Chapter 7 - TERRESTRIAL-SOLAR ENVIRONMENT AND EFFECTS ON MANNED SPACEFLIGHT...... 7-1

Chapter 8 - ORBITAL MECHANICS...... 8-1

APPENDIX C - Distance Conversion Factors Table C-1 LEO Altitude vs Period Table C-2 MEO Altitude vs Period Table C-3 HEO Altitude vs Period Table C-4 Distance Conversion Factor Table C-5 Distance Conversion Factor Table C-6 Distance Conversion Factor

Chapter 9 - U.S. SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEMS ...... 9-1

Chapter 10 - SPACECRAFT DESIGN, STRUCTURE AND OPERATIONS ...... 10-1

Chapter 11 - U.S. SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS...... 11-1

Chapter 12 - MULTISPECTRAL IMAGERY ...... 12-1

Chapter 13 - WEATHER/ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES...... 13-1

Chapter 14 - U.S. SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS...... 13-1

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Chapter 15 - MISSILE WARNING SYSTEMS...... 15-1

Chapter 16 - SPACE EVENT PROCESSING ...... 16-1

Chapter 17 - U.S. MISSILE SYSTEMS...... 17-1

Chapter 18 - REST-OF-WORLD SATELLITE SYSTEMS...... 18-1

Chapter 19 - REST-OF-WORLD MISSILE SYSTEMS ...... 19-1

Chapter 20 - REST-OF-WORLD SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEMS ...... 20-1

Chapter 21 - SPACE SURVEILLANCE THEORY and NETWORK ...... 21-1

Chapter 22 - SPACE SYSTEMS SURVIVABILITY...... 22-1

APPENDIX A - Annex N - Space

APPENDIX B - Space Glossary & Acronyms

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Foreword

Over the last 50 years our military space activities have rested on an information-centric spacepower theory. The distinct advantages the medium of space provides for the collection and dissemination of information are reflected in our space policy, capabilities, and warfighting operational concepts.

The importance of space, however, is no longer limited to the military domain. Weather and imagery satellite information, satellite communications, space launch, and even turn- key space systems are all commodities available in the commercial market to those willing to pay. The Global Positioning System could be considered the first true global utility; a GPS hand-held receiver can provide free unlimited world-wide access to precision navigation and timing information.

As our national security and that of our allies becomes increasingly reliant on space systems as a means to generate wealth, power, and influence; their significance as critical capabilities continues to increase. History shows us that military operations become necessary to protect vital national interests. The global availability of space capabilities makes it incumbent upon civilian and military leaders to have a broader knowledge of the capabilities, limitations, and vulnerabilities of space systems and the medium in which they operate. The Air University Space Primer is intended to be a reference source to help with that task.

As with any published work, the material immediately dates itself, thus at times becoming less relevant. This primer was prepared with the intent of imparting an educational framework to build upon rather than current and specific facts that often change quickly. We hope the reader will learn principles and be stimulated in thought, rather than struggle with errata induced by rapid changes.

For further information on this publication, call Mr Allen Sexton at DSN 493-2177 (commercial: (334) 953-2177) or Mr Brent Marley at DSN 493-6041 (commercial: (334) 953-6041).

JAMES G. (Sam) LEE Colonel, USAF Air University Space Chair Maxwell AFB, AL August 2003

Chapter 1

SPACE HISTORY

Few events in our history have been more significant than the dawn of the space age. This chapter will discuss early space pioneers, the space race, the manned space programs, the formation of NASA and some of the first satellites ever launched into orbit above the earth.

EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN ROCKETRY Dr. Robert Goddard, commonly referred to as “The Father of Modern No one really knows when the first Rocketry,” is responsible for the advent rocket was created; however, most of space exploration in the United States. historians agree that the Chinese were the He achieved most of the American first to produce a rocket around 1212 AD. accomplishments in rocket science in a This first rocket was essentially a solid somewhat autonomous effort. In 1909, fuel arrow powered by gunpowder, which he began his study of liquid propellant was also invented by the Chinese rockets and in 1912, he proved that sometime around 800 AD. These very rockets would work in a vacuum such as early rockets contained black powder, or exists in space. The year 1919 brought something similar, as the propellant the end of World War I as well as the (fuel). According to legend, a man publication of Dr. Goddard’s book, A named Wan Hu made the first attempt to Method of Attaining Extreme Altitude. build a rocket powered vehicle in the This document laid the theoretical early 1500s. He attached 47 rockets to a foundation for future American rocket cart and at a given signal, 47 workers developments. simultaneously lit all of the rockets. In On 16 March 1926 in Auburn, the ensuing explosion, the entire vehicle Massachusetts, Dr. Goddard made history disappeared in a cloud of smoke and Wan as the first person to launch a liquid- Hu was never seen in this world again. fueled rocket. The strange looking vehicle covered a ground distance of 184 The principles by which rockets feet in 2.5 seconds and rose to an altitude operated were not understood until the of 41 feet while achieving a speed of 60 late 1800s when man began thinking mph. In 1929, Goddard launched an about using rockets for the transportation improved version that was the first rocket of people. Up to this point, rockets had to contain weather instruments. This been used in warfare in a limited vehicle rose to a maximum altitude of 90 capacity. For example, rockets were used feet and provided some of the earliest by the British during the War of 1812 weather readings from “on-board” shelling of Fort McHenry (i.e., “the sensors. rockets’ red glare”). Yet even in warfare, the rockets’ potential was not fully Dr. Goddard and Rocket Technology realized. Major advances in rocket in New Mexico technology did not occur until the early 1900s. In 1930, with financial backing from Charles Lindbergh and the Guggenheim Foundation, Dr. Goddard moved his operation to New Mexico where he contin- Events in America: 1909-1929 ued his work until his death in 1945. His

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work centered on a number of improve- for the most significant breakthroughs in ments to his rockets, which resulted in a space technology. Members of the or- number of “firsts” in rocket science and ganization would later include rocket technology. For example, Dr. Goddard pioneers such as Dr. Von Braun. was the first to develop a gyro-control In 1925, Walter Hohmann published guidance system, gimbaled nozzles, small his book “The Attainability of Celestial high speed centrifugal pumps and vari- Bodies,” in which he defined the princi- able thrust rocket engines. All of these ples of rocket travel in space (to include technologies are used on modern rockets how to get into geosynchronous orbit). today. In recognition of Hohmann and his work Dr. Goddard’s rocket project was a in rocketry, the orbital transfer technique privately funded effort with absolutely no used to place payloads into geosynchro- government funding, aid of any sort or nous orbit is called the “Hohmann Trans- interest in his work. Notwithstanding, fer.” his accomplishments in rocketry were Johannes Winkler invented the first truly extraordinary. Meanwhile, a team of liquid propellant rocket, the HW-1. The German scientists were also interested in first launch attempt was a failure but the rocket development and their advances second launch was successful in 1931, would prove to have a devastating effect achieving an altitude of 295 feet. upon the world. Phase II Events in Germany In 1932, the National Socialist dictator The German rocket development effort Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany can be divided into two phases. Phase I and directed the German Army to pres- occurred between 1923 and 1931 and in- sure Dr. Von Braun to develop rockets volved Herman Oberth, Walter Hohmann, which could be employed in warfare. Johannes Winkler and the Society for Space Hitler used the resulting rocket technol- Travel. Phase II occurred between 1932 ogy to terrorize London during World and 1945 and involved only one man, War II. Ironically, the rocket technology Wernher Von Braun. which resulted from Dr. Von Braun’s early work would eventually enable the Phase I United States to send a man to the moon. Under direction of the German Army, Although he never actually built any Dr. Von Braun began experimenting with rockets, Herman Oberth inspired others liquid fuel rockets, leading to the devel- in both Germany as well as abroad to do opment of the “A” series. The A-1, so (e.g., Dr. Goddard). He accomplished which did not appear promising, was this through his 1923 publications on abandoned after a number of launch fail- space and upper atmosphere exploration. ures. The A-2 subsequently emerged and His book “The Rocket into Planetary was successfully launched in 1934, thus Space” laid the foundation for the Ger- opening the door for development of man rocket development effort. Oberth even larger rockets. suggested that if a rocket could develop enough thrust it could deliver a payload In 1937, General Dornberger, the head into orbit. Many people thought this im- of the German Army’s rocket possible, but a man named Johannes development effort, Dr. Von Braun and Winkler was so inspired by Oberth’s their development team moved to work that in 1927 he formed the Society Peenemunde (a peninsula in northern for Space Travel, of which Oberth later Germany). From this installation became president. Also known in Ger- man as the “Verein fur Raumschiffahrt,” (Fig. 1-1) would come the vengeance this society became the spawning ground weapon, the V-2 (Fig. 1-2), which Hitler

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Tsiolkovsky had a unique depth of understanding. He was the first to recommend the use of liquid propellants because they performed better and were easier to control than solid propellants. His notebooks contain many ideas and concepts that are used by rocket engineers today. His works also include detailed sketches of spaceship fuel tanks containing liquid oxygen and hydrogen (the same fuel used in the Saturn V moon rocket). Tsiolkovsky further recommended controlling a rocket’s flight by inserting Fig. 1-1. Peenemunde rudders in the exhaust or by tilting the exhaust nozzle, just as Dr. Goddard would suggest some thirty years later. Tsiolkovsky determined a way of controlling the flow of liquid propellants with mixing valves and advocated cooling the combustion chamber by flowing one of Fig. 1-2. V-2 Rocket the liquids around it in a double-walled would unleash against England. By jacket, as seen in the space shuttle 1942, the A-4 test rocket had been engines of today. His spaceship cabin successfully launched. Research and designs included life support systems for development continued until 7 September absorption of carbon dioxide and proposed 1944, when the first V-2 rocket boosted a reclining the crew with their backs to the 2000 lb. warhead to 3,500 mph and engines throughout the acceleration phase, burned out with the warhead continuing also as is currently done. Tsiolkovsky on a ballistic trajectory to a range of 200 further suggested building the outer wall of miles, literally “falling” on London. spaceships with a double layer to provide better protection against meteors and Events in the Soviet Union increased temperature. Tsiolkovsky foresaw the use of an airlock for space- If it could be agreed upon that the space suited men to leave their ship and suggested age was born in one place, most that gyro-stabilization as well as multiple- historians would say that it would have stage boosters were the only way to attain been in the home of Russian the velocities required for space flight. schoolmaster Konstantin Eduardovich Finally, he anticipated the assembly of Tsiolkovsky. In 1883, he first explained space stations in orbit with food and how it would be possible for a rocket to oxygen supplied by vegetation growing fly in space. This was a time when most within. people believed it was not possible for Tsiolkovsky designed extensive man to fly. Consequently, Tsiolkovsky was calculations to ensure all his proposals thought to be eccentric by his fellow were mathematically possible, but without Russians. In 1895, he published “Dream funding, he was unable to perform any of the Earth and Sky” in which he meaningful experimentation. Because of initially postulated the feasibility of an his considerable technical foresight and artificial earth satellite. In 1903, he realistic approach to space problems, he began publishing parts of another book is now known as the “Father of Space describing the theory of rocket flight and Travel.” the prospects of space travel.

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ROCKET DEVELOPMENT AFTER and medium range ballistic missiles were WORLD WAR II developed, the most important of which was the Shyster Medium Range Ballistic This section will address booster and Missile (MRBM), which became the missile development in the Soviet Union world’s first operational MRBM in 1955. and the U.S. between 1945 and the early In 1951, biological experiments with 1960s. dogs convinced Soviet scientists that manned rocket flights were possible. Soviet Efforts They were also convinced that they would soon have the capability to place When the Red Army captured large payloads into orbit. Thus, along Peenemunde in May 1945, they found with the development of the ICBM, that most of the important personnel and emerged the idea of space flight, which documents were gone. The Soviets included the beginning of research into learned of the American effort to seize space suits, life support systems and important German space technology and emergency escape systems for manned began a similar program of their own. flights. They ended up with a majority of the While Soviet scientists contemplated hardware and a few remaining scientists putting things into space, the vehicles and technicians. required to accomplish this were In 1946, Stalin was not satisfied with developing at an astonishing rate. The the progress of the Soviet rocket effort at Soviet missile program was well on its Peenemunde so he moved it to the Soviet way to becoming reality. In 1953, two Union. There, like in America, the more missiles entered the development expatriated German scientists and phase: the SS-4 Sandal and the SS-6 technicians worked with Soviet rocket Sapwood. scientists in an effort to improve the basic V-2 design. However, the Soviet team SS-4 Sandal decided to strike out on their own, thus relegating the German team to a support The SS-4 was required to carry a one role. By the end of 1953, all the megaton (MT) warhead across more than expatriated German rocket team members 1,118 miles. It used storable propellants had been returned to Germany. which improved its launch rate capability. The SS-4 became operational Decision to Build the Intercontinental in 1959 and remained in use for two Ballistic Missile (ICBM) decades. The SS-4 was the weapon at the heart of the Cuban Missile Crisis, when The U.S. was well ahead of the Soviet the Soviet Union deployed ICBM Union in nuclear technology and missiles to the island of Cuba in 1962. possessed the most powerful bomber force in the world. This unnerved the SS-6 Sapwood Russians and forced them to probe for an equalizer. In their search for this The SS-6 was still under development weapon, the Soviets began to realize the in 1956, but the Soviets were so sure of potential of the ICBM for striking over its success that they began discussing its long distances. The Soviets envisioned a use as a launcher for an artificial satellite. missile capable of striking the U.S. from The Soviets announced to the world that the Soviet Union. This thinking they would launch a satellite into earth dominated all of Soviet rocket research orbit as part of International Geophysical and by the end of 1947, the consensus in Year (IGY) activities. The western world the Soviet Union was to build an ICBM did not take this proclamation seriously, with this capability. In their quest to oblivious to the great strides that the build an ICBM, a whole family of short Soviets had made in rocketry.

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The SS-6 (Fig. 1-3) was ready for its first test launch in May 1957. The Soviets traded off stylish design for brute strength. They did not yet have powerful rocket engines built so they used more engines to compensate for the lack of powerful engines.

Fig. 1-4. Sputnik 1

United States Efforts

While the Soviets had a well coordinated rocket program, the U.S. did not. After the Soviets exploded their first hydrogen bomb (H-bomb) on 12 August 1953, the Armed Services of the U.S. Fig. 1-3. SS-6 Sapwood began to concentrate on missile development. Around this time, the Air The SS-6 was a single stage missile Force had begun work on their Atlas with clustered engines and had twice the ICBM. power of the U.S. Atlas or Titan ICBMs. To avoid making the missile in several Air Force ICBM Program stages, the Soviets opted to go with a centralized cluster of motors. These Due to the Soviet’s H-bomb clusters would be ejected after they had capability, in 1955, President Eisenhower used up their fuel, while the central core directed that the Atlas ICBM project motor continued to burn. By October become the nation’s number one priority. 1957, the Soviets were ready to prove to The Atlas was a one and one half stage the West that their missile capabilities missile with external boosters that were more than just a proclamation. separated after burnout. Powered by liquid oxygen and kerosene, it required Sputnik fueling prior to launch. By mid-1955, Atlas test launches were being conducted On 4 October 1957, the Soviets used and by August 1959, the system was their SS-6 Sapwood ICBM to launch the approved. During the development of world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 Atlas, the Air Force was also working on (Fig. 1-4). On 3 November 1957, another ICBM called the Titan I. Sputnik 2 was launched with Laika, a The Titan I was a two-stage missile Soviet research dog, on board. At this powered by oxygen and kerosene, also point, the Soviet Union had become the requiring fueling prior to launch. This first nation to enter outer space with a fueling operation did not allow for a biological life form.

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quick response if the U.S. were to come entered service with Army units stationed under attack. This deficiency led to the in Germany. development of the Titan II. The Redstone was The Titan II was much more powerful designed and developed than the Titan I and could stand alert fully between 1952-54, which fueled and ready to launch. Although the proved critical to the Titan IIs stayed in the inventory until 1987, history of the entire U.S. these liquid giants were expensive to build missile program, as this and maintain, leading to the development missile became the of the Minuteman solid-fuel ICBM. foundation for all future Work on the solid-fueled Minuteman U.S. missiles. The Army ICBM began in 1957. These missiles were also ventured into a joint lighter, smaller and more easily stored. A missile project with the reduced payload capacity was offset by the Navy, referred to as the fact that the system could be built in larger Jupiter missile program. numbers and its warheads had improved The Jupiter missile accuracy. By 1961, the Minuteman had made use of Redstone met all of its test objectives and was in missile technology, service by 1962. thereby saving time and money. In fact, Redstone Army Missile Program missiles were used to test Jupiter nose cones. As the Near the end of World War II, the U.S. project progressed, the 7th Army captured many intact German Navy lost interest because Fig. 1-5. V-2 rockets along with Dr. Von Braun and they wanted a small solid- Redstone his rocket team. In 1945, the Army began fuel missile for submarine Missile moving the scientists to Fort Bliss, Texas use and the Jupiter was shaping up to be a to establish a guided missile program large liquid-fueled missile. The Navy which began with the test firing of the would break away to develop the Polaris captured V-2s (A-4). This effort, which missile. The first Jupiter launch occurred began in July 1946, was called “Operation in 1957 but the range was only 60 miles. Paperclip.” When asked about the design By the third flight, developments of their V-2, the Germans said it had been improved and its range had increased to replicated from a rocket Dr. Goddard flew 1,600 miles, making it the first successful in 1939. These V-2s were converted to American Intermediate Range Ballistic carry various scientific instruments. The Missile (IRBM). The Army Ballistic A-4 Upper Atmosphere Research Panel Missile Agency delivered its first Jupiter was established in January 1947 to to the Air Force in 1958 and more than coordinate these tests. This panel later sixty missiles saw active service with Air became the Upper Atmosphere Rocket Force units based in Italy and Turkey. Research Panel in 1948 and the Satellite Research Panel in 1957. Navy Efforts In 1950, the Army moved its missile development group to the Redstone The Navy’s rocket development Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. After project revolved around three different the Korean War, the Army was looking missiles: the Aerobee sounding rocket, for a missile with a range of about 500 the Viking sounding rocket and the miles, leading to the development of the Polaris Submarine-launched Ballistic Redstone missile (Fig. 1-5). The Missile (SLBM). The Aerobee project Redstone was first fired on 20 August was initially designed to develop a 1953 and many additional test firings missile capable of carrying a 100 lb. were conducted until 1958, when it payload to an altitude of 75 miles. It consisted of two levels, the lower being

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solid fuel and the upper using liquid fuel. in November of that same year, the new The first flight of the Aerobee took place weapon system became operational. in November 1947 and since then, has served all three branches of the military. Despite its numerous revisions, it is still used today. The Navy began looking into a missile program where they could launch a missile to extreme altitude with enough stability to allow accurate measurements to be taken. This resulted in the development of the Viking sounding rocket, much of which was based upon the V-2 design. Engine tests began in 1947 and the first Viking was delivered Fig. 1-7. Polaris Missile Test for testing in 1949. In May 1949, the Viking had its successful maiden flight. Military aspects of rocket One was even launched from the USS development were not all that was being NORTON SOUND to evaluate the considered during this time period. In concept of launching rockets and missiles order to support President Eisenhower’s from ships at sea. “Space for Peace” policy, the government In September 1958, the Navy began to was also investigating booster consider launching missiles from ships. development to send satellites into orbit. The Polaris project was started and was to be a solid-fuel missile with a range of U.S. Booster Development and the over 2,900 miles. At the start of the International Geophysical Year (IGY) project it became apparent that a special vessel would be required to handle this The original U.S. military services missile, leading to the development of the appraisals concerning the possibility of Polaris submarine (Fig. 1-6). By 1958, developing an effective ICBM were approval for the first three Polaris rather discouraging, as nuclear weapons of the day were large and bulky. At the time, it was felt that U.S. nuclear deterrence would rest on the back of the bomber force, since bomber aircraft were the only delivery systems which could carry these large weapons. However, the situation soon changed because:

• the Soviets demonstrated that they were serious about missile development, Fig. 1-6. U.S. Polaris SSBN • the Atomic Energy Commission submarines was granted and construction announced the development of the began. hydrogen bomb, The USS GEORGE WASHINGTON • nuclear weapons were getting was the first such Polaris submarine to be smaller, constructed, launched (June 1959) and • the Soviets obtained a hydrogen commissioned (December 1959). The bomb of their own USS GEORGE WASHINGTON • and the Sputnik satellites were participated in actual test firings of the launched. Polaris missile in July 1960 (Fig. 1-7) and

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This series of events was enough to alert the U.S. government to turn its efforts towards large scale rocket development. The hope of closing the gap in the missile race lay in the development of military missiles. However, President Eisenhower was determined to separate the military programs from the IGY program in order to support his peaceful intentions for space policy. The Redstone, Jupiter C and Atlas missiles were ready to launch as early as September 1956, but a different decision was made. Our non- military satellite program for IGY would be the Vanguard project.

The Vanguard Project

Vanguard was designed to have as few links to the military as possible. Fig. 1-8. Dr. Pickering, Dr. Van Allen And Although an honorable idea, it was not Dr. Von Braun Holding Up A Model Of practical because the military had the Explorer 1. money, scientists and hardware to get the job done. Funding for the project came this success was short lived, as only 2 of from the National Science Foundation. the 11 total launch attempts between The program was plagued with problems December 1957 and September 1959 were from the start, such as inexperienced successful. contractors, tensions of the space race Early U.S. booster types were based and trying to get a configuration that on IRBM first stages instead of ICBM worked. But President Eisenhower first stages. These new boosters were insisted that Vanguard become the space known as the Juno 2, Thor Able, Thor launch vehicle for U.S. satellites. Delta, Thor Epsilon and Thor Agena. The Vanguard launch attempted on The Thor boosters later evolved into the 6 December 1957 was a disaster. After successful Delta boosters. For the larger lifting several feet off the ground, the payloads, boosters began to be developed booster lost power and fell back, bursting from the larger successful ICBMs and into flames. Five days later, President these were based upon the first stages of Eisenhower approved a satellite launch Atlas and Titan II development. The using a modified Jupiter rocket, now Atlas and Titan II-derived boosters have called the Juno (Project Orbiter). launched many U.S. satellites. With all The Juno booster/lift vehicle was of this space activity, the government launched and the first U.S. satellite, decided a civilian agency was needed to Explorer I (Fig. 1-8), a 30-lb. cylinder, coordinate and give direction to the U.S. went into orbit on 31 January 1958. space effort. Although the U.S. did not launch the world’s first artificial satellite, the nation The National Aeronautics and Space did discover the Van Allen Radiation Administration (NASA) Belts, which may have been the most important discovery of the IGY. President Eisenhower’s administration Explorer transmitted until 23 May 1958. came up with the concept of a coherent Vanguard finally did succeed in getting space effort. In order to help support this off the ground on 17 March 1958, but concept, Eisenhower appointed James R.

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Killian, president of the Massachusetts This section will address some of the Institute of Technology, to be his early satellite programs, broken down scientific advisor. The military lobbied into four types: communication, weather, to maintain control of managing the data collection and exploration. national space effort, but Dr. Killian was a wise man and carefully weighed all the Communication Satellites arguments against the President’s aspirations. President Eisenhower was One of the most important and committed to his “Space for Peace” profound aspects of space utilization has policy and civilian control of the space been in the area of communication program was concordant to that concept. satellites. The use of communication This civilian agency would handle all satellites has brought the world’s nations aspects of research and development, closer together. with scientists playing the leading role in In May 1945, Arthur C. Clarke guiding the space program. proposed that satellites could be placed in While plans for this new agency were a position over the Earth’s equator at a tied up in red tape, the President could distance of approximately 22,000 miles. not let time and events override our space The satellite would maintain a constant program. He then established the position over the earth and three satellites Advanced Research Projects Agency would give total communication coverage. (ARPA), whose plans for space This position is called a geosynchronous, exploration were soon approved by the geostationary or Clarke's orbit. Today, President. Although short-lived, ARPA most of the world’s communication was essentially the first official U.S. space satellites are placed in this type of orbit. agency. At this time, much maneuvering was Project Score occurring in Congress by various agencies who aspired to take control of The first voice returned from space the space program. One of these was President Eisenhower’s in 1958 agencies, and the leading contender, was under Project Score. The satellite was the National Advisory Committee on placed in orbit by an Atlas ICBM with a Aeronautics (NACA). At the time, there tape-recorded Christmas message from was no other agency which could rival the President to the world. It was the first NACA’s expertise in the field of prototype military communications aeronautics and NACA felt that space satellite. would be a logical extension of its duties. Eisenhower was against this idea because Echo he felt the NACA was, at times, too autonomous. Dr. Killian came to the Echo was a NASA project consisting rescue by proposing the National of a 100 ft diameter plastic balloon with Aeronautics and Space Act, which was an aluminum coating which passively adopted on 1 October 1958. Under this reflected radio signals transmitted from a plan, a broad charter for civilian huge earth antenna. A number of aeronautical and space research was projects were attempted using balloons, created, allowing the administration to but this proved to be somewhat absorb NACA. The core of NASA’s impractical and a better solution was facilities came from NACA and in a few needed. years, NASA became organized and equipped to carry out the nation’s space Telstar program. Telstar was the free world’s first SATELLITE PROGRAMS commercially funded communication satellite. AT&T financed the project and

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it was launched on 10 July 1962. Intelsat 2 (Fig. 1-9) was launched in Telstar’s orbit was low earth, but when in 1967 and provided an additional 240 sight of its ground station, it did provide circuits with a design life of three years. communications between the U.S., the Intelsat 3 was launched in 1968 and U.K. and France. Telstar proved that had an increase of 1,500 circuits with a satellites could be used as communications design life of five years. devices across vast distances. Intelsat 4 was launched in 1971 with 4,000 circuits plus two color TV channels Syncom and spot-beams to increase broadcast efficiency. The design life was advertised Syncom, another NASA project as seven years. launched in 1963, was the first Intelsat 5 was launched in 1980 and is communications satellite in geo- three axis-stabilized versus spin stabilized. synchronous orbit. It was used for many It has 12,000 circuits and two TV channels. experiments and transmitted television of the Tokyo Olympic Games in 1964. Westar

Molniya Launched in 1974, Westar was a Western Union project and the United Launched in 1968, this was the first of States’ first domestic satellite. many Soviet communication satellites using high altitude, elliptical orbits which Weather Satellites positioned the satellite over the entire Soviet Union during the day. Satellite weather photos are routinely shown on the local evening news. This section discusses some of the satellite systems which originate these pictures.

Television InfraRed Operational Satellite (TIROS)

Fig. 1-9. Intelsat 2 under construction

International Telecommunications Satellite (Intelsat)

The International Telecommunications Fig. 1-10. TIROS Weather Satellite Satellite (Intelsat) Organization provided nations with a way of sharing the cost of TIROS (Fig. 1-10) was the first satellite communications, based on the weather satellite program undertaken by amount of use. the U.S. Its objective was to test the Intelsat 1, or Early Bird, was the first feasibility of obtaining weather observations of the series and became operational on from space. TIROS-l was launched in 28 June 1965 with 240 telephone circuits. April 1960, achieving all of its objectives. It was designed to only last one and a Nine additional TIROs were launched. half years but endured for four.

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detail. The government hoped LANDSAT would aid in locating new oil and mineral deposits and allow the mapping of ocean ESSA 3 currents and temperature to help locate schools of fish. This capability has not Based on the success of the TIROS yet been fully realized; however, program, a fully operational version of LANDSAT has aided in estimating the the same satellite was introduced in 1966 extent of damage from forest fires, control called TIROS Operational System (TOS). of timber cutting and world crop yields. The system used a pair of Environmental Science Service Administration (ESSA) satellites and was designed to provide uninterrupted world-wide observations.

Improved TIROS Operational Satellite (ITOS)

With the launch of ITOS-1 in 1970, a second generation of meteorological satellites was introduced and proved to be very successful.

TIROS-N

Following the ITOS series of weather satellites, a third generation series was developed and provided global observation Fig. 1-11. LANDSAT service from 1978 through 1985. These satellites employed advanced data collection instruments. Included on the SEASAT 1 payload package was a very high resolution radiometer which was used to improve sea Based on the LANDSAT series, surface temperature mapping, for the NASA launched SEASAT 1 in 1978. location of snow and sea ice as well as Using microwave instruments, SEASAT conducting night and day imaging. 1 measured surface temperatures to Since the TIROS weather satellites within two degrees Centigrade, wind proved their worth by collecting data on speed and direction and provided all weather patterns and after the first weather pictures of waves, ice astronauts made detailed observations of phenomena, cloud patterns, storm surges the Earth, scientists began to consider and temperature patterns of the ocean using satellites to collect data on the currents. Earth’s land and water resources. Terrestrial and Extra-terrestrial (ET) Data Collection Satellites Exploration Satellites

LANDSAT Explorer

In the early 1970’s, the LANDSAT The largest U.S. exploration satellite series (Fig. 1-11) of data collection program was the Explorer series. This satellites were employed. This series, particular group of satellites studied a because of its infrared microwave and wide range of space activities from Earth imagery capability, opened up new areas radiation to solar wind. Approximately of research never before explored in such 50 satellites in this series were launched,

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of which, the Explorer 1 discovered the The U.S. had placed its prospects on Van Allen Radiation Belts. project Vanguard getting into space first. However, the Russians were the first to U.S. ET Exploration Satellites enter orbit and this resulted in a public outcry. Senator Lyndon Johnson (later to The U.S. has launched approximately become President) of the Armed Forces twenty-four planetary probe satellites Subcommittee, recommended a national visiting most of the planets in our solar space program be established. This system. The first deep space probe was became a reality when NASA was launched in 1960, returning data from formed. 22.7 million miles. Since then, six have launched to Venus, six to Mars, four to National Space Program Jupiter and three to Saturn. These probes were of the Mariner, Pioneer, Viking and In 1958, the consensus was that the Voyager types. Voyager 2 flew by Uranus U.S. needed a consolidated national and Neptune and will eventually fly by space program to give its space efforts Pluto. coordination and guidance. The program would consist of two parts; the military USSR Space Probes under the control of the Department of Defense and the civilian part under the The Soviets, while launching more control of NASA. planetary probes than any other country, have confined themselves to Mars, Venus, Space Race the Moon and Sun. Most of the Soviet initial attempts to send probes to Venus and With the launch of Sputnik, the U.S. Mars failed. These probes were of the and the Soviet Union were now firmly Venera, Mars, Cosmos, Zond and Vega entrenched in the space race that was series. An ambitious probe to Mars in 1996 nothing other than an extension of the weighing 7 tons failed to escape Earth orbit Cold War. The U.S. had been beaten in and is believe to have impacted in a remote the unmanned race and the same would area of South America. occur in the manned race. On 12 April 1961, the Soviets shocked the world The Future again when Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit the earth. Public outcry Both the U.S. and the Russians are wasn’t as strong as when Sputnik went planning future missions back to Mars, up, but Presidential concern was. Venus, the moons of Jupiter and other President Kennedy addressed Congress interesting places within the solar system. and committed the nation to a project that As time goes on, more countries have would land a man on the moon and return entered the space exploration business him safely. The President’s decision to (Japan, Germany, France, etc.) by sending undertake this task was endorsed probes into the cosmos. virtually without dissent.

MANNED SPACE EXPLORATION Mercury (USA) 1961 - 1963 BY THE U.S. AND USSR SINCE 1960 In addition to sending a man into Now that unmanned space exploration space, Mercury was designed to further efforts have been discussed, manned our knowledge of man’s capabilities in space efforts will be addressed. space. The Soviets had already proven that man could survive reentry. Mercury Historical Overview had a number of objectives, the most important of which were putting a man in orbit and devising a stepping stone for an

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eventual journey to the moon. In the experience in longer missions and Mercury capsule, all systems were perform complicated maneuvers. redundant, control was manual or All the objectives set by NASA for automatic and the control system Gemini were met. However, some tasks technology was new. turned out to be more difficult than The main objective of the Mercury anticipated, such as spacewalks. Gene project was to investigate man’s ability to Cernan’s exertion during the space walk function in the space environment. portion of the Gemini IX mission Mercury gained valuable information for overtaxed his suit system and fogged his the building and flying of more complex helmet visor. Cernan had to terminate his spacecraft, such as the Gemini and EVA early due to fatigue. The problem Apollo. The milestones began with the wasn't solved until the last flight, Gemini chimpanzee “Ham” flight in a capsule on XII in November 1966. Edwin (Buzz) 31 January 1961; followed by Alan Aldrin used footholds, Velcro covered Shepard’s suborbital flight on 5 May tools and hand grabs to work in space 1961 (He rose to an altitude of 116 miles with ease. in 15 minutes and 22 seconds) and then The Gemini milestones were vast and on 20 February 1962, John Glenn became diverse, they included; the first orbital the first American to achieve earth orbit, plane change, the first U.S. dual flight, completing three revolutions. hard docking and one-orbit rendezvous. Gemini’s success gave the U.S. confidence Vostok (USSR) to press ahead with the Apollo program and in effect, placed the U.S. ahead of the Unlike the Mercury capsule, the Russians in the race to the Moon. Vostok capsule was composed of two parts; the round shaped “manned section” Voskhod (USSR) and the lower equipment bay located underneath the manned section. Vostok The Voskhod capsule was a Vostok crew recovery was also different. With modified to accept three cosmonauts. A Mercury, the astronaut and capsule terminal thrust braking system was added parachuted into the ocean, while the to achieve a soft landing. The Voskhod Soviet cosmonaut was recovered on land program was a stopgap measure with Vostok. Vostok led the space race instituted by the Soviet Union to makeup by carrying the first man into space in for the stalled Soyuz program. 1961 (Yuri Gagaran), the first woman in The objectives of the Voskhod program orbit in 1963 (Valentine Tereshkova), were the same as those of Gemini and supported the first dual flight mission and resulted in some notable accomplishments, set flight endurance records. including; the first three men in orbit, the first flight without space suits and the Gemini (USA) 1962 - 1966 first emergency manual reentry.

The Gemini capsule was designed to Apollo (USA) carry two astronauts and had two sections; the upper or manned section and The Apollo program was the final step a lower equipment section. Because of to the Moon. The objective of the the greater lift needed, the Titan II ICBM program was two-fold. First, the was used instead of the Atlas. The program was to gather information objectives of the Gemini program were to needed for a lunar landing. Secondly, develop procedures for practicing Apollo was to actually land on the Moon. maneuvers, rendezvous, docking and A new “tear drop” capsule was used, Extravehicular Activity (EVA). Finally, thus departing from the traditional “bell” Gemini would allow astronauts to gain shape of the Mercury/Gemini capsules. The Apollo system consisted of three

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parts, the command module (or manned The program pressed ahead, testing portion) the service module and the lunar docking maneuvers, lunar landing module (as shown in Fig. 1-12). procedures and a slew of other experiments designed to get us to the eventual landing. Then on 20 July 1969, Apollo 11 was the first of the Apollo series to land on the moon. Six more missions to the moon followed, culminating with Apollo 17. The only mission that didn't land on the moon was the Apollo 13 moon landing which was aborted some 205,000 miles from earth when an oxygen tank exploded. An anxious world watched as NASA worked feverishly through one problem after another to bring the crew back alive. Their success in doing so was one of the agencies finer moments and inspired a 1995 feature film which ignited the

Fig. 1-12. Apollo System interest of a new generation in the Apollo program. The U.S. met President Kennedy’s The booster for this program had to be goal and proved man could react to and designed from scratch. With the help of solve in-flight emergencies (Apollo 13). Dr. Von Braun, Saturn boosters were Although the Apollo Moon program developed, which included the Saturn 1B concluded, an abundance of valuable and the Saturn V (Fig. 1-13 and Fig. 1- scientific information had been obtained. 14).

Fig. 1-13. Saturn 1B Fig. 1-14. Saturn V

The advent of Apollo, as in the tradition of Mercury and Gemini, was a Soyuz (USSR) step-by-step process. However, the U.S. suffered a tragic event on 27 January This Soviet program also began on a 1967 when Apollo I developed a fire in tragic note when in April 1967, Colonel the capsule which cost the lives of three Komarov was killed when his parachute astronauts: “Gus” Grissom, Ed White and failed to deploy properly and his capsule Roger Chaffee. The space program was slammed into the ground. The Soyuz halted while NASA investigated the program was also halted for about 19 accident. Within 19 months, the manned months. Soyuz objectives included portion of the Apollo program was back maneuvering in group flights and dock, on track and corrections to the Apollo prolonged space flights and development capsule had been made.

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of new navigation and spacecraft control Salyut systems. After July 1969, the Soviets turned The Soviet Union space station their emphasis towards manned space program began in 1971 with the launch stations and away from the moon. The of Salyut 1, which gave the USSR Soyuz would be used as a ferry to the another first in space. The objectives of Salyut Space Station. Today it is used to the Salyut program were virtually the take cosmonauts to the MIR Space Station. same as for Skylab. However, the Salyut program was replaced by the MIR Follow-On Manned Programs (peace) space station. Soviet Cosmonauts have set space endurance Skylab records in the MIR, with some missions lasting up to one year. Skylab (Fig. 1-15) was launched by a Saturn V from Kennedy Space Center on Apollo-Soyuz (July 1975) 14 May 1973. Its primary objective was to test the effects of long term The primary objectives of the Apollo- weightlessness and how well humans Soyuz program were: the development of readapt to zero gravity. Five major a rescue system, rescue procedures and experiments were planned covering solar crew transfer between the U.S. and physics and astronomical observations Soviet spacecraft. Additional objectives using a solar telescope. dealt with conducting astronomy, earth studies, radiation and biological experiments. NASA used their last remaining Apollo spacecraft for this mission. The crew consisted of Apollo veteran Tom Stafford, Vance Brand and astronaut office chief and original Mercury seven astronaut Deke Slayton medically cleared to make his first flight.

Space Transport System (STS)

The primary motivation for NASA’s perseverance of the STS was to find a cost effective manned system. The current STS can trace its roots back to the Fig. 1-15. Skylab lifting body research conducted at Edwards AFB. On 5 August 1975, an X- An electric furnace was used to make 24B made a textbook landing after a perfectly round ball bearings and grow powered flight to 60,000 feet. The X- large crystals. It was later discovered 24B was America’s last rocket research that major repairs could be performed in aircraft and concluded the manned lifting orbit (i.e., restoration of the damaged body program. The X-series research Skylab). developed many concepts that would Due to a number of factors, such as eventually be incorporated into the space increased solar activity and delays in shuttle, such as dead stick landings, flat getting the Shuttle off the ground (the bottoms and others. Shuttle was to boost the satellite into a The actual conceptual design for the higher orbit), Skylab’s orbit continued to STS began in 1969 when President Nixon decay until it made its final plunge on 11 directed top Department of Defense and July, 1979. NASA scientists to devise a post-Apollo manned program. The Space Shuttle

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Task Group was formed to study the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) problem; they recommended the STS. Due to its design philosophy, the STS The idea for the Hubble Space looked promising and was approved by Telescope was conceived back in the President Nixon. The system concept 1940’s, but work was not started on the included the use of reusable components, telescope until the 1970’s and 1980’s. autonomous operations, large payload, The telescope did not become operational relatively simple on-board operation, a until the 1990’s. The HST program is a cargo compartment designed for a benign cooperative program between NASA and launch environment, throttleable engines, the European Space Agency (ESA). The on orbit retrieval and repair of satellites. program objective is to operate a long- This design scheme (Fig. 1-16) would lived space-based observatory which will provide the U.S. with routine access to be primarily used for astronomical space. observation. The HST is the largest on- orbit observatory ever built and is capable of imaging objects up to 14 billion light years away. The resolution of HST is seven to ten times greater than earth based telescopes. Ground-based telescopes can seldom provide resolution better than 1.0 arc-seconds, except momentarily under the very best observing conditions. HST’s resolution is, depending on conditions, .1 arc-seconds, which is ten times better than ground based telescopes. Originally planned for 1979, the Large Space Telescope program called for the satellite to return to Earth every five years for refurbishment and on-orbit servicing every two and one half years. Contamination as well as structural Fig. 1-16. STS concerns negated the concept of ground return for the project. NASA then Components of the STS include decided that a three year cycle of on-orbit orbiter, external tank and the reusable servicing would work out just as well as solid rocket boosters. The first STS the first plan. The three HST servicing launch occurred on 12 April 1981, with missions in December 1993, February landing on 14 April. The astronauts for 1997 and mid- 1999 were enormous the mission were Robert Crippen and successes. Gemini and Apollo veteran John Young. Future services are planned. Flights After many successful missions could also be added for emergency between 1981 and 1985, tragedy struck in repairs. The years since the launch of January 1986, when the Challenger HST have been momentous because of exploded after lift-off, caused by a faulty the discoveries made by the HST. solid rocket booster. As in 1967 with Apollo I, NASA investigated the cause MIR and made corrections, but this time the manned space program was halted for 32 The MIR (loosely translated “peace”, months. It was not until 29 September “world”, or “commune”) complex is 1988 that America reentered space with described as a third generation space the launch of the Discovery. station by the Russian Space Program. The MIR (Fig. 1-17) is modular in

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depending on what needs to be accomplished. After change over is complete, the crews put their suits back on and return to the Soyuz-TM, the crew that has been there the longest gets in the older of the two capsules, leaving the newer one for the newer crew.

The MIR has had its share of problems in recent years. Originally designed to last only five years, the Russian space station is still flying. In recent years, a NASA astronaut has been part of the crew aboard MIR. In 1997, however, there were two life-threatening incidents which almost forced abandonment of the station. In February, a fire broke out Fig. 1-17. MIR Space Station Complex triggered by a chemical oxygen generator which filled the station with choking design, which allows the adding and smoke and blocked one of the escape subtracting of different modules. This routes to a docked Soyuz capsule. also allows the modules to be moved Although no major damage ensued, it from place to place, making the MIR was a frightening 14 minutes for the six very versatile. One of the most important men on board. In June, an unmanned features of MIR is that it is permanently Progress cargo ship collided with the manned, which is a giant step toward Spektr module and the ruptured module breaking earthly ties. began to decompress. The three man crew sealed off the damaged module but The MIR is the central portion of the the power on the station was reduced by space station, and is the core module for half. In the last two years, the Russians the entire complex. MIR is currently have tried desperately to secure outside made up of four other compartments. funding to keep the MIR flying These compartments are the transfer, concurrent with meeting their obligations working, intermediate and assembly to the International Space Station (ISS). compartments. All compartments are So far they haven’t been successful. pressurized except for the assembly They need $250 million to keep the compartment. station on orbit. It was reported that as of June 1999, a grass roots fundraising The usual missions begin with a launch campaign had only yielded 80 dollars. of either two or three crew members. It Despite this, another MIR mission was usually takes about two days for the mounted in April 2000 to tidy up the spacecraft to reach and dock with MIR. station after a prolonged period where the Docking always takes place on an axial station was unmanned. A private port. During docking, as a precautionary corporation, MirCorp was still looking measure, the crew that is already occupying for funding to keep the station going MIR puts on activity suits and retreat to longer. All this interest in keeping MIR the resident Soyuz-TM. This is the on station has concerned NASA who has capsule the Cosmonauts ride to and from the given the Russians large amounts of MIR. The Soyuz-TM stays attached so money for the new ISS modules which they can escape if necessary. At the time were running well behind schedule. hatches are open, both crews remove their suits and begin change over procedures, Pathfinder which take differing amounts of time

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The Pathfinder mission is a discovery one is the joint MIR/Shuttle rendezvous mission being conducted by NASA. The program. The main objective of this idea behind this mission is to prove that program is to provide operations NASA is committed to low cost planetary experience to Americans. The ISS is also exploration. When describing this project, using the basic schematics of the MIR the words “faster, better and cheaper” Space Station. Countries all over the have been commonly used. Pathfinder world are responsible for different parts was developed in 3 years and cost under of the space station. The U.S. is $150 million to construct. Overall, the responsible for the building of the main project cost was $280 million, which structure, which is 28 feet long and 14 included the launch vehicle and mission feet wide. The U.S. is also responsible operations. Another objective of this for the nearly 80,000 lbs. of hardware project was to prove the utility of a that go along with the station. The U.S. micro-rover on the surface of Mars. had many of their requirements fulfilled Pathfinder was launched on 4 December in 1995. This included solar array 1996 and touched down on Mars 4 July panels, rack structures, and hatch 1997. The rover functioned for a short assemblies. Canada is building the time before contact was lost and the Mobile Service System (MSS) which will mission ended. More bad news was in provide external station robotics. Japan store for subsequent missions to Mars. In is developing the Japanese Experiment September 1999, contact was lost with Module (JEM). ESA is developing both the Mars Climate Orbiter. The likely a pressurized laboratory called the (and highly embarrassing) cause was the Columbus Orbital Facility (COF) and the orbiter burned up in the Martian Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), atmosphere on Sept 23rd due to a failure which will be used for supplying logistics to convert English measurements to and propulsion. Hauling the pieces and metric units. Its companion, the Mars parts of the space station will require 45 Polar Lander apparently suffered a design space flights on three different types of flaw problem which cut off its braking launch vehicles over a five year period. thrusters too high above the Martian The three launch vehicles are the U.S. surface causing it to crash on 3 December Space Shuttle, Russian Proton and Soyuz 1999. These failures contributed to much rockets. Launch of space station began criticism of NASA’s “faster, cheaper, on 20 Nov 98 (five months behind better” credo. The whole Martian schedule) with the Russian Zarya control exploration program is currently being module. It was joined by the US Unity reviewed. connecting node on 6 Dec 98. The station is in an orbit of 251 x 237 statute International Space Station miles with a period of 92 minutes. The second shuttle mission to the station was The ISS is a partnership of nations that in May 1999 to transfer equipment to the spans the continents. Through the work existing modules and perform some of many people and organizations, installation functions. The next module preparations are being made for the mated with the station was the Service launch of the most complex structure that Module (Zvezda) launched from Russia has ever been placed in orbit. The ISS on July 12, 2000, well behind schedule. will sprawl across an area nearly the size The first crew departed for the station of two football fields and will be visible aboard Atlantis on 8 Sept 2000 to turn to the naked eye when it passes over on systems, fix problems and haul head. The ISS will weigh nearly one supplies to the station. million lbs., which is five times the mass of the first U.S. space station, Skylab. Chinese Manned Space Program The ISS program began in 1994 and moved into the first stage in 1995. Phase

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As the decade wound down the several improvements to the original Chinese also began testing a spacecraft to capsule, the Chinese were planning to carry three astronauts. They tested the attempt another unmanned launch by the first unmanned capsule, called end of 2000. “Shenzhou” in 1999. After incorporating

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REFERENCES

Gatland, Kenneth. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Space Technology, Harmony Books, 1981.

Interservice Space Fundamentals Students Textbook.

Ordway III, Federick and Mitchell Sharpe. The Rocket Team, Crowell, 1979.

Most of the updates in this chapter came from news reports (MSNBC, Florida Today, etc) off the Internet, 1998, 1999.

http://www.spacecom.af.mil/hqafspc/history/index.htm AF Space Command History www.patrick.af.mil/heritage/6555th/6555fram.htm History of space launches through 1970 supported by the 6555th.

www.spacewar.com/abmdaily.html Current space related news events.

www.spacedaily.com Home page of the Space Daily newspaper.

www.flatoday.com Florida Today home page; includes Kennedy Space Center events.

TOC

AU Space Primer 08/22/2003 1 - 20 Chapter 2

US SPACE ORGANIZATIONS

Several organizations are responsible for DoD space operations. US Strategic Com- mand is the joint warfighting command which directs space forces from Air Force Space Command (14th and 20th Air Forces), Army Space Command and Naval Space Com- mand. The current USSTRATCOM resulted from the Oct. 1, 2002 integration of two previous unified commands: U.S. Space Command, which oversaw DoD space and information operations; and the former USSTRATCOM, responsible for the command and control of U.S. strategic forces. (In October 1999, US Space Command had assumed responsibility for the DoD Joint Task Force - Computer Network Defense (JTF-CND) and the Joint Information Operations Center (JIOC) located in San Antonio, TX. The Com- puter Network Attack (CNA) mission was added in Oct 2000.) USSTRATCOM provides space support for unified commanders worldwide. In addition, space organizations provide warning data for the North American Aerospace De- fense (NORAD) Command mission and theater ballistic missile defense units. Several national level organizations, such as the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) and the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) [proposed new name is National Geo- spatial Intelligence Agency (NGA] are also involved in satellite operations. This chapter addresses the responsibilities of the various space organizations and includes the SPACEAF Aerospace Operations Center (AOC) at 14AF, Vandenberg AFB, CA. USSTRATCOM has broad missions: Establish and provide full-spectrum global strike, coordinated space and information operations capabilities to meet both deterrent and decisive national security objectives; provide operational space support, integrated missile defense and specialized planning expertise as well as global command and control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance to the joint warfighter.

UNITED STATES STRATEGIC cludes all command center opera- COMMAND (USSTRATCOM) tions, the Joint Intelligence Center, Current Operations, and Overview the National Airborne Operations Center. The command consists of a Joint Forces • Policy Resources & Requirements Headquarters for Information Operations – develops overarching policy to and four directorates: support execution of all the com- • Combat Support -- provides ac- mand’s missions. It is responsible quisition, contracting, combat lo- for the articulation and develop- gistics and readiness, C4, and ment of all command requirement global C2. processes to ensure that • Global Operations – coordinates STRATCOM has the tools to ac- the planning, employment and complish its mission, and it en- operations of DoD strategic assets sures appropriate decision support and combines all current opera- tools and assessment processes tions, global command and con- are in place to enhance opera- trol operations, and intelligence tional capabilities. The director- operations. The directorate in- ate includes comptroller support;

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2 - 1 strategy, policy and policy formu- Force, Naval and Army Space Com- lation; concepts and experimenta- mands, and supported other US unified tion, and force assessments. and specified military commanders. • Strike Warfare – includes the USSPACECOM’s area of operation Targeting Intelligence Center and was the operational medium of space. three divisions to deliver rapid, Both Navy and Army three-star flag offi- extended range, precision effects cers served as Deputy CINCSPACE. in support of theater and national As part of the ongoing initiative to objectives: Global Strike, Com- transform the U.S. military into a 21st bat Plans, and Planning/Targeting century fighting force, the DoD merged tools. US Space Command with • Joint Forces Headquarters Infor- USSTRATCOM on Oct. 1, 2002. The mation Operations – incorporates, merger was to improve combat effective- integrates, and synchronizes vari- ness and speed up information collection ous information operation disci- and assessment needed for strategic deci- plines. sion-making. The merged command is responsible for both early warning of and History defense against missile attack as well as long-range strategic attacks. The space part of USSTRATCOM began when US Space Command was created in 1985, but America’s military actually began operating in space much earlier. With the Soviet Union’s unexpected 1957 launch of the world’s first man-made satellite, Sputnik I, President Eisenhower accelerated the nation’s slowly emerging civil and military space efforts. The vital advantage that space could give either country during those dark days of the Cold War was evident in his somber words: "Space objectives relating to defense are those to which the highest priority attaches because they Fig. 2-1 USSTRATCOM Emblem bear on our immediate safety." During the 1960s and 1970s, the Missions Army, Navy and Air Force advanced and expanded space technologies in the areas The space-related missions of of communication, meteorology, geod- USSTRATCOM remain those of its esy, navigation and reconnaissance. predecessor: to conduct joint space op- Space continued to support strategic de- erations in accordance with its Unified terrence by providing arms control and Command Plan’s assigned missions of treaty verification, and by offering unam- Space Forces Support, Space Force En- biguous, early warning of any missile hancement, Space Force Application and attack on North America. Space Force Control. USSPACECOM was a unified command under the Department of Defense Space Forces Support with headquarters at Peterson AFB, Colo- rado, commanded by an AF general. It Space Forces Support includes launch was activated on 23 Sep 1985 in order to and on-orbit satellite command and con- form an organization to consolidate as- trol operations provided by Army Space sets affecting US activities in space. The Command, Naval Space Command and command was composed of the Air 14th Air Force (Air Force Space Com-

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2 - 2 mand). The 30th Space Wing at Vanden- tions in space as well as the denial to an berg AFB, CA and the 45th Space Wing enemy of the same, are the key tenets of at Patrick AFB and Cape Canaveral, FL space control operations. This mission conduct space launch operations. Satellite falls under the 21st Space Wing located tracking and operations are conducted by at Peterson AFB. the 50th Space Wing at Schriever AFB, Colorado. The three pillars of space control are Surveillance, Protection and Negation. Space Force Enhancement The worldwide Space Surveillance Space systems provide direct support Network (SSN) is tasked to detect, track, to land, sea and air forces. To meet this identify and catalog all space objects to requirement, USSTRATCOM has control ensure space operations are conducted of a fleet of satellites that provide ballis- without interference. tic missile warning, communications, The USSTRATCOM Space Control weather and navigation, precise position- Center (SCC) in Cheyenne Mountain ing support, and intelligence, reconnais- provides warning to US space system op- sance and surveillance (ISR). In addition, erators in order to protect their satellites US forces employ commercial communi- from potentially hostile situations or dan- cations satellites, civil weather satellites gerous natural events. and civilian Multi-Spectral Imagery Disrupting, degrading, denying or de- (MSI) satellites. stroying space-based support to hostile military forces are the basic principles of Space Force Application negation. This could be accomplished by using conventional weapons to strike an The Missile Defense Act of 1991, as adversary’s space launch or ground relay amended by Congress in 1992, directs the facility. DoD to provide protection of the US and The US does not have an operational forward deployed US forces, friends and anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon system. allies from limited ballistic missile However, research and development into strikes. anti-satellite technology is continuing. Ballistic Missile Defense (BMD) sys- An operational ASAT system would de- tems are divided into theater defense sys- ter threat to US space systems, enabling tems to counter short, medium and the US to negate hostile space-related intermediate range ballistic missiles. Fu- forces and ensure the right of self- ture systems may also be developed to defense. counter Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles In addition to the above missions, (ICBMs). USSTRATCOM is responsible for plan- USSTRATCOM provides space-based ning and executing ballistic missile de- ballistic missile support (warning, sur- fense of North America operations. It veillance, cueing, etc.) to theater com- also advocates the space and missile manders for theater ballistic missile warning requirements of the other Com- defense. The same support is also pro- batant Commanders. vided to NORAD for the protection of North America against ballistic missile Computer Network Defense Mission threats. On 1 Oct 99, USSPACECOM had as- Space Control sumed responsibility for the DoD Joint Task Force - Computer Network Defense The Space Control mission is essential (JTF-CND) mission. JTF-CND is located to the success of present and future US in Arlington, VA and orchestrates the land, sea and air military operations. As- defense of all DoD computer networks sured access to, and unimpeded opera- and systems.

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2 - 3 In concert with the military services Information Operations doctrine, tactics and the Defense Information Systems and procedures. Agency (DISA), the JTF-CND monitors "Full Spectrum" IO support includes cyber intrusions and potential threats to operational security, psychological DoD computers and coordinates actions operations, electronic warfare, targeting to stop or contain damage and restore of command and control facilities, computer network operations. The Na- military deception, CND and CNA, Civil tional Infrastructure Protection Center Affairs and Public Affairs. (NIPC), located at FBI Headquarters in The JIOC was formerly known as the Washington, D.C., coordinates the same Joint Command and Control Warfare service with other federal agencies. Center and had been under the command The JTF-CND mission is a "logical of the Commander in Chief, US Atlantic fit" because USSTRATCOM has the uni- Command. fied, global and operational focus neces-

USSTRATCOM

NAVSPACE 14AF/AFSPACE ARSPACE

21SW 30SW 45SW 50SW Peterson AFB, CO Vandenberg AFB, CA Patrick AFB, FL Schriever AFB, CO Worldwide Space Surveillance Western Range Space Launch Eastern Range Space Launch Satellite Operations and Missile Warning Operations 614 Space Operations Group

th 76 SPCS SPACEAF Aerospace Schriever AFB, CO Operations Center sary for the mission of computer network Fig. 2-2 Space portion of the defense. This new mission capitalizes on USSTRATCOM Organization mission similarities between space and information operations. Organization

Joint Information Operations Center With headquarters at Offutt Air Force Base, USSTRATCOM is a functional Also on 1 Oct 99, USSPACECOM combatant command responsible for syn- had assumed responsibility for the Joint chronizing and integrating US military Information Operations Center (JIOC) space components and executing as- located in San Antonio, TX. The Center signed missions. The assigned missions provides "full spectrum" Information Op- are outlined for each unified command in erations support to operational com- the JCS Unified Command Plan (UCP). manders and is the principal field agency These include Space Control, Space Sup- for Joint Information Operations support port, Integrated Tactical Warning and of the Combatant Commands. Attack Assessment (ITW/AA), Ballistic The Center provides support to plan- Missile Defense (BMD), Force En- ning, coordination and execution of DoD hancement, and Force Application. Information Operations worldwide. The The three component commands (Fig. Center also assists in the development of 2-2 above) under USSTRATCOM are Air Force Space Command/14AF, Naval

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2 - 4 Space Command and Army Space Com- the responsibility of Air Force Systems mand. Each of these commands will be Command and the Strategic Air Com- discussed separately and in detail. Acting mand. As the number and type of space jointly, USSTRATCOM personnel pull systems increased, and as US military together several US military space assets forces became more dependent on the previously operated and maintained sepa- support they provided, the Air Force de- rately by the services. termined a single major command should be established to support and direct op- Responsibilities erational space activity. Finally, the US Space Policy (an- As a result of the President’s approved nounced in July 1982) stated that the changes to the Unified Command Plan, most important goal of the US space pro- operational command of US military gram was to strengthen national security space assets is similar to that of tanks, and maintain the US technological lead- ships and aircraft. ership in space. The activation of the United States AFSPC was established on 1 Sep 1982 Space Command put the infrastructure in to consolidate Air Force space activities place that allows the DoD to consolidate and is responsible for operating assigned and integrate DoD space forces into a military space systems. AFSPC head- single joint military organization, thus quarters is located at Peterson AFB. enhancing the deterrence capability of US space forces. Mission

• The new command arrangement is Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) is directly responsible to the Presi- an AF Major Command (MAJCOM) dent, Secretary of Defense and Joint Chiefs of Staff. • The Command provides positive, centralized control over space systems. • The Command provides joint operational focus for requirements.

AIR FORCE SPACE COMMAND (AFSPC)/14th Air Force Fig. 2-3 AFSPC Emblem whose primary role is to organize, train and equip Air Force space forces. These AFSPC (Fig. 2-3) is a major command th th of the US Air Force and is the Air Force forces include both 14 and 20 Air Forces service component which supports the and their subordinate units. USSTRATCOM mission through its functional component, the 14th Air Force (14AF). AFSPC is also a component for Inter- Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) forces; 20th Air Force at Warren AFB, WY provides the ICBM forces for AFSPC.

Background Fig. 2-4 14th AF Emblem During the 1960s and 1970s, Air Force operation of space systems was primarily

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2 - 5 14th Air Force (14AF)/SPACEAF Warning and Attack Assessment (ITW/AA) of sea and land-launched bal- 14AF (Fig. 2-4) is both the AF com- listic missile attack against the continen- ponent for space (AFSPACE was redes- tal US and Canada. Resources include ignated SPACEAF on 7 Sep 00) and a the Defense Support Program (DSP, a Numbered AF. Under the SPACEAF space-based early warning system), mission, it plans and executes assigned phased-array radars and mechanical ra- missions to bring space effects to war- dars. The Wing provides day-to-day fighting forces worldwide. management, training and evaluation for COMAFSPACE plans and executes as- missile warning, intelligence and com- signed space control, space support, force munications sites assigned to it. enhancement and force application mis- The ITW/AA system detects, tracks sions. (This change from AFSPACE to and predicts the impact of inter- SPACEAF aligned 14AF with 9AF continental ballistic missiles and Sea- (CENTAF) and 12AF (SOUTHAF) and Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) eliminated some confusion with targeted for the North American conti- AFSPACECOM.) nent. 14th Air Force, located at Vandenberg Included in the worldwide network are AFB, California, ensures the readiness of the PAVE PAWS SLBM warning system assigned forces, prepares forces for de- radars at Cape Cod AFS, Massachusetts ployment and employment, and exercises and Beale AFB, California. operational control of assigned forces. It Ballistic Missile Early Warning Sys- also serves as an operational component tems (BMEWS) are located at Thule AB, to USSTRATCOM and established the Greenland, Clear AFS, Alaska and SPACEAF Aerospace Operations Center Fylingdale’s Moor in the U.K. (AOC). 14th Air Force provides the day- DSP ground stations are located in to-day operators and managers of Colorado, Europe and Australia. AFSPC’s space forces. 14AF is also re- On 1 April 1991, the 30th and 45th sponsible for AFSPC’s operational plan- Space Wings were activated to establish ning and employment in wartime and operational space wings at Vandenberg during major worldwide exercises and AFB, California, and Patrick AFB, Flor- contingencies. ida, respectively. Reporting to these The 14AF consists of four wings (21st, wings are Space Launch Squadrons 30th, 45th, and 50th Space Wings) and the (SLSs) for each respective DoD booster 614th Space Operations Group which op- program. The SLSs plan, support and erates the SPACEAF Aerospace Opera- execute launches of DoD boosters. tions Center, the 2nd Command and Control Squadron (2CACS), and the 76th 30th Space Wing. The 30th Space Wing Space Control Squadron (76 SPCS). at Vandenberg AFB, CA manages testing of space and missile systems for DoD and 21st Space Wing. The 21st Space Wing is responsible for launching expendable was activated 1 January 1983 at Peterson boosters for placing satellites into near- AFB. It was the first operational space polar orbit from the west coast of the US wing in the Air Force. 21st Space Wing The Wing launches Delta II and Titan IV operates AFSPC’s worldwide network of (Fig. 2-5), and a variety of other expend- dedicated missile warning sensors. These able boosters. sensors provide Integrated Tactical

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2 - 6 In addition to operating the Western tems and to operate and manage the Test Range, the Wing provides launch common user portion of the Air Force operations and management of DoD Satellite Control Network (AFSCN). The space programs as well as launch and AFSCN is a worldwide network of eight tracking facilities. satellite tracking stations linked by sophisticated communications equipment. 45th Space Wing. The 45th Space Wing The eight Remote Tracking Stations at Patrick AFB, FL provides space launch are: Vandenberg Tracking Station, CA; and tracking facilities, safety procedures Hawaii Tracking Station, HI; Colorado Tracking Station, CO; New Hampshire Tracking Station, NH; Thule Tracking Station, GN; Oakhanger Tracking Sta- tion, UK; Guam Tracking Station, GU; and the Diego Garcia Tracking Station, British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). This $6.2-billion network supports more than 145 DoD satellites by allowing satellite operators at Onizuka AS and Schriever AFB to communicate with and control the satellites for which they are responsible. The 21 Space Operations Squadron (21 SOPS) is a component of the 50th Space Wing, and is located at Onizuka AS, California (Fig. 2-6). This organization is responsible for operations, main- Fig. 2-5. Titan IV launch tenance and logistics support for the common user resources of the AFSCN. and test data to a wide variety of users. It monitors, maintains and updates the The Wing launches a variety of ex- status of AFSCN resources and provides pendable vehicles, including the Delta II, Titan IV, and Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles (EELVs). It also provides support to the space shuttle program. The Wing operates Cape Canaveral AS, and the Eastern Range. Additional responsibilities include the provision of launch operations and management of DoD space programs, and launch and tracking facilities for NASA, foreign governments, the European Space Agency and various private industry contractors. Fig. 2-6. Onizuka AS 50th Space Wing. The 50th Space Wing (originally the 2nd Space Wing) was ac- the status of configurations and readiness tivated 8 July 1985, at Schriever AFB. of controlled resources to multiple users Its mission is to provide command and and command centers. control of operational DoD satellite sys-

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2 - 7 The two Resource Control Complexes capability for GPS and DSP systems. belonging to the 50 OG (21st SOPS at The squadron also operates and maintains Onizuka AS and the 22nd SOPS at R&D space systems possessing potential Schriever AFB) give the network dual residual capabilities to support military node capability, ensuring continual sup- forces. port for on-orbit satellites. They are re- Early orbit operations for GPS and sponsible for scheduling the use of DSP systems performed by the 1st SOPS tracking stations for satellite operators at include satellite activation, initial check- Onizuka AS and Schriever AFB. This enables them to make contact through the tracking stations to communicate with the satellites for which they are responsible. The Space Operations Squadrons (SOPSs) under the 50th Space Wing at Schriever AFB perform tracking, telemetry and command functions for orbiting spacecraft. They are compatible with the SOPS located at Onizuka AS and provide support to the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), DSP, Fig. 2-7. Schriever AFB, Colorado NAVSTAR Global Positioning System out and transfer to mission orbit. The (GPS), Defense Satellite Communica- squadron plans and executes Tracking, tions System (DSCS), NATO IV/Skynet Telemetry and Commanding (TT&C) IV, the UHF Follow-On, MILSTAR and functions for GPS, DSP and assigned the Midcourse Space Experiment. R&D satellites to maintain spacecraft Also located at Schriever AFB (Fig. state of health, sustain on-orbit opera- 2-7) are the GPS Master Control Station tions and accomplish mission tasking. (GPS MCS) operated by the 2nd SOPS; They also support satellite end-of-life the MILSTAR Master Control Center testing and conduct satellite disposal op- operated by the 4th SOPS; and the 50th erations or GPS, DSP and assigned R&D Space Wing Command Post. satellites as directed. Collocated on Schriever AFB are the The 1st SOPS maintains DSP space- dual Defense Satellite Communications craft positional knowledge to 200 meters Systems terminals, the Colorado Track- and distributes data to worldwide users. ing Station of the AFSCN and a GPS The squadron maintains the capacity to monitor station. support at least six contacts for each DSP 50th Space Wing subordinate units in- satellite per day. When required, the clude the 50th Operations Group (1st squadron can relocate, within 48 hours, to through 4th SOPS), 50th Operations their back-up node at Onizuka AS to per- Support Squadron, 50th Communications form limited command and control to Group, and the 21st, 22nd, and 23rd sustain on-orbit operations of assigned Space Operations Squadrons: GPS and DSP satellites.

• 1st SOPS was activated on 30 • 2nd SOPS was also activated on 30 January 1992 and is located at Schriever January 1992 and is located at Schriever AFB. They provide routine, consolidated AFB. They provide command and con- command and control support for three trol for the GPS constellation of satel- distinct systems: DSP, GPS, Technology lites. GPS provides worldwide precision for Autonomous Operational Survivabil- navigation service for US and allied mili- ity (TAOS) and other assigned Research tary forces as well as a host of civilian and Development (R&D) spacecraft. users. The 1st SOPS operates and maintains The 2nd SOPS operates and maintains 24-hour AFSCN command and control the GPS MCS and a dedicated network of

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2 - 8 monitor stations and ground antennas to Operational crews at the 3rd SOPS are control and monitor the satellite constel- responsible for providing telemetry lation. The monitor stations passively analysis, tracking data for orbit determi- track the navigation signals on all the sat- nation and commanding of on-board sub- ellites. Information is then processed at systems for the DSCS III program. In the MCS and is used to update the satel- addition, they are responsible for launch lites’ navigation messages. The MCS and early orbit operations for the Navy’s then sends updated navigation informa- UHF F/O spacecraft, a replacement for tion to GPS satellites through ground an- the Fleet Satellite (FLTSAT) Communi- tennas. Ground antennas are also used to cations System. transmit commands to satellites and to The 3rd SOPS also shares with the 4th retrieve the satellites’ state of health SOPS operational control of MILSTAR, a highly advanced communications satellite program. The 3rd SOPS was primarily responsible for launch and emergency operations, but all operational control of MILSTAR was turned over to the 4th SOPS in December 1996. As the 3rd SOPS has been gaining control of new satellite systems, it has been working to focus its operations on these newest generation communications satellites. As a result, the operational mission for NATO III and DSCS II was transferred to the newly activated 5th (SOH) information (telemetry). SOPS at Onizuka AS. Control of the ag- Fig. 2-8. GPS Satellite ing FLTSAT constellation was surren- dered to the Navy at Pt. Mugu, • 3rd SOPS, also located at Schriever California, in June of 1996. AFB, was activated on 30 January 1992, along with 1, 2 and 4 SOPS. The 3rd • 4th SOPS, located at Schriever SOPS conducts both launch and on-orbit AFB, was also activated on 30 January operations for military communications 1992, and is responsible for overall com- satellites for the DoD and AFSPC. mand and control of the MILSTAR satel- The 3rd SOPS conducts launch and lite constellation. on-orbit operations for DoD communica- The 4th SOPS is responsible for ensur- tions satellites, which include the DSCS ing that the MILSTAR system provides III, UHF F/O and MILSTAR. These sat- survivable, enduring, minimum essential ellites relay communications for the De- command and control communications fense Information Systems Agency through all levels of conflict for the (DISA) and Naval Space Command. President and SECDEF and warfighting These organizations manage and main- commanders worldwide. The 4th SOPS tain all primary peacetime and wartime operates the $31 billion MILSTAR sys- communications links for the President tem, executing communications man- and SECDEF, theater commanders and agement, satellite command and control all strategic and tactical forces world- and ground segment maintenance for the wide. The 3rd SOPS also has the AF MILSTAR constellation. Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) MILSTAR is the most advanced mili- mission. AFSATCOM provides reliable, tary communications satellite system to enduring, worldwide command and con- date. The five-satellite constellation trol communications to users based on a links command authorities to high prior- priority system outlined by the Joint ity US forces via MILSTAR terminals on Chiefs of Staff (JCS). aircraft, ships, submarines, trucks and

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2 - 9 ground sites through encrypted voice, launch and on-orbit operations for a wide data, teletype or facsimile communica- spectrum of vital DoD, allied and com- tions. mercial space systems. The 21 SOPS plans for and conducts launch, on-orbit and specialized communications operations for several DoD, allied, civil and commercial space missions, including Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) for NASA and DoD space assets, NATO Satellite Communications Sys- tems and DSCS. In addition to satellite programs, the squadron provides tracking and telemetry support on every Space Shuttle mission and to several commercial launches. Fig. 2-9 MILSTAR Satellite It schedules, allocates, and configures Air Force Satellite Control Network 4th SOPS performs its functions common user resources; resolves re- through the MILSTAR Operations Center source allocation conflicts; monitors, (MOC), Mobile Constellation Control maintains and updates the status of Stations (CCSs) and the MILSTAR Sup- AFSCN resources and provides status, port Facility (MSF). configurations, and readiness of con- MOC personnel perform satellite trolled resources to multiple users and command and control, communications command centers. resource management, systems engineer- The 21st SOPS maintains the facilities ing support, mission planning and anom- necessary to support a full deployment by aly resolution for the MILSTAR system. 1st and 3rd SOPS, in the event of an The MOC has two fixed CCSs which in- emergency or routine relocation. Addi- terface with the geographically distrib- tionally, 21st SOPS maintains a backup uted mobile CCSs to execute satellite scheduling facility for the 22nd SOPS command and control. The MSF controls facility at Schriever AFB. It also man- maintenance and testing as well as hard- ages communications systems for net- ware and software configuration control. work operations and maintains and Communications resource manage- operates base communications. ment includes satellite communications The squadron provides access to the channel apportionment and monitoring worldwide Air Force Satellite Control payload use; more specifically, planning, Network and specialized support to the executing and monitoring payload use international space community by provid- allocations from the Presidential-level to ing network communications, inter-range tactical users in the field. operations, and on-orbit test, checkout The 4th SOPS provides operators for and troubleshooting services. The unit is the mobile CCSs located at the 721st also responsible for maintaining Oni- Mobile Command and Control Squadron, zuka’s two 60-foot DSCS antennas. The Peterson AFB, and the 55th Operations 21st SOPS acts as the back-up for sched- Squadron, Offutt AFB, Nebraska. At uling tracking station usage for satellite higher readiness levels and during exer- operators. cises, these personnel deploy with As host unit for Onizuka Air Force COMUSSTRATCOM, to provide surviv- Station, 21st SOPS provides resources to able, enduring and secure communica- operate and maintain the OAFS facility tions. and to provide limited administrative and support services to base units and agen- • 21 SOPS, located at Onizuka AS, is cies, including security, civil engineering responsible for planning and conducting and safety. Further, the squadron pro-

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2 - 10 vides some base support to units on The SPACEAF AOC is divided into a Moffett Federal Airfield. The 21st Space Strategy Division, a Combat Plans Divi- Operations Squadron commander is des- sion and a Combat Operations Division. ignated the installation commander for The Strategy Division focuses on Onizuka Air Force Station. long-range planning of space operations and includes developing, refining and SPACEAF Aerospace Operations Cen- disseminating the COMAFSPACE strat- ter (SPACEAF AOC) egy for support to the warfighter. The Combat Plans Division looks at In Aug 1998, 14AF/CC established the near-term space operations and deter- new 14AF Space Operations Center mines how space systems can best be (SOC) at Vandenberg AFB, CA. as the used to achieve joint military objectives. focal point for space support to the war- This division develops and disseminates fighter. the Space Tasking Order (STO) to all us- On 2 Jul 99, Maj Gen Hinson, then ers. 14AF commander, announced that the The Combat Operations Division is 14AF Space Operations Center’s name the tasking agency for space units and would be changed to AFSPACE Aero- includes the missile warning sensor sites space Operations Center (AOC) to create as well as providing users with the prod- common terminology, enhance air and ucts from these space units. It receives space integration and highlight the close information from the Cheyenne Mountain relationship between air and space assets. Operations Center (CMOC), the central (AFSPACE changed to SPACEAF AOC collection and coordination center for a in September, 2000.) worldwide system of satellites, radars, and sensors that provide early warning of any missile, air, or space threat to North America. In summary, the SPACEAF AOC has control and operational tasking of space units through the Space Operations Team to support joint military operations and executes that support through the Space Tasking Order. The AOC has the ability to adjust the STO to respond to operational dynamics in a wartime or crisis situation. On 8 Sep 00, during JEFX 2000, Gen. Ryan declared the AOC to be a new AF Fig. 2-10 SPACEAF Aerospace Operations operational weapons system after three Center years of experimentation.

The SPACEAF AOC is a synergistic 76th Space Control Squadron (76 C2 weapon system focused on planning SPCS) and executing COMAFSPACE's mission. The SPACEAF AOC provides The 76th Space Control Squadron was COMAFSPACE with C4I infrastructure activated at Schriever AFB, CO on 22 to plan, execute and exercise operational Jan 2001. It was the first counterspace control of AFSPC forces; supports technology unit, and will explore future COMUSSTRATCOM and theater war- space control technologies by testing fighters; is the focal point for employ- models and prototypes of counterspace ment of AFSPC forces; and enables systems for rapid achievement of space COMAFSPACE to integrate spacepower superiority. It will consider how each into global military operations. concept might be deployed and employed

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2 - 11 in harsh combat environments; i.e., think Space Warfare Center (SWC) through operational issues with an eye on improving potential designs. The SWC (Fig. 2-12) was established at Schriever AFB on 8 December 1993 20th Air Force and forms a nucleus of operators and space personnel to develop space support “America’s ICBM Team deterring systems and provide assistance to war- conflict with professional people and fighters. ready, secure missiles.”

Fig. 2-12 SWC Logo

The SWC performs operational testing and develops tactics for space-related systems; works with theater commanders on integration of space systems into exercises and war plans; and develops concepts and prototypes for employing emerging technology for advanced space Fig. 2-11 Minuteman Ripple Launch systems and missions. Among its initiatives is Project Hook, a combination of That’s the 20th Air Force mission GPS navigation and survival radios de- statement. ICBMs will continue to be the signed to improve search and rescue op- backbone of America’s Strategic deter- erations for downed pilots. Project Hook rent force well into the 21st century, as essentially takes the “search” out of they are the only on-alert strategic force “search and rescue” by pinpointing the available to the Air Force. With a readi- location of the pilot on the ground and ness rate above 99 percent, they are the relaying it via “burst transmission” to a nation’s fast-reaction, long-range force, Search and Rescue Center and airborne deterring any adversary from launching a rescue forces. preemptive attack against the US. Another SWC initiative, the Multi- Deterring an attack against the US by Source Tactical System (MSTS), pro- weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, vides a six-layered picture of the opera- radiological, biological or chemical) re- tional theater for aircrews. It combines mains America’s highest defense priority. tactical, intelligence and digital mapping In today’s rapidly changing world, a information with near real-time Airborne quick-response deterrent nuclear capabil- Warning and Control System (AWACS) ity is essential (Fig. 2-11). As more information to update flight crews en countries strive to develop weapons of route to their targets or drop zones. mass destruction and sophisticated deliv- Overall, there are more than 30 initiatives ery systems, ICBMs serve as an insur- currently underway in the SWC to im- ance policy for the US and the world prove the tactical use of space by war- against rogue nations and terrorists. fighters. The SWC is developing space models and simulations for inclusion in wargam-

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2 - 12 ing centers operated by all the services. When NAVSPACECOM was estab- They are helping develop operational lished, NSWCDD already served as host plans for theater commanders that pro- for two other major tenant activities; the vide access to space assets and training in AEGIS Training Center and the Naval their use. Space Surveillance Center (NAVSPASUR). Finally, the Space Operations School A major advantage to locating (SOPSC) is providing space education NAVSPACECOM at Dahlgren was the and training to space staff members and fact that NAVSPASUR was already lo- planners throughout the military commu- cated there and had the necessary com- nity so they can better understand and munications to other space-related plan for space support to warfighting ef- command centers. forts. Mission

NAVAL SPACE COMMAND NAVSPACECOM uses the medium of (NAVSPACECOM) space and its potential to provide essential information and capabilities to ashore The naval service’s growing depend- and afloat naval forces by: ence on space prompted the Secretary of the Navy to establish a new command • Operating surveillance, navigation, which would consolidate space activities communication, environmental and and organizations that operate and main- information systems; tain naval space systems. This organiza- • Advocating naval warfighting re- tion, the Naval Space Command quirements in the joint arena; and (NAVSPACECOM) (Fig. 2-13), was • Advising, supporting and assisting commissioned on 1 October 1983. naval services through training and by developing space plans, programs, budgets, policies, concepts and doctrine.

For additional information on the Na- val Space Command and Navy space operations, see Chapter 3: Navy Space.

US ARMY SPACE AND MISSILE Fig. 2-13 NAVSPACECOM Emblem DEFENSE COMMAND (SMDC)/ARMY SPACE COMMAND It was a decisive move to bring together several activities under a single The Army Space and Strategic De- command. The command strengthens fense Command (SSDC) was created in operational control, provides a central 1992 to unite key Army space organiza- focal point for naval space matters and tions under a Lieutenant General. This more effectively guides future opera- command was a combination of two for- tional uses of space. mer Army commands, the Army Space NAVSPACECOM headquarters is lo- Command (ARSPACE), located in Colo- cated at the Naval Surface Warfare Cen- rado Springs, and the Strategic Defense ter, Dahlgren Division (NSWCDD), at Command (SDC) in Huntsville, Ala- Dahlgren, Virginia. The Dahlgren Divi- bama. Since 1992, additional Army sion now includes a Dahlgren headquar- space-related elements have been added: ters site with detachments or operating the Army Space Program Office (ASPO), facilities at White Oak, Maryland, Wal- which runs the Army TENCAP program; lops Island, Virginia and Naval Coastal and the Army Space Technology Office Systems Center, Panama City, Florida.

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2 - 13 (now called the Army Space Technology Primary functions of SMDC originally Program), which guides Army R&D included three areas: commanding and activities. controlling Army space forces, integrated missile defense and computer network operations: Specifically, these functions were performed:

• Operation of the Advanced Re- search Center (ARC), a government-owned, contractor-operated research center for BMD activities. ARC is part of the National Testbed and works with the Joint National Test Facility (JNTF) at Schriever AFB. Fig. 2-14 SMDC Emblem • Operation and maintenance (O&M) of the High Energy Laser System In October 1997, Army SSDC was re- Test Facility (HELSTF) at White named Army Space and Missile Defense Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. Command (SMDC). The headquarters • Development of technologies asso- for SMDC is in Arlington, Virginia, re- ciated with Army space capabili- porting directly to the Army's Deputy ties. Chief of Staff for Operations (DCSOPS). As of 7 Aug 00, the commanding gen- Now five mission areas include global eral at SMDC is now the headquarters strike, space operations, integrated mis- and commander for Army Space Com- sile defense, strategic information opera- mand as well. tions, with Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelli- Mission gence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) as the enabler. US Army SMDC activities in Hunts- ville trace their lineage to Werner von SMDC Organizations Braun and the Redstone Arsenal space activities of the 1950s. Today, SMDC For additional detailed information on maintains a place within DoD as a supe- Army space, see Chapter 4: Army rior research facility supporting not only Space. Army initiatives, but the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, the Advanced Re- search Program Agency (ARPA) and ma- NORTH AMERICAN AEROSPACE trix support to a myriad of other DoD DEFENSE COMMAND (NORAD) research and applications initiatives. SMDC at Huntsville is organized into The North American Aerospace De- two main centers: the Missile Defense fense Command (NORAD) (Fig. 2-15) is and Battlefield Integration Center sup- the US-Canadian command for the stra- porting modeling and simulation activi- tegic aerospace defense of the North ties; and the Missile Defense and Space American continent. Technology Center focusing on space Air Force Space Command provides and strategic defense-oriented research data for the NORAD mission. and development.

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Organization

NORAD provides cooperative defense planning between the governments of Canada and the United States and places strategic defensive forces under a single Commander-in-Chief. The NORAD Commander and Deputy are responsible to the United States and Fig. 2-15 NORAD Emblem Canadian governments through the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of Background the United States and the Chief of the De- fense staff of Canada. They cannot be Strategic aerospace defense traces its from the same country, and their ap- roots to the Air Defense Command, pointments must be approved by the Ca- which was formed in 1946 at Mitchell nadian and United States Governments. Field, New York. The designated mis- During the absence of NORAD Com- sion for that command was to defend the mander, command shall pass to the Dep- United States against a manned bomber uty. Canadian forces and members of the attack. In 1957, the United States and United States Air Force, Army, Navy and Canada jointly assumed responsibility for Marine Corps occupy key NORAD posi- the strategic aerospace defense mission tions. There are no Army or Naval com- with the establishment of NORAD. Over ponents dedicated to North American Air time, the warning and assessment mission Defense, but the Navy and US Marine expanded to include ballistic missiles. Corps would augment NORAD and This evolution was formally recognized USNORTHCOM with resources during in the 1981 NORAD Agreement when air defense contingencies. The Navy and the name was changed from “Air” to Army provide space surveillance re- North American “Aerospace” Defense sources that are responsive to NORAD. Command. During heightened defense conditions, NORAD could have more than 50,000 Mission people under operational command. NORAD forces (Fig. 2-16) are sup- The two primary missions established plied by Canadian Forces Air Command; for NORAD, as stated in the 1996 AFSPC (with supporting forces from NORAD Agreement, are: 14th Air Force and 20th Air Force); Air Combat Command (ACC), 11th Air • Aerospace warning for North Force in Alaska; Air Force Communica- America tions Command (AFCC); the Air Na- • Aerospace control for North Amer- tional Guard; Air Force Reserve; and by ica the US Army, Navy and Marine Corps. Canadian Forces Air Command pro- Aerospace warning includes the moni- vides fighter interceptors, radar stations toring of man-made objects in space and and control centers. Air Combat Com- the detection, validation and warning of mand’s 1st Air Force at Tyndall AFB, attack against North America; whether by Florida is responsible for management of aircraft, missiles or space vehicles, utiliz- air defense resources in the Continental ing mutual support arrangements with United States (CONUS), such as fighter in- other commands. Aerospace control interceptors, radar sites and control centers. cludes providing surveillance and control The 11th Air Force at Elmendorf AFB, of the airspace of Canada and the United Alaska operates the air defense units in States. Alaska. Other interceptors are provided

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2 - 15 by the Air National Guard, US Navy and tem. Portions of that system are under Marine Corps. the operational control of NORAD, while AFSPC provides the missile warning other portions are operated by commands and space surveillance sensors that report supporting NORAD. For example, information to NORAD and other users. ground-based radars located throughout Canada and the US to detect air-breathing threats are under operational control of NORAD, while missile warning and space surveillance are provided by USSTRATCOM. The NORAD Commander maintains his headquarters at Peterson AFB, and at a command and control center at Chey- enne Mountain Air Station (CMAS), which is a short distance away. The CMAS serves as a central collection and coordination facility for a worldwide sys- CANADIAN CONUS ALASKAN tem of sensors designed to provide the NORAD NORAD NORAD Commander and the President of the US REGION REGION REGION and Prime Minister of Canada with an accurate picture of any aerospace threat to their respective areas of responsibility. NORAD uses information from mis- Fig. 18-16 NORAD Organization Chart sile warning systems. This means assessing hundreds of missile launches Tasks worldwide per year to determine if they are a threat to North America. The The increasingly versatile strategic Commander provides an assessment to threat provides the enemy planners many the national leadership of both Canada more options for a coordinated attack de- and the United States on whether North signed to confuse and delay a coordinated America is under attack. response. An integrated warning and as- As the ITW/AA system executive sessment capability is essential for pro- manager, the NORAD Commander is tection against an orchestrated enemy responsible for the technical integrity of attack. the missile warning system. The NORAD/J3 and USSTRATCOM/J3 are Aerospace Warning Co-functional managers of the ITW/AA system, charged with carrying out the NORAD’s most important task is to command’s charter. All proposed warn of a missile attack against North changes to the ITW/AA system are re- America. To accomplish the aerospace viewed and validated through a con- warning mission, NORAD is responsible trolled board process. The details of the for providing Integrated Tactical Warn- process can be found in two documents, ing and Attack Assessment (ITW/AA) of System Management for the Integrity of an aerospace attack on North America to the ITW/AA System, NUPD 10-25, and the governments of Canada and the US. Configuration Control Process, AFSPC This is accomplished by using informa- Instruction 21-104. tion made available by the ITW/AA sys-

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Threat. Since the mid-1970s, despite SALT and START, the USSR, now Rus- sia, has upgraded its ICBM force through improved on-alert rates, reliability, range, payload, accuracy, and survivability. The new missiles are, for the most part, equipped with Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicles (MIRVs). Together, this force has the capability to destroy a large percentage of US ICBMs using only part of its total inventory. The START II negotiations promised to eliminate MIRVs and to reduce the land- Fig. 2-17. BMEWS, Clear AFS, Alaska based inventories of both sides. In addition, Russia continued to expand and North Dakota. This phased-array radar modernize its SLBM force. Its current was originally built as part of the Army Delta and Typhoon class nuclear pow- Safeguard Anti-ballistic Missile System ered fleet ballistic missile submarines and was redesignated as an Air Force permit Russia to strike targets in NATO, missile warning radar in 1977. Europe, North America and Asia from To support a capability for massive re- their home ports. taliation, most of the sensors were originally designed to detect a raid and simply Current Capability. In the face of the indicate incoming missiles. The missile threat, NORAD must provide BMEWS radars could do so by detecting timely, reliable and unambiguous warn- and tracking the large missile fuel tanks. ing. The warning is done by surveillance In the late 1970s, Soviet ICBMs, through of potential enemy launch areas or flight increased accuracy and multiple warhead corridors with infrared and radar sensors. systems, acquired the capability to The use of two different sensor types to threaten US ICBMs in their silos. As a confirm an event is called dual phenome- counter, NORAD’s responsibility was nology. Infrared sensing satellites detect increased to not only report missile en- a launch, while radar systems pick up the croachment, but also to provide an as- missile shortly thereafter. The radar sys- sessment by informing the President of tems track the missile and provide impact the missiles’ intended targets. predictions. Following initial detection by an early Aerospace Control warning satellite, confirmation of an ICBM or SLBM launch from northern In March 1981, the United States and waters is made by one of the three Ballis- Canada redefined NORAD’s aerospace tic Missile Early Warning System control mission. The new definition rec- (BMEWS) radar sites located in Alaska, ognized the continued upgrading of So- Greenland and the United Kingdom (Fig. viet bomber capabilities and emphasized 2-17). the need for providing reliable atmos- The command employs a system of pheric early warning. high-speed, phased-array radars called The aerospace control mission of PAVE PAWS. These radars, at Cape NORAD includes detecting and respond- Cod AFS and Beale AFB, provide covering to any air-breathing threat to North age to a range 3,000 nautical miles. To America. To accomplish this mission, cover northern launch areas behind NORAD utilizes a network of ground BMEWS, NORAD uses the Perimeter based radars and fighters to detect, inter- Acquisition Radar Attack Characteriza- cept and, if necessary, engage the threat. tion System (PARCS) at Cavalier AFS,

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2 - 17 These fighters consist of US F-15s and F- a variant of the Bear (the Bear H), which 16s and Canadian CF-18s. is now deployed as a cruise missile car- As a part of its aerospace control mis- rier. sion, NORAD assists in the detection and monitoring of aircraft suspected of illegal Current Capability. In the early drug trafficking. This information is 1960s, NORAD had an extensive air de- passed to civilian law enforcement agen- fense capability, thousands of intercep- cies to help combat the flow of illegal tors, radars and surface-to-air missiles. drugs into North America. Since then, this equipment has been sig- In 1989, the US government decided nificantly reduced. Further, the current to attack the drug problem along three Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line was lines: countering the production of ille- built in the 1950s to provide a tripwire gal drugs at their source; detecting and warning capability. It consists of a stopping their transit into North America; 3,000-mile long 200-mile wide network and reducing distribution and use of 50 radars along the Arctic Circle from throughout the US In 1991, NORAD Alaska eastward to Greenland; however, was tasked with carrying out the second it has become increasingly expensive to line of defense, the detection and moni- operate and maintain. toring of the aerial drug smuggling threat into North America. The US government consulted with the Canadian government on the counter drug mission and Canada fully concurred with proposed NORAD drug interdiction efforts. In cooperation with US drug law enforcement agencies and the Royal Ca- nadian Mounted Police (RCMP), the Ca- nadian NORAD Region (CANR) is responsible for monitoring all air traffic approaching the coast of Canada. Any aircraft that has not filed a flight plan Fig 2-18. E-3A AWACS may be directed by Canadian NORAD assets to land and be inspected by the Airborne radar coverage is provided RCMP and Customs Canada. by the E-3A Airborne Warning and Con- trol System (AWACS) aircraft (pictured Threat. Russia has bombers that can above) on an as-required basis. Canada reach North America with air-to-surface contributes military personnel to missiles, gravity bombs and air launched AWACS operations. The USAF cruise missiles. They also have Backfire AWACS assets provide a quantum leap bombers and a Blackjack bomber, similar improvement over ground-based radars to the US B-1 bomber. Russia is also and augment the perimeter radar system producing a cruise missile and is in times of increased alert. AWACS air- developing four other versions. Three of craft can detect targets out to ranges of these are similar to the US long-range about 350 miles, and guide Canadian or Tomahawk and can be launched from air, US interceptors to those targets. land and sea platforms. The other two In 1983, NORAD modernized its air- versions are larger cruise missiles which space control capability by closing the have no counterpart in the US inventory. old region control centers and replacing The cruise missile threat will take on the Semi-Automatic Ground Environ- more importance as more of these mis- ment (SAGE) computer system with Re- siles are deployed on aircraft and subma- gion Operations Control Centers rines off North American coasts. The (ROCCs). The ROCC designation was Blackjack can carry these missiles, as can changed to Regional Air Operations Cen-

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2 - 18 ter (RAOC). Three subordinate region The NWS/SEEK IGLOO upgrade plays a headquarters, located at Elmendorf AFB major role in providing long range (Alaskan NORAD Region, ANR), Cana- bomber and cruise missile detection. dian Forces Base Winnipeg, Manitoba Space-based radar is a possible future (CANR), and Tyndall AFB (CONUS option being considered jointly by the NORAD Region, CONR), receive direc- Air Force and Navy. The space-based tion from NORAD and control air opera- radar has the potential for meeting both tions within their respective areas of fleet defense and NORAD needs. responsibility. There are three Sector Air The important point is that an early- Operation Centers (SAOCs) in the warning system will deprive the enemy CONUS region: two collocated SAOCs of having a no-warning atmospheric at- cover the Canadian region, while a third tack option. An atmospheric early- provides coverage of Alaska. These warning system will also permit a more SAOCs provide decentralized manage- effective employment of the limited ment for airspace surveillance while fun- number of E-3 AWACS aircraft and in- neling all air defense information to terceptors. computers inside Cheyenne Mountain for assessment by NORAD. Replacement of Space Surveillance the SAGE system with RAOCs resulted in a savings of about $140 million a year. USSTRATCOM provides NORAD The first air defense priority is to de- with both surveillance of space activities ploy an atmospheric early warning sys- of strategic or tactical interest and warn- tem around North America to ing of space events that may threaten complement the missile warning capabil- North America. ity. Task Integration System Improvements The NORAD Commander exercises The Over-The-Horizon Backscatter operational control of widespread forces (OTH-B) radar provided NORAD with a supporting NORAD tasks from a com- long-range missile detection capability. bined command center inside Cheyenne Two systems were built, one on the west Mountain near Colorado Springs. Chey- coast and one on the east coast. Both enne Mountain Air Station (CMAS), built systems were successfully tested but with inside a network of tunnels, consists of the decline of the USSR in 1989, it was interconnected steel buildings resting on determined that only the east coast sys- anti-shock springs. The facility operates tem would become operational. The west 24-hours a day, 365 days a year. The coast system was put into storage with a NORAD communications and computer regeneration time of 18 months to 2 systems form the largest and most com- years. The east coast system did come on plex command and control network in the line and was operational for a number of free world. The mission of CMAS is to years. In 1995, the east coast system was provide NORAD and the military as well shut down and put into storage with a re- as national leadership, with an integrated generation time of 18 months to 2 years. picture of the threat. This includes po- To the north, a modernized DEW tentially hostile missile, air and space ac- Line, the North Warning System (NWS), tivities. consists of minimally attended long- range and unattended gapfiller radars to NORAD 2010 and Beyond provide an all-altitude bomber detection capability. The 13 military radars in NORAD has developed concepts to meet Alaska were replaced by minimally at- the challenges of the 21st century. These tended radars, called SEEK IGLOO, to include: reduce maintenance and personnel costs.

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2 - 19 • Precision Tracking. Required to centric warfare” to increase our detect and track any air or space joint/combined combat power. threat to North America from its origin because NORAD must know ex- The Future of Aerospace Forces actly where a threat is to precisely engage. Not everyone is in agreement that space is the way to go. • Precision Engagement. Provides NORAD the capability to precisely During his testimony before the Senate engage threats throughout the full Armed Services Committee in March range of our surveillance coverage to 1999, Dr. John Hamre, the Deputy Secre- ensure off-shore threat engagement tary of Defense, stated that DoD's pri- well before air and space weapons mary policy is space force enhancement threaten Canada or the U.S. This re- to the warfighter and that weapons in quires agile platforms with lethal mu- space, including the physical destruction nitions to engage targets more of satellites, is NOT the preferred DoD responsively and accurately from solution at this time. DoD prefers "tacti- longer distances and precise, immedi- cal denial" of adversary space-based ca- ate operational assessments with the pabilities. agility to re-engage if required. This system will include a flexible, near The View from Senator Smith real-time targeting architecture, including space-based wide area sur- Senator Bob Smith of New Hampshire veillance, rapid identification, jumped into the fray in a speech in Nov tracking, and near real-time sensor to 99 in which he said that "the Air Force shooter links. devotes too much of its space budget for information and support capabilities • Integrated Battle Management. A only.” He said the AF should be working system of systems providing seamless on delivery of force from space. He battle management from NORAD re- wanted to create a separate Space Force gions to receive and give effective which would allow space power to com- support to our forces during peace- pete for funding within the entire defense time and wartime. budget, lessening the pressure on the AF to make tradeoffs with more popular and • Focused Logistics. NORAD will well-established programs. require an agile and responsive logis- On the other hand, Senator Charles tics system in 2010 to support rapid Robb of Virginia was concerned about a crisis response. This system will fuse military budget that cannot support the information, logistics and transporta- force structure required to fulfill existing tion technologies to deliver tailored US national military strategy. He is defi- logistics packages and sustainment nitely on the side of those who want to when and where needed. keep operational forces as top priority.

• Information Superiority and Tech- America's AF: Global Vigilance, nological Innovation. Information Reach and Power superiority is the ability to collect, process, and disseminate an uninter- In June 2000, F. Whitten Peters, rupted flow of information while ex- Secretary of the Air Force, and General ploiting or denying an adversary the Michael Ryan, AF Chief of Staff, ability to do the same. A system of released their new visions for the 21st systems linking networks of sensors, century called "America's Air Force: command and control, and shooters Global Vigilance, Reach and Power", will allow NORAD to use “network which updates the previous "Global Engagement." General Ryan notes that

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2 - 20 General Ryan notes that aerospace inte- Charles Horner, former USCINCSPACE; gration is a "pillar" that supports the new Gen. Thomas Moorman Jr., former AF vision. USAF Vice Chief of Staff and com- Gen. Ryan further stated that aero- mander, AFSPC; Adm. David Jeremiah, space integration should not be confused former Vice Chairman of the JCS; Gen. with the AF vision which deals with 'core Glenn Otis (US Army), former com- competencies.' manding general, Army Training and Regarding a separate space service, Doctrine Command; and Lt Gen Jay Gar- General Ryan said that "it would not be ner (US Army), former commanding able to push space technology any faster general, Army Space and Strategic De- than it is moving now and that creating fense Command. an expensive, separate service bureauc- Civilian members included Duane An- racy would rob funds from the space re- drews, former assistant secretary of de- search initiatives already under way." fense for C3I; Robert Davis, former deputy undersecretary of defense for The Space Commission space; William Graham, former chairman of DoD's Ballistic Missile Defense Advi- On 5 June 2000, an independent com- sory Committee; Douglas Necessary, mission officially began a six-month ex- former professional staff member, House amination of ways to enhance US Armed Services Committee; and Malcom military space power. The panel was Wallop, former US Senator from Wyo- charged with proposing ways to increase ming. space's contribution to US military power The commission played an important and reviewing new ways to organize role in ensuring that our forces are prop- space effort. erly structured to gain maximum benefit Chairing the commission was Donald from space operations. Follow-on ac- Rumsfeld, former (and now current) Sec- tions by various commands began in retary of Defense. Members included 2002 and are still being implemented in Gen. Howell Estes III, former 2003. USCINCSPACE; Gen. Ronald Fogel- man, former AF Chief of Staff; Gen.

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2 - 21 REFERENCES

AF Space Command message, 7 Sep 2000 (AFSPC/XPMH): "14AF Component Desig- nation." (changed AFSPACE to SPACEAF)

Air Force Space Command -- http://www.peterson.af.mil/hqafspc/index.htm

"America's Air Force: Global Vigilance, Reach & Power," by F. Whitten Peters, secretary of the Air Force, and Gen. Michael E. Ryan, AF Chief of Staff. USAF On-line News, 21 June 2000.

Army Space Command -- http://www.armyspace.army.mil/

U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC) -- http://www.smdc.army.mil/

"Integration of Air and Space," AF magazine, July 2000, pp. 38 - 40.

NAVSPACECOM “Mission Overview” --

Naval Space Command --

“Naval Space Command Established to Consolidate Sea Services’ Space Operations”

North American Aerospace Defense Command, 1996 NORAD Agreement and Terms of Reference.

North American Aerospace Defense Command -- http://www.norad.mil/

North American Aerospace Defense Command: “NORAD Concept for 2010 and Be- yond,” Jun 99.

NORTHCOM -- http://www.northcom.mil/

Space Operations Center message, DTG: 070600Z Jul 99, “AFSPACE Space Operations Center re-designated as AFSPACE Aerospace Operations Center.” Vandenberg AFB, CA.

"Space Power meets the QDR" - an editorial by John T. Correll, Editor in Chief, AF Magazine, July 2000, p. 2.

“Space Support Teams - Taking the Mystery Out of Space,” NAVSPACECOM

Space Operations School (SOPSC) -- http://www.sopsc.us/

Space Warfare Center – use SIPRNET for access

USSTRATCOM -- http://www.stratcom.af.mil/

14th Air Force -- http://www.vandenberg.af.mil/associate_units/14af/

20th Air Force -- http://www.warren.af.mil/

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21st Space Wing -- http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/index.htm - mission -- http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/wing/main_info/main_info.htm - units -- http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/wing/units/units.htm

30th Space Wing -- http://www.vandenberg.af.mil/30sw/

45th Space Wing -- https://www.patrick.af.mil/heritage/heritage.htm https://www.patrick.af.mil/missionstatement.htm

50th Space Wing -- http://www.schriever.af.mil/50SW.asp - organization fact sheets -- http://www.schriever.af.mil/FactSheets.asp

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2 - 23 Chapter 3

SPACE OPERATIONS AND TACTICAL APPLICATION - U.S. NAVY

As the naval component of the U.S. Space Command (USSPACECOM), Naval Space Command (NAVSPACECOM) directs naval space forces and operates space and space support systems. NAVSPACECOM’s goal is to provide effective space support to naval forces in peace, crisis or war. This chapter looks at the space systems the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps currently employ.

NAVAL SPACE COMMAND From the beginning of the Space Age, (NAVSPACECOM) the Navy’s research and development community has provided national lead- NAVSPACECOM (Fig. 3-1) advises ership in space science. The Navy in- the Commander in Chief (CINC) U.S. troduced major systems for navigation, Space Command (USSPACECOM) on surveillance and communications. Fol- employment of assigned forces in support lowing World War II, the Naval Re- search Laboratory (NRL) in Washington, DC began a program to probe the earth’s higher atmosphere using captured German V-2 rockets. From 1946 to 1952, NRL’s rocket flights successfully measured temperature, pressure and winds in the upper atmosphere Fig. 3-1. Naval Space Command Emblem & Head- and electron density in the ionosphere. quarters Building, Dahlgren, VA The NRL flights also recorded the ultra- of various space missions. violet spectra of the sun. To continue A second-echelon command reporting high-altitude research, NRL developed to the Director of Space and Electronic the Viking rocket, which carried the first Warfare (N6) and the Director of Naval gimbaled rocket motor for flight control. Warfare (N7), NAVSPACECOM trains, In 1955, the Navy was tasked to de- equips and maintains assigned forces. velop one of the nation’s first satellites, NAVSPACECOM does this in three VANGUARD (Fig. 3-2), which success- ways. First, it conducts, supports, plans and budgets space operations for worldwide naval forces. Second, it represents naval services to USSPACECOM. The Command’s final role is to advise, support and assist the naval services’ development of inter-operable space plans, programs, policies, concepts and doctrine. These objectives ensure that naval forces have access to responsive space support to successfully execute their missions.

Background Fig. 3-2. VANGUARD Satellite

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 1 fully orbited on 17 March 1958 from a Naval officers, and in 1982, the Naval new satellite launch facility constructed Postgraduate School initiated courses in by the Navy at Cape Canaveral, Florida. space systems operations and space sys- VANGUARD satellites were the first tems engineering. In 1983, the Naval to be powered by solar cells, and data Space Command assumed operational provided by the spacecraft enabled Navy management of space systems in direct scientists to prove the theory of a “pear- support of the fleet. NAVSPACECOM shaped” earth. is also responsible for coordinating naval When the National Aeronautics and space activities with unified and specified Space Administration (NASA) was commands. Finally, the Marine Corps formed in 1958, about 200 Navy scien- expanded its space commitment in 1986 tists transferred from the NRL to form when the service formed the Tactical the nucleus of NASA’s space expertise. Space Plans Branch within the Plans, Nevertheless, the Navy’s research com- Policy and Operations Division at Head- munity continued to be active in space- quarters, U.S. Marine Corps. related projects. Navy scientists developed a satellite tracking system in 1961 Naval Satellite Operations Center operated by the Naval Space Surveil- (NAVSOC) lance Center (NAVSPASUR) in Dahl- gren, Va. A component of the Naval Space The same period saw the Navy fund Command, the NAVSOC is one of the the research and development that pro- nation’s oldest space-related military duced the nation’s first satellite-based commands. Established in 1962 at the global navigation system called Pacific Missile Test Center in Point TRANSIT. The Naval Satellite Opera- Mugu, California (Fig. 3-3) it was origi- tions Center (NAVSOC), established in nally known as the Navy Astronautics 1962, operated and maintained Group (NAVASTROGRU). Its mission TRANSIT -- a navigation satellite built was to operate the Navy Navigation Sat- for the Navy by the Applied Physics ellite System (NNSS) commonly known Laboratory. TRANSIT was the nation’s as TRANSIT. first operational satellite navigation system and the first system to experiment with nuclear powered spacecraft. In 1970, the Navy established the Navy Space Program Office to consolidate fragmented space programs. Under its new charter, the Space Program Of- fice began several projects, including the Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) System. Today that office exists as the Space Program Direc- torate in the Space and Naval Warfare Fig. 3-3. Point Laguna (Pt. Mugu) Systems Command (SPAWAR). The 1980s ushered in a series of ma- In October 1983, NAVASTROGRU jor Naval initiatives to further consoli- became a component of the newly date existing activities and organizations formed Naval Space Command. At that that operate and maintain space systems time, they also assumed the additional for the fleet. In 1981, the Chief of Naval responsibility to operate and maintain Operations (CNO) established the Navy naval satellite systems for naval space Space Systems Division to act as the operations. The group was formally re- single point of contact for Navy space designated the NAVSOC on 12 June programs. Later that year, space sys- 1990. tems subspecialties were established for The NAVSOC headquarters’ complex

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 2 at Point Mugu includes a satellite opera- NAVSPACECOM's tracking infor- tions control center, a satellite systems mation is also used to maintain a catalog computer center and a satellite ground of all earth-orbiting satellites and sup- systems test and evaluation station. The port the U.S. Space Command as part of command also maintains four detach- the nation's worldwide Space Surveil- ments called tracking and injection sta- lance Network. tions at Prospect Harbor, Maine, Naval Space Command provides fa- Rosemount, Minnesota, Laguna Peak cilities and staffs a command center 24 (Point Mugu), and Wahiawa (Oahu), hours a day to serve as the Alternate Hawaii. Space Control Center (ASCC) for U.S. Space Command's primary center lo- Navy Space Operations Center cated at Cheyenne Mountain Air Force (NAVSPOC) Base, Colorado. ASCC missions include operational direction of the global Space Around-the-clock operational space Surveillance Network for CINCSPACE. support to Navy and Marine Corps cus- They detect, track, identify, and catalog tomers is coordinated and disseminated all man-made objects in space and pro- through the Naval Space Operations vide ephemerides on these objects to Center (NAVSPOC) -- the "service cen- about 1,000 customers. As ASCC, they ter" hub of the command, located at also monitor the space environment and Dahlgren, Virginia. They provide space- inform owners and operators of U.S. and related operational intelligence to de- allied space systems of potential threats ployed Navy and Marine Corps forces to their assets. through a number of tactical communi- The Navy has long realized that na- cations channels. The command's space tional space systems can be leveraged to reports and analyses are activated on re- detect and report targets of significant quest and are tailored to a deploying tactical interest. Today, detachments of unit's operations and geographic area of Naval Space Command are deployed to movement. They provide users with tac- operate the Joint Tactical Ground Station tical assessments of space system capa- (JTAGS). This joint Army/Navy pro- bilities and vulnerabilities to potentially gram provides enhanced capability to hostile space sensors. detect tactically significant targets using The NAVSPOC maintains a "space the Defense Support Program (DSP) sat- watch" around the clock to track satel- ellites. JTAGS detachments are located lites in orbit, operating a surveillance in theater with direct connectivity to the network of nine field stations located theater CINC and various weapon sys- across the southern United States. The tems such as AEGIS and Patriot. JTAGS field stations comprise a bi-static radar is one element of a comprehensive joint- that points straight up into space and service Tactical Event System (TES) produces a "fence" of electromagnetic architecture built by U.S. Space Com- energy that can detect objects in orbit mand. around the Earth out to an effective The main effort of the Naval Space range of 15,000 nautical miles. Command and NAVSOC revolves Over 1 million satellite detections, or around providing space support to day- observations, are collected by surveil- to-day operations of the Fleet and Fleet lance sensors each month. Data gathered Marine Forces worldwide. The support is transmitted to a computer center in varies from routine deployments, to exer- Dahlgren, Virginia where it is used to cises or actions in response to a crisis. constantly update a database of space- Headquarters’ personnel manage naval craft orbital elements. This information use of several existing satellites as well is reported to Fleet and Fleet Marine as assist in the development of future Forces to alert them when particular sat- space systems to meet the projected re- ellites of interest are overhead. quirements of the fleet. This support to

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 3 terrestrial forces can be categorized into as the operational agent for the four areas: communications, navigation, FLTSATCOM system, NAVSOC as- surveillance and remote sensing. sumed on-orbit responsibilities for FLTSATCOM from the Air Force on 1 Communications October 1991.

Naval Space Command manages na- FLTSAT EHF Package (FEP) val use of a number of space-based communications systems. These sys- To further enhance satellite commu- tems include (but are not limited to) the nications capabilities for the future, Fleet Satellite Communications System NAVSPACECOM manages a joint- (FLTSATCOM), the FLTSAT EHF service project, the FLTSAT EHF Pack- Package (FEP), the UHF Follow-On age (FEP) program, placing extremely (UHF F/O) and LEASAT. high frequency (EHF) communications test modules into orbit. Designed and FLTSATCOM built by the Lincoln Laboratory at MIT, NAVSOC became the operating agent in FLTSATCOM (Fig. 3-4) is owned by June 1987. Carried into space aboard the Department of Defense and provides FLTSAT spacecraft in 1987 and 1989, primary UHF communications to naval these experimental FEP modules provide forces deployed worldwide. U.S. naval forces with limited opera- The FLTSATCOM system, which has tional capability at EHF. This has also been operational since 1978, provides allowed them to test EHF terminals de- worldwide ultra-high frequency (UHF) veloped for the Milstar satellite system communications between naval aircraft, that now provides an enhanced, surviv- ships, submarines, ground stations, U.S. able, jam-resistant communications ca- Strategic Command and the National pability. Command Authority. A minimum of A transportable FEP Operating Center four satellites in geo-stationary orbits, was relocated from the MIT’s Lincoln spaced equidistant around the globe, Laboratory to the NAVSOC’s Detach- provide near worldwide coverage. ment Alfa in Prospect Harbor in August FLTSATCOM spacecraft also serve 1988. Since September 1988, it has as host vehicles for the strategic AF Sat- been the primary controlling station for ellite Communications System. Acting FEPs. During Operation DESERT STORM, FEP provided an EHF communications link between U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) and the Na- tional Military Command Center (NMCC). The success of this EHF link represented the first operational use of EHF communications.

UHF Follow-On (UHF F/O)

The Navy has ordered 10 UHF F/O spacecraft built by Hughes Space and Communications Company. The first operational satellite (satellite F2) was turned over to the Navy by Hughes on 2 December 1993. The latest UHF F/O satellite, F7, was launched 25 July 1996 Fig. 3-4. FLTSATCOM from Cape Canaveral. Launch dates of the remaining satellites have been de-

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 4 layed. Number eight is planned for erational spacecraft among the constella- launch in January 1998 and completion tion of LEASAT communcations of the series is scheduled by January satellites was retired in February 1998. 1999. The UHF F/O satellite represents a Defense Satellite Communications new class of spacecraft being purchased System (DSCS) by the Navy to replace the aging FLTSATCOM and LEASAT satellites. Naval Space Command coordinates UHF F/O, like its predecessors, will Navy usage and requirements for the serve ships at sea as well as a variety of Defense Satellite Communications Sys- other U.S. military fixed and mobile tem (DSCS). This satellite system in- terminals. cludes spacecraft in geosynchronous Each UHF F/O spacecraft (Fig. 3-5) orbit that provide near worldwide com- features 11 solid-state UHF amplifiers munications at super-high frequency and provides 39 UHF channels at a total (SHF) for U.S. and allied forces.

Navigation

Naval Space Command exercised overall operational management of the Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS). The system, originally referred to as TRANSIT, was conceived in the early 1960s to support the precise navigation requirements of the Navy’s fleet Fig. 3-5. UHF F/O Satellite ballistic missile submarines. The bandwidth of 555 kHz. An EHF pack- TRANSIT system was previously used age will be added to UHF F/O satellites worldwide by all U.S. Navy and U.S. beginning with satellite four (F4). This flagged merchant ships as well as for- addition will include 11 EHF channels eign commercial and military vessels. distributed between earth coverage beam Today, the NAVSTAR Global Posi- and a steerable spot beam and will be compatible with Milstar ground terminals. The completed UHF F/O constellation will consist of eight satellites in a geosynchronous orbit. The NAVSOC will provide technical, operational and management support for all UHF F/O spacecraft once operational. The USAF’s 3rd Space Operations Squadron (3 SOPS) performs telemetry and control functions. Fig. 3-6. NAVSTAR GPS Satellite

LEASAT tioning System (GPS) (Fig. 3-6) greatly increases the accuracy with which ships, LEASAT was a Navy-leased UHF aircraft and ground forces can navigate. satellite communications system that The Navy, involved in the joint-service supplemented FLTSATCOM and UHF program from its inception, has devel- F/O. It was first deployed from the oped time standards for the NAVSTAR Space Shuttle Discovery in 1984. Four satellites and has participated in platform LEASAT satellites are in geostationary terminal development. orbits over the CONUS and Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The last op- NAVSOC personnel are known as

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 5 leading authorities in navigation satellite distinct surveillance efforts in support of operations. Besides having operated and Fleet and Fleet Marine Forces: tracking maintained the TRANSIT satellite sys- satellites in orbit through the aforemen- tem, NAVSOC has also supported sev- tioned NAVSPASUR; and monitoring eral other space-related programs. over-the-horizon threats from sea and air forces via the Fleet Surveillance Support Surveillance Command (FSSC).

The NAVSPACECOM surveillance “The Fence” mission is to maintain a constant surveillance of space and provide With the launch of Sputnik I (the first satellite data as directed by the CNO and artificial satellite) on 4 October 1957, higher authority to fulfill Navy and the U.S. soon recognized the importance national requirements. For naval of detecting and tracking nonradiating requirements, Naval Space Command satellites. This capability was needed to supports the maritime forces of the U.S. maintain an awareness of advances in and its allies. It provides information on space technology by the Soviets and to the threat from space that enables support U.S. space projects. The Naval battlegroup and other tactical Research Laboratory (NRL), under the commanders to take appropriate management of the Advanced Research countermeasures. Projects Agency (ARPA), started work NAVSPACECOM surveillance func- in 1958 to build and prove a space tions also support USSPACECOM. As surveillance network capability. a dedicated sensor in the worldwide The Naval Weapons Laboratory in Space Surveillance Network (SSN), the Dahlgren, Virginia hosted the headquar- Naval Space Surveillance ters and computational facility for the (NAVSPASUR) system provides satel- prototype network. Dahlgren was se- lite observations, elements and look an- lected because the Naval Ordnance Cal- gles to the Space Control Center (SCC) culator located there was the only [previously known as the Space Surveil- computer in the Navy that could handle lance Center (SSC)] at Cheyenne Moun- the advanced calculations needed to tain Air Station (CMAS), Colorado. support the effort. Further, NAVSPASUR has functioned The initial surveillance network also as the Alternate SCC, serving as the included six field stations. Two trans- backup for the SCC since December mitter sites were at Jordan Lake, Ala- 1984. This role involves activation for bama and Gila River, Arizona. Four computational support, SSN reporting or receiver stations were built: San Diego, SSN command and control as directed California; Elephant Butte, New Mex- by the SCC. ico; Silver Lake, Mississippi and Fort Stewart, Georgia. Naval Space Command manages two This project successfully proved the

Fig. 3-7. NAVSPASUR Surveillance Transmitter

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 6 NRL’s idea. In June 1960, the Navy 18,000 dipoles. commissioned the Naval Space Surveil- The three transmitters emit a fan of lance System (NAVSPASUR), later to continuous wave radio energy at a fre- become known as the “Fence.” quency of 216.98 MHz. The largest NAVSPASUR was the Navy’s first transmitter, at Lake Kickapoo, has a space-related operational command, and two-mile long antenna array composed is still headquartered in Dahlgren. of 2,556 dipole elements. It has an out- Later additions to the NAVSPASUR put power of 766.8 kW divided into 18 network included a two-mile-long separate segments, each of which can be transmitter at Lake Kickapoo, Texas and operated independently. This pattern pro- two gap-filler receivers at Red River, vides a reliability over 99 percent, since Arkansas, and Hawkinsville, Georgia. a few segments can be inoperative with- These sites were built between 1961 and out significantly affecting the opera- 1965, completing the system as it is de- tional capability of the system. The two ployed today. smaller transmitters at Gila River (40.5kW) and Jordan Lake (38.4kW) NAVSPASUR Sensor Operations provide low-altitude coverage at the East and West extremities of the network. The system’s network of field stations Six receiver sites collect the transmit- produces a “fence” of electromagnetic ted energy reflected from satellites as energy roughly 5,000 nautical miles long they pass through the fence. Each re- that extends across the continental U.S. ceiver site has individual antennas and portions of the Atlantic and Pacific spaced at precise intervals. The longest Oceans. In the North-South direction, antenna at each site is known as the the fence (Fig. 3-7) is about two miles “alert” antenna, as it is more sensitive wide and can detect payloads at a height and can detect a signal before the other of 15,000 nautical miles. Together, the antennas. It then electronically alerts the system’s nine field stations (Fig. 3-8) system controller to the presence of a comprise one of the world’s largest target, which tunes the receiver to the antenna systems. With a total length of precise frequency of the reflected energy over 15 miles, the antenna sites from the satellite. incorporate 150 miles of transmission Two receiver sites, Elephant Butte lines, 10,000 feet of steel posts and and Hawkinsville, are “high-altitude”

Fig. 3-8. NAVSPASUR Transmit and Receive Sites (“The Fence”)

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 7 sites. Their antenna arrays have higher impact prediction for objects that could gain and their electronics make them reenter the earth’s atmosphere intact. more sensitive to the reflected energy NAVSPASUR has also been an es- from higher altitudes. All together, the sential part of space defense operations receiver sites collect over one million for many years. At the recommendation satellite observations each month. of Naval Space Command, CINCSPACE decided in November 1986 to assign the A Relentless Vigilance Navy responsibility for establishing and maintaining USSPACECOM’s Alternate NAVSPASUR maintains an up-to- Space Defense Operations Center date catalog of all objects in space. This (ASPADOC -- now also part of the catalog, which serves as a direct backup ASCC). Naval Space Command di- to the space object catalog kept by rected NAVSPASUR to assume this USSPACECOM, contains over 8000 function and integrate this with its other objects. As all objects in orbit are af- duties. On 1 October 1987, the center, fected by space weather, this number collocated with the former ASSC, be- will decrease as the Solar Max occurs came operational. The ASCC backs up during the years 1999-2000. The Solar the SCC in case of natural disaster, Max is expected to cause the earth’s at- equipment outage, or hostile action, mosphere to extend further into space causing a loss of capability at CMAS. causing low orbiting objects to fall to The ASCC monitors the space envi- earth due to the increased friction from ronment and informs owners and opera- the air molecules. tors of U.S. and allied space systems of In addition to those analysts con- potential threats to their assets. This is cerned with the catalog, a small group of done by maintaining liaison with the analysts are dedicated to the evaluation systems’ operations centers. The ASCC of unusual satellite on-orbit activity. also has the missions of protection and These analysts maintain an accurate da- negation. In order to fulfill these roles, tabase on all foreign launches. They systems are being developed to give the provide observations and conclusions center new and more comprehensive ca- about satellite orbital behavior using tai- pabilities. These new systems will cul- lored databases and information from minate years of joint and cooperative other command analysts and the SSN. development efforts by all services.

Direct CINCSPACE Mission Support Fleet Surveillance Support Command (FSSC) NAVSPASUR assumed the role of Alternate Space Control Center (ASCC) The U.S. Navy has long had a re- from the site at Eglin AFB, Florida in quirement for wide-area, over-the- December 1984. The Space Control horizon surveillance to support tactical Center (SCC) at CMAS and its alternate, forces in selected geographic areas. the ASCC at Dahlgren, can provide op- Surveillance of key ocean areas, mari- erational direction of the entire global time choke points and littorals is neces- SSN for CINCSPACE. The information sary for most favorable use of at-sea provided to USSPACECOM by the battle groups. ASCC enhances its capability to provide In 1984, to satisfy this operational re- timely and accurate threat evaluation and quirement, the Navy began full-scale decision making support of the JCS. development of an active surveillance Critical missions the ASCC performs sensor known as the Relocatable Over- for USSPACECOM encompasses new the-Horizon Radar (ROTHR) (Fig. 3-9). foreign and domestic (including Space This sensor is capable of long-range de- Shuttle) launch processing. The ASCC tection and tracking and works alongside provides on-orbit support, tracking and other surveillance assets. No other event

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 8 has extended the “eyes of the fleet” more composition of groups of ships and since the Navy’s carrier-based E-1 sur- aircraft. This extended range occurs veillance aircraft began operations in the when transmitted HF energy is refracted early 1960s. and reflected by the ionosphere onto The Fleet Surveillance distant targets. The radar Support Command (FSSC) receive antenna detects the was commissioned on 1 faint energy reflected back July 1987 to operate and from these targets maintain Navy ROTHR (backscatter) after systems. Their task is to returning along the same train qualified operators path. and other support per- Each deployed ROTHR sonnel for the entire system consists of three ROTHR system. Al- distinct elements including though the command is a transmitter site, a receiver headquartered at the Na- site and an Operations val Security Group Ac- Fig. 3-9. ROTHR Receiver Control Center (OCC). tivity Northwest in The transmitter radiates Chesapeake, Virginia, they report admin- 200 kW of power through a 16-element istratively to Naval Space Command. phased array with over 1,000 feet of Operational FSSC detachments are the antenna. The receiver array has 372 assets of the Fleet Commanders-in- pairs of 19-foot monopoles, spaced 23 Chief. The detachments are operationally tasked by, and report target data directly to, Fleet Ocean Surveillance Information Centers (FOSICs). The FOSICs integrate ROTHR data with other sensor data and disseminate it to task forces, as required. The first prototype ROTHR system comprised a transmitter site located at Whitehouse, Virginia and an operational center and receiver site collocated with FSSC headquarters at Chesapeake. Fol- lowing operational test and evaluation in 1989, the prototype system was dismantled and relocated to Amchitka Island in the Aleutian Island chain. With the dis- solution of the Soviet Union, the mission on the island was deemed no longer nec- Fig. 3-10. ROTHR Console essary. The Amchitka site was dismantled in late 1993 and moved back to feet apart and stretching 8,500 feet. The Virginia, where it currently supports OCC contains the ROTHR operator’s drug interdiction operations. consoles (Fig. 3-10), automated data processing equipment and communications equipment to receive ROTHR Operations tasking and report tracks and status.

ROTHR is a land-based, high The transmitter site will usually be frequency (HF) radar that can cover a located 50 to 100 nautical miles from the 64-degree wedge-shaped area at ranges receiver site. The OCC will be located of 500 to 1,600 nautical miles. The at or near the receiver site. All three system can detect, track and estimate the elements of the radar, except the antennas,

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 9 will be installed in transportable shelters. personnel to fill the ever-expanding This will provide for relocation of the space specialty mission areas. system to support rapid deployment NAVSPACECOM sponsors the space forces in critical areas of the world and research chair in the Aerospace Engi- to respond to changing threats. neering Department of the U.S. Naval Academy. The goal is to develop early Tasking for ROTHR comes from the interest in the expanding naval space Fleet Commander-in-Chief. Radar arena. The command also supports the tracks are reported to the tactical users Naval Postgraduate School’s space en- through the FSSC. A backup capability gineering and space operations courses also allows direct communication with with advice and consultation on the the fleet. ROTHR is tasked with three Navy’s current and future technical and types of surveillance: educational requirements.

• establishing and monitoring a sin- Naval Space Support Teams gle point, such as a strait, airfield or port; The Naval Space Support Teams' • establishing and monitoring an (NSST) focus is on taking the mystery aircraft or ship barrier; out of space, and putting space-related • conducting air or ship searches in capabilities into the hands of the war- a general area. fighter. Through direct on-site contact with ROTHR sites are planned worldwide naval and Marine forces, NSST mem- and will be located to support tactical bers provide a wide variety of products forces in geographical areas of national and services ranging from technical sys- interest. Deployed ROTHR systems will tems assistance to pre-deployment brief- provide battle force commanders with a ings tailored for specific areas of new capability to extend their surveil- operation. Additionally, as a component lance horizons. Previous wide-area sur- of the United States Space Command veillance systems were designed to warn (USSPACECOM), they act as advocates of threats beyond horizon, but are pas- for naval requirements, provide inputs to sive sensors that depend on intentional joint space doctrine, and serve as aug- or unintentional emissions from the tar- mentees to Joint Space Support Teams get. Limitations of shipboard radars do during joint exercises and operations. not allow adequate time for a battle The NSSTs form a cadre of highly group to respond before missiles are trained space-smart personnel providing launched. Carrier-based early warning expertise on space systems capabilities aircraft are too limited in range and to deployed users. After receiving for- numbers to provide the coverage of the mal education in a wide variety of re- entire threatened area. lated topics, Navy team members are assigned to either an East Coast or West Training Coast team. Each team focuses chiefly on its own geographic area to remain Another of Naval Space Command’s cognizant of specific issues of concern primary responsibilities is to develop and responsive to the needs of its cus- and support space-related educational tomers. In addition, a Marine contingent efforts. The CNO delegated this respon- supports Marine Corps operating forces. sibility to the command to help assure that naval forces are fully aware of the Remote Sensing present and future contribution of space systems to naval operations. It also Naval Space Command also supports works to guarantee that there will be suf- projects to exploit the multispectral im- ficient numbers of qualified and trained agery capabilities of existing satellites.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 10 A wealth of detailed information on The command provides multi-spectral earth resources is available from space. imagery from LANDSAT and SPOT Shoals and anchorage areas, vegetation, earth resources spacecraft to assist naval trafficability and lines of communica- forces with exercise and strike planning, tion, for example, are among the earth’s provide updated maps and charts, and features that can be analyzed and charted enhance intelligence and surveillance using satellites. The command works capabilities. The command has provided directly with Fleet Marine Force person- MSI products to U.S. warfighters in nel to enhance our amphibious warfare support of recent operations in South- capabilities using this satellite data. west Asia, Somalia, Yugoslavia, Korea and Haiti.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 11 REFERENCES

“Naval Space Command Established to Consolidate Sea Services’ Space Operations” http://www.navspace.navy.mil/pao/history.htm/

“Naval Space Command” http://www.navspace.navy.mil/

Naval Space Command http://www.spacecom.af.mil/usspace/fbnavspa.htm/

Federation of American Scientists, Military Communications http://www.fas.org/spp/military/program/com/index.html

Navy Fact File: Navy Space Command http://chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/factfile/commands/nsc.html

Naval Space Support Teams: Taking the Mystery Out of Space http://www.navspace.navy.mil/PRODUCTS/nsst.htm

CDR Richard T. Barock, USN, article published in Space Tracks, Winter, 1995.

TOC

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 3 - 12 Chapter 4

SPACE OPERATIONS AND TACTICAL APPLICATION - U.S. ARMY

On Oct. 1, 1997, the Department of the Army created its newest major command, the U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Com- mand (SMDC) (Fig. 4-1). Composed of five primary components, the SMDC is a global organization. These components are the SMDC Headquarters and the Force Development Integration Center Fig. 4-1. SMDC in Arlington, Va.; the U.S. Army Space Command (Forward) located in Colorado Springs, Colo.; and, the Space and Missile Defense Technical Center (SMDTC), the Space and Missile Defense Battle Lab (SMDBL) and the Space and Mis- sile Defense Acquisition Center (SMDAC) based in Huntsville, Ala. Included in the SMDAC are the High Energy Laser Systems Test Facility (HELSTF), at White Sands Missile Range, N.M., the U.S. Army Kwajalein Atoll/Kwajalein Missile Range (USAKA/KMR), in the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Army Space Program Of- fice (ASPO) in Alexandria, Va., and the Joint Land Attack Cruise Missile Defense Ele- vated Netted Sensors Project Office (JLENS) and the Ballistic Missile Targets Joint Project Office (BMTJPO) which are both in Huntsville.

BACKGROUND sile defense. With the Nike-Zeus, the Army explored the feasibility of nuclear The SMDC commander is a dual- intercepts of inter-continental missiles. hatted leader. In addition to the duties of SMDC commander, he also serves as the On July 19, 1962, the command made commander of the U.S. Army Space history with the first successful intercept Command (ARSPACE). The creation of of an intercontinental ballistic missile. the new major command and its organi- This feat was repeated at the next level in zation are designed to align the command 1984, when the Homing Overly Experi- to reflect the importance of space and ment performed the first non-nuclear, ki- missile defense to the Army and the joint warfighter. The basic missions of the netic-kill intercept of a reentry vehicle, command are twofold. The SMDC en- proving it was possible to hit a "bullet sures that the soldier in the field has ac- with a bullet." In 1967, having proved cess to space assets and their products. the interceptor’s capabilities, the com- The command also seeks to provide ef- mand moved toward the next phase – de- fective missile defense for the nation and ployment – with the Sentinel defense deployed forces. system. Redirected in 1969, the program Although a new organization, the was assigned to defend of the U.S. land- SMDC is building on more than 40 years based ICBM's. On Oct. 1, 1975, the of achievement and progress in the space Safeguard Complex in North Dakota be- and missile defense arena. The command came operational. Congress inactivated began in 1957, when the Army created the site almost immediately, because of the first program office for ballistic mis-

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 1 concerns over the budget and the influ- interceptor), the ARROW, and the ence of the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. Ground Based Radar. The Program Ex- President Ronald Reagan announced a ecutive Office was assigned the mission new approach to strategic planning, the to develop and deploy viable national Strategic Defense Initiative, in March missile defense and theater missile de- 1983. This concept urged an active defense systems. fense rather than the traditional offensive The Army’s renewed interest in space deterrence. To address this change, ele- technology was reflected in Department ments of the Ballistic Missile Defense of the Army’s decision to create the U.S. Organization were merged in July 1985, Army Space and Strategic Defense creating the U.S. Army Strategic Defense Command (USASSDC), on Aug. 24, Command (USASDC). At the same 1992. Under this directive, the Army time, efforts by the command expanded Space Command became a subordinate to incorporate new avenues of research. command to the USASSDC. Other Army In addition to radars and interceptors, the space interests were incorporated into the USASDC expanded its exploration of new organization in later years. The anti-satellite systems, lasers, neutral par- Army Space Technology Research Office ticle beams and innovative sensors. transferred to the command in 1993, fol- With the new decade, the command be- lowed by the Army Space Program Of- gan to move in new directions. In Octo- fice in 1994. Based on these changes and ber 1990, as part of an effort to centralize the years of experience, the USASSDC laser research, the HELSTF transferred to was named the Army's advocate for the command from the Army Materiel Space, Theater Missile Defense and Na- Command. The USASDC mission was tional Missile Defense. As outlined in the further enhanced in January 1991, when General Order, dated July 1, 1993, the the command was assigned all Theater USASSDC was to serve as the "focal Missile Defense functions and again in point for space and strategic defense mat- June 1994, the USASSDC commanding ters, … responsible for [the] exploitation general was made the Theater Missile of space and strategic assets for use by Defense advocate. warfighting [Commanders in Chief]." In 1992, the Army reorganized the With this consolidated approach, the USASDC to focus elements upon specific Army had teamed all of its space-related needs and missions. As part of this deci- organizations. Since 1973, the Army sion, several missile and radar projects Space Program Office has overseen the were transferred from the USASDC to tactical exploitation of national capabili- the newly created Program Executive Of- ties program, or TENCAP. The fice for Global Protection Against Lim- TENCAP program seeks to assess the ited Strikes (subsequently renamed Air tactical potential of current abilities and and Missile Defense). Among the pro- integrate them into the Army system. jects leaving the command were the The Army Space Technology Research Ground Based Interceptor, the High En- Office, established in 1988, managed doatmospheric Defense Interceptor, the near and possible far-term space R&D Theater High Altitude Area Defense, the programs. It became the core of the new Extended Range Interceptor (which be- Space Applications Technology Program. came the Patriot Advanced Capability-3

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 2 The Army Space Command, created in elements around the globe to accomplish 1986, serves as the Army component of its challenging and diverse mission: the U.S. Space Command and is respon- The U.S. Army Space Command, or ARSPACE, in Colorado Springs, Colo., sible for operational space planning. serves as the Army component to the This command also oversees the Defense U.S. Space Command, and supports the Satellite Communications System Opera- warfighter through the 1st Satellite tions Centers and the Army Space Dem- Control Battalion and the 1st Space onstration Program, which explores the Battalion. The former provides feasibility of off-the-shelf technology in worldwide long-haul satellite communications to the warfighter the space program. One successful ex- through the defense satellite ample of this effort is the Small Light- communications system, while the 1st weight Global Positioning System Space Battalion’s Army Space Support (SLGR) (Fig. 4-2) receiver (commonly Company provides units deploying on called the "slugger") used during Opera- exercises and contingency, and tion Desert Shield/Desert Storm. humanitarian operations with intelligence, planning, and operational expertise and products. The 1st Space Battalion’s Theater Missile Warning Company uses the Joint Tactical Ground Stations to provide theater CINCs with the only in-theater tactical ballistic missile warning capability on the battlefield. The ARSPACE also manages the Army’s astronaut detachment at the Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. Fig. 4-2. SLGR The Space and Missile Defense Technical Center, or SMDTC, located in Huntsville, Ala., is the research and It is with this substantial background that development element of the command. the SMDC advances the Army’s space The center executes space and missile and missile defense efforts towards the defense and directed energy research and development programs. As executive 21st century. agent for DOD’s Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, the center OVERVIEW provides cost, schedule, and technical oversight for national and theater missile The U.S. Army Space and Missile defense technology, and provides Defense Command, a MACOM, serves technical matrix support to PEO Air and as the Army’s proponent for Space and Missile Defense and the National Missile National Missile Defense, and as the Defense Joint Program Office. Army integrator for Theater Missile The Space and Missile Defense Battle Defense. The command ensures that Lab, or SMDBL, in Huntsville, Ala., and Army warfighters have access to space Colorado Springs, Colo., links the assets and products to win decisively technologist and the warfighter through with minimum casualties and effective experiments simulating modern missile defense to protect our nation as “battlefield” conditions, often using well as our deployed forces and those of sophisticated computer simulations, our friends and allies. From its interfaces, and networks. headquarters in Arlington, Va., U.S. The National Missile Defense Army SMDC oversees a number of Army TRADOC System Manager, or TSM, in

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 3 Arlington, Va., performs the function of targets for BMD weapon system integrating and managing NMD user developmental testing. activities within the Army. It serves as a The Joint Land Attack Cruise Missile single Army user representative and Defense Elevated Netted Sensor advocate in the development of the land- System Project Office, or JLENS, based NMD system. Project Office in Huntsville, Ala., is The command’s Force Development developing advanced radar sensors and Integration Center, or FDIC, in that will provide over-the-horizon Arlington, Va., develops the Army’s coverage from cost-effective aerostat space and missile defense concepts, platforms. The sensors are crucial for validates requirements, and ensures providing early warning, surveillance, Army-wide solution integration. and precision track/elimination of The Space and Missile Defense threat cruise missiles. Acquisition Center in Huntsville, Ala., centralizes the command’s materiel SPECIFIC ELEMENTS PROVIDING development, targets, and test facility SPACE SUPPORT TO ARMY management into one overarching OPERATIONS organization that includes the following facilities and program offices: ARMY SPACE COMMAND (ARSPACE) The Army Space Program Office, or ASPO, at Fort Belvoir, Va., is The mission of the responsible for the Army Tactical Army Space Com- Exploitation of National Capabilities mand, or ARSPACE Program – TENCAP. The program focuses on exploiting current and (Fig. 4-3), is to sup- future tactical potential of national port Army, Joint, and systems and integrating the Coalition warfighters

capabilities into the Army’s tactical Fig. 4-3. ARSPACE with space-based ex- decision-making process. The ASPO pertise, advice, capa- has successfully fielded more than 60 bilities, and products. ARSPACE is also systems and currently supports 41 systems at 23 sites around the world. involved in the development of techno- The High Energy Laser Systems Test logical solutions to warfighter require- Facility, or HELSTF, at White Sands ments through its Technical Support Missile Range, N.M., serves as a Office. national center for high-energy laser research, development, testing, and Missions evaluation. It is the only laser facility capable of placing continuous wave Support the Commander-in-Chief, megawatt laser light on a variety of U.S. Space Command. The Com- targets. mander of the Army Space Command The Kwajalein Missile Range’s unit is the Army component to the unified geographical location in the central U.S. Space Command. ARSPACE Pacific Ocean and unmatched suite of radars, instrumentation, and test ensures that the Army’s requirements support facilities offer extensive are met at the joint level, while bring- flexibility for ballistic missile testing ing the CINC’s views and concerns to and space-object tracking. the Army staff. ARSPACE supports The Ballistic Missile Targets Joint CINCSPACE in the development of Program Office in Huntsville, Ala., Joint space doctrine, as well as the provides the BMDO community with both strategic and theater missile development of plans, policies, and

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 4 requirements for space support to visualization, mapping, and satellite Army operations. coverage analysis capabilities to the Operate and Manage the Defense Corps commander. ARSST are de- Satellite Communications System ployable to exercises and contingency (DSCS). This system spans the globe operations and have supported every to provide super-high-frequency contingency operation since Opera- communications to all U.S. warfight- tion Desert Storm. They are capable ing forces — anywhere, anytime. of sustained operation of the equip- Management, planning, and control ment, or they can train designated of the payloads on DSCS satellites is soldiers to operate the equipment. ARSPACE’s largest mission. Joint Tactical Ground Stations ARSPACE operates and maintains (JTAGS). The JTAGS capability sup- five DSCS control facilities located ports forward deployed CINCs with around the world, one Ground Mobile direct downlink, from satellite to Forces Control Center (AN-MSQ- theater, of early warning of ballistic 114), and the DSCS Certification Fa- missile launches. The five JTAGS cility, or DCF, at Schriever Air Force systems are a key part of Base in Colorado. These facilities CINCSPACE’s Tactical Event Sys- control the satellite links for tactical tem, are operated by joint Army- warfighter communications and stra- Navy crews, and provide continuous, tegic communications networks. all-weather threat monitoring. The They also provide payload control to design, development, and fielding of the satellite and technical training and the JTAGS systems is an example of troubleshooting assistance required to the Army’s capability to fast track vi- ensure maximum support to the user. tal equipment procurement to support In addition, the DCF provides plat- soldiers with the best equipment for form control, monitoring the health mission accomplishment. and welfare of the payloads for se- Missile Defense. Working through lected satellites in the DSCS constel- USSPACECOM, the Ballistic Missile lation. Three Regional Space Support Defense Organization Joint Project Centers perform DSCS planning and Office, and the Army National Guard, authorize warfighter use of DSCS ca- ARSPACE is the operator representa- pabilities. tive on the team developing a system Current Operations. ARSPACE sup- of defense for the homeland from a port of the Army, Joint, and Coalition proliferating missile threat. As the warfighter spans the globe. Army eventual user and operator of the Space Support Teams, or ARSST, ground based portion of a National provide expertise and advice and op- Missile Defense system, ARSPACE erate equipment which provides the is playing a key role in planning and warfighter support in the planning designing the requirements, Concept and conduct of the complete spectrum of Operations, and support required of today’s military operations. Each for such a system. ARSPACE and of the five teams is aligned with a the Program Manager for Air Defense Corps and provides communications, Command and Control Systems re- weather, terrain analysis and 3-D cently developed the overarching pro-

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 5 totype Theater Missile Defense, or processes and delivers space products to TMD capability, the Army Theater the supported unit; and assesses the op- Missile Defense Element, which erational impact of friendly and adver- ARSPACE fielded. This system syn- sary space based capabilities. The chronizes the four pillars of TMD: ARSST manages these complex tasks Passive Defense, Active Defense, At- from staff planning and the estimate tack Operations, and Battle Manage- process through contingency or opera- ment/Command, Control, tions execution, assisting the command Communications, and Intelligence. and staff to integrate and focus space After three years of exercising and support on mission accomplishment. The development, it was passed to the team typically supports at the corps, and Army Air and Missile Defense Com- when resources are available, at the divi- mand, the system’s user, at Ft. Bliss, sion level. Each team consists of 4-6 offi- Texas. cers and NCOs, is equipped with a suite Human Exploration and Development of unique hardware and software, pos- of Space. The Army Astronaut De- sesses expertise in space applications and tachment at the Johnson Space Center operational planning, and remains ready in Houston, Texas supports NASA’s to deploy, when necessary, to the war- Space Shuttle and International Space fighter's location. Station Programs. Support to the Corps staff and or Divi- sion staff is available at all times, by vir- KEY ARSPACE SUPPORT tue of the habitual relationship that is ELEMENTS maintained between each of the four ARSST and the four US Army corps. ARMY SPACE SUPPORT TEAM Requests for assistance from other or- (ARSST) ganizations will also be met by Such fundamental requirements as ARSPACE as on-going missions permit. force projection, space intelligence analy- By employing state-of-the-art sensor and sis, communications, command and terrain modeling, as well as access to control are today dependent upon our ca- various web sites, ARSST can assist the pabilities in space. The ARSST is an staff in answering the commander's criti- element of ARSPACE task organized and cal information requirements as well as resourced to support the commanders and providing input to assist in the prepara- staffs of land forces to orchestrate the tion of staff estimates and OPLANs. The employment of a complex array of dy- teams rely on the supported unit for namic battlefield resources. An ARSST logistical support. complements the operational space based capabilities accessed by corps or divisions, such as TENCAP, SATRAN, topographic products, etc, used to obtain a ARSST Support Functions: relevant common picture of the battlefield. The team supports the commander Satellite Advance Notice. The team and staff in the planning and integration can aid staffs in making optimal use of space assets into their training or mili- of Satellite Reconnaissance Advance tary decision making process; obtains, Notice (SATRAN) data, which pro-

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 6 vides information on potential threat maps (Fig. 4-5), all in various levels of satellites and their capabilities to resolution. Image maps provide staffs and monitor friendly operations. soldiers up-to-date maps of areas where Position/Navigation. The Global Po- no maps exist or are out of date. sitioning System is an essential combat multiplier, whether in the form of a PLGR in the hands of an infantry- man or as a component in a weapon system. ARSST obtains and provides data on the fluctuating degree of GPS accuracy at specific locations for a

designated time that will be available to friendly forces during planned op- Fig. 4-5. Image Map erations (Fig. 4-4). The team can also The ARSST can reach back to its Multi- provide advice on counter measures spectral Imagery (MSI) Lab in Colorado to enemy efforts to jam or spoof GPS. Springs, which can fulfill shortfalls in additional imagery requirements, scene rectification and hard and soft copy production. These enhanced products from the lab can be shipped to the team by multiple means, such as SIPRNET, GBS, and overnight mail. Intelligence Support. ARSPACE

DCSINT members provide space in- Fig. 4-4. GPS Assistance telligence analysis to the ARSST. The Space Weather. There are a number DCSINT focus is to conduct Space of phenomena that occur on the sur- Intelligence Preparation of the Battle- face of the Sun, which can have a field, respond to space related RFI, dramatic effect on UHF and provide assessments of how the en- SATCOM communications, GPS sig- emy will use it's space systems, and nal reception and radars. The ARSST to provide expertise on friendly force complements the efforts of the SWO space-based intelligence capabilities. by obtaining advance forecasts of The DCSINT has a SIPRNET home these events and assessing which page with detailed listings of threat friendly systems will be degraded, the space capabilities. Finally, the intelli- degree of degradation and when. gence element assists the supported Imagery. The ARSST deploys with a staff's planning effort by providing state-of-the-art automated data proc- expertise on enemy and friendly essing package to provide command- availability to employ commercial ers and staffs imagery products satellites, enemy/friendly space vul- beyond those provided by internal to- nerabilities, and recommendations to pographic units. support the targeting process. SATCOM. The team provides a These products include: fly-throughs, 3- limited supplement (Fig. 4-6) to the D images, perspective views and image unit's early entry communications

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 7 connectivity using non-secure Iridium provides alert notification to command handsets, and International Maritime level staffs, who disseminate the alert Satellite (INMARSAT) hand-carried message to units in the threatened area. terminals providing secure fax, data, telex, and voice. JTAGS also supports active defense by cueing air defense assets to the missile

track. Data is also provided on launch location to deep attack assets to aid in attack operation. The key in JTAGS theater support is its relatively direct connectivity and distribution architecture, via a variety of voice and dam networks. By its in-theater location, JTAGS provides timely, assured early warning. ARSPACE operates two JTAGS sections indefinitely forward de- Fig. 4-6. SATCOM Commercial Supplements

JOINT TACTICAL GROUND STATION (JTAGS)

JTAGS is the transportable in-theater element (Fig. 4-7) of the U.S. Space

Command's Theater Event System and provides Theater Commander's a con- Fig. 4-7. JTAGS tinuous 24-hour capability to receive and ployed by CINCSPACE to Korea and process in-theater, direct down-linked Germany, and maintains deployable sec- data from space-based sensors. JTAGS tions in CONUS for contingencies, train- ties directly to worldwide and theater ing and exercise support. communications system to immediately disseminate critical information. JTAGS ST 1 SATELLITE CONTROL supports all Theater Missile Defense pil- BATTALION lars and provides worldwide warning and alerting as well as in-theater voice warn- The Defense Satellite Communica- ing and cueing information on tactical tions System (DSCS) provides reliable, ballistic missiles and other tactical events robust, worldwide, continuous communi- of interest. cations support to US warfighting forces, The JTAGS processes data from up to strategic military users, the US intelli- three DSP satellites to determine launch gence community and the National points and time, azimuth of flight, pre- Command Authority. Customers can dicted ground impact point and time for communicate via the DSCS using large, TBMs. JTAGS supports passive defense fixed earth terminal ground stations, by providing in-theater early warning of transportable ground stations, and highly enemy ballistic missile launch events, mobile, tactical ground stations. and

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 8 The 1st SATCON Battalion is respon- DOD agencies. The RSSCs are located sible for the daily C2 of the DSCS satel- at Wheeler Army Air Field, Hawaii; lite and communications networks Patch Barracks, Germany; Arlington, supported by these satellites (Fig. 4-8). Virginia; and Tampa, Florida for focused The battalion operates the DSCS Opera- support to CINCs. In the future, the tions Centers (OC), at five SATCOM lo- RSSCs will be one-stop-shops for all cations around the world to oversee all CINC and DOD SATCOM requirements- use of the DSCS, ensuring that users re- EHF, SHF, UHF, GBS and commercial. ceive the optimal SATCOM support authorized. On a typical day, the DSCS OCs control SPACE AND MISSILE DEFENSE BATTLE LAB (SMDBL) nearly 1,000 links providing vital communications support to deployed war- The U.S. Army fighters, strategic users, and the Space and Missile intelligence community around the Defense Battle Lab world. (SMDBL) (Fig. 4-9) was activated on Oc- tober 1, 1997. The Fig. 4-9. SMDBL SMDBL is the result of the Army’s commitment to provide space and missile defense capabilities to the warfighter as rapidly as possible. The SMDBL joins the other Army, Navy, Air Force, and Joint Battle Labs that focus on quick delivery of innovations and future technologies to today’s warfighter. It was formed from elements of the former Missile Defense Battle Integration Center and the Army Space Command (For- ward). Core Competencies Concepts and Initiatives. The Battle Lab identifies and examines candi- Fig. 4-8. DSCS Comms date concepts, initiatives, and technologies for near-term infusion into REGIONAL SATCOM SUPPORT Army space and missile defense pro- CENTERS (RSSC) grams or for experimentation on approved future operational capabilities. RSSCs provide the joint warfighter To focus military science and tech- with a single focal point for select satel- nology research, the SMDBL will lite communications use within a region. also coordinate with Missile Defense RSSCs coordinate and ensure that ground and Space Technology Center and mobile forces obtain necessary access to other materiel development activities. DSCS SHF-band, MILSTAR EHF, and Additionally, this area will provide limited commercial satellite resources. forward-looking wargaming activities Additionally, they provide tactical com- to the command, including participat- munications satellite network planning and management support for CINCs and

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 9 ing in the Army After Next series of computer simulation technologies to long-range Army wargames. the warfighter in realistic formats. Experiments, Exercises, and Train- The SBE consists of computer-based models and simulations, simulation to ing. The SMDBL coordinates, con- tactical system interface units, and ducts, and participates in efforts communications and network tech- focused on bringing space and missile nologies, linked in a modular envi- defense capabilities to the warfighter, ronment. The SBE provides the including support to joint and service ability to stimulate Army and joint Commander-in-Chief exercises, Ad- tactical command and control systems with simulations, allowing the war- vanced Warfighting Experiments, fighter to train on go-to-war equip- Army Experiments, and unit training ment. The SBE is also suited for use activities. Products generated by the by the analysis and materiel devel- Battle Lab through experimentation opment communities, lending an include insights, impacts, validated operational validation to off-line requirements, concepts, and leave- simulations. The Battle Lab has successfully used the SBE in various behind solutions, as well as changes war-fighting experiments, CINC ex- to doctrine, training, and materiel. ercises, and training events, including Simulation. Leveraging the growth Roving Sands, Ulchi Focus Lens, and and maturation of computer-based Coherent Defense. models and simulations, the Battle The Extended Air Defense Testbed, or Lab is expanding the use of its mod- EADTB, and Extended Air Defense els and simulations beyond the mate- Simulation, or EADSIM, form the riel development and analysis domain core of the SBE computer simula- to provide sophisticated capabilities tions. The user friendly, flexible to the warfighter. Through innova- EADTB offers a high-fidelity model- tive techniques, the Battle Lab has ing capability to operational com- developed an interface capability to manders and combat and materiel link existing simulations directly to developers. EADSIM, used in Desert Army Tactical Command and Control Storm operations to plan air and air systems, so the warfighter can be di- defense campaigns, is a low-to- rectly simulated at the actual worksta- medium fidelity comprehensive air tions in realistic environments. and missile defense simulation that Analysis. The Battle Lab supports has widespread acceptance through- experimentation, conducts analyses in out the DOD, all three services, and support of materiel development ac- most allied countries. tivities and requirements determina- The Synthetic Battlefield Center, or tion, performs science and technology SBC, and Hardware/Software Inte- reviews, assesses advanced concepts, gration Center, or HSIC, are labora- and analytically supports the defini- tory environments for the Battle Lab tion of future space and missile de- to conduct experiments and support fense architectures. exercise and training activities. The SBC and HSIC combine the SBE Current Capabilities/Products with operational command and control workstations to allow the Battle Synthetic Battlefield Environment, or Lab to provide interactive stimulation SBE, has been developed to provide

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 10 to the warfighter through tactical Use of space-based capabilities en- workstations and equipment. ables the force to dominate the battlefield. ARMY SPACE EXPLOITATION Space capabilities significantly in- DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM crease combat effectiveness. (ASEDP) The genesis of the ASEDP was an ASEDP Objectives Army Space Council meeting in April Educate commanders on the use of 1987. During this meeting the Vice space-based assets for Army opera- Chief of Staff of the Army, LTG Max- tions. well Thurmond, gave guidance from Assist in defining requirements for which the goal, philosophy, and objec- Army development. tives of the ASEDP are derived: "En- Demonstrate new technology for pos- hance Air-land Battle execution by sible future development. demonstrating how space based assets Influence the design and use of future could support tactical commanders." space systems. This quote was historically significant, Conduct rapid prototyping in support because it gave the Army Space Agency, of contingency operations. and then the US Army Space Command, Assist the integration of mature space the command guidance needed to initiate enhancements into Army Battle the program which would eventually be- Command Systems come the ASEDP. Responsibility for the

Army Space Exploitation Demonstration ASEDP FY00 Program (ASEDP) was assigned to the

SMDBL Directorate located in Colorado All of SMDBL’s ASEDP experiments Springs, Colorado. for FY 00 are planned for integration into The SMDBL continues to investigate the Joint Contingency Force Advanced and demonstrate space-related technolo- Warfighting Experiment (JCF AWE). gies and support space requirements The focus of the JCF AWE is to incorpo- documentation to maintain the US rate new warfighting concepts and infor- Army’s preeminence on the battlefield mation age technologies with the Army’s through the ASEDP. light forces. They will continue to be expected to operate in Military Opera- ASEDP Goal tions in Urban Terrain (MOUT) and re-

stricted terrain environments. JCF AWE Demonstrate to the field commander is the light force early entry portion of the latest relevant space technology from the Force XXI series of experiments. By the commercial and government research utilizing JCF AWE, a cost effective and development communities. venue became available for the SMDBL

to exercise ASEDP experiments. The ASEDP Philosophy SMDBL JCF AWE- related initiatives Space-based capabilities are critical are: to rapid force projection operations Force Warning and smaller scale contingencies.

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 11 Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) and Warning pager. Additionally, pagers will Hand-held Command and Control be located with the Joint Task Force Wireless Communications (JTF) Headquarters and with the Air Enroute Planning and Rehearsal Sys- Force, Navy, and Marine Corps. The tem (EMPRS) pagers will provide added value during Tactical Weather many phases of the operation. The goal is Precision SIGINT Targeting System for the pagers to be employed from the (PSTS) enroute mission planning and rehearsal Eagle Vision II (EVII) phase through the heavy follow-on phase, providing forces with time-sensitive situ- Force Warning. The space-based Force ational awareness and battlefield hazard Warning initiative provides a robust force notification. warning and force protection architecture that supports Light and Strike Forces Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) and with the dissemination of time-sensitive Hand-held Command and Control battlefield intelligence. Force Warning Wireless Communications. (HC2WC) devices (Fig. 4-10) receive critical messages such as incoming missile notifica- This demonstration leverages current tion, minefield locations, chemical and emerging commercial Mobile Satel- hazards, and guerrilla activity, and pro- lite Service (MSS) technologies to vides early entry forces with situational provide the Army commanders the ability awareness in a handheld device. The to obtain a near-real time Common Op- space-based Force Warning initiative erational Picture and to pass this COP to combines the use of a joint Common Op- higher headquarters using Beyond Line erational Picture (COP) and processed of Sight (BLOS) communications. The intelligence data to determine battlefield demonstration allows the soldier in the hazards and send rapid notification di- field to pass current positional and situ- rectly to the affected or threatened forces. ational information to higher headquarters and to receive regional COP from the Division Tactical Operations Center (DTOC). It can use low earth orbit (LEO), medium earth orbit (MEO), or geostationary earth orbit (GEO) satellites to provide the BLOS communications. This demonstration was initiated as part of the Joint Warrior Interoperability Demonstration (JWID) 1999, and demon-

strated as the Joint Space-Based Com- Fig. 4-10. Force Warning Pager mon Operational Picture Enhancement (JSCOPE). The objectives of Up to 25 Iridium pagers will be fielded MSS/HC2WC are: during the JCF AWE. Elements of the Two-way messaging in common mili- 10th Mountain Division, 82nd Airborne tary Division, Special Operations Forces, and Position Reports Rangers will be equipped with the Force Call for Fire Messages

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 12 Battlefield Situation Messages Commander weather products that can Self-contained device change "cope or avoid" to "anticipate and exploit." This is accomplished through Enroute Planning and Rehearsal Sys- mission-focused weather products em- tem (EMPRS). The Enroute Mission bedded in common Army Battle Com- Planning and Rehearsal System mand Systems (ABCS) applications. (EMPRS) (Fig. 4-11) provides com- SMDBL is currently experimenting with manders the capability to receive opera- two weather systems that will greatly en- tions and intelligence updates while in hance the commander's focus on the bat- flight, conduct collaborative planning tlefield: the Deployable Weather Satellite with headquarters and forward elements, Workstation (DWSW) and the Meteoro- and disseminate and rehearse mission logical Automated Sensor and Trans- changes among the combat forces en- ceiver (MAST). DSWS provides timely route to the objective area. and accurate weather data that is critical to the battle plan. As a tactical terminal located in a tactical operations center (TOC), the DWSW will acquire, process, and distribute real-time high, resolution weather imagery and tailored products to users. This capability allows Staff Weather Officers (SWOs) to build a more complete weather database tailored to the commander's needs. DWSW is a commercial "off-the-shelf' system consisting Fig. 4-11. EMPRS of two 18-inch diameter flat-tracking an- EMPRS is a collaborative effort with tenna, a modular geostationary antenna SMDBL, the Dismounted Battlespace seven feet in diameter, a computer work- Battle Lab, ASEDP, and Team Mon- station with color monitor, and a software mouth to provide the aeronautical satel- package that provides zoom, imagery lite communications connectivity for animation, and color enhancement. This EMPRS. This communications segment entire package is transportable in the exploits the growing commercial market Army's High Mobility Multipurpose in MSS. Through the use of SMDBL's Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), or it can Advanced Research Center Telecommu- be palletized for air transport. DWSW nications Interface Console (ARCTIC), served as the weather satellite receiver several satellite channels can be com- DWSW provides timely and accurate bined to give an overall data throughput weather data during Task Force XXI and sufficient to support collaborative plan- Division XXI AWEs. With SMDBL as ning functions such as chat, file transfer, the initiative proponent, DWSW will whiteboarding, and teleconferencing. again be linked with the Army's Inte- grated Meteorological System to partici- Tactical Weather. For years, Army pate in the JCF AWE. Commanders have been forced to cope Utilizing satellite visual, infrared, and with or avoid the weather. The Tactical microwave sensors, the DWSW system Weather capability gives the Army

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 13 provides weather data for the battlefield, become another digital layer of weather day or night: information for the ABCS. Cloud imagery with resolution to 0.55 km for overlay on the ABCS. Precision SIGINT Targeting System Cloud imagery for situational aware- (PSTS). In a hostile environment, com- ness and precipitation for mobility as- manders need timely and accurate infor- sessment. mation about specific enemy targets. The Three-dimensional atmospheric wind, Precision Signal Intelligence (SIGINT) temperature, and moisture fields. Targeting System (PSTS) (Fig. 4-13) ex- Surface temperature, soil moisture, ploits an existing sensor-to-shooter architecture, providing information and

Fig. 4-13. PSTS Architecture supporting the timely destruction of time- critical and high payoff targets. The PSTS architecture capitalizes on the capabilities of the Guardrail Common Sen- sor (GRCS) and National Technical Means (NTM) to provide the warfighter with the location of enemy non-communication emitters (such as the radar used by the SA-6 air defense system depicted). The Army's organic Tac- tical Exploitation of National Capabilities (TENCAP) systems, together with the tactical SIGINT targeting architecture, support the timely and accurate delivery of priority target coordinates to com-

Fig. 4-12. MAST manders. snow and ice areas, and land classifi- Eagle Vision II (EVII). Eagle Vision 11 cation. (Fig. 4-14) is a mobile satellite ground station that receives a direct downlink of MAST (Fig. 4-12) integrates surface unclassified data from commercial imag- weather sensors (visibility, wind, tem- ing satellites. The data is processed and perature, barometric pressure, and humid- provided to deployed theater and corps ity) with a LEO satellite transceiver tactical and operational commanders in relaying the information instantaneously. The usable digital image formats for com- man-portable MAST can be programmed mand and control, mission planning, in- to transmit surface weather observations telligence, and geographic information hourly, or as often as needed, to the Divi- systems. EVII provides timely receipt of sion SWO. The MAST observations can

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 14 data for military operations and humani- Primary ASPO Missions tarian assistance missions. Support appropriate organizations to de- EVI I supports the development of velop/implement streamlined concepts of situational awareness by providing the operation and requirements. capability to collect, extract, and exploit information about the physical character- Design, develop, test, field, and sustain istics of the earth’s surface, to include systems that provide national and theater natural and man-made features, in order products to tactical commanders. to build a basic foundation for the com- Provide the responsible Program Execu- mon knowledge of the battlespace. Ter- tive Officers with the appropriate tech- rain data may be generated or enriched nologies and acquisition activities. by detailed analysis of raw images avail Provide technical support to the Army able from this theater asset. Terrain ana- staff with respect to TENCAP activities. lysts will use the newly acquired data to enrich the digital topographic database Act as the focal point for technical, fiscal, with dynamic environment data, higher and operational interactions with the na- resolution feature data, and higher resolu- tional community to include: tion elevation data. Identifying technologies to enhance the Army mission Coordinating training and exercise support for national systems Acting as point of contact for all tactical activities between major com-

mands/users and the national Fig. 4-14. EV II community Serving as technical adviser and tech- ARMY SPACE PROGRAM OFFICE nical expert to TRADOC and battle (ASPO) labs. The Army Space Program Office, or ASPO, is responsible for the Army’s tactical exploitation of national capabilities - TENCAP Systems TENCAP. The program focuses on exploiting current and future tactical poten- The Advanced Electronic Processing tial of national systems and integrating and Dissemination System replaces the capabilities into the Army’s tactical the Enhanced Tactical User Terminal decision-making process. Army and Electronic Processing and Dis- TENCAP systems enable the tactical semination System. The system re- commander to see and hear deep in to- ceives and processes raw data from day’s battlefield and then assess the im- selected national sensors, stores proc- pact of shooting deep. The ASPO has essed data, and produces intelligence successfully fielded more than 60 sys- reports, and has the dual function of tems and is continually exploring ways to situation awareness and projection. integrate advanced technologies into its Mobile Integrated Tactical Terminal, inventory. or MITT, is a division- and corps-

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 15 level truck-mounted system capable telligence development for indication of providing multiple source intelli- and warning, situation assessment, gence and secondary imagery to the order of battle, targeting, and tactical tactical commander. It provides operations. The MIES is a modern- ETUT functionality in a smaller and ized version of the system deployed more mobile configuration which re- to Saudi Arabia to provide imagery ceives, processes, and disseminates support to CENTCOM during Desert multi-disciplined information. Storm. MIES provides for the receipt, Forward Area Support Terminal was processing, exploitation, storage, and developed to provide a downsized dissemination of imagery intelligence functional equivalent of the MITT, from national and selected theater offering the same capabilities in a collectors. Planned upgrades include modular, portable system. This single interfaces to planned national capa- position unit, weighing 1,200 pounds, bilities and migration to Common is easily transportable. Imagery Ground/Surface System The Tactical Exploitation System, or standards. TES, is the next generation TENCAP CONCLUSIONS system. It combines total TENCAP functionality in an integrated, down- The Army’s dedication to maintaining sized, scalable system designed for a tactically relevant presence in the space split-base operations and can receive, community was demonstrated by General process, exploit, and disseminate Gordon R. Sullivan (Retired), then Chief of Staff of the Army, when he stated: data. As a replacement for the Ad- vanced Electronic Processing and “Aggressive exploitation of space Dissemination System, Modernized capabilities and products normalized in Imagery Exploitation System, and concepts, doctrine, training, operations, Enhanced Tactical Radar Correlator, and modernization will ensure that the the TES will be smaller, lighter, and Army is able to maintain land force domination well into the 21st century. more powerful than current systems. The Army’s future is inextricably tied to Enhanced Tactical Radar Correlator, space.” or ETRAC, is the latest generation Success on the future battlefield TENCAP system. It provides real- requires exploitation of the Army's five time radar imagery data to the corps doctrinal tenets: commander and has the capability to • initiative, receive direct downlinks from the U- • agility, 2. The ETRAC is a highly mobile • depth, system that can drive on and off a C- • synchronization, 130 aircraft, making it easy to pro- • and versatility. vide direct support to early entry operations. The ETRAC is an enhanced The extension of that battlefield into space provides commanders with an en- version of the TRAC van used in De- hanced capability to exploit and advance sert Storm to downlink U-2 imagery. these tenets across all Army operations. Modernized Imagery Exploitation Combining near-continuous, global cov- System, or MIES, was developed to erage, real-time and near-real-time capa- support imagery operational areas, in- bilities for communications, positioning/

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 16 navigation, surveillance, environmental volved in space and fully exploit space monitoring, warning and target acquisi- capabilities. The Army will continue to tion allows commanders to anticipate en- define its role, identify requirements and emy actions; strike at vulnerable points plan strategies for involvement. It will faster than the enemy can react; and win also participate more in the joint, com- the land battle. Likewise, these same ca- bined, civil and commercial enviroments pabilities allow the commanders to have to optimize its use of this fourth medium success in operations other than war. of warfare. As the Army moves into the 21st century, it’s imperative that it remains in-

REFERENCES

“Army Space Exploitation Demonstration Program FY 00” booklet, 1 October 99.

FM 100-18, “Space Doctrine, Education and Functional Area”

http://www.smdc.army.mil Home page of the U.S. Army Space & Missile Defense Command. Numerous links for space related information.

Information Sheet, “US Army Space Command Space-Based Combat/ Force Multiplier Capabilities for the Warfighter”, June 1999. http://www.smdc.army.mil/FactSheets/FactsIndx.html

“U.S. Army Space Command Overview” http://www.armyspace.army.mil/ArspaceHQ.htm

TOCTOC

AU Space Primer Fourth Edition, 10/00 4 - 17 Chapter 5

SPACE LAW, POLICY AND DOCTRINE

Space policy and doctrine define the overarching goals and principles of the US space program. International and domestic laws and regulations, national interests and security objectives shape the US space program. Furthermore, fiscal considerations both shape and constrain space policy. Space policy formulation is a critical element of the US national planning process, as it provides the framework for future system requirements. This chapter outlines the basic tenets of US space policy and examines the international and domestic legal parameters within which the US conducts its space programs. The chapter details Department of Defense (DOD) and Air Force space policies, derived from The National Space Policy. It concludes with an analysis of the doctrinal principles that guide the conduct of military space activities.

INTERNATIONAL SPACE LAW 1976, eight equatorial countries claimed sovereignty over the geostationary or- The term space law refers to a body bital arc above their territory. Most of law drawn from a variety of sources other countries, including all major and consisting of two basic types of law: space powers, rejected the claim. international and domestic. The former refers to rights and obligations the US Outer space is free for use by all has agreed to through multilateral or countries. This principle relates to the bilateral international treaties and non-appropriation principle and is agreements. The latter refers to domes- analogous to the right of innocent pas- tic legislation by Congress and regula- sage on the high seas. tions promulgated by executive agencies of the US government. Outer space will be used for peaceful purposes only. Most western nations, Table 5-1 (pp. 5-27 to 5-29) summa- including the US, equate peaceful pur- rizes key international treaties and poses with non-aggressive ones. Conse- agreements that affect the scope and quently, all non-aggressive military use character of US military space activities. of space is permissible, except for spe- Listed below are some of the more im- cific prohibitions of certain activities portant basic principles and rules. noted elsewhere in this section.

International law applies to outer Astronauts are “peaceful envoys of space. Such law includes the United mankind.” If forced to make an emer- Nations (UN) Charter, which requires all gency landing, they should not be UN members to settle disputes by peace- harmed or held hostage and they must ful means, prohibits the threat to use or be returned to the launching country as actual use of force against the territorial soon as possible. Upon request, the integrity or political independence of spacecraft also should be returned if another state. The charter also recog- possible and the launching country will nizes a state’s inherent right to act in pay the costs involved. individual or collective self-defense. Objects launched into space must be Outer space, the Moon, and other ce- registered with the UN. Basic orbital lestial bodies are not subject to appro- parameters, launch origin, launch date priation by claim of sovereignty, use or and a brief explanation of the purpose of occupation, or any other means. In the satellite are required although the

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 1 UN set no time limit for providing this principles of international law and are information. in fact being used to verify provisions of specific treaties. A country retains jurisdiction and control over its registered space objects. The US adheres to the premise in in- This rule applies regardless of the condi- ternational law that any act not specifi- tion of the objects. cally prohibited is permissible. Thus, even though the list (see Table 5-1) of A country is responsible for regulat- prohibited acts is sizable, there are few ing, and is ultimately liable for, the outer legal restrictions on the use of space for space activities of its citizens. In outer non-aggressive military purposes. As a space, liability for damage is based on result, international law implicitly per- fault; therefore, assessing blame for mits the performance of such traditional objects colliding would be extremely military functions as surveillance, re- difficult. The launching country is abso- connaissance, navigation, meteorology lutely liable for damage caused on earth. and communications. It permits the deployment of military space stations Nuclear weapons tests and other nu- along with testing and deployment in clear explosions in outer space are pro- earth orbit of non-nuclear (and, until hibited. Before this prohibition in 1958, 2002, non-ABM) weapon systems. This the US exploded three small nuclear includes anti-satellite weapons, space-to- devices in outer space in Project Argus. ground conventional weapons, the use of This occurred over a period of two space for individual and collective self- weeks; such an experiment would not be defense, and any conceivable activity not permissible today. specifically prohibited or otherwise constrained. Nuclear weapons and other weapons Another widely accepted premise is of mass destruction (such as chemical that treaties usually regulate activities and biological weapons) may not be between signatories only during peace- placed into orbit, installed on celestial time. This rule holds true unless a treaty bodies, or stationed in space in any expressly states that its provisions apply other manner. or become operative during hostilities, or the signatories can deduce this from the A country may not test any kind of nature of the treaty itself. In other weapon; establish military bases, instal- words, countries presume that armed lations, or fortifications, nor conduct conflict will result in the suspension or military maneuvers on celestial bodies. termination of a treaty’s provisions. The use of military personnel for scien- Good examples are treaties whose pur- tific research or other peaceful purposes pose is to disarm or limit quantities of is permissible. arms maintained by the signatories. Therefore, during hostilities, the scope The development, testing, or deploy- of permissible military space activities ment of space-based antiballistic missile may broaden significantly. (ABM) systems or components are pro- Finally, it is important to understand hibited. This prohibition does not apply that the former Soviet Union (FSU) has to research and development of been the most important space power space-based ABMs preceding field test- next to the US. The Soviet Union ing. signed most of the peace-related treaties to which the US has agreed upon, some Interfering with national technical of which are bilateral agreements exclu- means of verification is prohibited pro- sively with that nation. As the USSR vided such systems are operating in ac- dissolved, the US adopted a policy of cordance with generally recognized continuing to observe the requirements

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 2 of all treaties and to apply their provi- munications satellites. Space-specific sions to the independent states that have legislation (beyond the annual National emerged. Nevertheless, a degree of Aeronautics and Space Administration legal uncertainty is likely to exist for a (NASA) authorization) is a relatively period of years until precedent estab- recent activity. lishes policy more firmly, or until for- The Reagan administration placed mal agreements conclude with the new emphasis on the creation of a third sec- states. Although uncertainty applies on tor of space activity, that of commercial both sides, the obligations of the US space, in addition to the traditional mili- under the new conditions are clear be- tary and civil sectors. For example, cause the state of US sovereignty has Congress passed the Commercial Space not changed and the spirit of the original Launch Act of 1984 to facilitate the agreements still exists. development of a commercial launch Regardless of US policy, the US can- industry in the US. From a DOD per- not unilaterally hold any of the FSU spective, the importance of this legisla- states to any agreements. Most of the tion lies in its authorization for FSU states have agreed to continue to commercial customers to use DOD discharge the obligations arising out of launch facilities on a reimbursable basis. international agreements signed by the Thus, DOD is now in the overseeing USSR; however, not all have been for- commercial operations from its facilities mally ratified or acceded to. and placing commercial payloads in the A prime example of this is the ABM launch queue. Although a recent devel- Treaty which was the subject of much opment, there is a trend towards inter- debate both in Congress and with the twining the commercial space industry Russians. The US wanted to press and DOD space programs, whenever ahead with a limited form of national possible. missile defense against the emerging The Commercial Space Act of 1998 missile technology in rogue nations, furthered this policy of getting the gov- while the Russians remained vehe- ernment out of the launch business and mently opposed to any such system. requires a DOD study of the projected The President rendered his decision in launch services through 2007. It also 2001. calls on the DOD to identify the “technical, structural and legal impediments DOMESTIC SPACE LAW associated with making launch sites or test ranges in the US viable and com- Domestic law has always shaped petitive.” It also requires the govern- military space activities through the ment to purchase space transportation spending authorization and budget ap- services instead of building and operat- propriation process. For example, when ing its own vehicles, calls for NASA to Congress deleted funding for further privatize the space shuttle and allows testing of the USAF’s direct ascent for excess ICBMs to be used as low- Anti-Satellite (ASAT) weapon in the cost space boosters. mid- 1980s, it effectively canceled the program. In addition, a number of laws NATIONAL SPACE POLICY not designed solely to address space have a space aspect. For instance, under A nation’s space policy is extremely the Communications Act of 1934, the important, especially as it relates to president has the authority to gain con- space law and space doctrine. In order trol of private communications assets to understand present US space policy owned by US corporations during times and attempt to predict its future, an ex- of crisis. Since the 1960s, this authority amination of its evolution is necessary. has included both the ground and space Keep in mind, that while policy provides segments of domestically owned com- space goals and a national framework,

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 3 national interests and national security space programs and created a new objectives actually shape the policy. agency, the National Aeronautics and This framework will lead towards build- Space Administration to direct and con- ing and meeting future US requirements trol all US space activities, except those and subsequent national space strategies. “peculiar to or primarily associated with the development of weapons systems, Early Policy military operations, or the defense of the United States.” The Department of De- The launch of Sputnik I on 4 October fense was to be responsible for these 1957 had an immediate and dramatic latter activities. impact on the formulation of US space A legislative basis for DOD responsi- policy. Although the military had ex- bilities in space was thereby provided pressed an interest in space technology early in the space age. The act estab- as early as the mid 1940s, a viable pro- lished a mechanism for coordinating and gram failed to emerge for several rea- integrating military and civilian research sons. These include: intense inter- and development. It also encouraged service rivalry; military preoccupation significant international cooperation in with the development of ballistic mis- space and called for preserving the role siles that prevented a sufficiently high of the US as a leader in space technology funding priority from being assigned to and its application. Thus, the policy proposed space systems; and national framework for a viable space program leadership that did not initially appreci- was in place. The principles enunciated ate the strategic and international impli- by NASA have become basic tenets of cations of emerging satellite technology. the US space program. These tenets Once national leadership gained this included: peaceful focus on the use of appreciation, it became committed to an space, separation of civilian and military open and a purely scientific space pro- space activities, emphasis on interna- gram. tional cooperation and preservation of a The emergence of Sputnik I trans- space role. All presidential space direc- posed this line of thought: besides tives issued since 1958 have reaffirmed clearly demonstrating the Soviets had these basic tenets. the missile technology to deliver pay- However, a space program of sub- loads at global ranges, Sputnik led to stance still did not exist. The Eisenhower much wider appreciation of orbital pos- administration’s approach to implement- sibilities. The result was the first official ing the new space policy was conserva- US government statement that space tive, cautious and constrained. The indeed, was of military significance. government consistently disapproved of This statement, issued on 26 March 1958 the early DOD and NASA plans for by President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s manned space flight programs. Instead science advisory committee, stated that the administration preferred to concen- the development of space technology trate on unmanned, largely scientific and the maintenance of national prestige missions and to proceed with those mis- were important for the defense of the sions at a measured pace. It was left to United States. Congress also quickly subsequent administrations to give the recognized that space activities were policy substance. potentially vital to national security. The first official national space policy Intervening Years was the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. This act stated the policy Two presidential announcements, one of the United States was to devote space by John F. Kennedy on 25 March 1961 activities to peaceful purposes for the and the second by Richard M. Nixon on benefit of all humankind. It mandated 7 March 1970, were instrumental in pro- separate civilian and national security viding the focus for the US space pro-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 4 gram. The Kennedy statement came “Space expenditures must take their during a period of intense national intro- proper place within a rigorous system of spection. The Soviet Union launched national priorities....Operations in space and successfully recovered the world’s from here on in must become a normal first cosmonaut. Although Yuri Gagarin and regular part of national life. There- spent just 89 minutes in orbit, his ac- fore, they must be planned in conjunc- complishment electrified the world. tion with all of the other undertakings This caused the US to question its scien- important to us.” tific and engineering skills as well as its entire educational system. The Ameri- Although spectacular lunar and plane- can response articulated by President tary voyages continued until 1975 as a Kennedy as a national challenge to land result of budgetary decisions made dur- a man on the Moon and return him ing the 1960s, the Nixon administration safely to Earth defined US space goals considered the space program of inter- for the remainder of the decade. mediate priority and could not justify Prestige and international leadership increased investment or the initiation of were clearly the main objectives of the large new projects. It viewed space as a Kennedy space program. However, the medium for exploiting and extending the generous funding that accompanied the previously realized technological and Apollo program had important collateral scientific gains. The emphasis was on benefits as well. It permitted the buildup practical space applications to benefit of US space technology and the estab- American society in a variety of ways. lishment of an across-the-board space During the Nixon years, the space capability that included planetary explo- world saw three notable events: ration, scientific endeavors, commercial applications and military support sys- • On 5 January 1972, Nixon ap- tems. proved the development of the President Johnson’s years in office space shuttle. saw the commencement of work on nu- • The National Aeronautics and clear ASATs and the cancellation of the Space Council (started by the DynaSoar (Dynamic Ascent and Soar- Space Act of 1958) was inacti- ing) Flight program. This program, vated. which began in 1958, was a 35 foot • The Gemini B/Manned Orbiting glider with a small delta wing and was to Laboratory (MOL) was shelved be boosted into orbit by a Titan III due to lack of urgency and fund- rocket. The program was determined to ing. be unnecessary in light of NASA’s manned spacecraft program. Within the DOD, this accentuation on As the 1960s drew to a close, a com- practicality translated into reduced em- bination of factors including domestic phasis on manned spaceflight, but led to unrest, an unpopular foreign war and the initial operating capability for many inflationary pressures forced the nation of the space missions performed today. to reassess the importance of the space For example, initial versions of the sys- program. Against this backdrop, Presi- tems were all developed and fielded dur- dent Nixon made his long-awaited space ing this period. These versions are now policy announcement in March 1970. known as: the Defense Satellite Com- His announcement was a carefully con- munications System, the Defense Sup- sidered and worded statement that was port Program, the Defense clearly aware of political realities and Meteorological Satellite Program and the the mood of Congress and the public. In Navy’s Transit Navigation Satellite Pro- part, it stated: gram (later to evolve as the Global Posi- tioning System).

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 5 One major new space initiative under- weapons in space, PD-37 reflected an taken during the l970s eventually had far appreciation of the importance of space greater impact on the national space pro- systems to national survival; a recogni- gram than planners had originally envi- tion of the Soviet threat to those sys- sioned: the space transportation system tems; and a willingness to push ahead (STS), or space shuttle. The shuttle’s with development of an anti-satellite goal was routine and low-cost access to capability in the absence of verifiable orbit for both civil and military sectors. and comprehensive international agree- However, as development progressed, ments restricting such systems. In other the program experienced large cost and words, the administration was beginning schedule overruns. These problems to view space as a potential war-fighting caused the US space program to lose medium. much of its early momentum, as the high PD-42 was directed exclusively at the costs would adversely affect other space civil space sector to guide US efforts development efforts, both civil and mili- over the next decade. However, it was tary. In addition, schedule slippage devoid of any long-term space goals, meant a complete absence of American expecting the nation to pursue a bal- astronauts in space for the remainder of anced evolutionary strategy of space the decade. applications, space science, and exploration activities. The absence of a more Carter Administration Space Policy visionary policy reflected the continuing developmental problems with the shuttle President Jimmy Carter’s administra- and the resulting commitment of larger tion conducted a series of interdepart- than expected resources. mental studies to address the malaise that had befallen the nation’s space ef- Reagan Administration Space Policy fort. The studies addressed apparent fragmentation and possible redundancy President Ronald Reagan’s admini- among civil and national security sectors stration published comprehensive space of the US space program. It also sought policy statements in 1982 and 1988. The to develop a coherent recommendation first policy statement, pronounced on 4 for a new national space policy. These July 1982 and embodied in National efforts resulted in two 1978 Presidential Security Decision Directive 42 (NSDD- Directives (PD): PD-37, National Space 42), reaffirmed the basic tenets of previ- Policy and PD-42, Civil Space Policy. ous (Carter) US Space Policy. It also PD-37 reaffirmed the basic policy placed considerable emphasis on the principles contained in the National STS as the primary space launch system Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. It for both national security and civil gov- identified the broad objectives of the US ernment missions. In addition, it intro- space program, including the specific duced the basic goals of promoting and guidelines governing civil and national expanding the investment and involve- security space activities. ment of the private sector in space. PD-37 was important from a military Space-related activities comprise a third perspective because it contained the ini- element of US space operations, which tial, tentative indications that a shift was complemented national security and the occurring in the national security estab- civil sectors. lishment’s view on space. Traditionally, The single statement of national pol- the military had seen space as a force icy from this period that most influenced enhancer, or an environment in which to military space activities and illuminated deploy systems to increase the effective- the transition to a potential space war- ness of land, sea and air forces. Al- fighting framework is NSDD-85, dated though the focus of the Carter policy 25 March 1983. Within this document, was clearly on restricting the use of President Reagan stated his long term

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 6 objective to eliminate the threat of nu- plement, the Bush administration’s na- clear armed ballistic missiles through the tional space policy retained the goals and creation of strategic defensive forces. emphasis of the final Reagan administra- This NSDD coincided with the estab- tion policy. The Bush policy resulted lishment of the Strategic Defense Initia- from an NSPC review to clarify, tive Organization (SDIO) and strengthen and streamline space policy, represented a significant step in the evo- and has been further enhanced by a se- lution of US space policy. Since 1958, ries of National Space Policy directives the US had, for a variety of reasons, re- (NSPD) on various topics. Areas most frained from crossing an imaginary line affected by the body of Bush policy from space systems designed to operate documentation included: as force enhancers to establishing a warfighting capability in space. The anti- • US Commercial Space Policy satellite (ASAT) initiative of the Carter Guidelines administration was a narrow response to • Provision of a framework for the a specific Soviet threat. However, the National Space Launch Strategy SDI program represented a significant • Landsat Remote Sensing Strategy expansion in the DOD’s assigned role in • Space exploration initiative the space arena. • Concern for the Space-based The second comprehensive national Global Change Observation, a key space policy incorporated the results of a component to the nation’s overall number of developments that had oc- approach to global stewardship curred since 1982, notably the US com- and one of the nation’s highest mitment in 1984 to build a space station priority science programs and the space shuttle Challenger. For the first time, the national space The policy reaffirmed the organiza- program viewed commercial space equal tion of US space activities into three to the traditional national security and complementary sectors: civil, national civil space sectors. Moreover, the new security and commercial. The three sec- policy dramatically retreated from its tors coordinate their activities to ensure previous dependence on the STS and maximum information exchange and injected new life into expendable launch minimum duplication of effort. vehicle programs. In the national secu- The Bush policy proceeds to detail rity sector, this program was the first to specific policy, implementing guidelines address space control and force applica- and actions for each of the three space tion at length, further developing the sectors and inter-sector activities. The transition to warfighting capabilities in civil sector will engage in all manners of space. space-related scientific research, will In 1988, the last year of the Reagan develop space-related technologies for presidency, Congress passed a law al- government and commercial applica- lowing creation of a National Space tions, and establish a permanent manned Council (NSPC), a cabinet-level organi- presence in space. NASA is the lead zation designed to coordinate national civil space agency. policy among the three space sectors. NASA and the Departments of De- The incoming administration would offi- fense, Commerce and Transportation cially establish and very effectively use work cooperatively with the commercial the National Space Council. sector to make government facilities and hardware available on a reimbursable Bush Administration Space Policy basis. The US will conduct those activities Released in November 1989 as Na- in space that are necessary to national tional Security Directive 30 (NSD-30), defense. Such activities contribute to and updated in a 5 September 1990 sup- security objectives by: (1) deterring or, if

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 7 necessary, defending against enemy at- PDD/NSTC 2 - US POLAR-ORBITING tack; (2) assuring that enemy forces can- OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL not prevent our use of space; (3) SATELLITE SYSTEMS (May 94) negating, if necessary, hostile space systems; and (4) enhancing operations of PDD/NSTC 2 calls for the Depart- US and allied forces. In order to accom- ment of Commerce and Defense “to in- plish these objectives, DOD develops, tegrate their programs into a single, operates and maintains a robust space converged, national polar-orbiting opera- force structure capable of satisfying the tional environmental weather satellite mission requirements of space support, system.” This began occurring in 1997. force enhancement, space control and The DMSP satellite program merged force application. with the National Oceanic Atmospheric Primarily directed at the civil and na- Administration (NOAA) satellite pro- tional security sectors, several policy gram in May 1998. The new system requirements apply across sector divi- formed by the merger of the two pro- sions. These include such things as con- grams will be known as the Polar Orbit- tinuing the technology development and ing Environmental Satellite (POES) operational capabilities of remote- System. sensing systems, space transportation systems, space-based communications systems and the need to minimize space PDD/NSTC 3 - LANDSAT REMOTE debris. SENSING STRATEGY (May 94)

Clinton Administration Space Policy PDD/NSTC 3 replacing Bush’s A repositioning of priorities in the NSPD 5 assures “the continuity of Clinton Administration was reflected by LANDSAT-type and quality of data,” the decision in August 1993, to merge and reduces the “risk of data gap,” that various White House science and tech- is, loss of earth sensing data due to a nology councils into one National Sci- lack of LANDSAT.” ence and Technology Council (NSTC), which would do most of the day-to-day PDD/NSTC 4 - National Space work through permanent or ad hoc inter- Transportation Policy (Aug 94) agency working groups. The National Space Council was absorbed into the PDD/NSTC 4 superseded all previous new “NSTC” along with the National policies for US space transportation and Critical Materials Council and the Fed- “establishes national policy, guidelines, eral Coordinating Council for Science, and implementation actions for the con- Engineering and Technology. duct of national space transportation The White House structure for articu- programs.” It also provides allocated lating national policy for science and space transportation responsibilities technology was put in place by the among Federal civil and military agen- Presidential Review Directive cies. (PRD)/NSTC series and the Presidential Decision Directive (PDD)/NSTC series In May 1996, President Clinton set as established by PDD/NSTC 1. Within forth his National Space Policy. four months during the summer of 1994, three additional policies were established articulating Clinton’s space policy.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 8 Current National Space Policy tional security and foreign policies. PDD/NSTC 8 - National Space Policy • Renewed direction that the US will (May 96) conduct those space activities necessary for national security. In September 1996, the Clinton ad- • Direction that key priorities for ministration released its National Space national security space activities Policy which had five goals: are to improve our ability to support military operations world- • Knowledge by exploration (1989) wide, monitor and respond to • Maintain national security (1989) strategic military threats, and • Enhance competitiveness and ca- monitor arms control and non- pabilities(new) proliferation agreements and ac- • Private sector investment (1989) tivities. • Promote international cooperation • Direction that the Secretary of De- (1989) fense and the Director of Central Intelligence shall ensure that de- These goals are very similar to those fense and intelligence space activi- established in 1978 by President Carter ties are closely coordinated; that and their heritage goes back as far as the space architectures are integrated 1958 National Aeronautics and Space to the maximum extent feasible; Act under Eisenhower. and will continue to modernize and For each major area covered in the improve their respective activities 1996 National Space Policy (Civil space, to collect against, and respond to, Defense space, Intelligence space, changing threats, environments Commercial space and Intersector and adversaries. space), a set of guidelines similar to the • Renewed direction that national ones in the 1989 National Space Policy security space activities shall con- was established. tribute to US national security by: ∗ Providing support for the Department of Defense Sector Guide- US’s inherent right of self de- Lines fense and our defense commitments to allies and The most current National Space Pol- friends; icy is largely classified and supersedes ∗ Deterring, warning and, if the 1989 policy. Unclassified prominent necessary, defending against aspects of the new policy dealing with enemy attack; DOD include: ∗ Assuring that hostile forces cannot prevent our own use • Renewed direction that the US will of space; maintain its leadership role by ∗ Countering, if necessary, supporting a strong, stable and space systems and services balanced national space program used for hostile purposes; that serves our goals in national ∗ Enhancing operations of US security and other areas. and allied forces; • Renewed direction that the goals ∗ Ensuring our ability to con- of the US space program include: duct military and intelligence ∗ Strengthening and maintain- space-related activities; ing the national security of ∗ Satisfying military and intel- the US ligence requirements during ∗ Promoting international co- peace and crisis as well as operation to further US na- through all levels of conflict; and;

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 9 ∗ Supporting the activities of hedge against the emergence of a national policy makers, the long-range ballistic missile threat intelligence community, the to the US; and an advanced tech- National Command Authori- nology program to provide options ties, combatant commanders for improvements to planned and and the military services, deployed defenses. other federal officials and continuity of government op- In general, this first post-Cold War erations. statement of National Space Policy • Direction that critical capabilities provides a coherent vision and direction necessary for executing space mis- for the conduct of space activities in sions must be assured. response to the major changes which • Renewed direction that DOD shall have occurred since 1989. maintain the capability to execute The significance of the policy is the the mission areas of space support, degree to which the Department of De- force enhancement, space control fense has recognized the utility of space and force application. in accomplishing national security objec- • Renewed direction that DOD, as tives. launch agent for both the defense and intelligence sectors, will main- Department of Defense Space Policy tain the capability to evolve and support those space transportation On July 9, 1999 the Secretary of De- systems, infrastructure and support fense released the new revision to the activities necessary to meet na- DOD Space Policy, the previous one tional security requirements. being dated 1987. This DOD Space • Direction that DOD will be the Policy incorporates new policies and lead agency for improvement and guidance promulgated since 1987 and evolution of the current expend- includes the new National Space Policy able launch vehicle fleet, including issued by President Clinton in October appropriate technology develop- 1998. It sets the freedom of space as a ment. vital area, establishes definitions of the • Direction that DOD will pursue in- four mission areas using terms space tegrated satellite control, continue combat, combat support, service support to enhance the robustness of its and space as a medium just like air, sea satellite control capability and co- and land. ordinate with other departments Major changes address the transfor- and agencies, as appropriate, to mation of the international security envi- foster the integration and interop- ronment; the promulgation of new erability of satellite control for all national security and national military governmental space activities. strategies; changes in the resources allo- • Renewed direction that, consistent cated to national defense; changes in with treaty obligations, the US will force structure; lessons learned from the develop, operate and maintain operational employment of space forces; space control capabilities to ensure the global spread of space systems, tech- freedom of action in space and, if nology, and information; advances in directed, deny such freedom of ac- military and information technologies; tion to adversaries. the growth of commercial space activi- • Direction that the US will pursue a ties; enhanced inter-sector cooperation; ballistic missile defense program and increased international cooperation. to provide for: enhanced theater In addition, the DOD Space Policy es- missile defense capability later this tablishes a comprehensive policy decade; a national missile defense framework for the conduct of space and deployment readiness program as a space-related activities. US SPACE

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 10 COMMAND is listed as the POC for space activities, and if so, how best to DOD military space. The DOD policy proceed. also calls for integrating space into mili- The panel strongly affirmed the desir- tary operations doctrine. ability of operating in space to accom- The DOD Space Policy is published plish Air Force missions and achieve as DOD Directive 3100.10 and is dated wider national security objectives. It July 9, 1999. Because of its importance, also developed a list of recommenda- the entire document is included at Ap- tions for making most effective use of pendix D of this SRG. the space arena in future Air Force operations. On 2 December 1988, the Air Air Force Space Policy Force formally adopted the Blue Ribbon Panel’s fundamental assumptions and The earliest recorded statement of Air codified them in a new space policy Force policy regarding space occurred document. With only a few minor modi- on 15 January 1948, when Gen Hoyt S. fications to accommodate organizational Vandenberg stated: “The USAF, as the change within the service, this document service dealing primarily with air weap- remains the current statement of com- ons especially strategic has logical re- prehensive Air Force space policy. The sponsibility for the satellite.” As tenets of that policy are: reflected in General Vandenberg’s statement, Air Force leaders have tradi- Space power will be as decisive in tionally viewed space as an atmosphere future combat as air power is today. in which the Air Force would have prin- This long-term vision recognizes the ciple mission responsibilities. This view inherent advantages that space opera- was perhaps best articulated by former tions bring to military endeavors and Air Force Chief of Staff Gen Thomas D. looks forward to a time when technol- White, when he coined the term aero- ogy, experience and widespread accep- space during testimony before the House tance allow the US to make full use of Committee on Science and Astronautics those advantages. in February 1959: “Since there is no dividing line, no The US must be prepared for the natural barrier separating these two evolution of space power from combat areas (air and space), there can be no support to the full spectrum of military operational boundary between them. capabilities. The Air Force believes that Thus, air and space comprise a single space is a military operating arena just as continuous operational field in which the are land, sea and air. Expansion of the Air Force must continue to function. The space control and force application mis- area is aerospace.” sion areas is necessary and desirable to take full advantage of space for effective As a result of this early positioning, accomplishment of national security the Air Force assumed the predominate objectives. space role within DOD. The Air Force Space Policy evolved as that role ex- The Air Force will make a solid cor- panded. However, the policy was not porate commitment to integrate space formally documented until 1988. In late throughout the Air Force. To use space 1987 and early 1988, the Air Force con- effectively, the Air Force must fully in- vened the Blue Ribbon Panel on the fu- stitutionalize space operations. There ture of the Air Force in space. A senior- can be no separation of a “space Air level working group composed of both Force” and an “aviation Air Force.” space and aviation professionals consid- Combat power is greatest and most ef- ered whether the service should continue fective when operations in the two me- to seek the leadership role for DOD diums are closely integrated. In an effort to accomplish this integration, the Air

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 11 Force became devoted to: incorporate making strategy decisions. Without doc- space into its doctrine; normalize space trine, military strategists would have to responsibilities within the Air Staff; in- make decisions without points of refer- stitute personnel cross-flow measures to ence and continually be faced with rein- expand space expertise throughout the venting the wheel and risk repeating past service; encourage space-related mis- mistakes. Doctrine and strategy are sion solutions and expertise at all major linked in that doctrine offers an analysis commands and air component com- of lessons learned to devise and carry mands; and consolidate space system out strategy. requirements, advocacy and operations Strategy originates in policy and is an (exclusive of developmental systems) in implementation of doctrine. Strategy Air Force Space Command. addresses broad objectives and the plans The US, DOD, and Air Force all have for achieving them. While doctrine de- a policy for the military space mission scribes how a job should be done to areas of space control, force application, achieve an objective, strategy defines force enhancement and space support, how a job will be accomplished to possessing implementation guidelines achieve national political objectives. for each area. An updated AF Space Thus, strategy, as defined by Webster, is Policy is expected shortly in light of the the science or art of military command new National and DOD Space Policies. as applied to overall planning and con- In summary, US national space policy duct of large-scale combat operations, has, for the most part, kept pace with the designed to support national policy and growth of its US space program and is political objectives. now one of the most well-documented areas of government policy. It clearly NATIONAL SECURITY articulates goals that are both challeng- STRATEGY ing and within the realm of possibility. National security strategy changes SPACE DOCTRINE with the world’s political and economic environments. What was strategy during Joint Publication 1-02, Department of the Cold War changed dramatically dur- Defense Dictionary of Military and As- ing the post-Cold War era of the 1990s. sociated Terms, defines doctrine as In the post-Cold War era, national se- “fundamental principles by which the curity strategy focused initially on “en- military forces or elements thereof guide gagement and enlargement” which their actions in support of national objec- placed the US at the forefront of driving tives. It is authoritative but requires international relations. This new strat- judgment in application.” A shorter and egy called for the US to be engaged perhaps more workable definition es- around the world with the objective of poused by Professor I. B. Holley, Jr., of enlarging the family of democratic na- Duke University is: “military doctrine is tions. what is officially believed and taught In October 1998, the White House is- about the best way to conduct military sued its “A National Security Strategy affairs.” for a New Century.” Accordingly, military space doctrine This latest strategy states that the na- articulates what is officially believed and tion’s challenge and responsibility are to taught about the best way to conduct sustain the US’s role as the most power- military space affairs. This section ex- ful force for peace, prosperity and the amines joint space doctrine and Air universal values of democracy and free- Force space doctrine. dom. To accomplish that goal, the US Doctrine drives the strategy that al- must harness the forces of global lows you to accomplish the mission. integration for the benefit of our own Doctrine provides a knowledge base for people and people around the world. The national security strategy is pursuing a

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 12 tional security strategy is pursuing a These global leadership efforts will be forward-looking strategy attuned to the guided by President Clinton’s strategic realities of the new era (21st century). priorities:

The new national security strategy has • To foster regional efforts led by three core objectives: the community of democratic nations to promote peace and pros- • To enhance our security; perity in key regions of the world; • To bolster America’s economic • To increase cooperation in con- prosperity; and fronting new security threats that • To promote democracy abroad. defy borders and unilateral solutions; During the last five years, the US has • To strengthen the military, diplo- been putting this strategy in place matic and law enforcement tools through a network of institutions and necessary to meet these chal- arrangements with distinct missions but lenges; and with a common purpose— to secure and • To create more jobs and opportu- strengthen the gains of democracy and nities for Americans through a free markets while turning back their more open and competitive eco- enemies. These institutions and ar- nomic system that also benefits rangements are laying a foundation for others around the world. security and prosperity in the 21st century. This strategy is tempered by the rec- This new national security strategy ognition that there are limits to Amer- encompasses a wide range of initiatives ica’s involvement in the world. The US known as the “imperative of engage- must be selective in the use of its capa- ment” – shaping the international envi- bilities and the choices made in advanc- ronment in appropriate ways to bring ing these objectives. about a more peaceful and stable world. These initiatives include expanded mili- Quadrennial Defense Review tary alliances like NATO, its Partnership for Peace program, and its partnerships The Quadrennial Defense Review with Russia and the Ukraine; promoting (QDR) looks at the National Security free trade through the World Trade Or- Strategy to determine where we were, ganization and the move toward free where we are now, and where we are trade zones in the Americas and else- going. The QDR (1999) takes a fresh where around the world; strong arms look at the world today and beyond to control regimes like the Chemical identify threats, risks, and opportunities Weapons Convention and the Compre- for the US national security. From this, hensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty; multi- an overarching defense strategy is de- national coalitions combating terrorism, veloped to deal with the world today and corruption, crime and drug trafficking; tomorrow, identify military capabilities, and binding international commitments and the policies and programs needed to to protect the environment and safeguard support them. human rights. The QDR then focused on the funda- This strategic approach requires that mentals of military power today and in the US must lead abroad if we are to be the future: quality people, ready forces, secure at home, but we cannot lead and superior organization, doctrine and abroad unless we are strong at home. technology needed to meet national ob- Today’s complex security environment jectives and strategy. demands that all of our instruments of The template for seizing the tech- national power be effectively integrated nologies of the future and ensuring mili- to achieve our security objectives. tary dominance is Joint Vision 2010, the

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 13 plan set forth by the Chairman of the and helps keep some countries from be- JCS for military operations in the future. coming adversaries tomorrow. The QDR then defined a shape- respond-prepare strategy to build on the Responding to the Full Spectrum of strategic foundation of the past and our Crises. The US military will be called experiences since the end of the Cold upon to respond to crises across the full War. This strategy determines that the range of military operations. Our dem- US must be capable of fighting and win- onstrated ability to rapidly respond and ning two major theater wars nearly si- to decisively resolve crises provides the multaneously. most effective deterrent and sets the This requires the continuing need to stage for future operations. maintain a continuous overseas presence in order to shape the international envi- Preparing Now for an Uncertain Fu- ronment and to be better able to respond ture. As we move into the next century, to a variety of smaller scale contingen- it is imperative that the US maintain the cies and asymmetric threats. The QDR military superiority essential to our also placed great emphasis on the need global leadership. to prepare now for the future in which hostile and potentially hostile states will Strategic Concepts acquire new capabilities. The QDR then discusses how JV2010 The National Military Strategy de- will describe the future of US military scribes four strategic concepts that gov- forces and the four operational concepts. ern the use of our forces to meet the Finally, the QDR discusses how defense demands of the strategic environment. forces are rebalanced to preserve combat capability and readiness. • Strategic Agility is the timely concentration, employment and sus- National Military Strategy tainment of US military power anywhere, at our own initiative, The military has an important role in and at a speed and tempo that our this “imperative of engagement” out- adversaries cannot match. Strate- lined by the President. The objective – to gic agility allows us to conduct defend and protect US national interests multiple missions, across the full – requires the US Armed Forces to ad- range of military operations, in vance national security by applying mili- geographically separated regions tary power to help Shape the of the world. international environment and Respond • Overseas presence is the visible to the full spectrum of crises, while they posture of US forces and infra- Prepare Now for an uncertain future. structure strategically positioned forward, in and near key regions. Elements of Strategy Forces present overseas promote stability, help prevent conflict, Shaping the International Environ- and ensure the protection of US ment. The US Armed Forces help shape interests. Our overseas presence the international environment through demonstrates our determination to deterrence, peacetime engagement ac- defend US, allied, and friendly in- tivities, and active participation and terests while ensuring our ability leadership in alliances. By increasing to rapidly concentrate combat understanding and reducing uncertainty, power in the event of a crisis. engagement builds constructive security • Power Projection is the ability to relationships, helps to promote the de- rapidly and effectively deploy and velopment of democratic institutions, sustain US military power in and from multiple, dispersed locations

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 14 until conflict resolution. Power rapid crisis response, to track and projection provides the flexibility shift assets while enroute, and to to respond swiftly to crises, with deliver tailored logistics packages force packages that can be where needed. adapted rapidly to the environ- General Henry Shelton, the new ment in which they must operate, Chairman of the JCS, in his Posture and if necessary, fight their way Statement before the 106th Congress in into a denied theater. February 1999 stated his support for the • Decisive Force is the commitment new National Security Strategy and the of sufficient military power to “imperative of engagement.” He restated overwhelm an adversary, establish the concept of Joint Vision 2010 and new military conditions, and said that “to ensure that tomorrow’s achieve a political resolution fa- Joint Force remains the world’s best, we vorable to US national interests. are moving forward to “operationalize” Joint Vision 2010, (which is) our con- THE JOINT FORCE ceptual framework for future joint operations. Joint Vision 2010 One of the concepts for future joint operations is to organize the Unified Joint Vision 2010, published by the Commands under the Unified Command Chairman of the JCS, is a conceptual Plan (UCP). One of his objectives is to template for how the Armed Forces will establish a Joint Forces Command, a work in the future to achieve new levels Space and Information Command, and a of effectiveness in joint warfighting. joint command for homeland defense. JV2010 embodies the improved intelli- The Joint Forces Command is in the gence and command and control avail- UCP for establishment in 1999. able in the information age and envisions four operational concepts: Joint Vision 2020

• Dominant Maneuver refers to the The new Joint Vision 2020 has re- multidimensional application of in- cently been released by the JCS. This formation, engagement and mobil- vision focuses on full spectrum domi- ity capabilities to position and nance as the major point for future war- employ widely dispersed joint fare. land, sea, air and space forces to Joint Vision 2020 builds upon and accomplish the mission. extends the conceptual template estab- • Precision Engagement consists of lished by Joint Vision 2010 to guide the a system of systems that enables continuing transformation of America’s our forces to locate an object or Armed Forces. The primary purpose of target, provide responsive C2, those forces has been and will be to fight generate the desired effect, assess and win the Nation’s wars. The overall the level of success and retain the goal of the transformation described in flexibility to re-engage with preci- this document is the creation of a force sion when required. that is dominant across the full spectrum • Full Dimensional Protection will of military operations – persuasive in be control of the battlespace to en- peace, decisive in war, preeminent in sure our forces can maintain free- any form of conflict. dom of action while providing In 2020, the nation will face a wide multi-layered defense for forces range of interests, opportunities, and and facilities at all levels. challenges and will require a military • Focused Logistics is the fusion of that can both win wars and contribute to information, logistics and transpor- peace. The global interests and respon- tation technologies that provide sibilities of the United States will en-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 15 dure, and there is no indication that effectively take advantage of the tech- threats to those interests and responsi- nology. bilities, or to our allies, will disappear. The evolution of these elements over The strategic concepts of decisive force, the next two decades will be strongly power projection, overseas presence, and influenced by two factors. First, the strategic agility will continue to govern continued development and proliferation our efforts to fulfill those responsibilities of information technologies will substan- and meet the challenges of the future. tially change the conduct of military This document describes the operational operations. These changes in the infor- concepts necessary to do so. mation environment make information If our Armed Forces are to be faster, superiority a key enabler of the trans- more lethal, and more precise in 2020 formation of the operational capabilities than they are today, we must continue to of the joint force and the evolution of invest in and develop new military capa- joint command and control. Second, the bilities. This vision describes the ongo- US Armed Forces will continue to rely ing transformation to those new on a capacity for intellectual and techni- capabilities. As first explained in JV cal innovation. The pace of technologi- 2010, and dependent upon realizing the cal change, especially as it fuels changes potential of the information revolution, in the strategic environment, will place a today’s capabilities for maneuver, strike, premium on our ability to foster innova- logistics, and protection will become tion in our people and organizations dominant maneuver, precision engage- across the entire range of joint opera- ment, focused logistics, and full dimen- tions. The overall vision of the capabili- sional protection. ties we will require in 2020, as The joint force, because of its flexibil- introduced above, rests on our assess- ity and responsiveness, will remain the ment of the strategic context in which key to operational success in the future. our forces will operate. The integration of core competencies provided by the individual Services is USSPACECOM Vision for 2020 essential to the joint team, and the employment of the capabilities of the Total Today, the United States is the pre- Force (active, reserve, guard, and civil- eminent military power in space. USS- ian members) increases the options for PACECOM's Vision for 2020, when the commander and complicates the attained, will ensure that preeminence- choices of our opponents. To build the providing a solid foundation for securing most effective force for 2020, we must our future national security in space. be fully joint: intellectually, operation- To move towards attaining the ally, organizationally, doctrinally, and USSPACECOM Vision for 2020, we technically. developed four operational concepts The overarching focus of this vision from an examination of the Unified is full spectrum dominance – achieved Command Plan's assigned missions, the through the interdependent application Joint Vision 2010 operational concepts of dominant maneuver, precision en- and the anticipated strategic environ- gagement, focused logistics, and full ment. dimensional protection. Attaining that Control of Space (CoS) is the ability goal requires the steady infusion of new to ensure uninterrupted access to space technology and modernization and re- for US forces and our allies, freedom of placement of equipment. However, ma- operations within the space medium and terial superiority alone is not sufficient. an ability to deny others the use of Of greater importance is the develop- space, if required. The ability to gain and ment of doctrine, organizations, training maintain space superiority will become and education, leaders, and people that critical to the joint campaign plan. With uninterrupted access to space, the United

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 16 States can launch and reconstitute satel- Global Partnerships (GP) augment the lite constellations as required without military's space capabilities by leverag- impediment from our adversaries. Just as ing civil, commercial, and international dominant battlefield awareness (DBA) is space systems. This operational concept critical to the success of land, sea, and results from the explosive growth of air forces, space surveillance will help us commercial and international space ca- achieve DBA of space. As the US mili- pabilities. The United States can use tary relies more on space, our vulnerabil- these systems to bolster-and decrease the ity also increases, so we must protect our cost of-military capabilities; they will space assets and be able to deny other also increase battlespace awareness and nations from gaining an advantage information connectivity. GP can im- through their space systems. prove stability, offer mutual advantages Global Engagement (GE) is the com- to all partners and increase flexibility for bination of global surveillance of the the United States. Partnerships make Earth, worldwide missile defense, and possible shared costs, shared risks, and the potential ability to apply force from increased opportunities. space. GE addresses increasing ballistic As we move onto the 21st Century, and cruise missile threats, the need for space forces will continue to provide force application, and the need for effec- support from space, but will also begin tive forward presence with reduced for- to conduct space operations. The emerg- ward basing. By 2020, a second ing synergy of space superiority-equal to generation system for National Missile land sea, and air superiority-will enable Defense is expected to be in place-with us to achieve Full Spectrum Dominance. many of the weapons and sensors potentially moving into space. Surveillance Air Force Support of JV 2010 and strike missions for land, sea, and air will improve using space systems. For The Air Force is already developing example, a force application system many of the systems required to support based in space could be available for Joint Vision 2010. The new joint strat- strategic attack, and space-based surveil- egy for the future is entitled: “Global lance may augment systems on land and Engagement.” (Note: The Air Force in the air. At present, the notion of has now updated its "Global Engage- weapons in space is not consistent with ment" strategy based on the new JV US national policy. Planning for the pos- 2020 - see next section - "AF Vision sibility is a purpose of this plan should 2020".) our civilian leadership decide that the Core Competencies, as defined by the application of force from space is in our Chief of Staff of the Air Force in AF national interest. Vision 2025, represent the combination Full Force Integration (FFI) seam- of professional knowledge, airpower lessly joins space-derived information expertise and technological know-how and space forces with information and that, when applied, produces superior forces from the land, sea, and air. Space military capabilities. Within the Air power will be instrumental in getting the Force, core competencies provide a right military capability to the right bridge between doctrine and the acquisi- forces, at the right time. Space forces tion/programming process. Defining must integrate with all our fighting future core competencies provides stra- forces-from the Joint Task Force's head- tegic focus for the vision. quarters down to warfighters in the land, The six core competencies needed to sea, and air components. Innovative or- maintain the Air Force of the future are: ganizations and operational concepts, tailored flows of information, and • Air and Space Superiority. Pro- trained, dedicated professionals are all vides US forces freedom from at- keys to FFI. tack and freedom to attack. The

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 17 idea is that if air dominance is offensive information-warfare achieved, US and allied forces can abilities. operate with impunity throughout • Agile Combat Support. Improve the battle area, which in turn will combat commanders’ responsive- lead to quick victory. For this abil- ness, deployability and sustain- ity to be complete, the Air Force ability through effective combat- must be able to aggressively support operations. This will mean counter cruise and ballistic mis- relying more on quick response siles. than on pre-deploying inventories • Global Attack. The ability of the of supplies overseas, especially in Air Force to attack rapidly, any- the case of expeditionary forces where on the globe and anytime, is whose destinations are less pre- unique. To maintain this ability, dictable. the Air force will keep its current level of overseas presence (80,000 Air Force Vision 2020 troops permanently deployed and 12,000 to 14,000 on temporary On 21 June 2000, F. Whitten Peters, duty). It will also increase the use Secretary of the Air Force, and Gen. of the air expeditionary force Michael E. Ryan, AF Chief of Staff, concept, in which the planes and announced the new Air Force Vision for troops deployed are tailored to a the 21st century in line with the new specific mission, rather than pre- Joint Vision 2020. packaged. The new Air Force vision is called "America's Air Force: Global Vigi- • Rapid Global Mobility. Air mobil- lance, Reach and Power" and captures ity assets are a “combat force mul- where the Air Force is going as a service tiplier” and essential to the and outlines the diverse challenges ex- nation’s ability to respond quickly pected in the 21st century. This new and decisively to unexpected chal- document builds upon and extends ideas lenges. These are critical to all in the previous AF 2010 vision and re- missions, including combat, peace- flects organizational and conceptual im- keeping and humanitarian efforts. provements since the publication of the • Precision Engagement Apply se- last vision. It also supports the principles lective air power against specific laid out in the recently released Joint targets and achieve discrete and Vision 2020. discriminant effects. By the 21st According to the SECAF, the new AF century, it will be possible to find, Vision for 2020 is short and concise and fix, track and target anything that does not talk about specific weapon sys- moves on the surface of the Earth. tems or details of defense budgets. In- But the Air force must develop stead, it represents our thinking about new operations concepts for apply- the aerospace domain and our role in it -- ing air and space power to a wide how we'll exploit the full aerospace con- range of objectives. tinuum to meet the nation's needs. • Information Superiority. Provide Global Vigilance, Reach and Power the strategic perspective and flexi- are the overarching aerospace capabili- bility of air and space to informa- ties described in this new vision, accord- tion operations. This means using ing to General Ryan. It includes Air Force assets to provide any vigilance to anticipate and deter threats, joint force with pictures of the en- reach to curb crises, and power to prevail tire battle space. To do this, the in conflicts and win wars. Air Force must expand its defen- Key to this new concept is the Expe- sive information-warfare capabili- ditionary Aerospace Force (AEF) which ties and continue to develop will provide both increased capabilities

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 18 to meet the nation's security require- The Doctrine, Strategy, Policy Trian- ments and greater predictability and sta- gle bility for Air Force personnel. Air Force Vision 2020 can be found Try to visualize how doctrine, strat- on the web at www.af.mil/vision. egy and policy fit together within a national vision. Vision drives strategy and Doctrine policy. Vision begins at the highest national level as a view of how our nation Doctrine is not a hard set of rules to will impact and be impacted by the follow, but rather a guide to exercise world of the future. It drives policy and judgment in using forces and weapons. action decisions which in turn drive the Doctrine serves as a starting point for strategic planning for accomplishing that how to attack a problem and then is used vision. as a standard to measure success or fail- Policy is a statement of important, ure, which helps to determine how to high-level direction that guides decisions alter doctrine. Its worth is that it draws and actions throughout the Air Force. upon hard learned lessons of past battles, Policy translates the ideas, goals and incorporates new concepts and ideas and principles contained in mission, vision presents us with the results to help in and strategic plans into actionable direc- decision making. The real key is the tives. accurate analysis and interpretation of Strategy originates in policy and ad- history and the experiences it provides. dresses broad objectives and the plans In order to win battles in the future, doc- for achieving them. To allow the US to trine must grow and evolve to meet meet the varied challenges of the post- changing needs, experiences, techno- Cold War world, the national security logical changes and other aspects of the strategy of Engagement and Enlarge- future which impact the way we fight. ment was defined, which called for the Doctrine does not stand alone, with- US to be actively engaged around the out impact from outside sources. Sev- world with the objective of enlarging the eral factors can influence doctrine: family of democratic nations. This was replaced by the new national security • Government and politics, as well strategy for the 21st century (Shape, Re- as public opinion, play a major spond, Prepare Now) discussed earlier. role in how forces are employed The new military strategy was devel- and how doctrine is used (i.e., Viet- oped to support this national vision and nam War). strategy. Strategy represents an imple- • Cultural change impacts doctrine. mentation of doctrine; it is a guide to • New threats can impact doctrine. winning in combat. Doctrine provides a • New experiences can impact doc- foundation from which to address and trine. assess courses of action. • Old experiences can be reinter- preted and impact doctrine. Doctrinal Beginnings • New technology can impact doctrine. Doctrine was originally developed These factors not only influence doc- from a set of beliefs about how wars trine; they sometimes impact on the ap- should be conducted. As experiences plication of doctrine and strategy in developed using different strategies and specific situations. tactics, doctrine changed with it. Ex- perience is one of the major keys that led to statements of doctrine.

General Curtis LeMay, former CINCSAC, said:

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 19 communications, navigation, warning “At the very heart of war lies doc- and reconnaissance. trine. It represents the central beliefs for In the 1980s, space became incorpo- waging war in order to achieve victory. rated into doctrine and strategy. Many Doctrine is of the mind, a network of military thinkers knew that space was at faith and knowledge reinforced by ex- a similar stage to the first use of air- perience which lays the pattern for utili- power and that doctrine must be devel- zation of men, equipment, and tactics. It oped rapidly in order to take advantage is fundamental to sound judgment.” of this new dimension of warfare. General O’Malley, USAF Operations Although the US had used two atomic and Planning during that time, stated: weapons in the war against Japan, doctrine on exactly how to use this new “I believe the use of space by military weapon had not been fully developed. forces is at a point paralleling the posi- The doctrine of massive nuclear retalia- tions of air power after WW I…we must tion, symbol of the Cold War, had not apply the same considerations to space been “tested”, so doctrine in this regard systems as we do for other opera- was a belief about how nuclear weapons tions…and we must be prepared to pro- should be used. tect our vital interests in space as well as Following World War II, the Cold those in land, sea, and air.” War provided the US with its initial foray into international politics as the National space policy added a new leader of the Free World. The “Truman dimension to national military strategy. Doctrine” was dictated by the threat For the first time, space became a stan- from the communist World and focused dard tool in the hands of military strate- on surviving as a nation while containing gist; however, one in which no one had and, if necessary, defeating communism any experience in applying its capabili- worldwide. This fostered National Mili- ties. tary Strategy, a straightforward policy Many schools of thought therefore designed to preserve the US and its al- arose on how to apply space systems to lies. The strategy was simple: prevent military doctrine and strategy. At Air and deter an attack against the US and, if University, students formed study necessary, defeat an adversary using the groups on the use of space systems and strongest military power on earth. This various schools of thought emerged on particular policy served the US well for the value of space systems and how they 50 years. The doctrine during this pe- could be utilized. These various schools riod was also straightforward: massive of thought provided an intellectual nuclear retaliation, if necessary, against framework in the 1980s as a way to an adversary committed to doing the study the new space doctrine. It was same. meant to take a hard look at the beliefs At the height of the cold war, space that had been formulated initially, using systems came into existence, allowing air doctrine as a guide. the US and the Soviet Union to collect The four basic schools of thought that intelligence data on each other from the emerged were: realm of space. Space systems were initially developed to support the Cold War • Sanctuary. Viewed space systems nuclear deterrence strategy. National as being able to provide informa- space policy was developed as part of tion to the nation from the relative National Security Strategy with basically safety of space. the same aims of self-preservation, as- • Survivability. Determined space sured warning of enemy attack and systems were not inherently safe monitoring of nuclear arms treaties. and survivable and thus provided Space systems proliferated to include only limited safety. This view as-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 20 sumed that if an adversary attacked and Marine Corps have developed simi- our space systems, that we should lar concepts to support JV 2010.) retaliate in kind. The Gulf War not only saw the first • Control. Felt that space provided integrated use of air and space systems, extensive control over terrestrial but for the first time, the warfighter rec- operations, by providing a view ognized the contribution of space sys- that no other systems could pro- tems. Gen Thomas Moorman, former vide and that space systems could commander of AF Space Command, said be used to control both space and that the Gulf War was the “first space earth wars. war.” Space systems helped the war- • High Ground. Believed that future fighter maintain air supremacy, attack wars would be won or lost in space strategic and tactical targets, keep up because space systems could over- with enemy positions and movements come any advantages that ground and guide our forces across the trackless offensive systems possessed. desert. The doctrine of how we fight and The end of the Cold War brought integrate with other services and for the enormous changes to national security first time, other allies, some of whom strategy and national military strategy, as had never before been in our coalition, noted earlier. Under the national secu- brought forth some new doctrinal con- rity strategy at that time outlined by the cepts during the war. The result is that President as “Engagement and Enlarge- Air Force and Joint Doctrine has been ment,” the US would maintain a strong forever changed by the Gulf War and defense capability, promote cooperative must be redeveloped for future conflicts. security measures, work to open foreign We are on the ground floor of this markets, spur economic growth and change. promote democracy abroad. AFDD-1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine Air Force leadership responded by fo- for the USAF, is a starting point to learn cusing on how to support the nation in about doctrine and lists the basic tenets this new environment. The result was for air and space power. the Air Force’s strategic architecture for Along with the evolution of doctrine the 1990s entitled: “Global Reach - comes the evolution of manuals and Global Power.” This strategy identified regulations. In addition to AFDD-1, the what Air Force organization and mod- AF has published AFDD 2-2, Space Op- ernization priorities would be and pro- erations, which provides guidance for vided the template for restructuring the the use of space systems. Air Force in terms of sustaining readi- The mission of the Air Force has al- ness concurrent with force downsizing ways been control of the air or air supe- and new missions, including humanitar- riority. The newest mission statement ian ones. now shows that air and space are indi- While Global Reach - Global Power visible: was the Air Force strategy for identifying the capabilities that provided secu- “The mission of the Air Force is to rity for the nation in the early 1990s and defend the US through the control and supported the national security strategy, exploitation of air and space.” a further vision was needed which planned for well into the future. This Space must be controlled the same began with Joint Vision 2010, the JCS way that air is controlled to ensure free- Chairman’s vision for joint warfighting dom of action throughout the entire air- in the 21st century. The Air Force then space realm. These new concepts are developed its AF Vision 2025 to support incorporated into AFDD-1. the JV 2010 concepts. (The Army, Navy,

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 21 Joint Space Doctrine Publication 3-14 defines the use of space systems in joint operations but is still in The integration of air and space final draft and coordination. power, not only for Air Forces, but for Space operations offers continuous joint/allied forces in the Gulf War, led to global support, 24 hours a day. Space the beginning of Joint Space Doctrine and components can function across the full thinking on how to employ these new spectrum of conflict, from peace to war support assets. and can be quickly retasked to specific Recent experiences in operations like joint operations. Commanders can select JUST CAUSE, DESERT SHIELD/ those capabilities which best support DESERT STORM in Iraq and ALLIED their missions. FORCE in Kosovo have demonstrated In developing joint space doctrine, the need for joint space doctrine. Devel- planners must understand the capabilities oping joint space doctrine has now taken of US Space Command to support their on a high priority. Space offers several operations. (See Chapter 18 for a full roles in supporting joint operations: discussion of US Space organizations, their missions, and their capabilities.) • First, space is more than global in its You are already familiar with many environment. It is an “area” in of the systems under Space Force En- which military power can be pro- hancement as they serve you directly jected through terrestrial forces. (i.e., communications, navigation, • Second, these capabilities result weather, etc.). The other areas provide from technological advances which important benefits for the warfighter improve global command, control also. For example, space control ensures and communications. that our satellite systems are protected • Third, we need the ability to monitor from enemy attack and that we can ne- and respond to events worldwide. gate any attempt to destroy our systems. Space forces provide a continuous The joint operations planner must be global presence in that regard. aware of these capabilities and limita- • Fourth, the contribution of space tions. As another example, space forces forces to joint operations depends on may furnish the warfighter with missile people; both space and terrestrial warning information. However, the ter- warfighters. restrial commander must have the proper • Lastly, space forces can decrease the equipment to receive it, integrate it with fog of war to provide the warfighter other data from other assets and use it in with a clearer picture of the battle theater missile defense operations. Joint space. Information superiority men- operation planning for the use of space tioned earlier as part of Joint Vision assets is at an infant stage. Additionally, 2010 does just that. there are several issues which impact on how space assets may be used, primarily Space is the fourth operating medium, from the political realm. a region where, according to General Several integrated wargames have Estes, former USCINCSPACE, unique been (and continue to be) conducted to capabilities offer a tremendous force focus on developing joint doctrine for multiplier and potential for independent space operations. The following two force applications. Joint space doctrine issues are the major themes that domi- can provide both the principles and a nated the wargames under the important common framework for comprehending area of space control: and integrating space capabilities. Joint space doctrine will allow joint • Political constraints pervade the commanders and their planners to under- conduct of counterspace opera- stand space as an aggregate of capabili- tions. ties rather than as a single asset. Joint

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 22 • Protecting space assets is a diffi- Force as the premier service with regard cult problem. to space. It stated: The Air Force was responsible for The wargames determined that na- developing space forces, operational tional command authorities have been concepts, and employment tactics for the directly involved in a great many deci- unified and specified commands (this sions in space control and operations that was three years before the establishment terrestrial commanders often have con- of a separate unified command for space, trol over in ground battle situations. US Space Command), for the manage- Protection of space assets and negation ment of space operations including of enemy assets are prime considerations launch, command and control, and on- which give high-level decision makers orbit sustainment of military space assets concern over escalating wartime opera- for the DOD, NASA, and other govern- tions. Coupled with this issue is the ment agencies and branches, and for general fact that most political leaders promoting advanced technologies in have a lack of knowledge and experience order to develop the space force struc- with space systems and capabilities in- ture of the future. volved. AFM 1-6 never gained the wide ac- The second major issue is that of pro- ceptance necessary to institutionalize tecting our space assets. Often when space doctrine, primarily because it space systems fail, it cannot be readily failed to incorporate the historical ex- determined if it was a design failure, a perience gained in other military envi- cosmic event or a deliberate attack by a ronments which might be relevant to terrestrial enemy. Again political lead- space. The resultant doctrine was highly ers are often unwilling to make any deci- constrained by the policy of the time, sion which may escalate the situation nor rather than a clear articulation of “the are they willing to attack an adversary’s best way to conduct military affairs” in space assets as a starting point. space. The manual was rescinded in The wargames also showed that a de- September 1990, in conjunction with a termined adversary could develop very complete update of the hierarchy and damaging offensive capabilities against content of all Air Force doctrine. How- satellite systems in less time than we ever, it was successful in increasing the could develop effective defenses. awareness of space operations and the These issues have a definite impact potential of space throughout the Air on development of joint and service doc- Force during the eight years of its exis- trine on the use of space systems and tence. must be taken into consideration. Current Air Force practice is to fully incorporate space into a single basic Air Force Space Doctrine doctrinal manual for both air and space, AF Doctrine Document 1, Basic Aero- The Air Force did not have a space space Doctrine of the United States Air doctrine until October 1982, when it Force, and to promote detailed space published Air Force Manual (AFM) 1-6, doctrine through AFDD 2-2, Space Op- Military Space Doctrine. AFM 1-6 erations. The purpose is to recognize clearly reflected the changing emphasis space forces as an immature but ulti- on the military use of space: it recog- mately equal partner with air forces in nized the inherent benefits to be gained the efficient employment of aerospace by any nation choosing to exploit the power. Together, these two manuals military advantages of space and char- articulate space doctrine at the strategic tered the Air Force “to provide forces for and operational levels of war. (AFDD 1 controlling space operations and gaining and AFDD 2-2 were published in August and maintaining space superiority.” The 1998.) manual also sought to establish the Air

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 23 Air Force space doctrine rests on four operations. During this progres- fundamental premises: sion into space, no reasons have been found to question these prin- • The focus of armed conflict will ciples, nor have any further princi- remain on the earth’s surface for ples been discovered. the foreseeable future. Although the capabilities of space forces to The Air Force space doctrine builds influence the terrestrial battlefield on these premises along with the charac- are growing and actual conflict teristics of space forces and the space will probably occur in space environment. The general mission areas someday, the terrestrial-based gov- are; space control, force application, ernments or other entities that force enhancement and space support to command these forces are the ul- develop operational-level employment timate focus of the conflict. Mili- principles for those forces. It also rec- tary force is used (in space or ognizes and articulates both the similari- elsewhere) to cause these govern- ties and the differences between air and ments or entities to alter their poli- space forces. As the Air Force moves cies and actions. towards the concept of integrated aero- • Space doctrine must be minimally space power, a clear grasp of the differ- constrained by current policy. In- ences between the two becomes more stead, it articulates what is be- important. Some of the employment lieved to be long-lasting principles principles for space forces are similar to about the best way to conduct mili- those for air forces, but others are quite tary affairs. The doctrine and pol- different. Among the employment prin- icy are used together to derive the ciples for space forces are: military strategies and rules of engagement employed during com- • Gain and maintain control of bat. space. With control of space, • Space doctrine must anticipate the friendly space forces, acting either future. This is true of all military as a force enhancer or force ap- doctrine but is particularly neces- plier, can help put enemy forces sary for space for at least three rea- on the defensive, disrupt opera- sons. First, US military experience tions and even cause enemy forces in space is very limited, and there to suffer significant losses. Con- is little choice but to anticipate fu- trol of space enhances and, in the ture operations. Second, the rate future, may even secure freedom of space technology development of action for friendly forces in all is extremely rapid, and publishing geographical environments and doctrine strictly for today’s sys- preserve for them the advantage tems and operational concepts of tactical surprise. would quickly leave an obsolete • Centralize control, decentralize doctrine. Third, one of the funda- execution. Space forces must be mental purposes of doctrine is to organized to achieve the concen- guide the development of future tration, direction and focus re- forces. If the US fails to anticipate quired to achieve decisive results. the future, the risk will be fielding This is best accomplished through the same unimproved space sys- a single commander for space tems indefinitely. forces with responsibility and au- • The principles of war: mass, objec- thority to prosecute the space tive, surprise, maneuver, the offen- campaign. Opportunities for de- sive, simplicity, unity of command, centralized mission execution are economy of force, and security ap- somewhat limited today but, in ply fully and completely to space the future, will more fully allow

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 24 subordinate commanders to draw the two manuals together is to describe on their own ingenuity and initia- in some detail how the Air Force can use tive to accomplish campaign ob- space systems and the space environ- jectives. ment effectively to perform or support • Attack the enemy’s centers of all of its missions and tasks. gravity. A military center of grav- Air Force doctrine is currently being ity is a characteristic, capability, revised to include space, because there or locality from which a force de- are operational gaps in existing doctrine rives its freedom of action, physi- concerning space employment. Addi- cal strength, or will to fight. For tionally, the vision for the future sees the present, space forces assist ter- new and emerging missions for which restrial forces who attack tradi- we must rely on space systems to sustain tional centers of gravity in the us. Lessons learned from recent crises future, space forces will have and new technologies all contribute to more direct space control and the development of Air Force space doc- force application combat roles. trine and the integration of that doctrine • Seize the initiative. Initiative al- into the joint process. lows commanders to dictate the We have already seen that the Air timing and tempo of operations Force of the future will depend on six and exploit the capabilities of Core Competencies that will enable us to space forces to the maximum ex- fulfill the mission and how those Core tent possible. By controlling tim- Competencies fit into the Chairman’s ing and tempo, the space forces Joint Vision. The Core Competencies commander can dominate the ac- will meld with the basic aerospace tenets tion, remain unpredictable, create (found in AFDD 1) to form future vision uncertainty in the enemy com- and doctrine. It is therefore important mander’s mind, and operate be- that you understand doctrine and these yond the enemy’s ability to react future concepts. effectively. • Maintain sufficient reserves. General Howard Estes, former Space forces commanders, in par- USCINCSPACE, stated: ticular, should consider carefully what level of reserve capability is “We are the world’s most successful appropriate. They must consider space-faring nation. We are also the ongoing and continuous space op- world’s most space-dependent nation, erations, as well as unanticipated thereby making us vulnerable to hostile future requirements. Moreover, groups or powers seeking to disrupt our forces held in reserve can have a access to, and use of space. In purely dramatic effect when committed military terms, the national dependence at times and places such that they on space based systems equates to a produce significant changes in the vulnerability. History shows that vulner- space or terrestrial battle. abilities are eventually exploited by adversaries, so the US must be prepared to Space doctrine is concerned with the defend those systems.” preparation and employment of space forces. Proper training and equipping of The responsibilities of the Air Force forces is a subject of both AFDD 1 and in space include a large and growing AFDD 2-2. AFDD 2-2 provides space number of functions that contribute to doctrine down to the level of the space the defense of the United States. Space campaign, giving guidance for each of operations are important elements of a the space mission areas, in turn, from the credible deterrent to armed conflict. perspective of the operational space They have proven their value in helping forces commander. The overall effect of to resolve conflicts on terms acceptable

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 25 to the United States by providing various kinds of information and support to military forces and national decision makers. In the future, space systems will provide the decisive edge in countering threats to US national interests. The Air Force regards military operations in space as being among its prime national security responsibilities and conducts these operations according to the letter and spirit of existing treaties and international law. In response to national direction, the Air Force ensures freedom of access to space for peaceful pursuits and uses space systems to perform unique, economical, and effective functions to enhance the nation’s land, sea and air forces. As the Air Force space program has matured over a period of nearly four decades, Air Force policy and doctrine have reflected ever increasing roles and responsibilities and have particularly expanded their emphasis on space as a warfighting medium wherein the full spectrum of military conflict may, and eventually will, take place.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 26 Table 5-1

International Treaties1, Agreements and Conventions that Limit Military Activities in Space

Agreement Principle/Constraint United Nations Charter Made applicable to space by the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. (1947) Prohibits states from threatening to use, or actually using, force against the territorial integrity or political independence of another state (Article 2(4)).

Recognizes a state’s inherent right to act in individual or collective self-defense when attacked. Customary international law recognizes a broader right to self-defense, one that does not require a state to wait until it is actually attacked before responding. This right to act preemptively is known as the right of anticipatory self-defense (Article 51). Limited Test Ban Treaty Bans nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, in outer space, and (1963) underwater.

States may not conduct nuclear weapon tests or other nuclear explosions (i.e., peaceful nuclear explosions) in outer space or assist or encourage others to conduct such tests or explosions Article I ). Outer Space Treaty Outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is free (l967) for use by all states (Article I).

Outer space and celestial bodies are not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, use, occupation, or other means (Article II).

Space activities shall be conducted in accordance with international law, including the UN Charter (Article III).

The Moon and other celestial bodies are to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes (Article IV).

Nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction (such as chemical and biological weapons) may not be placed in orbit, installed on celestial bodies, or stationed in space in any other manner (Article IV).

A state may not conduct military maneuvers, establish military bases, fortifications or installations: or test any type of weapon on celestial bodies. Use of military personnel for scientific research or other peaceful purpose is permitted (Article IV).

Table 5-1 – (Continued)

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 27

Agreement Principle/Constraint Outer Space Treaty States are responsible for governmental and private space (l967) activities, and must supervise and regulate private activities (Article VI). States are internationally liable for damage to another state (and its citizens) caused by its space objects (including privately owned ones) (Article VII). States retain jurisdiction and control over space objects while they are in space or on celestial bodies (Article VIII). States must conduct international consultations before proceeding with activities that would cause potentially harmful interference with activities of other parties (Article IX). States must carry out their use and exploration of space in such a way as to avoid harmful contamination of outer space, the Moon, and other celestial bodies, as well as to avoid the introduction of extraterrestrial matter that could adversely affect the environment of the Earth (Article IX). Stations, installations, equipment, and space vehicles on the Moon and other celestial bodies are open to inspection by other countries on a basis of reciprocity (Article XII).

Agreement on the Rescue and Return of Astronauts and Objects launched into Outer Space (1968)

Expands on the language of Article V of the Outer Space Treaty which declares astronauts are to be regarded as “Envoys of Mankind” and be rendered “all possible assistance.”

It calls for a state in which a spacecraft crashes or a state operating in space that is in a position to assist astronauts in distress to conduct rescue operations (if it is a manned craft) and to speedily return astronauts to the launching state. Hardware need only be returned to the launching state upon request, and need not be returned promptly.

Antiballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty between the US and USSR (1972)

Prohibits development, testing, or deployment of space-based ABM systems or components (Article V). Prohibits deployment of ABM systems or components except as authorized in the treaty (Article I). Prohibits interference with the national technical means a party uses to verify compliance with the treaty (Article XII).

Table 5-1 – (Continued)

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 28

Agreement Principle/Constraint

Liability Convention A launching state is absolutely liable for damage by its (1972) space object to people or property on the Earth or in its atmosphere (Article II). Liability for damage caused elsewhere than on Earth to another state’s space object, or to persons or property on board such a space object, is determined by fault (Article III).

Convention on Registration Requires a party to maintain a registry of objects it launches into (1974) Earth orbit or beyond (Article II).

Information of each registered object must be furnished to the UN as soon as practical, including basic orbital parameters and general function of the object (Article IV).

Environmental Modification Prohibits military or other hostile use of environmental Convention (1980) modification techniques as a means of destruction, damage, or injury to any other state if such use has widespread, long-lasting, or severe effects (Article I).

Notes: 1 Text and information on these treaties and agreements can be found at www.un.org. See the section on International Law , Treaties at http://untreaty.un.org/English/treaty.asp. Another great reference is the Archimedes Space Law and Policy Library at http://www.permanent.com/archimedes/LawLibrary.html.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 29 REFERENCES

A National Security Strategy for a New Century, The White House, Oct 98.

A National Security Strategy of Engagement and Enlargement, The White House, Feb 96.

Air Force Doctrine Document 1, Basic Aerospace Doctrine of the USAF, Sep 97.

Air Force Doctrine Document 2-2, Space Operations, 27 Nov 01.

AFPD 90-1, Strategic Planning and Policy Formulation, 8 Sep 1993.

AF Vision 2025 (http://www.af.mil/)

Air Command and Staff College, Space Handbook (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, Jan 1985).

AU-18 Space Handbook, A War Fighter’s Guide to Space, Air University Air Command and Staff College, Vol One, Chapter 2, Dec 1993.

Christol, Carl Q. “Space Law: Justice for the New Frontier.” Sky & Telescope. Nov 1984.

Defense Science and Technology Strategy, Sep 94.

Department of Defense, Department of Defense Space Policy (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 10 Mar 1987).

Department of Defense, Department of Defense Space Policy (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 9 Jul 1999).

Global Engagement: A Vision for the 21st Century.

Global Vigilance, Reach and Power (The New Vision for the 21st Century Air Force).

Interview with Maj Keith Sorge. Hq Air Force Space Command JAG. 25 Jun 96.

Interview with Larry Gear, Joint Space Intelligence Operations Course. 26 Jun 96.

Joint Vision 2010, USSPACECOM. http://www.spacecom.af.mil/usspace/

Joint Vision 2020, JCS. (http://www.dtic.mil/jv2020)

Lupton, Lt Col (USAF, Ret.) David E., On Space Warfare: A Space Power Doctrine (Maxwell AFB, AL.: Air University Press, Jun 1988).

National Military Strategy of the United States of America, 1995.

National Military Strategy: “Shape, Respond, Prepare Now – A Military Strategy for a New Era.” Jan 99, CJCS. http://www.dtic.mil/jcs/nms

National Space Policy, Fact sheet, National Science and Technology Council, 19 Sep 96.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 30

NSTC-1, Establishment of Presidential Review and Decision Series, NSTC, 25 Jan 94.

NSTC-2, Convergence of US Polar Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite Systems, 5 May 94.

NSTC-3, Landsat Remote Sensing Strategy, 5 May 94.

NSTC-4, National Space Transportation Policy, 5 Aug 94.

Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), William S. Cohen, SECDEF, Feb 99. (http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/qdr/msg.html)

Reynolds, Glenn H. and Robert P. Merges. Outer Space, Problems of Law and Policy, second edition, Westview Press, 1997. Shelton, General Henry H., Chairman, JCS, Posture Statement before the 106th Congress, House Armed Services Committee, US House of Representatives, 2 Feb 99. (http://www.dtic.mil/)

Spradling, Maj Kevin, “Space Law, International Law and Domestic Space Law” (Unpublished paper, Air Force Space Command, 1991).

US Department of State Dispatch. 10 Aug 92. Vol 3. No 32.

White House Fact Sheet, “US National Space Policy,” Washington, DC, Office of the White House Press Secretary, 16 Nov 1989.

White House Fact Sheet, “Commercial Space Launch Policy,” Washington, DC, Office of the White House Press Secretary, 5 Sep 1990.

Wolf, Capt James R., “Toward Operational-Level Doctrine for Space: A Progress Report,’ Air- power Journal 5, no. 2 (Summer 1991).

www.state.gov/www/global/arms/bureau_ac/treaties_ac.html

www.spacewar.com/abmdaily.html

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 5 - 31 1 2 3 4 Department of Defense DIRECTIVE

NUMBER 3100.10 July 9, 1999

ASD(C3I) SUBJECT: Space Policy

References: (a) PDD-NSC-49/NSTC-8, "National Space Policy (U)," September 14, 1996 (b) Secretary of Defense Memorandum, "Department of Defense Space Policy" (U), February 4, 1987 (hereby canceled) (c) DoD Directive 3500.1, "Defense Space Council," December 29, 1988 (hereby canceled) (d) The White House, "A National Security Strategy for a New Century," October 1998 (e) through (nn), see enclosure 1

1. PURPOSE

This Directive:

1.1. Establishes policy and assigns responsibilities for space and space-related matters within the Department of Defense.

1.2. Implements reference (a), supersedes references (b) and (c), and supports and amplifies references (a) and (d) through (nn).

1.3. Authorizes publication of additional DoD issuances consistent with this Directive and references (a) and (d) through (nn).

2. APPLICABILITY AND SCOPE

2.1. This Directive applies to the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Military Departments (including the Coast Guard when it is operating as a Military Service in

5 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999 the Department of the Navy), the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Combatant Commands, the Inspector General of the Department of Defense, the Defense Agencies, and the DoD Field Activities (hereafter referred to collectively as "the DoD Components"). The term "Military Services," as used herein, refers to the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Marine Corps.

2.2. The scope of this Directive includes the policy, requirements generation, planning, financial management, research, development, testing, evaluation, acquisition, education, training, doctrine, exercise, operation, employment, and oversight of space and space-related activities within the Department of Defense.

3. DEFINITIONS

Terms used in this Directive are defined in enclosure 2.

4. POLICY

It is DoD policy that:

4.1. Space is a medium like the land, sea, and air within which military activities shall be conducted to achieve U.S. national security objectives. The ability to access and utilize space is a vital national interest because many of the activities conducted in the medium are critical to U.S. national security and economic well-being.

4.2. Ensuring the freedom of space and protecting U.S. national security interests in the medium are priorities for space and space-related activities. U.S. space systems are national property afforded the right of passage through and operations in space without interference, in accordance with reference (a).

4.2.1. Purposeful interference with U.S. space systems will be viewed as an infringement on our sovereign rights. The U.S. may take all appropriate self-defense measures, including, if directed by the National Command Authorities (NCA), the use of force, to respond to such an infringement on U.S. rights.

4.3. The primary DoD goal for space and space-related activities is to provide operational space force capabilities to ensure that the United States has the space power to achieve its national security objectives, in accordance with reference (d). Contributing goals include sustaining a robust U.S. space industry and a strong, forward-looking technology base.

6 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

4.3.1. Space activities shall contribute to the achievement of U.S. national security objectives, in accordance with reference (a), by:

4.3.1.1. Providing support for the United States' inherent right of self-defense and defense commitments to allies and friends.

4.3.1.2. Assuring mission capability and access to space.

4.3.1.3. Deterring, warning, and, if necessary, defending against enemy attack.

4.3.1.4. Ensuring that hostile forces cannot prevent the United States' use of space.

4.3.1.5. Ensuring the United States' ability to conduct military and intelligence space and space-related activities.

4.3.1.6. Enhancing the operational effectiveness of U.S. and allied forces.

4.3.1.7. Countering, if necessary, space systems and services used for hostile purposes.

4.3.1.8. Satisfying military and intelligence requirements during peace and crisis as well as through all levels of conflict.

4.3.1.9. Supporting the activities of national policy-makers, the Intelligence Community, the NCA, Combatant Commanders and the Military Services, other Federal officials, and continuity of Government operations.

4.4. Mission Areas. Capabilities necessary to conduct the space support, force enhancement, space control, and force application mission areas shall be assured and integrated into an operational space force structure that is sufficiently robust, ready, secure, survivable, resilient, and interoperable to meet the needs of the NCA, Combatant Commanders, Military Services, and intelligence users across the conflict spectrum.

4.5. Assured Mission Support. The availability of critical space capabilities necessary for executing national security missions shall be assured, in accordance with references (a) and (e) through (h). Such support shall be considered and implemented at all stages of requirements generation, system planning, development, acquisition,

7 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999 operation, and support. Assured mission capability shall be assessed and taken into account in determining tradeoffs among cost, performance, resilience, lifetime, protection, survivability, and related factors. Access to space, robust satellite control, effective surveillance of space, timely constellation replenishment/reconstitution, space system protection, and related information assurance, access to critical electromagnetic frequencies, critical asset protection, critical infrastructure protection, force protection, and continuity of operations shall be ensured to satisfy the needs of the NCA, Combatant Commanders, Military Services, and the intelligence users across the conflict spectrum.

4.6. Planning. Planning for space and space-related activities shall focus on improving the conduct of national security space operations, assuring mission support, and enhancing support to military operations and other national security objectives. Such planning shall also identify missions, functions, and tasks that could be performed more efficiently and effectively by space forces than terrestrial alternatives.

4.6.1. Long-range planning objectives for space capabilities are to:

4.6.1.1. Ensure U.S. leadership through revolutionary technological approaches in critical areas.

4.6.1.2. Develop a responsive, customer-focused architecture that simplifies operations and use.

4.6.1.3. Ensure civil and commercial capabilities are used to the maximum extent feasible and practical (including the use of allied and friendly capabilities, as appropriate), consistent with national security requirements.

4.6.1.4. Provide assured, cost-effective, responsive access to space.

4.6.1.5. Contribute to a comprehensive command, control, communications, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance architecture that integrates space, airborne, land, and maritime assets.

4.6.1.6. Ensure space systems are seamlessly integrated within a globally accessible and secure information infrastructure.

4.6.1.7. Provide appropriate national security space services and information to the intelligence, civil, commercial, scientific, and international communities.

8 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

4.6.1.8. Provide space control capabilities consistent with Presidential policy as well as U.S. and applicable international law.

4.6.1.9. Protect national security space systems to ensure mission execution.

4.6.1.10. Explore force application concepts, doctrine, and technologies consistent with Presidential policy as well as U.S. and applicable international law.

4.6.1.11. Promote a trained, space-literate national security workforce able to utilize fully space capabilities for the full spectrum of national security operations.

4.6.2. Architectures. An integrated national security space architecture, including space, ground, and communications link segments, as well as user interfaces and equipment, shall be developed to the maximum extent feasible. Such an integrated architecture shall address defense and intelligence missions and activities to eliminate unnecessary vertical stove-piping of programs, minimize unnecessary duplication of missions and functions, achieve efficiencies in acquisition and future operations, provide strategies for transitioning from existing architectures, and thereby improve support to military operations and other national security objectives.

4.6.2.1. Space architectures shall be structured to take full advantage, as appropriate, of defense, intelligence, civil, commercial, allied, and friendly space capabilities. Such architectures shall also include, as appropriate, system, operational, and technical architecture descriptions. Joint technical standards drawn from widely accepted commercial standards, consistent with national security requirements, shall provide the basis for new system integration where appropriate. Appropriate interoperability and standards mandates shall be observed to enable the interoperability of space services.

4.6.2.2. Space architectures should be designed for appropriate levels of mission optimization, availability, and survivability in all aspects of on-orbit configurations and associated infrastructure. Planning shall emphasize the need for responsiveness and the elimination of vulnerabilities that could prevent mission accomplishment.

4.7. Augmentation. Requirements, arrangements, and procedures, including cost sharing and reciprocity arrangements, for augmentation of the space force structure by civil, commercial, allied, and friendly space systems shall be identified in

9 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999 coordination with the Director of Central Intelligence, as appropriate, and shall be planned and implemented in accordance with reference (a).

4.8. Mobilization and Preparedness. Space forces and their supporting industrial base shall be integrated into the defense mobilization planning process. Specific programs, facilities, and personnel shall be identified and incorporated into relevant critical assets and items lists, in accordance with references (e), (g), (i) and (j).

4.9. Support to Commercial Space Activities. Stable and predictable U.S. private sector access to appropriate DoD space-related hardware, facilities, and data shall be facilitated consistent with national security requirements, in accordance with references (a) and (k). The U.S. Government's right to use such hardware, facilities, and data on a priority basis to meet national security and critical civil sector requirements shall be preserved.

4.10. Translating Operational Needs into Programs. Space programs and activities shall be responsive to mission area shortfalls, validated operational needs, and operational requirements. Requirements, resources, and acquisition activities, where applicable, shall be documented in the requirements generation system, the acquisition management system, and the planning, programming, and budgeting system. Space shall be considered as a medium for conducting any operation where mission success and effectiveness would be enhanced relative to other media.

4.10.1. Cost as an Independent Variable. Cost, as an independent variable, shall be applied in all architecture development processes to ensure requiring organizations understand cost drivers and weigh all requirements against their associated costs.

4.10.2. Acquisition. Acquisition strategies shall usually include: an overview of the system's capabilities and concept of operations desired for the full system; a flexible overall architecture, which includes a process for change; an emphasis on open systems design, flexible technology insertion, and rigorous technology demonstrations; rapid achievement of incremental capability in response to time-phased statements of operational requirements; and close and frequent communications with users. At program initiation, the acquisition strategy submitted for the cognizant acquisition authority's approval shall describe whether an evolutionary approach is appropriate, and, if so, how the program manager will implement the approach. Progression to an additional level of capability beyond the first increment requires the cognizant acquisition authority's approval and shall be based on a review of evolving requirements and technology development.

10 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

4.10.3. Preference for Commercial Acquisition. Lengthy mission specifications shall be balanced against opportunities for technology insertion, taking into consideration commercial-off-the-shelf solutions for national security items, non-developmental items, and national security adaptations of commercial items. Acquisition of national security-unique systems shall not be authorized, in general, unless suitable and adaptable commercial alternatives are not available. Such cooperation should be based on the principles of reciprocity and tangible mutual benefits and should be pursued in a manner that reasonably protects and balances U.S. national security and economic interests.

4.10.4. Science and Technology. Leading-edge technologies that address identified mission area deficiencies shall be investigated. Investments for such technology shall feature a suitable mix of theoretical research and scientific exploration and applications which support the joint vision for military operations and other national security objectives.

4.10.5. Demonstration and Experimentation. Technology applications that address mission area deficiencies shall be demonstrated. Such demonstrations shall involve both the developmental and operational elements of the DoD Components and shall be pursued to identify the value of emerging technology to the warfighter and the national security community.

4.10.6. Research and Development. Commercial systems and technologies shall be leveraged and exploited whenever possible. Research and development investments shall focus on unique national security requirements which have no known potential, or insufficient potential, for civil or commercial sector exploitation or which require protection from disclosure. Forecasts of long-term needs shall guide investments using sound business criteria to ensure they have reasonable internal rates of return compared with alternatives.

4.10.7. Test and Evaluation. Test and evaluation programs shall be structured to provide essential information to decision-makers, assess attainment of technical performance parameters, and determine whether systems are operationally effective, suitable, and survivable for intended use. Operational test and evaluation activities shall plan and conduct operational tests, report results, and provide evaluations of effectiveness and suitability.

4.10.8. Modeling and Simulation. Models and simulations shall be used to reduce the time, resources, and risks of the acquisition process and increase the quality of the systems being acquired. Space capabilities and applications shall be integrated

11 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999 into campaign-level and other models and simulations. Models and simulations shall focus on demonstrating the military worth and other value of both friendly and adversary space capabilities and applications to mission accomplishment.

4.10.9. Sustainment. Production procurement decisions for space systems shall be based on careful analysis of the advantages of multi-year procurements and high order quantity buys against the disadvantage of technology obsolescence, threat changes, and cost to store and maintain launch readiness of satellites. For a given satellite program, such sustainment acquisitions shall store no more than the number of satellites authorized for the particular constellation plus adequate attrition reserves. Production rate decisions shall be based on retention of critical industrial base and space system readiness maintenance.

4.10.10. Partnerships with Industry. Partnerships with industry shall be pursued to research, develop, acquire, and sustain space systems and associated infrastructure.

4.10.11. Outsourcing and Privatization. Opportunities to outsource or privatize space and space-related functions and tasks, which could be performed more efficiently and effectively by the private sector, shall be investigated aggressively, consistent with the need to protect national security and public safety. Clear lines of accountability to Combatant Commanders shall be demonstrated and documented in the employment of such resources.

4.10.12. Electromagnetic Spectrum Management. Assured access to the electromagnetic spectrum is a critical factor in spacecraft system design, acquisition, and operations and shall be an important consideration in the development and procurement of a space system. Electromagnetic spectrum for space systems, once chosen, shall be legally authorized for use in accordance with references (l) and (m) as well as national and applicable international policies.

4.11. Operations. Space capabilities shall be operated and employed to: assure access to and use of space; deter and, if necessary, defend against hostile actions; ensure that hostile forces cannot prevent U.S. use of space; ensure the United States' ability to conduct military and intelligence space and space-related activities; enhance the operational effectiveness of U.S., allied, and friendly forces; and counter, when directed, space systems and services used for hostile purposes.

12 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

4.11.1. Integration. Space capabilities and applications shall be integrated into the strategy, doctrine, concepts of operations, education, training, exercises, and operations and contingency plans of U.S. military forces. Space support to the lowest appropriate level, including the lowest tactical level, shall be emphasized and optimized to ensure that all echelons of command understand and exploit fully the operational advantages which space systems provide, understand their operational limitations, and effectively use space capabilities for joint and combined operations.

4.11.2. Education, Training, and Exercises. Information about space force structure, missions, capabilities, and applications shall be incorporated into Professional Military Education as well as Joint and Service training and exercises to provide appropriately educated and trained personnel to all levels of joint and component military staffs and forces. Space missions and capabilities, the ability to operate under foreign surveillance or against an adversary enhanced by space capabilities, and the ability to compensate for capability loss shall be integrated into appropriate Joint and Service exercises.

4.11.3. National Guard and Reserve Forces. A total force approach shall be used in structuring and resourcing space force capabilities and ensuring interoperability among active, National Guard, and Reserve forces.

4.11.4. Military Personnel-in-Space. The unique capabilities that can be derived from the presence of humans in space may be utilized to the extent feasible and practical to perform in-space research, development, testing, and evaluation as well as enhance existing and future national security space missions. This may include exploration of military roles for humans in space focusing on unique or cost-effective contributions to operational missions.

4.11.5. Space Debris. The creation of space debris shall be minimized, in accordance with reference (a). Design and operation of space tests, experiments, and systems shall strive to minimize or reduce the accumulation of such debris consistent with mission requirements and cost effectiveness.

4.11.6. Spacecraft End-of-Life. Spacecraft disposal at the end of mission life shall be planned for programs involving on-orbit operations. Spacecraft disposal shall be accomplished by atmospheric reentry, direct retrieval, or maneuver to a storage orbit to minimize or reduce the impact on future space operations.

13 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

4.11.7. Spaceflight Safety. All DoD activities to, in, through, or from space, or aimed above the horizon with the potential to inadvertently and adversely affect satellites or humans in space, shall be conducted in a safe and responsible manner that protects space systems, their mission effectiveness, and humans in space, consistent with national security requirements. Such activities shall be coordinated with U.S. Space Command, as appropriate, for predictive avoidance or deconfliction with U.S., friendly, and other space operations.

4.11.8. Nuclear Power Sources in Space. Space nuclear reactors shall not be used in Earth orbit without the approval of the President or his designee, in accordance with references (a) and (n). Requests for such approval shall take into account public safety, economic considerations, treaty obligations, and U.S. national security and foreign policy interests.

4.12. Intersector Cooperation. Enhanced cooperation with the intelligence, civil, and commercial space sectors shall be pursued to ensure that all U.S. space sectors benefit from the space technologies, facilities, and support services available to the nation. Such cooperation shall share or reduce costs, minimize redundant capabilities, minimize duplication of missions and functions, achieve efficiencies in acquisition and future operations, improve support to military operations, and sustain a robust U.S. space industry and a strong, forward-looking space technology base. Improvement of the coordination and, as appropriate, integration of defense and intelligence space activities shall be a priority. Procedures shall be established for the timely transfer of DoD-developed space technology to the private sector consistent with the need to protect national security, in accordance with reference (a).

4.13. International Cooperation. International cooperation and partnerships in space activities shall be pursued with the United States' allies and friends to the maximum extent feasible, in accordance with reference (a), Section 104(e) of reference (o) and references (p) through (s). Such cooperation shall forge closer security ties with U.S. allies and friends, enhance mutual and collective defense capabilities, and strengthen U.S. economic security. It shall also strengthen alliance structures, improve interoperability between U.S. and allied forces, and enable them to operate in a combined environment in a more efficient and effective manner. Such cooperation shall be based on the principles of reciprocity and tangible, mutual benefit and shall take into consideration U.S. equities from a broad foreign policy perspective. Such cooperation shall be pursued in a manner, which protects both U.S. national security and economic security and is consistent with U.S. arms control, nonproliferation, export control, and foreign policies.

14 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

4.14. Intelligence Support. A high priority shall be placed on the collection, analysis, and timely dissemination of intelligence information to support space and space-related policy-making, requirements generation, research, development, testing, evaluation, acquisition, operations, and employment. Requirements for such intelligence support shall be identified, prioritized, and submitted through established processes to produce timely, useful intelligence products, in accordance with reference (t).

4.15. Arms Control and Related Activities. Space and space-related activities shall comply with applicable presidential policies as well as applicable domestic and international law. Space forces planning shall include the provision of appropriate responses to possible breakouts from existing arms control treaties and agreements. The President shall be advised on the military significance of potential space arms control agreements and other related measures being considered for international implementation. Positions and policies regarding arms control and related activities shall preserve the rights of the United States to conduct research, development, testing, and operations in space for military, intelligence, civil, and commercial purposes, in accordance with reference (a).

4.16. Nonproliferation and Export Controls. The Missile Technology Control Regime is the primary tool of U.S. missile nonproliferation policy, in accordance with references (a) and (u). Space systems, technology, and information that could be used in a manner detrimental to U.S. national security interests shall be protected. Measures shall be taken to protect technologies, methodologies, information, and overall system capabilities and vulnerabilities, which sustain advantages in space capabilities and continued technological advancements. Measures shall also be taken to maintain appropriate controls over those technologies, methodologies, information, and capabilities, which could be sold or transferred to foreign recipients. Other countries' practices, U.S. foreign policy objectives, and encouragement of free and fair trade in commercial space activities shall be taken into account when considering whether to enter into space-related agreements.

4.17. Trade in Space Goods and Services. The national security implications of decisions related to the trade of U.S.-manufactured space goods and services, as well as frequency spectrum and landing rights, shall be identified and assessed. Such decisions shall seek to balance concerns about the proliferation of critical technologies and information with national security space applications and the interests of the U.S. space industry and U.S. foreign policy.

15 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

4.17.1. The commercial value of intellectual property developed with U.S. Government support shall be protected. Technology transfers resulting from international cooperation shall not undermine national security or industrial competitiveness, in accordance with reference (a).

4.17.2. Foreign military sales of U.S. space hardware, software, and related technologies may be used to enhance security relationships with strategically important countries subject to overall U.S. Government policy guidelines.

4.18. Security. Security measures shall be implemented to protect all classified aspects of space and space-related activities, in accordance with references (a) and (v) through (x) and other applicable security directives. Space missions shall be conducted in a manner intended to prevent unauthorized knowledge of and use of capabilities for countering specific missions or systems. The status and capabilities of on-orbit and terrestrial elements of the space force structure, deployment and replenishment strategies, planned, programmed, and operational objectives, and launch dates shall be classified, as appropriate, taking into account the value of needed protection for national security interests as compared with the public interests that would be served by release of such information. Technology transfer, including the direct or indirect sharing of information and resources with foreign governments or foreign-owned or -controlled contractors, shall be subject to reference (x) and other relevant security policies.

4.19. Public Affairs. Public affairs activities shall be conducted to provide general information to the public about space and space-related activities consistent with the need to protect national security information. Publication of unclassified information about the contributions of space forces to national security and other national interests shall be encouraged. Specific guidance for public affairs release shall be structured, as necessary, to protect the identity, mission, and associated operations of classified space and space-related activities.

5. RESPONSIBILITIES

Consistent with Section 105 of reference (o) and reference (y):

5.1. The Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (ASD(C3I)), in accordance with reference (z), shall:

16 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

5.1.1. Serve as the principal staff assistant and advisor to the Secretary and Deputy Secretary of Defense and focal point within the Department of Defense for space and space-related activities.

5.1.2. Develop, coordinate, and oversee the implementation of policies regarding space and space-related activities and, in coordination with the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, ensure that space policy decisions are closely integrated with overall national security policy considerations.

5.1.3. Oversee the development and execution of space and space-related architectures, acquisition, and technology programs, in coordination, as appropriate, with the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology.

5.1.4. Oversee the Director of the National Security Agency's compliance with this Directive in accordance with reference (aa).

5.1.5. Oversee the Director of the Defense Intelligence Agency's compliance with this Directive in accordance with references (bb) and (cc).

5.1.6. Oversee the Director of the National Reconnaissance Office's management and execution of the National Reconnaissance Program to meet the U.S. Government's needs through the research, development, acquisition, and operation of spaceborne reconnaissance systems in accordance with references (dd) and (ee).

5.1.7. Oversee the Director of the National Imagery and Mapping Agency's compliance with this Directive in accordance with reference (ff).

5.1.8. Oversee the Director of the Defense Information Systems Agency's compliance with this Directive in accordance with reference (gg).

5.1.9. Oversee the National Security Space Architect's compliance with this Directive in accordance with reference (hh).

5.2. The Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, in accordance with reference (ii), shall serve as the Acquisition Executive for space programs that are designated Major Defense Acquisition Programs and, in coordination with the ASD(C3I), oversee space and space-related acquisition and technology programs.

17 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

5.3. The Under Secretary of Defense for Policy, in accordance with reference (jj), shall:

5.3.1. Ensure that space policy decisions are closely integrated with overall national security policy considerations, in coordination with the ASD(C3I).

5.3.2. Review all Combatant Commander operations and contingency plans to ensure proposed employment of space forces are coordinated and consistent with DoD policy and the National Military Strategy.

5.4. The Under Secretary of Defense, Comptroller (USD(C)) shall comply with this Directive in accordance with reference (kk).

5.5. The General Counsel of the Department of Defense shall provide legal advice and assistance to the Secretary and Deputy Secretary of Defense, and, as appropriate, other DoD Components on all aspects of space and space-related activities, including the application of all applicable statutes, directives, regulations, and international agreements, in accordance with reference (ll).

5.6. The Director of Operational Test and Evaluation shall comply with this Directive in accordance with reference (mm).

5.7. The Secretaries of the Military Departments shall comply with this Directive in accordance with reference (y) as well as integrate space capabilities and applications into all facets of their Department's strategy, doctrine, education, training, exercises, and operations of U.S. military forces.

5.8. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS), in accordance with reference (y), shall:

5.8.1. Establish a uniform system for evaluating the readiness of each Combatant Command and Combat Support Agency to carry out assigned missions by employing space forces.

5.8.2. Develop joint doctrine for the operation and employment of space systems of the Armed Forces and formulate policies for the joint space training of the Armed Forces and for coordinating the space military education and training of the members of the Armed Forces.

18 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

5.8.3. Integrate space forces and their supporting industrial base into the Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan mobilization annex and formulate policies for the integration of National Guard and Reserve forces into joint space activities.

5.8.4. Provide guidance to Combatant Commanders for planning and employment of space capabilities through the joint planning process.

5.9. The Combatant Commanders shall:

5.9.1. Consider space in the analysis of alternatives for satisfying mission needs as well as develop and articulate military requirements for space and space-related capabilities.

5.9.2. Integrate space capabilities and applications into contingency and operations plans as well as plan for the employment of space capabilities within their Area of Responsibility.

5.9.3. Provide input for evaluations of the preparedness of their Combatant Command to carry out assigned missions by employing space capabilities.

5.9.4. Coordinate on Commander in Chief of U.S. Space Command campaign plans and provide supporting plans as directed by the CJCS.

5.9.5. Plan for and provide force protection, in coordination with the Commander in Chief of U.S. Space Command, for space forces assigned, deployed, and operating in their Area of Responsibility.

5.9.6. The Commander in Chief of U.S. Space Command, in accordance with reference (nn), shall:

5.9.6.1. Serve as the single point of contact for military space operational matters, except as otherwise directed by the Secretary of Defense.

5.9.6.2. Conduct space operations, including support of strategic ballistic missile defense for the United States.

5.9.6.3. Coordinate and conduct space campaign planning through the joint planning process in support of the National Military Strategy.

19 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

5.9.6.4. Advocate space (including force enhancement, space control, space support, and force application) and missile warning requirements of other Combatant Commanders.

6. EFFECTIVE DATE

This Directive is effective immediately.

Enclosures - 2 E1. References, continued E2. Definitions

20 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

E1. ENCLOSURE 1 REFERENCES, continued

(e) PDD-NSC-63, "Critical Infrastructure Protection," May 22, 1998 (f) PDD-NSC-67, "Enduring Constitutional Government and Continuity of Government Operations (U)," October 21, 1998 (g) DoD Directive 5160.54, "Critical Asset Assurance Program (CAAP)," January 20, 1998 (h) DoD Directive 3020.26, "Continuity of Operations Policy and Planning," May 26, 1995 (i) E.O. 12919, "National Defense Industrial Resources Preparedness," June 6, 1994 (j) E.O. 12656, "Assignment of Emergency Preparedness Responsibilities," November 18, 1988 (k) DoD Directive 3230.3, "DoD Support for Commercial Space Launch Activities," October 14, 1986 (l) DoD Directive 4650.1, "Management and Use of the Radio Frequency Spectrum," June 24, 1987 (m) DoD Directive 3222.3, "Department of Defense Electromagnetic Compatibility Program," August 20, 1990 (n) National Security Council Memorandum, "Revision to NSC/PD-25, dated December 14, 1977, entitled Scientific or Technological Experiments with Possible Large Scale Adverse Environmental Effects and Launch of Nuclear Systems into Space," May 17, 1995 (o) National Security Act of 1947, as amended (p) DoD Directive 2000.9, "International Co-Production Projects and Agreements Between the United States and Other Countries or International Organizations," January 23, 1974 (q) PDD-NSC-23, "U.S. Policy on Foreign Access to Remote Sensing Space Capabilities (U)," March 9, 1994 (r) PDD-NSTC-2, "Convergence of U.S. Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite Systems," May 5, 1994 (s) PDD-NSTC-6, "U.S. Global Positioning System Policy," March 28, 1886 (t) DoD Directive 5240.1, "Intelligence Activities," April 25, 1988 (u) PDD-NSC-13, "Nonproliferation and Export Controls (U)," September 27, 1993 (v) E.O. 12958, "Classified National Security Information," April 12, 1995 (w) E.O. 12951, "Release of Imagery Acquired by Space-Based National Intelligence Reconnaissance Systems," February 22, 1995 (x) E.O. 12829, "National Industrial Security Program," January 6, 1993

21 ENCLOSURE 1 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

(y) Title 10, United States Code (z) DoD Directive 5137.1, "Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence (ASD(C3I))," February 12, 1992 (aa) DoD Directive 5100.20, "National Security Agency and the Central Security Service," December 23, 1971 (bb) DoD Directive 5105.21, "Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)," February 18, 1997 (cc) DoD Instruction 5105.58, "Management of Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT)," February 9, 1993 (dd) DoD Directive TS-5105.23, "National Reconnaissance Office (U)," March 27, 1964 (ee) Secretary of Defense and Director of Central Intelligence, "Agreement for the Reorganization of the National Reconnaissance Program (U)," August 11, 1965 (ff) DoD Directive 5105.60, "National Imagery and Mapping Agency," October 11, 1996 (gg) DoD Directive 5105.19, "Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA)," June 25, 1991 (hh) Secretary of Defense and Director of Central Intelligence, "Memorandum of Understanding for National Security Space Management," July 1998 (ii) DoD Directive 5134.1, "Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology (USD(A&T))," June 8, 1994 (jj) DoD Directive 5111.1, "Under Secretary of Defense for Policy," March 22, 1995 (kk) DoD 7000.14-R, "Department of Defense Financial Regulations, Volume 1: General Financial Management Information, Systems, and Requirements," January 1999 (ll) DoD Directive 5145.1, "General Counsel of the Department of Defense," December 15, 1989 (mm) DoD Directive 5141.2, "Director of Operational Test and Evaluation," April 2, 1984 (nn) Unified Command Plan (U)

22 ENCLOSURE 1 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

E2. ENCLOSURE 2 DEFINITIONS

E2.1.1. Force Application. Combat operations in, through, and from space to influence the course and outcome of conflict. The force application mission area includes: ballistic missile defense and force projection.

E2.1.2. Force Enhancement. Combat support operations to improve the effectiveness of military forces as well as support other intelligence, civil, and commercial users. The force enhancement mission area includes: intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance; tactical warning and attack assessment; command, control, and communications; position, velocity, time, and navigation; and environmental monitoring.

E2.1.3. Space Control. Combat and combat support operations to ensure freedom of action in space for the United States and its allies and, when directed, deny an adversary freedom of action in space. The space control mission area includes: surveillance of space; protection of U.S. and friendly space systems; prevention of an adversary's ability to use space systems and services for purposes hostile to U.S. national security interests; negation of space systems and services used for purposes hostile to U.S. national security interests; and directly supporting battle management, command, control, communications, and intelligence.

E2.1.4. Space Forces. The space and terrestrial systems, equipment, facilities, organizations, and personnel necessary to access, use, and, if directed, control space for national security.

E2.1.5. Space Power. The total strength of a nation's capabilities to conduct and influence activities to, in, through, and from the space medium to achieve its objectives.

E2.1.6. Space Superiority. The degree of dominance in space of one force over another, which permits the conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, air, and space forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by the opposing force.

23 ENCLOSURE 2 DODD 3100.10, July 9, 1999

E2.1.7. Space Support. Combat service support operations to deploy and sustain military and intelligence systems in space. The space support mission area includes launching and deploying space vehicles, maintaining and sustaining spacecraft on-orbit, and deorbiting and recovering space vehicles, if required.

E2.1.8. Space Systems. All of the devices and organizations forming the space network. These consist of: spacecraft; mission package(s); ground stations; data links among spacecraft, ground stations, mission or user terminals, which may include initial reception, processing, and exploitation; launch systems; and directly related supporting infrastructure, including space surveillance and battle management/command, control, communications, and computers.

24 ENCLOSURE 2 Chapter 6

SPACE ENVIRONMENT

Why is knowing the space environment important? Our increased dependence on space-based systems to meet warfighter objectives and needs, coupled with the increasing use of microelectronics and a move to non-military specifications for satellites, increases our vulnerability to loss of critical satellite functions or entire systems (see Fig. 6-1). The space environment is a hostile environment for satellites.

Accelerated Proliferation Dependence of on Space Space Systems Platforms

A Less Robust New Increased Commercial Dimension Severity of Off-the-Shelf of Space Systems Vulnerability Environment 2000 and Beyond

Uncertainty Use of Radiation of Sensitive Counterspace Micro-circuitry Mitigation of the Vulnerability Threats Requires Knowing the Battlespace Environment Fig. 6-1. Dimension of Vulnerability

SPACE ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS systems. This section will discuss those ON SYSTEMS impacts in general, then individually.

The origin of space environmental impacts on radar, communications and DOD System Impacts space systems lies primarily with the sun. The sun is continuously emitting Generally the stronger a solar flare, the electromagnetic energy and electrically denser/faster/more energetic a particle charged particles. Superimposed on stream, or the sharper a solar wind these emissions are enhancements in the discontinuity or enhancement, the more electromagnetic radiation (particularly at severe will be the event’s impacts on the X-ray, Extreme Ultra Violet (EUV) and near-Earth environment and on DOD Radio wavelengths) and in the energetic systems operating in that environment. charged particle streams emitted by the Unfortunately, the DOD system impacts sun. These solar radiation enhancements discussed in this section do not occur one have a significant potential to influence at a time, but will most likely occur in DOD operations. combinations of more than one thing. Each solar-geophysical phenomena or The stronger the causative solar- event has the potential to adversely geophysical activity, the more in number impact radar, communications and space of simultaneous effects a system may experience. Each of the three general

AU Space primer 6 - 1 7/23/2003

categories of solar radiation (Fig. 6-2) simply miss hitting the Earth. For those has its own characteristics and types of events that do affect the near-Earth immediate or delayed DOD system environment, effects can be both impacts. immediate and delayed, depending on the exact type of enhanced radiation emitted.

ELECTROMAGNETIC HIGH ENERGY LOW-MEDIUM ENERGY RADIATION PARTICLES PARTICLES ARRIVAL: IMMEDIATELY ARRIVAL: 15 MIN TO FEW HOURS ARRIVAL: 2-4 DAYS DURATION: 1-2 HOURS DURATION: DAYS DURATION: DAYS

X-RAYS, EUV, PROTON EVENTS GEOMAGNETIC STORMS RADIO BURSTS

SATCOM INTERFERENCE SATELLITE DISORIENTATION SPACECRAFT CHARGING RADAR INTERFERENCE SPACECRAFT DAMAGE SATELLITE DRAG SHORTWAVE RADIO FADES RADIO BLACKOUTS POWER BLACKOUTS

Fig. 6-2. Solar Radiation Particle Types and Effects

Non-DOD System Impacts The following paragraphs summarize the three general categories of solar radiation DOD systems are not the only ones and the immediate or delayed DOD affected by solar-geophysical activity. system impacts they produce. Some of these “non-DOD” impacts can indirectly affect military operations. For Electromagnetic Radiation example, system impacts from a geomagnetic storm can include: (1) We detect flares by the enhanced induced electrical currents in power lines X-ray, ultraviolet, optical and/or radio which can cause transformer failures and waves they emit. All of these power outages and (2), magnetic field wavelengths travel to the Earth at the variations, which can lead to compass speed of light (in about 8 minutes); so by errors and interfere with geological the time we first observe a flare, it is surveys. already causing immediate environmental effects and DOD system impacts. These ELECTROMAGNETIC impacts are almost entirely limited to the (IMMEDIATE) VS PARTICLE Earth’s sunlit hemisphere, as the (DELAYED) EFFECTS radiation does not penetrate or bend around the earth. Since enhanced Every solar event is unique in its exact electromagnetic emissions cease when nature and the enhanced emissions it the flare ends, the effects tend to subside produces. Some solar events cause little as well. As a result, these effects tend to or no impact on the near-Earth last only a few tens of minutes to an hour environment because their enhanced or two. Sample system effects include; particle and/or electromagnetic (X-ray, satellite communications (SATCOM) and EUV and/or Radio wave) emissions are radar interference (specifically, enhanced too feeble or their particle streams may background noise), LORAN navigation

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errors and absorption of HF (6-30 mHz) radio communications. Low to Medium Energy Particles

High Energy Particles Particle streams (composed of both protons and electrons) may arrive at the These particles (primarily protons, but Earth about two to three days after a flare. occasionally cosmic rays) can reach the Such particle streams can also occur at any Earth within 15 minutes to a few hours time due to other non-flare solar activity. after the occurrence of a strong solar These particles cause geomagnetic and flare. Not all flares produce these high ionospheric storms, which can last from energy particles (plus the Earth is a rather hours to several days. Typical problems small target 93 million miles from the include: spacecraft electrical charging, sun) so predicting solar proton and drag on low orbiting satellites, radar cosmic ray events is a difficult forecast interference, space tracking errors and challenge. The major impact of these radio wave propagation anomalies. These protons is felt over the polar caps, where impacts are most frequently experienced in the protons have ready access to low the nightside sector of the Earth. altitudes through funnel-like cusps (earth’s magnetic field lines that terminate ELECTROMAGNETIC into the earth’s North and South poles) in (IMMEDIATE) EFFECTS the Earth’s magnetosphere. The impact of a proton event can last for a few hours to The first of the specific DOD system several days after the flare ends. Sample impacts to be discussed will be the Short impacts include satellite disorientation, Wave Fade (SWF), which is caused by physical damage to satellites and solar flare X-rays. The second impact spacecraft, false sensor readings, covered will be SATCOM and radar LORAN navigation errors and absorption interference caused by solar flare radio of HF radio signals. Proton events are bursts. These electromagnetic impacts are probably the most hazardous of space almost entirely limited to the Earth’s weather events (Fig. 6-3). Proton events sunlit hemisphere and occur occur when solar flares eject high energy simultaneously (immediate to eight particles (mainly protons) that arrive at minutes) with the solar flare that caused the earth in 30 minutes. them.

HIGH ENERGY PROTONS

• SATELLITE DAMAGE OR FAILURE • SATELLITE DISORIENTATION • LAUNCH PAYLOAD FAILURE IONOSPHERE • RADIATION HAZARD TO ASTRONAUTS AND PILOTS • SHORTWAVE RADIO DISRUPTION (POLAR REGIONS)

Fig. 6-3. High Energy Particle Impacts

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250 miles altitude). The presence of free Short Wave Fade (SWF) Events electrons in the F-layer causes radio waves to be refracted (or bent), but the The High Frequency (HF, 6-30 mHz) higher the frequency, the less the degree radio band is also known as the short of bending. As a result, surface-to-surface wave band. Thus, a SWF refers to an radio operators use Medium or High abnormally high fading (or absorption) of Frequencies (300 kHz to 30 mHz), while a HF radio signal. SATCOM operators use Very High to Extremely High Frequencies (VHF/EHF HF Radio Communications 30 mHz to 300 gHz). The MUF is that frequency above which radio signals The normal mode of radio wave encounter too little ionospheric refraction propagation in the HF range is by (for a given take-off angle) to be bent refraction using the ionosphere’s back toward the Earth’s surface (i.e., they strongest (or F) layer for single hops and become trans-ionospheric). Normally the by a combination of reflection and MUF lies in the upper portion of the HF refraction between the ground and the band. F-layer for multiple hops (Fig. 6-4). It should be noted that the “ionosphere” is Lowest Useable Frequency (LUF) defined as that portion of the Earth’s atmosphere above 45 miles where ions The lowest layer of the ionosphere is and electrons are present in quantities the D layer (normally between 45 and 55 sufficient to affect the propagation of mile altitude). At these altitudes there is radio waves. HF radio waves are still a large number of neutral air atoms refracted by the ionosphere’s F-layer. and molecules coexisting with the However, each passage through the ionized particles. As a passing radio ionosphere’s D-layer causes signal wave causes the ions and free electrons to absorption, which is additive. oscillate, they will collide with the neutral air particles and the oscillatory Maximum Useable Frequency (MUF) motion will be damped out and converted to heat. Thus, the D-layer acts to absorb The portion of the ionosphere with passing radio wave signals. The lower the greatest degree of ionization is the the frequency, the greater the degree of F-layer (normally between about 155 and signal absorption. The LUF is that frequency below which radio signals

Sun X-Ray Burst F-Layer Refraction Ionosphere: F-Layer D-Layer Absorption E-Layer D-Layer

Fig. 6-4. High Frequency (HF) Communications

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encounter too much ionospheric through the ionosphere into space. Those absorption to permit them to pass through below the LUF suffer total absorption in the D-layer. Normally the LUF lies in the ionosphere’s lowest layer. The result the lower portion of the HF band. is a useable frequency window.

HF Propagation Window The Short Wave Fade (SWF) Event

The HF radio propagation window is X-ray radiation emitted during a solar the range of frequencies between a LUF flare can significantly enhance D-layer (complete D-layer signal absorption) and ionization and absorption (thereby a MUF (insufficient F-layer refraction to elevating the LUF) over the entire sunlit bend back the signal). This window hemisphere of the Earth. This enhanced varies by location, time of day, season absorption is known as a SWF and may, and with the level of solar and/or at times, be strong enough to close the geomagnetic activity. HF operators HF propagation window completely choose propagation frequencies within (called a Short Wave Blackout) (see Fig. this window so their signals will pass 6-5). The amount of signal loss depends through the ionosphere’s D-layer and on a flare’s X-ray intensity, location of subsequently refract from the F-layer. the HF path relative to the sun and design Typical LUF/MUF curves show a characteristics of the system. A SWF is normal, daily variation. During early an “immediate” effect, experienced afternoon, incoming photo-ionizing solar simultaneously with observation of the radiation (X-rays, but mostly Ultraviolet) causative solar flare. As a result, it is not is at a maximum, so the D and F-layers possible to forecast a specific SWF event. are strong and the LUF and MUF are Rather, forecasters can only predict the elevated. During the night, the removal likelihood of a SWF event based on the of ionizing sunlight causes all probability of flare occurrence ionospheric layers to weaken (the D and determined by an overall analysis of solar E-layers disappear altogether), and the features and past activity. However, once LUF and MUF become depressed. a flare is observed, forecasters can quickly (within seven minutes of event

30 MHz Graph of shortwave fade caused X-ray event start by X-ray event 29 Nov 96 2016Z - 2055Z. Fade verified by communicators Maximum Useable in the field. Useable Frequencies 12 MHz Frequency

Minimum Useable Frequency HF C2 Blackout 3 MHz 00 06 12 18 24 UNDISTURBED IONOSPHERE DISTURBED IONOSPHERE SOLAR FLARE X-RAYS STRENGTHEN D-LAYER

HF SIGNALS ABSORBED

Fig. 6-5. High Frequency (HF) Propagation Windows HF radio waves above the MUF onset) issue a SWF warning, which encounter insufficient refraction and pass contains a prediction of the frequencies to

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be affected and the duration of signal absorption. Normally SWFs persist only SATCOM RADAR for a few minutes past the end of the INTERFERENCE INTERFERENCE causative flare, i.e., for a few tens of RADIO BURST minutes to an hour or two.

Other Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SIDs)

A SWF is only the most common and troublesome of a whole family of SIDs caused by the influence of solar flare X-rays on the ionosphere. Other SIDs describe additional impacts. For Fig. 6-6. Radio Burst Effects example, flare X-rays can also cause the Consequently, it is not possible to altitude of the D-layer’s base to lower forecast the occurrence of radio bursts, slightly. This phenomena (called a let alone what frequencies they will occur Sudden Phase Anomaly) will affect Very- on and at what intensities. Rather, Low Frequency (VLF, 6-30 kHz) and Low forecasters can only issue rapid warnings Frequency (LF, 30-300 kHz) transmissions (within seven minutes of event onset) that and can cause LORAN navigation errors. identify the observed burst frequencies Radio bursts from solar flares can and intensities. Radio burst impacts are cause the background level of solar noise limited to the sunlit hemisphere of the to increase by tens-of-thousands. This Earth. They will persist only for a few can lead to direct Radio Frequency minutes to tens of minutes, but usually Interference (RFI) of SATCOM and not for the full duration of the causative ground or spaced-based radars. flare.

SATCOM and Radar Interference Solar Conjunction

Solar flares can cause the amount of There is a similar geometry-induced radio wave energy emitted by the sun to affect called “solar conjunction”, which increase by a factor of tens of thousands is when the ground antenna, satellite and over certain frequency bands in the VHF the sun are in line. This accounts for why to SHF range (30 mHz to 30 gHz). If the geosynchronous communication satellites sun is in the field of view of the receiver will experience interference or blackouts and if the burst is at the right frequency (e.g., static or “snow” on TV signals) and intense enough, these radio bursts during brief periods on either side of the can produce direct Radio Frequency spring and autumn equinoxes. This Interference (RFI) on a SATCOM link or problem does not require a solar flare to missile detection/ space tracking radar. be in progress, but its effects are (Fig. 6-6). Knowledge of a solar radio definitely greatest during Solar Max burst can allow a SATCOM or radar when the sun is a strong background operator to isolate the RFI cause and radio emitter. avoid time consuming investigation of possible equipment malfunction or Solar Radio Noise Storms jamming. Sometimes a large sunspot group will Solar Radio Bursts produce slightly elevated radio noise levels, primarily on frequencies below Radio bursts are another “immediate” 400 mHz. This noise may persist for effect, experienced simultaneously with days, occasionally interfering with observation of the causative solar flare.

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communications or radar systems using an affected frequency. PARTICLE (DELAYED) EFFECTS High Frequency Absorption Events The discussion of specific DOD system impacts will continue with the High Frequency SWFs over the sunlit major “delayed” (or charged particle hemisphere (caused by solar flare X-rays induced) system impacts. These impacts enhancing D-layer absorption) were tend to occur hours to several days after already discussed. There are similar HF the solar activity that caused them. They absorption events at high geomagnetic persist for up to several days and are latitudes (above 55 degrees). However, mostly felt in the nighttime sector (as the at high latitudes, the enhanced ionization particles that cause them usually come of D-layer atoms and molecules (which from the magnetosphere’s tail), although produce signal absorption) is caused by they are not strictly limited to that particle bombardment from space. time/geographic sector. Another difference is that these high latitude absorption events can last for Particle Events hours to several days, and usually occur simultaneously with other radio The sources of the charged particles transmission problems. (mostly protons and electrons) include: solar flares, Coronal Mass Ejections Polar Cap Absorption (PCA) Events (CMEs), disappearing filaments, eruptive prominences and Solar Sector Boundaries For a PCA event, the enhanced (SSBs) or High Speed Streams (HSSs) in ionization is caused by solar flare or the solar wind. Except for the most CME protons that gain direct access to energetic particle events, the charged low altitudes (as low as 35 km) by particles tend to be guided by the entering through the funnel-like cusps in interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) the magnetosphere above the Earth’s which lies between the sun and the polar caps. Earth’s magnetosphere. The intensity of a particle-induced event generally Auroral Zone Absorption (AZA) Events depends on the size of the solar flare, filament or prominence, its position on For an AZA event, the enhanced the sun and the structure of the ionization is caused by particles (primarily intervening IMF. Alternately, the electrons) from the magnetosphere’s tail, sharpness of a SSB or density/speed of a which are accelerated toward the Earth HSS will determine the intensity of a during a geomagnetic storm and are guided particle-induced event caused by these by magnetic field lines into the auroral phenomena. zone latitudes. These are the same ionizing particles that cause the aurora or Recurrence Northern/ Southern Lights.

One important factor in forecasting Ionospheric Scintillation particle events is that some of the causative phenomena (like SSBs and The intense ionospheric irregularities coronal holes, the source region for found in the auroral zones and at +/- 20 HSSs) persist for months, while the sun degrees of the geomagnetic equator are rotates once every 27 days. As a result, the primary causes of ionospheric there is a tendency for these long-lasting “scintillation”. Scintillation of radio phenomena to show a 27-day recurrence wave signals is the rapid, random in producing geomagnetic and ionospheric variation in signal amplitude, phase disturbances. and/or polarization caused by small-scale irregularities in the electron density along

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a signal’s path (Fig. 6-7). Ionospheric portion of the 11-year solar cycle, the radio wave scintillation is very similar to true environmental vulnerability of the the visual twinkling of starlight or heat GPS constellation is yet to be observed. shimmer over a hot road caused by But even during low solar activity levels, atmospheric turbulence. The result is it has been shown, under strong signal fading and data dropouts on scintillation, that the GPS signals cannot satellite command uplinks, data be seen through the background noise downlinks or on communications signals. due to the rapid changes in the ionosphere, even with the use of dual frequency receivers (Fig. 6-8).

GPS and Total Electron Content (TEC)

The TEC along the path of a GPS

Region of signal can introduce a positioning error. Ionosphere Ionospheric Just as the presence of free electrons in Scintillation the ionosphere caused HF radio waves to Degraded Signal be bent (or refracted), the higher frequencies used by GPS satellites will suffer some bending (although to a much lesser extent than with HF radio waves). This signal bending increases the signal Fig. 6-7. Ionospheric Scintillation path length. In addition, passage through an ionized medium causes radio waves to Scintillation tends to be a highly be slowed (or retarded) somewhat from localized effect. Only if the signal path the speed of light. Both the longer path penetrates an ionospheric region where length and slower speed can introduce up these small-scale electron density to 300 nanoseconds (equivalent to about irregularities are occurring will an impact 100 meters) of error into a GPS location be felt. Low latitude, nighttime links fix--unless some compensation is made with geo-synchronous communications for the effect. The solution is relatively satellites are particularly vulnerable to simple for two-frequency GPS receivers, intermittent signal loss due to scintillation. since signals of different frequency travel In fact, during the Persian Gulf war, allied at different speeds through the same forces relied heavily on SATCOM links, medium. Measuring the difference in and scintillation posed an unanticipated, signal phases for the two frequencies but very real operational problem. allows computation of the local phase delay for a particular receiver and GPS and Scintillation elimination of 99 percent of the error introduced in a location fix. GPS satellites, which are located at Unfortunately, this approach will not semi-synchronous altitude, are also work for single-frequency receivers. For vulnerable to ionospheric scintillation. them, a software algorithm is used to Signal strength enhancements and fades model ionospheric effects based on the as well as phase changes due to day of the year and the average solar UV scintillation, can cause a GPS receiver to flux for the previous few days. This lose signal lock with a particular satellite. method produces a gross correction for The reduction in the number of the entire ionosphere. But, as has already simultaneously useable GPS satellites may been stated, the ionosphere varies rapidly result in a potentially less accurate and significantly over geographical area position fix. Since scintillation occurrence and time. Consequently, the algorithm is positively correlated with solar activity can eliminate, at best, about 50 percent of and the GPS network has received wide- the error and a far smaller percentage of spread use only recently during a quiet the error in regions where an enhanced

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degree of ionization is found (such as in environmental forecasters are heavily the auroral latitudes and near the dependent on its known association with geomagnetic equator during evening other environmental phenomena (such as hours). aurora) and scintillation climatology. Scintillation is also frequency dependent; the higher the radio frequency (all other factors held constant), the lesser the impact of scintillation.

Data from Argentia 1994 0

-4

-8

Signal -12 to Noise-1 6 -16 Ratio (dB) GPS Scintillation Onset -20

THRESHOLDS -24 6 dB - manpack 12 dB - aircraft -28 20 dB - ship borne -32

Time (5 Min TICS) This is a plot of the actual signal to noise ratio graph measured during a moderate scintillation event. A warfighter may lose total GPS signal lock during such events. This includes dual frequency systems. Fig. 6-8. Scintillation Effect on GPS Signal

Solar Minimum L-Band Solar Maximum Fading 20dB 15dB 10dB 5dB 2dB 1dB 18 18 oon Midnight Noon Midnight

Fig. 6-9. Scintillation Occurrence

Statistically, scintillation tends to be Scintillation Occurrence most severe at lower latitudes (within + 20 degrees of the geomagnetic equator) There is no fielded network of due to ionospheric anomalies in that ionospheric sensors capable of detecting region. It is also strongest from local real-time scintillation occurrence or sunset until just after midnight, and distribution (Fig. 6-9). Presently space during periods of high solar activity. At

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AURORA

IONOSPHERE

SIGNAL REFLECTED

Fig. 6-10. Radar Aurora higher geomagnetic latitudes (the auroral screening programs have greatly reduced and polar regions), scintillation is strong, the frequency of false aircraft or missile especially at night, and its influence launch detection, they’ve not been increases with higher levels of eliminated totally. (NOTE: Radar aurora geomagnetic activity. Knowledge of those is a separate phenomena from the weak time periods and portions of the radio wave emission produced by the ionosphere where conditions are conducive recombination/de-excitation of atmospheric to scintillation permits operators to atoms and molecules in the auroral oval, reschedule activities or to switch to less a process which also produces the much susceptible radio frequencies. stronger infrared, visible and ultraviolet auroral emissions.) Radar Aurora Clutter and Interference Surveillance Radar Errors

As previously discussed, a geomagnetic The presence of free electrons in the and ionospheric storm will cause both ionosphere causes radiowaves to be bent enhanced ionization and rapid variations (or refracted) as well as slowed (or (over time and space) in the degree of retarded) somewhat from the speed of ionization throughout the auroral oval. light. Missile detection and spacetrack Visually, this phenomena is observed as radars operate at Ultra High Frequencies the Aurora or Northern /Southern Lights. (UHF, 300-3,000 mHz) and Super High This enhanced, irregular ionization can Frequencies (SHF, 3,000-30,000 mHz) to also produce abnormal radar signal back- escape most of the effects of ionospheric scatter on poleward looking radars, a refraction so useful to HF surface-to- phenomena known as “radar aurora” surface radio operators. However, even (Fig. 6-10). The strength of radar aurora radars operating at these much higher signal returns and the amount of Doppler frequencies are still susceptible to enough frequency shifting, are aspect dependent. signal refraction and retardation to Impacts can include increased clutter produce unacceptable errors in target and target masking, inaccurate target bearing and range. locations and even false target or missile launch detection. While improved software

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Bearing and Range Errors the impacts of their radar’s degraded accuracy. A bearing (or direction) error is caused Space-Based Surveillance by signal bending, while a range (or distance) error is caused by both the The bearing and range errors longer path length for the refracted signal introduced by ionospheric refraction and and the slower signal speed (Fig. 6-11). signal retardation (as described above) For range errors, the effect of longer path also apply to space-based surveillance length dominates in UHF signals, while systems. For example, a space-based

APPARENT LOCATION

TRUE LOCATION

IONOSPHERE

Fig. 6-11. Surveillance Radar Errors slower signal speed dominates for SHF sensor attempting to lock on to a ground signals. radio emitter may experience a geolocation error. Correction Factors Over-the-Horizon Backscatter (OTH-B) Radar operators routinely attempt to Surveillance Radars compensate for these bearing and range errors by applying correction factors that OTH-B radars use HF refraction are based on the expected ionospheric through the ionosphere to detect targets “total electron content (TEC)” along a beyond the horizon. OTH-B operators radar beam’s path. These predicted TEC need to be aware of existing and expected values/correction values are based on ionospheric conditions (in great detail) time of day, season and the overall level over a wide geographical area. Otherwise, of solar activity. Unfortunately, individual improper frequency selection will reduce solar and geophysical events will cause target detection performance; or incorrect unanticipated, short-term variations from estimation of ionospheric layer heights the predicted TEC values and correction will give unacceptable range errors. factors. These variations (which can be either higher or lower than the anticipated values) will lead to inaccurate position determinations or difficulty in acquiring targets. Real-time warnings when significant TEC variations are occurring, help radar operators minimize

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Atmospheric Drag maintenance maneuvers may become necessary; and (3) de-orbit predictions Another source for space object may become unreliable. A classic case of positioning errors is that of either more the latter was Skylab. Geomagnetic or less atmospheric drag than expected activity was so severe, for such an on low orbiting objects (generally at less extended period, that the expanded than about 1,000 km altitude). Energy atmosphere caused Skylab to de-orbit and deposited in the Earth’s upper burn-in before a planned Space Shuttle atmosphere by EUV, X-ray and charged rescue mission was ready to launch. particle bombardment heats the atmosphere, causing it to expand outward. Low earth- Contributions to Drag orbiting satellites and other space objects then experience denser air and more There are two space environmental frictional drag than expected. This drag parameters used by current models to decreases an object’s altitude and predict the orbits of space objects. The increases its orbital speed. The result is first is the solar “F10 index”. Although the object will be some distance below the F10 index is a measure of solar radio and ahead of its expected position when a output at 10.7 centimeters (or 2,800 ground radar or optical telescope mHz), it is a very good indicator of the attempts to locate it (see Fig. 6-12). amount of EUV and X-ray energy Conversely, exceptionally calm solar emitted by the sun and deposited in the and/or geomagnetic conditions will cause Earth’s upper atmosphere. In Fig. 6-13 less atmospheric drag than predicted and the Solar Flux (F10) graph shows a clear, an object could be higher and behind 27-day periodicity caused by the sun’s where it was expected to be found. 27-day period of rotation and the fact that

EXPECTED POSITION

ACTUAL POSITION

Fig. 6-12. Atmospheric Drag

Impacts of Atmospheric Drag hot, active regions are not uniformly distributed on the sun’s surface. The The consequences of atmospheric drag second parameter is the geomagnetic “Ap include: (1) inaccurate satellite locations index”, which is a measure of the energy which can hinder rapid acquisition of deposited in the Earth’s upper atmosphere SATCOM links for commanding or data by charged particle bombardment. This transmission; (2) costly orbit index shows strong spikes corresponding

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LOG DENSITY Space Launch and Payload (at 730 km) Deployment Problems

TEMPERATURE (at 730 km) Atmospheric Drag

Excessively high or low GEOMAGNETIC geomagnetic conditions can produce INDEX (Ap) 30 day period atmospheric density variations along a 10.7 cm SOLAR proposed launch trajectory. The ability FLUX (F10) of a launch vehicle to compensate for these variations may be exceeded. In Fig. 6-13. Factors Contributing to Atmospheric Drag addition, the atmospheric density profile to individual geomagnetic storms. The based on changes in altitude will upper two graphs, which show upper determine how early the protective atmospheric temperature and density shielding around a payload can be (observed by a satellite at 730 km jettisoned. If the protective shielding is altitude), clearly reflect the influence of jettisoned too early the payload is these two indices. Since it takes time for exposed to excessive frictional heating. the atmosphere to react to a change in the amount of energy being deposited in it, Particle Bombardment drag impacts first tend to be noticeable about six hours after a geomagnetic storm Charged particle bombardment starts and may persist for about 12 hours during a geomagnetic storm or proton after the storm ends. event can produce direct physical damage on a launch vehicle or its payload, or it The Impact of Geomagnetic Storms on can deposit an electrical charge on or inside the spacecraft. The electrostatic Orbit Changes charge deposited may be discharged (lead to arcing) by on-board electrical activity Two impacts of geomagnetic storms such as vehicle commanding. In the past, on space tracking radar’s have now been payloads have been damaged by discussed. The first was bearing and attempted deployment during geomagnetic range errors induced by inadequate storms or proton events. compensation for TEC changes, which caused apparent location errors. The Radiation Hazards second was atmospheric drag, which caused real position errors. These effects Despite all engineering efforts, can occur simultaneously. During a severe satellites are still quite susceptible to the geomagnetic storm in March 1989, over charged particle environment. In fact, 1,300 space objects were temporarily with newer microelectronics and their misplaced (Fig. 6-14). It took almost a lower operating voltages, it will actually week to re-acquire all the objects and be easier to cause electrical upsets than update their orbital elements. This on older, simpler vehicles. Furthermore, incident led to a revision in operating with the perceived lessening of the man- procedures. Normally drag models do made nuclear threat, there has been a not include detailed forecasts of the F10 trend to build new satellites with less and Ap indices. However, when severe nuclear radiation hardening. This previous conditions are forecast, more hardening also protected the satellites comprehensive model runs are made, even from space environmental radiation though they’re also more time consuming. hazards.

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1800

1600 Ap Index x 10 1400 # of Lost Space Objects 1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 89 89 89 89 89 89 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 ------8 -8 -8 -8 -8 -8 -8 -8 -8 ------r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a eb- F M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M -Feb -Feb -Feb -Feb -Feb -Feb -Feb -Feb -Feb ------9- 1- 3- 5- 7- 9- 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 This Fig. demonstrates how a geomagnetic storm can change the orbits of space objects unexpectedly, causing difficulty for those who maintain orbital data. Fig. 6-14. Geomagnetic Storms and Orbit Changes Both low and high earth-orbiting altitude ranging from 16,000 to 20,000 spacecraft and satellites are subject to a km and contains low to medium energy number of environmental radiation electrons and protons whose source is the hazards, such as direct physical damage influx of particles from the magneto-tail and/or electrical upsets caused by during geomagnetic storms. charged particles. These charged particles may be: (1) trapped in the “Van Geosynchronous Orbit Allen Radiation Belts,” (2) in directed motion during a geomagnetic storm or (3) “Geosynchronous” orbit (35,782 km protons/cosmic rays of direct solar or or 22,235 statute miles altitude) is galactic origin. commonly used for communication satellites. Unfortunately, it lies near the Van Allen Radiation Belts outer boundary of the Outer Belt, and suffers whenever that boundary moves The Outer and Inner Van Allen inward or outward. Semi-synchronous Radiation Belts are two concentric, toroid orbit (which is used for GPS satellites) (or donut-shaped) regions of stable, lies near the middle of the Outer Belt (in trapped charged particles that exist a region called the “ring current”) and because the geomagnetic field near the suffers from a variable, high density Earth is strong and field lines are closed particle environment. Both orbits are (Fig. 6-15). The Inner Belt has a particularly vulnerable to the directed maximum proton density approximately motion of charged particles that occurs 5,000 km above the Earth’s surface and during geomagnetic storms. Particle contains mostly high-energy protons densities observed by satellite sensors produced by cosmic ray collisions with can increase by a factor of 10 to 1,000 the Earth’s upper atmosphere. The Outer over a time period as short as a few tens Belt has a maximum proton density at an of minutes.

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Fig. 6-15. Van Allen Radiation Belts

GEOSYNCHRONOUS SEMI-SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT ORBIT (NAVSTAR GPS)

OUTER VAN ALLEN BELT INNER VAN ALLEN BELT

Fig. 6-15. Van Allen Radiation Belts

Geomagnetic Storms Furthermore, the protons and electrons have about the same amount of energy, As mentioned earlier, charged but the electrons (since they are 1,800 particles emitted by the sun cause times lighter) move 40 times faster. problems primarily on the night side of Finally, the electrons are about 10 to 100 the Earth. Their arrival causes a shock times more numerous than the protons. wave to ripple through the magnetosphere, The result of all these factors is that causing magnetic field lines out in the electrons are much more effective at magnetosphere’s tail to recombine, and causing physical damage due to collision previously stored particles are then shot and electrical charging than the protons. toward the Earth’s night side hemisphere. This fact explains why the preponderance Some of these particles stay near the of satellite problems occur in the plane of the equator and feed the ring midnight to dawn (0001 to 0600 Local) current in the Outer Van Allen Radiation sector, while the evening (1800 to 2359 Belt, while other particles Local) sector is the second follow magnetic field most common location for SUNWARD lines up (and down) DIRECTION problems. This toward auroral latitudes. 12 L explanation is well PROTONS ELECTRONS _ supported by the rather + + Radiation Belt Particle _ large number of satellite + 18 L EARTH Injections 06 L _ anomalies which actually can be observed in the The particles from the midnight to dawn sector. night side magnetosphere 00 L (or magneto-tail) which Auroral Particle Injections stayed near the plane of the equator will feed the Some of the particles ring current in the Outer from the night side

Van Allen belt. The MAGNETOTAIL magnetosphere follow electrons and protons, geomagnetic field lines up Cross-section of the magnetosphere taken since they are oppositely in the plane of the Earth’s geomagnetic (and down) toward the charged, tend to move in equator. northern and Southern opposite directions when Fig. 6-16. Geomagnetic Storms - Hemisphere auroral they reach the ring Radiation Belt Particle Injections latitudes. These particles current (Fig. 6-16). will penetrate to very low

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altitudes (as low as 35 km), and can Surface versus Deep Charging cause physical damage and electrical charging on high-inclination, low-altitude An electrical charge can be deposited satellites or Space Shuttle missions (Fig. either on the surface or deep within an 6-17). object. Solar illumination and wake

Aurora

Fig. 6-17 Geomagnetic Storms Auroral Particle Ejections

charging are surface charging phenomena. For direct particle bombardment, the higher the energy of the bombarding particles, the deeper the charge can be Electrical Charging placed. Normally electrical charging will not (in itself) cause an electrical upset or One of the most common anomalies damage. caused by the radiation hazards discussed above is spacecraft or satellite electrical charging. Many things can produce charging. (1) an object’s motion through a medium containing charged particles (called “wake charging”), which is a significant problem for large objects like the Space Shuttle or a space station, (2) direct particle bombardment, as occurs during geomagnetic storms and proton events, or (3) solar illumination, which causes electrons to escape from an object’s surface (called the “photoelectric effect”). The impact of each phenomenon is strongly influenced by variations in an object’s shape and the Fig. 6-18. Spacecraft Charging materials used in its construction (Fig. 6- 18).

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It will deposit an electrostatic charge electrical upset (circuit switch, spurious which will stay on the vehicle (for command or memory change or loss) or perhaps many hours) until some serious physical damage to on-board triggering mechanism causes a discharge computers or other components. Hence or arcing. Such mechanisms include: (1) these occurrences are called “single event a change in particle environment, (2) a upsets”. SEUs are very random, almost change in solar illumination (like moving unpredictable events. They can occur at from eclipse to sunlit) or (3) on-board any time during the 11-year Solar Cycle. vehicle activity or commanding. In fact, SEUs are actually most common near Solar Minimum, when the Charging Impacts Interplanetary Magnetic Field emanating from the sun is weak and unable to Generally, an electrostatic discharge provide the Earth much shielding from can produce; (1) spurious circuit cosmic rays originating outside the Solar switching, (2) degradation or failure of System. electronic components, thermal coatings and solar cells or (3) false sensor Satellite Disorientation readings. In extreme cases, a satellite’s life span can be significantly reduced, Many satellites rely on Electro-optical necessitating an unplanned launch of a sensors to maintain their orientation in replacement satellite. Warnings of space. These sensors lock onto certain environmental conditions conducive to patterns in the background stars and use spacecraft charging allow operators to them to achieve precise pointing accuracy. reschedule vehicle commanding, reduce These star sensors are vulnerable to on-board activity, delay satellite launches cosmic rays and high-energy protons, and deployments or re-orient a spacecraft which can produce flashes of light as to protect it from particle bombardment. they impact a sensor. The bright spot Should an anomaly occur, an produced on the sensor may be falsely environmental post-analysis can help interpreted as a star. When computer operators determine whether the software fails to find this false star in its environment contributed to it and the star catalogue or incorrectly identifies it, satellite function can be safely re- the satellite can lose attitude lock with activated or re-set, or whether engineers respect to the Earth. Directional need to be called out to investigate the communications antenna, sensors and incident. An accurate assessment can solar cell panels would then fail to see reduce down-time by several days. their intended targets. The result may be Charging occurs primarily when solar loss of communications with the satellite, and geomagnetic activity are high and on loss of satellite power and, in extreme geosynchronous or polar-orbiting satellites. cases, loss of the satellite due to drained batteries (gradual star sensor degradation Single Event Upsets (SEUs) can also occur under constant radiation exposure). Disorientation occurs primarily Very high-energy protons or ions when solar activity is high and on (either from solar flares or the Inner Van geosynchronous or polar-orbiting satellites. Allen Belt) or cosmic rays (either from the very largest solar flares or from Geomagnetic Storm Surface Impacts galactic sources outside our Solar System) are capable of penetrating Geomagnetic storms cause rapid completely through a satellite. As they fluctuations in the Earth's magnetic field pass through, they will ionize particles and increase the amount of precipitating deep inside the satellite. In fact, a single energetic particles impinging on the proton or cosmic ray can (by itself) Earth's ionosphere. The rapid fluctuations deposit enough charge to cause an

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can lead to induced currents in power The 55SWXS headquarters is at grids that may lead to failure of that grid Schriever AFB, Colorado and operates (Fig. 6-19). This can and has happened, several Geographically Separated Units predominately in the higher latitudes. (In (GSUs) to monitor the Sun. Known as March of 1989, the Canadian Province of the Solar Electro-Optical Network (SEON), Quebec suffered a power grid failure of it is the only network in the world this type.) Such fluctuations can also dedicated to observing the Sun at optical and radio wavelengths in real time. IONOSPHERIC CURRENT Mission SHORTWAVE RADIO DISRUPTION POWER COMPASS N DISRUPTION ERRORS 55SWXS provides space environmental WE support for worldwide operations (Fig. S 6-20). The squadron gathers and processes space environmental data from ground and space-based sensor networks, Fig. 6-19. Geomagnetic Storm Surface Impacts analyzes and models the space environment, forecasts solar and space cause orientation errors for those relying environmental phenomena and provides on magnetic compasses for navigation. alerts, warnings and assessments for In addition to the ionospheric operational impacts to Air Force and disturbances discussed earlier, localized other DOD agencies. Support to rapidly changing ionospheric activity can customers can be provided at the occur. This activity may not be picked unclassified, collateral and Sensitive up by space environment sensors, but can Compartmented Information (SCI) levels. cause HF communication users to suffer Systems supported include satellite vehicle sporadic interference or total localized and payload operations, ground and blackouts. satellite-based communications, navigation, surveillance and weapon SPACE ENVIRONMENTAL system radar, as well as high-altitude SUPPORT reconnaissance aircraft and the Space Shuttle.

The 55th Space Weather Squadron Products (55SWXS). 55SWXS products fall into one of 55SWXS is DOD's only space environ- four categories: mental analysis and forecasting facility. It is a subordinate unit of the Air Force Parameter Observations. The 55SWXS monitors solar activity through the data Weather Agency (AFWA), Offutt AFB, received from SEON, other ground-based NE. At the time of this writing the plan is ionospheric sounder networks and to move the 55SWXS to Offutt's AFWA satellite-based sensors. Critical parameters facilities effective 1 Oct 2001. At that time from this data are used to optimize the 55SWXS will cease operations at tailored environmental models used in Schriever AFB, CO and the mission will specifying satellite locations and enhancing HF and satellite be conducted from AFWA. communications links, as well as radar and satellite tracking correction and The squadron is a 24-hour support calibration. operation providing tailored space environmental products and services to Analysis. Near-Real Time and Post DOD and national program customers. Analysis. This category gives system

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operators, engineers and decision-makers anomaly resolution in support of radar, expert analyses of the role the space satellite vehicle and payload operations. environment plays in system anomalies. This provides quicker resolution of Access to 55SWXS Products anomalies reducing system downtime and saving time searching for other causes. The 55SWXS uses a number of common user systems as well as dedicated point-to-point communication

Strategic 55 SWXS Tactical

Fig. 6-20. 55SWXS Mission Support circuits to support the dissemination of Forecasts. 24-Hours/days, 7 days per data. Products are available over the week. All portions of the radio spectrum Automated Weather Network (AWN) are subject to variability in the ionosphere. and both unclassified and classified The 55SWXS provides predictions of AUTODIN. See your local weather critical parameters for optimizing HF and support officer to gain access to products satellite communications operations and disseminated over the AWN and learn planning, satellite drag prediction and how to get them. To receive products via radar and satellite signal correction. AUTODIN, contact 55SWXS and your address will be added to the product Warnings. Navigation systems are distribution lists. influenced by energetic proton flux into the polar caps as well as geomagnetic Web Page activity. Also, energetic protons pose a significant health hazard to high-altitude The 55th Space Weather Squadron has reconnaissance aircraft pilots and a comprehensive web page. This web astronauts operating in the space page is available on Intelink and the environment. Satellite systems in certain Global Command and Control System orbits can perform anomalously or be (GCCS) as well as unclassified, non- damaged during solar flare induced DOD Internet systems. The address is: particle storms. The squadron provides http://www.schriever.af.mil/55swxs/inde situational awareness products, potential x.htm. systems effects and aids in system Product Catalog

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The 55SWXS maintains AFCAT • 55SWXS/DOO (Operations): 15-152, Volume 5, Space Environmental 24 hours a day Products. This publication describes the DSN: 560-6313/6312/6311/ space environmental analysis, forecast and 2404/6322 warning services provided by 55SWXS Commercial: (719) 567-xxxx and defines terms used in space FAX extensions: environmental products. However, most 6407/2100/6219 of the publication is devoted to a detailed description of each standard product • 55SWXS/DOUX (Requirements): available from the forecast center, plus 0730 - 1630 MST some samples of customer tailored DSN: 560-2420/2422/6331/6332 products. Commercial: (719) 567-xxxx FAX extensions: 2287/2288 Requests for Support • 55th Space Weather Squadron's Eligible organizations may request mailing address is: space environmental support or products. 55SWXS Several ways of dissemination are 715 Kepler Ave., Ste 60 available, (restrictions based on the Schriever AFB, Colorado 80912- product or support may apply) including 7160 AWN, AUTODIN, FAX and mail. The 614th Aerospace Weather Team AFI 15-118 Support Assistance Request (AWT) (SAR) th To request continuing, a-periodic or The 614/AWT is a unit of 14 Air Force one-time support (i.e., contingency, and operates around the clock at exercise or customized support), submit an Vandenberg AFB, CA in the AFI 15-118, Support Assistance Request Commanders Space Air Forces (SAR) to 55SWXS/DOO (Operations) or (COMSPACEAF) Aerospace Operations DOUX (Payload Management). The Center (AOC). The AWT receives its format of a SAR is described in AFI 15- 118 (available from most USAF base space environment strategic products weather units, including Army support from the AFWA and extracts information units). For additional details or assistance directly applicable to space operations. in determining support requirements, The information is put into reports and contact 55SWXS/DOUX (Payload forwarded to 14th Air Force units, Management). USSPACECOM and other components

Special Support such as ARSPACE and NAVSPACE. The 614/AWT also performs a reachback The 55SWXS/DOO (Operations) function for units such as Aerospace personnel can provide immediate support Expeditionary Forces (AEF) requiring 24 hours a day. They prefer to short duration support. coordinate requirements beforehand to ensure support is optimum, but short- notice responses may be requested.

Points of Contact:

• 55SWXS Internet Address: [email protected]

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REFERENCES

Air Force Catalog (AFCAT) 15-152, Vol 5. Space Environmental Products.

AF Instruction 15-118. Requesting Specialized Weather Support.

AFSFCP 105-3. Guide to Space Environmental Effects on DOD Operations.

Basu, S., and J. Larson. “Turbulence in the Upper Atmosphere: Effects on Satellite Systems”, AIAA 95-0548, 33rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, Jan 1995.

Jacchia, L., “Atmospheric Structure and Its Variations At Heights Above 200 KM”, CIRA (Cospar International Reference Atmosphere). North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam. 1965.

Space Weather Training Program Student Manual. Jun 1995. http://www.sec.noaa.gov/index.html Home page of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Provides space weather alerts, warnings, and forecasts, and related space weather information. http://www.sec.noaa.gov/info/Cycle23.html Overview of NOAA’s panel discussion and conclusion on predictions of how Solar Cycle 23 would affect space weather. http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/ Home page for the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory; capabilities, images, and related information. http://www.srl.caltech.edu/ACE/ Home page for the Advanced Composition Explorer spacecraft; educational and other information related to capabilities, projects, and goals. http://www.sel.noaa.gov/today.html NOAA’s Space Environment Center reviews today’s space environment and provides links to related space weather information. http://solar.sec.noaa.gov/primer/primer.html NOAA tutorial on space weather environment. http://www.ips.gov.au/papers/ Australian government website providing comprehensive information about the sun and space weather. http://www.ips.gov.au/papers/richard/calc_inter.html Provides predictions of solar interference to satellite based on satellite location information entered by user.

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TOC

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Chapter 7

TERRESTRIAL-SOLAR ENVIRONMENT AND EFFECTS ON MANNED SPACEFLIGHT

The space environment is hostile. This hostility is fueled primarily by the sun and extends into the terrestrial environment. This chapter examines the construction of the terrestrial environment, acting as a precursor to the following chapter, which details the space environment. As solar effects and activity fluctuate, the boundary between the terrestrial and space environment becomes decreasingly defined.

TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT or near sea level, the oxygen pressure above 10,000 feet is insufficient to Although there are many varied sustain active and efficient performance. definitions of space, for this discussion, Thus, the Air Force requires the use of an altitude of 150 km/93 miles is supplemental oxygen for flight crew sufficient. This is the minimum altitude members at altitudes above 10,000 feet. for maintaining a circular orbit around earth and equates to an 87.5 minute Stratosphere period. Now that the approximate parameters for satellite operation have The layer above the troposphere is been identified, the different layers of the called the stratosphere. This region is Earth's atmosphere should be addressed. characterized by the near absence of water vapor and clouds. The average altitude of this layer is seven miles at the Troposphere base and 22 miles at the top. Approximately 99 percent of the The troposphere is the lowest region atmosphere lies below the top of the of the atmosphere and extends up to an stratosphere. The temperature is a constant altitude of about seven miles (see Fig. -70° F from the troposphere to about 12 7-1). The troposphere contains about miles (20 kilometers), whereupon it three-fourths of the Earth's atmosphere inclines to about 30° F at the top of the by weight. It is in this layer of air that stratosphere. almost all cloud and weather At an altitude of about nine miles (15 phenomenon occur. The upper boundary km), supplemental oxygen fails as a of the troposphere is known as the sufficient aid to sustain life. Here the tropopause. Instrumental aircraft and combined pressure of carbon dioxide and balloons have observed a steady decrease water vapor in the lungs equals the in temperature as altitude increases. This outside atmospheric pressure, and temperature decrease continues until the therefore, breathing (more precisely, the tropopause, at which point it stabilizes at absorption of oxygen by the red blood -70° F. cells) cannot take place without At an altitude of 10,000 feet, the supplemental pressure. Hence, at this oxygen pressure of the atmosphere is not altitude, pressurized cabins or pressure great enough to allow people to work suits are a necessity. The vapor pressure efficiently over a long period of time. of human body fluids is about 47 mm of Although many people eventually mercury. As soon as the atmospheric become acclimated to altitudes of 10,000 pressure drops to this level, bubbles of feet and higher, for someone who lives at

AU Space Primer 23/07/2003 7 - 1 water vapor and other gases (notably Wearing a pressure suit or being nitrogen) appear in the body fluids. This contained in a pressurized cabin will means the blood literally starts to boil as prevent this problem. these bubbles continue to expand. The At 15 miles (25 km), compressing the gas bubbles first appear on the mucus outside air to pressurize a cabin is no membranes of the mouth and eyes and longer feasible. The air density is about later in the veins and arteries. This 1/27 of the sea level value at this would happen to an unprotected person at altitude. an altitude of about 12 miles (20 km). Compressing this thin air is not an

HARD-VACUUM

MAGNETOSPHERE EXOSPHERE

THERMOSPHERE

MESOSPHERE 1000

300

IONOSPHERE

TROPOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE

Fig. 7-1. Space Regions NOTE: All altitudes (given in miles) are approximate. Latitudes, seasons and solar activities cause significant deviations.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 2 impossible task, but is certainly not an (80 km). A pilot flying at or above this economical one. Furthermore, the process altitude earns astronaut wings. of air compression would involve undesirable heat transfer to the air. Thermosphere Finally, the atmosphere at this altitude contains a significant percentage of The thermosphere extends up to ozone, which if compressed, would somewhere between 200-300 miles (320- poison the cabin atmosphere. Above 15 480 km) beginning at about 50 miles (81 miles (25 km), the cabin or space suit km) (experts do not agree on an exact must have a supply of both oxygen and division). From the low temperature of pressure independent of the outside -135° F at the top of the mesosphere, the atmosphere, thus adding significantly to temperature curve increases again, the weight and degree of sophistication of reaching as high as 2,200° F. a vehicle. As far as a man is concerned, The atoms and molecules in this layer this altitude could be considered the are bombarded by powerful electromagnetic beginning of space. Above this altitude, waves from the Sun and become charged man must take everything he needs for or ionized, causing extreme temperatures. survival, as this environment will supply The thermosphere is also the region him no food, water or air. where the Aurora Borealis or the aurora The upper boundary of the stratosphere occurs, although it has been observed as contains the greatest concentration of high as 1,000 km. The solar wind plays ozone, which is a vital part of the Earth's an important role in the aurora by either atmosphere. It absorbs a large part of the supplying the necessary charged particles Sun's ultraviolet radiation, shielding the or by perturbing the magnetosphere so fragile process we call life from its that the particles are "dumped" into the harmful effects. This absorption process atmosphere near the magnetic poles. As heats up the thin atmosphere at this these particles collide with the sparse gas altitude to a temperature of 30° F. molecules in the upper atmosphere, light energy released causes auroral displays. Mesosphere In 1964, a New York law firm asked the Air Force Office of Aerospace The region of the atmosphere called Research to define the beginning of the mesosphere extends from the top of space. This scientific organization based the stratosphere at 22 miles (35 km) to their answer on aerodynamic forces, about 50 miles (80 km). All but one- probably because the majority of the staff millionth of the atmosphere lies below were associated with flying. These the top of the mesosphere, where the forces, acting on ballistic reentry vehicles, atmosphere is so thin that no sound can lifting reentry vehicles and boost-glide be transmitted. orbital vehicles, can usually be neglected The operating limit for turbojet at altitudes above 62 miles (100 km). engines is reached at 26 miles. However, Therefore, if an aeronautical engineer is there is not enough oxygen in the concerned with lift and drag, space atmosphere to operate even a ramjet begins above this altitude. engine once it reaches 28 miles. Engines About 100 miles (161 km) above the must be supplied with both a fuel and an Earth is a region of darkness and oxidizer above this altitude. Thus, to a complete silence. This is called the propulsion engineer, space commences at Black Sky region. The stars appear as 28 miles (45 km) because rockets must brilliant points of light and the area be used for propulsion above this height. between them is jet black because there is On the administrative side, space starts not enough air to scatter or reflect the at the top of the mesosphere at 50 miles light rays.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 3 Also part of the thermosphere is the extent, escape into outer space. There are ionosphere. When we discuss so few molecules in this outer stretch of communications, both ground and via the atmosphere that even temperatures satellite, the ionosphere plays a are hard to define. significant role in the success or failure of the communications. The ionosphere THE SOLAR ENVIRONMENT begins in the upper part of the mesosphere and extends upward through The Sun the thermosphere and ends just short of the exosphere in the upper region of the thermosphere. The Sun's rays, including The Sun is a typical star - a great X-rays and ultraviolet radiation, pass into sphere of luminous gas (see Fig. 7-2). It the thermosphere and break the layer's is composed of the same chemical molecules into positive ions and negative elements that compose the Earth and electrons. These ions and electrons other objects of the universe, but in the refract radio transmissions from earth Sun (and other similar stars) these back toward the surface, facilitating the elements are heated to a gaseous state. reception of long-range radio broadcast Tremendous pressure is produced by the in the High Frequency (HF) frequency great weight of the Sun's layers. The range. The ionosphere will be discussed high temperature of its interior and the in more detail in this publication's consequent thermonuclear reactions keep Chapter 6. the Sun gaseous. These nuclear reactions are the source of the energy continuously Exosphere radiated to space, which drives solar activity. A relatively small core contains The exosphere is the most distant most of the mass and is almost entirely atmospheric region from the Earth's responsible for the Sun's luminosity. The surface. The upper boundary of the layer core is defined as the central sphere extends to heights of perhaps 960 to 1000 within one fourth the radius of the Sun. miles and is relatively undefined. The exosphere is a transitional zone between The Sun's core temperature is 15 Earth's atmosphere and interplanetary million degrees Kelvin (K). Its pressure space. It is only from the exosphere that is approximately 250 billion atmospheres atmospheric gases can, to any appreciable and its specific gravity is slightly less than 160. The energy released in the core

Fig. 7-2. The Sun AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 4 results from the fusion of hydrogen transitioning from one region to the next. nuclei to form helium nuclei. The core These are the photosphere, the also contains almost all of the products or chromosphere and the corona. "ashes" of the nuclear burning. The next region out from the core is Photosphere called the radiative envelope because the energy generated in the Sun's core is The solar photosphere is what one transferred toward the surface by sees when looking at the sun. It is not a radiation. Outward from the core, the discrete surface but instead covers a temperature, pressure and density range of depths from which the solar decrease rapidly, as does the energy of an radiation escapes. The energy radiated average photon. Photons are absorbed by the photosphere constitutes almost all and re-emitted many times as they diffuse of the energy emitted by the Sun. Direct toward the surface. In this way, the telescopic observation and photography energy flowing from the core in the form show that the photosphere is not perfectly of high-energy gamma rays is changed to smooth, but has a mottled appearance x-rays, to extreme ultraviolet (EUV) rays, resembling rice grains. This structure of to ultraviolet (UV) rays and finally to the the photosphere is now generally called lower energy visible light which is most granulation. Typically, granules are characteristic of the solar energy freely about 1,000 km in diameter (the smallest radiated to space. Temperature is the gas observed are about 300 km across). They property that is primarily responsible for appear as bright spots surrounded by the establishment of a turbulent layer narrow darker regions. The granules beneath the Sun's surface. In the themselves are columns of hotter gases radiation zone, the temperature has rising from below the photosphere and as reached a value which is low relative to the rising gas reaches the photosphere it that in the core (1 million degrees K). spreads out and sinks down again. The The final layer of the solar interior is darker intergranular regions are the the convection envelope zone. As the cooler gases sinking back, while the name implies, the primary mode of centers of the granules are hotter than the energy transfer through this zone is direct intergranular regions by 50 to 100 transport, rather than radiation. Each degrees K. The vertical motions of gases element of rising gas carries its own in the granules have speeds of about 2 or parcel of energy directly to the surface. 3 km/s. Individual granules persist for In addition to this mode of transfer, the about 8 minutes and are the pinnacles of powerful turbulence generates noise or convection currents of gases seen through "mechanical energy," which as low- the photosphere. frequency sound waves, propagates The most conspicuous features of the through the photosphere and into the photosphere are the Sunspots. Sun's outer layers. Although the amount Occasionally, spots on the sun are large of energy transported in this way is enough to be visible to the naked eye and relatively small, it plays a major role in such spots have been observed for many establishing the character of the outer centuries. Galileo was the first to show layers of the Sun. Sunspots to be on the surface of the sun, The only parts of the Sun that can be rather than opaque patches in the Earth's observed directly are its outer layers, atmosphere or the silhouettes of planets collectively known as the Sun's between the sun and earth. In 1774, atmosphere. The solar atmosphere is not Alexander Wilson suggested the spots stratified into physically distinct layers were "holes" through which one could with sharp boundaries. Yet there are see past the photosphere into a cooler three general regions each having interior of the sun. However, the spots substantially different properties, gradually are not holes in the photosphere, but

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 5 rather regions where the gases are cooler Filaments are the same phenomena, but than those of the surrounding regions. are seen against the solar disk and Sunspots are still hotter than the surfaces consequently appear darker than the of many stars and if they could be hotter solar background. removed from the sun, they would be The space environment is determined seen to shine brightly; they appear dark to a very large extent by the Sun. Many only by contrast with the hotter, brighter phenomena on or near the Earth are surrounding photosphere. Individual closely related to solar activity, although Sunspots have lifetimes that range from a sometimes the exact nature of the few hours to a few months. Most of them relationship is not well understood. The disappear within a day but a few persist Sun is constantly radiating energy even for a week or occasionally much longer. under quiet conditions. This "steady- state" phenomenon is called the solar Chromosphere wind. Because of the high temperature of the Sun's corona, protons and electrons The region of the Sun's atmosphere beyond a certain distance from the Sun immediately above the photosphere is the acquire velocities in excess of the escape chromosphere. Until this century the velocity from the Sun. Thus, there is a chromosphere was best observed when continuous outward flow of charged the Moon, during a total solar eclipse particles in all directions from the Sun. covered the photosphere. Today it is This quiet is interrupted at irregular possible to photograph both the intervals by "transient" solar flares of chromosphere and its spectrum outside of varying intensity, which appear suddenly an eclipse. The chromosphere is about over small areas of the Sun. The high 2,000 to 3,000 km thick, but in its upper speed of solar protons emitted by a solar region it breaks up into a forest of jets flare are probably the most potent of the (called spicules). So the position of the radiation hazards to space flight. Flares upper boundary of the chromosphere is themselves are probably the most somewhat arbitrary. The temperature spectacular disturbances seen on the Sun. increases through the chromosphere from They are observed optically as a sudden 4,500° K at the photosphere to 100,000° large increase in light from a portion of K or so at the upper chromospheric levels. the Sun's atmosphere. A flare may Ultraviolet observations of the spread in area during its lifetime, which chromosphere, such as those made from may be from several minutes to a few Skylab, have been especially helpful in hours. There is a relationship between revealing information about its structures. the number of Sunspots and the frequency of flare formation, but the most Corona important flares do not necessarily occur at solar cycle maximum. The final layer of the solar There are many events that may occur atmosphere is the corona, which extends on Earth following a solar flare. In from the top of the chromosphere out addition to the increase in visible light millions of miles into space. The corona minutes after the start of a flare, there is a is normally invisible except during an Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID) in eclipse or when using a coronagraph. the Earth's ionosphere. This, in turn, The average temperature of the corona is causes short wave fadeout, resulting in 1.5 million degrees K. The corona exists the loss of long range communications in a fully ionized state, within which for 15 minutes to an hour. X-rays ionized gas occasionally condenses and emitted by the flare probably cause the streams down the localized magnetic field SIDs. During the first few minutes of a lines. As seen against the background of flare, there may be a radio noise storm space, these are called prominences. consisting of bursts of noise over a wide

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 6 range of frequencies. There may also be The first thing for mission planners to disturbances in the Earth's magnetic field, realize is that there is no region of space changes in the auroras and decreases in free from radiation. Therefore, the U.S. solar cosmic ray intensity. However, is forced to accept some risk for each from the point of view of a space space journey. The primary concern lies traveler, the most important effect is the in the ionizing radiation from high- marked increase in solar protons. The energy particles (protons and electrons). energy of these protons ranges from If a particle possesses enough energy, it about 10 Million Electron Volts (mev) to can pass through the protective about 500 mev. Consequently, the dose equipment and impact the crewmember's of radiation accumulated during exposure body. An extremely high-energy particle to the solar protons may vary from will pass through the body with no negligible to well above a lethal dose. serious effects. The body upon impact These flares may be weak and last will stop particles of slightly less energy. only 5 to l0 minutes, or strong and last up As these particles decelerate, their energy to several hours. Flares are sporadic is converted into a pulse of EM radiation. emissions of electromagnetic energy (UV, This EM radiation will ionize atoms x-ray and IR) and high-energy charged within a crewmember's body and the particles (mostly protons and electrons). biological result of radiation can be Particles are actually spiraled into monitored to determine the impact. The interplanetary space at average velocities unit of measurement for this is the REM, between 300 km/s to 550 km/s (186-342 which relates the biological damage to mi/s). the type of radiation (1 REM = dose RAD x relative biological effectiveness EFFECTS ON MANNED (RBE)). Radiation damages the body by SPACEFLIGHT altering the chemical makeup of individual cells. If the dose is high It is one thing to put a satellite in orbit, enough, the cell can be destroyed. This but quite another to put a man in orbit can lead to the failure of systems within and keep him there. In addition to the body. The more sensitive organ command, control, health and welfare of systems and tissues within the body are a satellite, there is the need for a the blood, digestive, central nervous, breathable atmosphere, waste skin, eyes and reproductive. The dose management, heat and humidity received will determine whether the regulation along with the possibility of impact is immediate or delayed. The contaminants and radiation. What about health of the individual will also have an limiting acceleration during lift-off/re- impact on the severity of the effects. entry, vibration, noise and lighting? How There are several methods that can be about the physiological change of used to protect astronauts from radiation weightlessness, the concern of muscle or minimize their exposure. These deconditioning, the loss of calcium methods are mission timing, orbital within the bones and the psychological planning and shielding. The first area to stress of isolation from planet Earth? consider should be mission timing. To Manned space-flight is a true challenge. minimize the effects of solar activity, However, past experience has missions should be planned during solar demonstrated that it can be accomplished minimum. Unfortunately, this approach without loss of life by staying flexible is usually not feasible due to time and adaptable to a new environment. constraints. Mission timing may involve scheduling the construction of a space Radiation Concerns station for the least hazardous period of the solar cycle, or making minor changes to an existing mission such as termination

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 7 of an extravehicular activity (EVA) during very energetic solar flare activity. Orbital planning can be a viable means Life Support of reducing radiation exposure. In general, equatorial orbits and low altitude/low There are numerous necessities/ inclination orbits are the least hazardous, requirements for keeping a person alive while geosynchronous orbits (GEO), and functioning in space. Whether at especially during solar particle events, extreme altitudes or in space, people expose the crewmember to the greatest require a sealed cabin or spacesuit that levels of ionizing radiation. The one provides an adequate partial pressure of exception to this is in the South Atlantic oxygen (O2) for tissue oxygenation. The Anomaly, where weak magnetic fields cabin may contain nitrogen, which makes allow charged particles to reach a lower up 80% of the Earth's atmosphere. altitude. The early U.S. space vehicles (Mercury, The most common protection used is Gemini and Apollo) contained 100% shielding. This can be in the form of a oxygen at five pounds per square inch spacesuit or designed within the walls of (psi). The advantages of this atmosphere the spacecraft. Material used for shielding were: must be dense yet lightweight. Aluminum (Al) is usually the choice for • Lower pressure allowed for most applications. Heavier metals would reduced strength of storage be more effective, but add additional containers, therefore reduced weight. The thickness of the aluminum weight in the spacecraft can vary from 0.8 mm to several • Allowed for simplified gas control millimeters, depending on the orbit and (only one gas) duration of the mission. A large manned • Absence of nitrogen eliminated the space structure would typically have possibility of space sickness (short about 5-8 g/cm2 (Al) shielding surrounding term missions) the habitat or work area. For most orbits, 5 g/cm2 (Al) represents a safe compromise The disadvantages of this atmosphere between a worker's health and weight were: limitations. Future manned space missions will • Increased fire hazards (Apollo I: expose astronauts to radiation hazards Grissom, White and Chaffee killed more severe than those dealt with today. on the pad) Missions requiring high inclination or • Tendency to produce anemia (lack high altitude will have to be closely of red blood cells) monitored to determine the effect of • Extended duration may prove to be radiation on the crew. Planners will have toxic to consider both the short-term impact of solar flare events and the problem of total Due to these disadvantages, the Skylab dosage to crewmembers in orbits with a used an atmosphere composed of 70% high density of charged particles. Future oxygen and 30% nitrogen, which is the designers will have to determine the opposite of the Earth's mixture. This amount of shielding that can economically change decreased the hazard of fire and be sent into orbit. If the shielding is not the susceptibility of anemia (decrease in enough, scenarios will have to be red blood cells), but increased that of developed to enable the retrieval of space sickness. astronauts to low-Earth orbits until the Currently, the space shuttle uses 80% danger is past. All of these areas will nitrogen and 20% oxygen mixture at 14.7 have to be examined in order to design psi (same as Earth at sea level). As with the optimal mission. Skylab, this mixture makes the crew

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 8 more susceptible to space sickness. The Waste management is not as critical for increase in space sickness is believed to an open-loop system as it is for a closed- be caused by the absence of gravity, loop system. The primary types of waste combined with the presence of nitrogen, encountered are exhaled waste products, leading to a lack of equilibrium for the standard trash and of course, biological astronauts. Also, the normal pressure waste products. All of these types of makes it necessary for stronger and wastes must be collected and stored. In heavier structures for cabin composition. an open-loop system, a person's largest Thus far, the types of atmosphere an waste product is oxygen (O). We breath astronaut can breathe in space have been in 22.7 lbs. of O and only use 9% of it, discussed. However, in addition to exhaling 20.7 lbs. of O. A possible oxygen, astronauts also need food and solution would be to remove CO2 and water. A person has a requirement for H2O vapor from the exhaled waste gases approximately 22.7 pounds of oxygen, and return the O to the astronauts. 4.7 pounds of water and 1.3 pounds of Today's systems filter out these food per day. At the same time, one can byproducts, and provide supplemental O see an equivalent weight of waste from cylinders carried on board the products being produced. Presently, it is spacecraft. impossible to carry these stored materials In addition to the cabin environmental on space missions because of the weight control systems, the astronauts must have involved. Therefore, the food currently environmental suits to protect them in the consists of dehydrated foods, which are event of loss of cabin pressure and for rehydrated by hot/cold water on board. extravehicular activity (EVA). These However, this is impractical for suits must provide the same protection, as spaceflights of several months or years. the cabin provides the following: Therefore, for future long-term missions, scientists must design a system of • Atmosphere regeneration (growing food) from the • Water materials on board the spacecraft. This • Waste Collection system consists of recycling all waste • Heating/Cooling products, such that they can be used • Communications again. For example, carbon dioxide • Guidance/Control (CO2) and water (H2O) wastes would be • Shielding/Protection from recycled into foods high in protein and radiation and micrometeoroids carbohydrates. Also, scientists believe that algae could be used to absorb CO2 Physiological Stresses and produce O2, and then be eaten. Another possibility is that algae could Normally, human internal heat use urine and fecal material (like we do regulatory mechanisms tend to keep the here on Earth) to form a nutrient broth. body temperature at a constant 98.6° F. Even if a closed-loop or regeneration This is done via heat loss by respiration system is finally developed and and through the skin. If the body needs employed, some food must be taken to cool off, the blood vessels near the along to break-up the monotony of the skin dilate and result in perspiration. diet. Supplemental vitamins should also Usually, a nude body can maintain be included in convenient form. This thermal balance in an environment food would also act as a back up should between 70-80° F with a relative the regeneration system malfunction or humidity of 45%. In spacecraft, it is fail. difficult to maintain this type of Waste management is the process of environment due to the electronic gear on effectively controlling waste products board, friction caused by leaving/re- within the confines of a spacecraft. entering the Earth's atmosphere and

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 9 sunlight/shadow on the spacecraft's outer structure and on-board equipment help to hull. Therefore, special suits are worn alleviate the noise problem. under the pressure suit to provide Manned spacecraft are able to receive circulating water to help dissipate the light from the Sun either continuously, if heat along with air-conditioning in the in free space, or for a majority of time if cabin. Current technology has allowed the vehicle is in orbit around the planet. the shuttle crews to exist in a "T-shirt" The light can be brought into the environment, except during EVA. spacecraft, but the UV light must be The problems associated with the filtered and the Sun's intensity must be mechanical environment include all those diffused. We can also provide artificial stresses placed on an astronaut as a result illumination to the spacecraft. of the vehicle and its operations in the Regardless of the method of lighting, it space environment: acceleration, vibration, must be controlled to allow for the noise, lighting and weightlessness. These concept of passage of time to assist in stresses occur during lift-off and velocity maintaining regular sleeping habits. changes associated with re-entry. Due to There are many physiological changes the effects of these increased forces on that occur once in orbit. The first to the cardiovascular and muscular systems, show up are shifts in the body fluids and an astronaut must have some protection. changes in the elastic properties of the The circulatory system tolerance varies, blood vessels. The former can lead to a depending on the manner in which the "fullness of head" condition which can "G" (unit of gravity forces) force is upset the body's equilibrium. This applied. Therefore, astronauts use the condition refers to body fluids pooling in supine (lying down, facing upward) the upper chest and head region. The position with the head and feet slightly sensation is similar to hanging upside raised to enable the astronaut to down for long periods of time. The body withstand up to 20 Gs for short periods of usually adapts quickly to these changes. time. The maximum G force for the Areas of greater concern include muscle shuttle is three Gs, similar to flying a de-conditioning, which is currently heavy glider. controlled by physical conditioning while Man is most sensitive to the vibration in orbit. This appears to work for current frequency range of 4-10 cycles/second, programs, but will have to be closely because the major internal organs' natural monitored to determine if this approach is resonance frequency is in this range. adequate for long duration missions. When the organs become resonant with The problem of mineral imbalance is the vibrations, one may suffer severe also of great concern. Current research pain, nausea, headaches and dizziness. has not shown that this condition can be The organs begin tearing away from the controlled. One of the main areas where mesentery holding them in place. this shows up is in the loss of calcium Current power and control procedures within the bones. have minimized this problem. NASA has many ongoing studies to Noise has been a problem for people simulate the effects of weightlessness and for a long time, but never before has the to determine the health impacts. The CIS intensity been so great as the noise has also collected valuable data in this produced by space boosters. The area, in conjunction with their maximum tolerance of noise for people is cosmonauts reaching more than one year about 140-150 decibels (dB), at which on orbit. The bottom line will again be level permanent damage to the hearing trade-off between crew health, design mechanism will occur if exposure considerations and mission requirements. continues for approximately one minute. The effects of working in a zero-G Space boosters generate 145-175 dB environment have been well studied and during lift-off. Materials in the vehicle documented. In question are the effects

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 10 that will be seen when the length of space relatively short time periods in low-Earth missions extends beyond one year. orbits, where the astronauts know they Planners will have to consider the long can be retrieved if necessary. As we and short-term health problems. Some extend the time on orbit the risks may have to be taken if a particular psychological stresses increase. Space mission is long in duration and leaves the stations and interplanetary vehicles will near-Earth environment. An example of have to meet the psychological this would be a manned mission to Mars. requirements of the crew. Earlier Ground controllers would be unable to missions attempted to do this by keeping retrieve an astronaut if health problems the crew busy with an increased occurred. Also any rescue attempt would workload. However this will not be probably arrive too late. practical on prolonged flights. Possible ways to minimize this problem are Psychological Stresses through proper design of the spacecraft and intensive crew screening. Of concern will be the long periods of isolation required in future manned spaceflights. Current missions involve

REFERENCES

AFCAT 15-152, Vol 5. Space Environmental Products.

AFI 15-118. Requesting Specialized Weather Support.

AFSCP 105-3. Guide to Space Environmental Effects on DOD Operations.

Space Weather Training Program Student Manual. June 1995.

TOC

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 7 - 11 Chapter 8

ORBITAL MECHANICS

Knowledge of orbital motion is essential for a full understanding of space operations. The vantage point of space can be visualized through the motion Kepler described and by comprehending the reasons for that motion as described by Newton. Thus, the objectives here are to gain a conceptual understanding of orbital motion and become familiar with common terms describing that motion.

A HISTORY OF length of the year with a deviation of less THE LAWS OF MOTION1 than 0.001% from the correct value, and their observations were accurate, enabling Early Cosmology them to precisely predict astronomical events. Although based on mythological This generation is far too assumptions, these cosmological theories knowledgeable to perceive the universe as “worked.” early man saw it. Each generation uses Greece took over from Babylon and the knowledge of the previous generation Egypt, creating a more colorful universe. as a foundation to build upon in the ever- However, the 6th century BC (the century continuing search for comprehension. of Buddha, Confucius and Lâo Tse, the When the foundation is faulty, the tower Ionian philosophers and Pythagoras) was of understanding eventually crumbles and a turning point for the human species. In a new building proceeds in a different the Ionian school of philosophy, rational direction. Such was the case during the thought was emerging from the dark ages in medieval Europe and the mythological dream world. It was the Renaissance. beginning of the great adventure in which The Babylonians, Egyptians and the Promethean quest for natural Hebrews each had various ingenious explanations and rational causes would explanations for the movements of the transform humanity more radically than in heavenly bodies. According to the the previous two hundred thousand years. Babylonians, the Sun, Moon and stars danced across the heavenly dome entering Astronomy through doors in the East and vanishing through doors in the West. The Egyptians Many early civilizations recognized the explained heavenly movement with rivers pattern and regularity of the stars’ and in a suspended gallery upon which the planets’ motion and made efforts to track Sun, Moon and planets sailed, entering and predict celestial events. The through stage doors in the East and invention and upkeep of a calendar exiting through stage doors in the West. required at least some knowledge of Though one may view these ancient astronomy. The Chinese had a working cosmologies with a certain arrogance and calendar at least by the 13th or 14th marvel at the incredible creativity by century BC. They also kept accurate which they devised such a picture of the records for things such as comets, meteor universe, their observations were showers, fallen meteorites and other amazingly precise. They computed the heavenly phenomena. The Egyptians were able to roughly predict the flooding of the Nile every year: near the time when 1Much of this information comes from Arthur the star Sirius could be seen in the dawn Koestler’s The Sleepwalkers.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 8 - 1 sky, rising just before the Sun. The “The shape of the world must be a Bronze Age peoples in northwestern perfect sphere, and that all motion must Europe left many monuments indicating be in perfect circles at uniform speed.” their ability to understand the movement of celestial bodies. The best known is This circular motion was so Stonehenge, which was used as a crude aesthetically appealing that Aristotle calendar. promoted this circular motion into a The early Greeks initiated the orbital dogma of astronomy. The theories, postulating the Earth was fixed mathematicians’ task was now to design a with the planets and other celestial bodies system reducing the apparent irregularities moving around it; a geocentric universe. of planetary motion to regular motions in About 300 BC, Aristarchus of Samos perfectly fixed circles. This task would suggested that the Sun was fixed and the keep them busy for the next two thousand planets, including the Earth, were in years. circular orbits around the Sun; a Perhaps the most elaborate and fanciful heliocentric universe. Although system was one Aristotle constructed Aristarchus was more correct (at least using fifty-four spheres to account for the about a heliocentric solar system), his motions of the seven planets.2 Despite ideas were too revolutionary for the time. Aristotle’s enormous prestige, this system Other prominent astronomers/philosophers was so contrived that it was quickly were held in higher esteem and, since they forgotten. In the 2nd century AD, favored the geocentric theory, Ptolemy modified and amplified the Aristarchus’ heliocentric theory was geocentric theory explaining the apparent rejected and the geocentric theory motion of the planets by replacing the continued to be predominately accepted. “sphere inside a sphere” concept with a Aristotle, one of the more famous “wheel inside a wheel” arrangement. Greek philosophers, wrote encyclopedic According to his theory, the planets treatises on nearly every field of human revolve about imaginary planets, which in endeavor. Aristotle was accepted as the turn revolve around the Earth. Thus, this ultimate authority during the medieval theory employed forty wheels: thirty-nine period and his views were upheld by the to represent the seven planets and one for Roman Catholic Church, even to the time the fixed stars. of Galileo. However, his expositions in Even though Ptolemy’s system was the physical sciences in general, and geocentric, this complex system more or astronomy in particular, were less sound less described the observable universe and than some of his other works. successfully accounted for celestial Nevertheless, his writings indicate the observations. With some later Greeks understood such phenomena as modifications, his theory was accepted phases of the Moon and eclipses at least in with absolute authority throughout the the 4th century BC. Other early Greek Middle Ages until it finally gave way to astronomers, such as Eratosthenes and the heliocentric theory in the 17th century. Hipparchus, studied the problems confronting astronomers, such as: How Modern Astronomy far away are the heavenly bodies? How large is the Earth? What kind of geometry Copernicus best explains the observations of the planets’ motions and their relationships? In the year 1543, some 1,800 years The Greeks were under the influence of after Aristarchus proposed a heliocentric Plato’s metaphysical understanding of the system, a Polish monk named Nicolas universe, which stated: 2In this instance the seven “planets” include the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 2 Koppernias (better known by his Latin Tycho and Kepler’s relationship was name, Copernicus) revived the far from a great friendship. It was short heliocentric theory when he published De (eighteen months) and fraught with Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On controversy. This brief relationship ended the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres). when Tycho De Brahe, the meticulous This work represented an advance, but observer who introduced precision into there were still some inaccuracies. For astronomical measurement and example, Copernicus thought that the transformed the science, became orbital paths of all planets were circles terminally ill and died in 1601. with their centers displaced from the center of the sun. Kepler Copernicus did not prove that the Earth revolves about the sun; the Ptolemic Johannes Kepler was born in system, with some adjustments, could Wurttemberg, Germany, in 1571. He have accounted just as well for the experienced an unstable childhood that, observed planetary motion. However, the by his own accounts, was unhappy and Copernican system had more ascetic ridden with sickness. However, Kepler’s value. Unlike the Ptolemic system, it was genius propelled him through school and elegant and simple without having to guaranteed his continued education. resort to artful wheel upon wheel Kepler studied theology and learned structures. Although it upset the church the principles of the Copernican system. and other ruling authorities, Copernicus He became an early convert to the made the Earth an astronomical body, heliocentric hypothesis, defending it in which brought unity to the universe. arguments with fellow students. In 1594, Kepler was offered a position Tycho De Brahe teaching mathematics and astronomy at the high school in Gratz. One of his Three years after the publication of De duties included preparing almanacs Revolutionibus, Tyge De Brahe was born providing astronomical and astrological to a family of Danish nobility. Tycho, as data. Although he thought astrology, as he came to be known, developed an early practiced, was essentially quackery, he interest in astronomy and made significant believed the stars affected earthly events. astronomical observations as a young During a lecture having no relation to man. His reputation gained him royal astronomy, Kepler had a flash of insight; patronage and he was able to establish an he felt with certainty that it was to guide astronomical observatory on the island of his thoughts throughout his cosmic Hveen in 1576. For 20 years, he and his journey. Kepler had wondered why there assistants carried out the most complete were only six planets and what and accurate astronomical observations determined their separation. This flash of yet made. insight provided the basis for his Tycho was a despotic ruler of Hveen, revolutionary discoveries. Kepler which the king could not sanction. Thus, believed that each orbit was inscribed Tycho fell from favor, leaving Hveen in within a sphere that enclosed a perfect 1597 free to travel. He ended his travels solid3 within which existed the next in Prague in 1599 and became Emperor orbital sphere and so on for all the planets. Rudolph II’s Imperial Mathematicus. It was during this time that a young 3A perfect solid is a three dimensional geometric mathematician, who would also become figure whose faces are identical and are regular an exile from his native land, began polygons. These solids are: (1) tetrahedron correspondence with Tycho. Johannes bounded by four equilateral triangles, (2) cube, (3) Kepler joined Tycho in 1600 and, with no octahedron (eight equilateral triangles), (4) do- means of self-support, relied on Tycho for decahedron (twelve pentagons), and (5) icosahe- material well being. dron (twenty equilateral triangles).

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 3 He did not believe these solids actually Kepler’s Laws existed, but rather, God created the planetary orbits in relation to these perfect Kepler’s earth-shaking discoveries solids. However, Kepler made the errant came in anything but a straightforward connection that this was the basis of the manner. He struggled through tedious divine plan, because there are only five calculations for years just to find that they regular solids and there were only six led to false conclusions. Kepler stumbled known planets. upon his second law (which is actually the Kepler explained his pseudo- one he discovered first) through a discoveries in his first book, the succession of canceling errors. He was Mysterium Cosmographicum (Cosmic aware of these errors and in his Mystery). Although based on faulty explanation of why they canceled he got reasoning, this book became the basis for hopelessly lost. In the struggle for the Kepler’s later great discoveries. The first law (discovered second), Kepler scientific and metaphysical communities seemed determined not to see the solution. at the time were divided as to the worth of He wrote several times telling friends that this first work. Kepler continued working if the orbits were just an ellipse, then all toward proving his theory and in doing so, would be solved, but it wasn’t until much found fault with his enthusiastic first later that he actually tried an ellipse. In book. In his attempts at validation, he his frustrating machinations, he derived an came to realize he could only continue equation for an ellipse in a form he did not with Tycho’s data—but he did not have recognize4. He threw out his formula the means to travel and begin their (which described an ellipse) because he relationship. Fortunately for the wanted to try an entirely new orbit: an advancement of astronomy, the power of ellipse5. the Catholic Church in Gratz grew to a point where Kepler, a Protestant, was Kepler’s 1st Law forced to quit his post. He then traveled (Law of Ellipses) to Prague where his short tumultuous relationship with Tycho began. On 4 The orbits of the planets are February 1600, Kepler finally met Tycho ellipses with the Sun at one De Brahe and became his assistant. focus. Tycho originally set Kepler to work on the motion of Mars, while he kept the majority of his astronomical data secret. This task was particularly difficult because Mars’ orbit is the second most eccentric (of the then known planets) and defied the circular explanation. After many months and several violent outbursts, Tycho sent Kepler on a mission to find a satisfactory theory of planetary motion (the study of Mars continued to be dominant in this quest); one compatible with the long series of observations made at Hveen. 4In modern denotation, the formula is: After Tycho’s death in 1601, Kepler R=1+ecos(β) became Emperor Rudolph’s Imperial where R is the distance from the Sun, β the longi- Mathematicus. He finally obtained tude referred to the center of the orbit, and e the possession of the majority of Tycho’s eccentricity. records, which he studied for the next 5After accepting the truth of his elliptical hypothe- twenty-five years of his life. sis, Kepler eventually realized his first equation was also an ellipse.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 4 happen to intersect the Earth’s surface Later Sir Isaac Newton found that (Fig. 8-2). certain refinements had to be made to With Kepler’s second law, he was on Kepler’s first law to account for the trail of Newton’s Law of Universal perturbing influences. Neglecting such Gravitation. He was also hinting at influences (e.g., atmospheric drag, mass calculus, which was not yet invented. asymmetry and third body effects), the law applies accurately to all orbiting Kepler’s 2nd Law bodies. (Law of Equal Areas) Figure 8-1 shows an ellipse where Fl is one focus and F2 is the other. This The line joining the planet to depiction illustrates that, by definition, an the Sun sweeps out equal ellipse is constructed by joining all points areas in equal times. that have the same combined distance (D) between the foci. Based on his observation, Kepler reasoned that a planet’s speed depended on its distance to the Sun. He drew the connection that the Sun must be the source of a planet’s motive force. With circular orbits, Kepler’s second law is easy to visualize (Fig. 8-3). In a circular orbit an object’s speed and radius both remain constant, and therefore, in a Fig. 8-1. Ellipse with axis given interval of time it travels the same

The maximum diameter of an ellipse is called its major axis; the minimum diameter is the minor axis. The size of an ellipse depends in part upon the length of its major axis. The shape of an ellipse is denoted by eccentricity (e) which is the ratio of the distance between the foci to the length of the major axis (see Orbit Geometry section). The path of ballistic missiles (not

Ballistic M issile

Fig. 8-3. Kepler’s 2nd Law

distance along the circumference of the circle. The areas swept out over these intervals are equal. However, closed orbits in general are not circular but instead elliptical with.non- zero eccentricity (An ellipse with zero Fig. 8-2. Ballistic Missile Path eccentricity is a circle6 see pg. 8-11). including the powered and reentry 6That is, naturally occurring orbits have some non- portion) are also ellipses; however, they zero eccentricity. A circle is a special form of an ellipse where the eccentricity is zero. Most artifi-

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 5 Kepler’s second law isn’t quite as obvious of their mean distances from when applied to an ellipse. Figure 8-4 the Sun.8 depicts an elliptical orbit where two equal areas are swept out in equal intervals of Kepler’s 3rd Law directly relates the time but are not symmetric. It is also square of the period to the cube of the apparent from Fig 8-4 the closer a planet mean distance for orbiting objects. He is to the Sun (also, any satellite to its believed in an underlying harmony in prime mover, like the Earth) the faster it nature. It was a great personal triumph when he found a simple algebraic relationship, which he believed to be related to musical harmonics.

Isaac Newton

On Christmas Day 1642, the year Galileo died, there was born a male infant tiny and frail, Isaac Newton—who would alter the thought and habit of the world. Newton stood upon the shoulders of those who preceded him; he was able to piece together Kepler’s laws of planetary Fig. 8-4. An Elliptical Orbit motion with Galileo’s ideas of inertia and physical causes, synthesizing his laws of travels7. motion and gravitation. These principles Kepler discovered his third law ten are general and powerful, and are years after he published the first two in responsible for much of our technology Astronomia Nova (New Astronomy). He today. had been searching for a relationship Newton took a circuitous route in between a planet’s period and its distance formulating his hypotheses. In 1665, an from the Sun since his youth. Kepler was outbreak of the plague forced the looking at harmonic relationships in an University of Cambridge to close for two attempt to explain the relative planetary years. During those two years, the 23- spacing. After many false steps and with year-old genius conceived the law of dogged persistence, he discovered his gravitation, the laws of motion and the famous relationship: fundamental concepts of differential calculus. Due to some small Kepler’s 3rd Law discrepancies in his explanation of the (Law of Harmonics) Moon’s motion, he tossed his papers aside; it would be 20 years before the The squares of the periods of world would learn of his momentous revolution for any two planets discoveries. are to each other as the cubes Edmund Halley asked the question that brought Newton’s discoveries before the world. Halley was visiting Newton at Cambridge and posed the question: “If the Sun pulled on the planets with a force inversely proportional to the square of the cial satellites are predominately in orbits that are as close to circular as we can achieve. P 2 7Kepler’s second law is basically stating that an- 8In mathematical terms: 3 = k , where P is gular momentum remains constant, but the concept a of angular momentum wasn’t invented when he the orbital period, a is the semi-major axis, which formulated his laws. is the average orbital distance, and k is a constant.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 6 distances, in what paths ought they to is the resistance of mass to changes in its go?” To Halley’s astonishment, Newton motion. His second law describes how replied without hesitation: “Why in motion changes. It is important to define ellipses, of course. I have already momentum before describing the second calculated it and have the proof among my law. Momentum is a measure of an papers somewhere.” Newton was object’s motion. Momentum ( pv ) is a referring to his work during the plague vector quantity defined as the product of outbreak 20 years earlier and in this an object’s mass (m) and its relative casual way, his great discovery was made velocity (vv )10. known to the world. Newton’s second law describes the Halley encouraged his friend to relationship between the applied force, the completely develop and publish his v v explanation of planetary motion. The p = m v result appeared in 1687 as The Mathematical Principles of Natural mass of the object and the resulting Philosophy, or simply the Principia. motion:

Newton’s Laws Newton’s 2nd Law (Momentum) As we’ve seen, many great thinkers were on the edge of discovery, but it was When a force is applied to a Newton that took the pieces and body, the time rate of change formulated a grand view that was of momentum is proportional consistent and capable of describing and to, and in the direction of, the unifying the mundane motion of a “falling applied force. apple” and the motion of the planets:9 When we take the time rate of change of Newton’s 1st Law an object’s momentum (essentially (Inertia) differentiate momentum with respect to time, dpv dt ), this second law becomes Every body continues in a state Newton’s famous equation:11 of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by a force imposed upon it. v F =mav This concise statement encapsulates the general relationship between objects and Newton continued his discoveries and causality. Newton combined Galileo’s with his third law, completed his grand idea of inertia with Descartes’ uniform view of motion: motion (motion in a straight line) to create his first law. If an object deviates from rest or motion in a straight line with 10Velocity is an inertial quantity and, as such, is constant speed, then some force is being relative to the observer. Momentum, as measured, applied. is also relative to the observer. Newton’s first law describes 11The differentiation of momentum with respect to v v v undisturbed motion; inertia, accordingly, time actually gives F =m& v +mv& where m& is the rate of change of mass and vv& is the rate of v 9We still essentially see the Universe in Newto- change of velocity which is acceleration a . In nian terms; Einstein’s general relativity and quan- simple cases we assume that the mass doesn’t change, so m=0 and the equation reduces to tum mechanics are a modification to Newtonian v &v mechanics, but have yet to be unified into a single F =mvv& ⇒ F =mav . For an accelerating grand view. booster the m& term is not zero.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 7 Newton’s Derivation of Kepler’s Laws

Newton’s 3rd Law Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are (Action-Reaction) empirical (found by comparing vast amounts of data in order to find the For every action there is a algebraic relationship between them); and reaction that is equal in describe the way the planets are observed magnitude but opposite in to behave. Newton proposed his laws as a direction to the action. basis for all mechanics. Thus Newton should have been able to derive Kepler’s This law hints at conservation of laws from his own, and he did: momentum; if forces are always balanced, then the objects experiencing the opposed forces will change their momentum in Kepler’s First Law: If two opposite directions and equal amounts. bodies interact gravitationally, Newton combined ideas from various each will describe an orbit that sources in synthesizing his laws. Kepler’s can be represented by a conic laws of planetary motion were among his section about the common sources and provided large scale center of mass of the pair. In examples. Newton synthesized his particular, if the bodies are concept of gravity, but thought that one permanently associated, their must be mad to believe in a force that orbits will be ellipses. If they operated across a vacuum with no are not permanently material means of transport. associated, their orbits will be Newton theorized gravity, which he hyperbolas. believed to be responsible for the “falling apples” and the planetary motion, even though he could not explain gravity or Kepler’s Second Law: If two how it was transmitted. In essence, bodies revolve about each Newton developed a system that described other under the influence of a man’s experience with his environment. central force (whether they are in a closed orbit or not), a line Universal Gravitation joining them sweeps out equal areas in the orbit plane in Every particle in the universe equal intervals of time. attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of the masses and Kepler’s Third Law: If two inversely proportional to the bodies revolve mutually about square of the distance between each other, the sum of their the particles. masses times the square of their period of mutual revolution is in proportion to the cube of  M m  FG=  12 their semi-major axis of the g  D2  relative orbit of one about the other.

Where Fg is the force due to gravity, G is the proportionality constant, M1 and m2 ORBITAL MOTION the masses of the central and orbiting bodies, and D the distance between the Newton’s laws of motion apply to all two bodies. bodies, whether they are scurrying across the face of the Earth or out in the vastness

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 8 of space. By applying Newton’s laws one a force imposed upon it. Everyone has can predict macroscopic events with great experience with changing objects’ motion accuracy. or compensating for forces that change their motion. An example is playing Motion catch—when throwing or catching a ball, its motion is altered; thus, gravity is According to Newton’s first law, compensated for by throwing the ball bodies remain in uniform motion unless upward by some angle allowing gravity to acted upon by an external force; that pull it down, resulting in an arc. When uniform motion is in a straight line. This the ball leaves the hand it starts motion is known as inertial motion, accelerating toward the ground according referring to the property of inertia, which to Newton’s laws (at sea level on the the first law describes. Earth the acceleration is approximately Velocity is a relative measure of 9.81 m/s or 32.2 ft/s). If the ball is motion. While standing on the surface of initially motionless, it will fall straight the Earth, it seems as though the down. However, if the ball has some buildings, rocks, mountains and trees are horizontal motion, it will continue in that all motionless; however, all of these motion while accelerating toward the objects are moving with respect to many other objects (Sun, Moon, stars, planets, etc.). Objects at the equator are traveling around the Earth’s axis at approximately 1,000 mph; the Earth and Moon system is traveling around the Sun at 66,000 mph; the solar system is traveling around the galactic center at approximately 250,000 Horizontal Velocity mph, and so on and so forth. Fig. 8-5. Newton’s 2nd Law The only way motion can be experienced is by seeing objects change ground. Figure 8-5 shows a ball released position with respect to one’s location. with varying lateral (or horizontal) Change in motion may be experienced by velocities. feeling the compression or tension within In Figure 8-5, if the initial height of the the body due to acceleration (sinking in ball is approximately 4.9 meters (16.1 ft) the seat or being held by seat belts). In above the ground, then at sea level, it some cases, acceleration cannot be felt, as would take 1 second for the ball to hit the in free-fall. Acceleration is felt when the forces do not operate equally on every Table 8-1. Gravitational Effects particle in the body; the compression or Horizontal Distance (@ 1 sec) tension is sensed in the body’s tissues. Velocity Vertical Horizontal 1 4.9 1 With this feeling and other visual clues, 2 4.9 2 any change in motion that has occurred 4 4.9 4 may be detected. Gravity is felt as 8 4.9 8 opposing forces and the resulting 16 4.9 16 compression of bodily tissues. In free- All values are in meters and meters/second. fall, acceleration is not felt because every ground. How far the ball travels along the particle in the body is experiencing the ground in that one second depends on its same force and so there is no tissue horizontal velocity (see Table 8-1). compression or tension; thus, no physical Eventually one would come to the sensation. What is felt is the sudden point where the Earth’s surface drops change from tissue compression to a state away as fast as the ball drops toward it. of no compression. As Fig. 8-6 depicts, the Earth’s surface According to Newton’s second law, for a body to change its motion there must be

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 9 curves down about 5 meters for every 8 away from the Earth and its trajectory km. becomes an elongating ellipse until the speed reaches 7.91 km/sec. At this speed At the Earth’s surface (without and altitude the satellite has enough contending for the atmosphere, mountains energy to leave the Earth’s gravity and or other structures), a satellite would have never return; its trajectory has now to travel at approximately 8 km/sec (or become a parabola, and this speed is about 17,900 mph) to fall around the known as its escape speed for this Earth without hitting the surface; in other altitude. As the satellite’s speed continues words, to orbit.12 to increase beyond escape speed its trajectory becomes a flattened hyperbola. From a low Earth orbit of about 100 miles, the escape velocity becomes 11.2 km/sec. In the above description, the two specific speeds (5.59 km/sec and 7.91 km/sec) correspond to the circular and escape speeds for the specific altitude of one Earth radius. The satellite’s motion is described by Fig. 8-6. Earth’s Curvature Newton’s three laws and his Law of Universal Gravitation. The Law of Universal Gravitation describes how the Figure 8-7 shows how differing force between objects decreases with the velocity affects a satellite’s trajectory or square of the distance between the orbital path. The Figure depicts a satellite objects. As the altitude increases, the at an altitude of one Earth radius (6378 force of gravity rapidly decreases, and km above the Earth’s surface). At this therefore the satellite can travel slower distance, a satellite would have to travel at and still maintain a circular orbit. For the object to escape the Earth, it has to have enough kinetic energy (kinetic energy is proportional to the square of velocity) to 5.597.91 km/sec the object is from the Earth, the less potential energy the satellite must 6378 km Fig. 8-7. Velocity versus Trajectory overcome, which also means the less kinetic energy is needed. 5.59 km/sec to maintain a circular orbit and this speed is known as its circular speed for this altitude. As the satellite’s ORBIT GEOMETRY speed increases, it falls farther and farther The two-body equation of motion 12Because the Earth does have an atmosphere, to describes conic sections. The conic stay in a “stable” orbit objects must be above the section an object will follow depends on atmosphere—about 94 miles above the Earth’s its velocity and the magnitude of the surface. Because the force due to gravity is in- central force. If an object lacks the versely proportional to the square of the distance velocity (insufficient kinetic energy) to between the objects, at 94 miles an object has to overcome the gravitational attraction travel at 7.8 km/sec (17,500 mph), while the Moon (potential energy) then it will follow a (at 249,000 miles) has to travel at only .9144 closed path (circle or ellipse). However, km/sec. (All these speeds are for circular orbits.) if the object has enough velocity to

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 10 overcome the gravitational attraction then the object will follow an open path a (parabola or hyperbola) and escape from the central force. Figure 8-8 shows the basic geometry Perigee

for the various possible conic sections. Focus The parameters that describe the size and Apogee shape of the conics are its semi-major axis a (half of the large axis) and eccentricity e (the ratio between the separation of the c c foci—linear eccentricity c—and the semi- Fig. 8-9. Elliptical Geometry major axis). Figure 8-9 depicts a satellite orbit transition between an elliptical and a with additional parameters whose conic hyperbolic trajectory. The parabolic path section is an ellipse. represents the minimum energy escape Semi-major Axis (a)—half of the distance trajectory. The hyperbolic is also an escape trajectory; and represents a trajectory with excess escape velocity. Table 8-2 shows the values for the eccentricity (discussed later) for the various types of orbits. Eccentricity is associated with the shape of the orbit. Energy is associated with the orbit’s size (for closed orbits).

Table 8-2. Eccentricity Values Conic Section Eccentricity (e)

circle e = 0 ellipse 0 < e < 1 Fig. 8-8. Conic Section Geometry parabola e = 1 between perigee and apogee, a hyperbola e > 1 measure of the orbits size, also the average distance from the attracting body. CONSTANTS OF ORBITAL Linear Eccentricity (c)—half of the MOTION: MOMENTUM AND distance between the foci. ENERGY Eccentricity (e)—ratio of the distance between the foci (c) to the size of the For some systems, there are basic ellipse (a); describes the orbit’s shape. properties which remain constant or fixed. Perigee—the closest point in an orbit to Energy and momentum are two such the attracting body. properties required for a conservative Apogee—the farthest point in an orbit to system. the attracting body. Momentum These parameters apply to all trajectories. A circular orbit is a special Momentum is the product of mass case of the elliptical orbit where the foci times velocity ( pv = mvv). This is the term coincide (c = 0). A parabolic path is a for linear momentum and remains constant internal to the system in every

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 11 direction. In some instances it is more energy remain constant. In all other orbits advantageous to describe motion in (elliptical, parabolic and hyperbolic) the angular terms. For example, when “radius” and speed both change, and dealing with spinning or rotating objects, therefore, so do both the potential and it is simpler to describe them in angular kinetic energy in such a way that the total terms An important angular property in mechanical energy of the system remains orbital mechanics is angular momentum. constant. Again, for an elliptical orbit, Angular momentum is the product of this results in greater velocity at perigee linear momentum times the radius of than apogee. If a satellite’s position and revolution.13 This property, like linear velocity is known, a satellite’s orbit may momentum, remains constant internal to be ascertained. Position determines the system for such things as orbiting potential energy while velocity determines objects. kinetic energy. A simple experiment can be performed illustrating conservation of angular COORDINATE REFERENCE momentum. Starting with some object on SYSTEMS AND ORBITAL the end of a string, the object may be spun ELEMENTS to impart angular momentum to the system. The amount of angular Reference systems are used everyday. momentum depends on the object’s mass Once an agreed upon reference has been and velocity, and the length of the string determined, spatial information can be v (radius): hm=(rv ×vv). Now, if the string traded. The same must be done when is shortened, the object will speed up (spin considering orbits and satellite positions faster). From the above equation, mass The reference system used depends on the (m) remains constant; angular momentum situation, or the nature of the knowledge v (h ) must remain constant as the radius (rv ) to be retrieved. decreases, so the object’s velocity (vv ) How does one know where satellites increases. This same principle holds true are, were or will be? Coordinate for orbiting systems. In an elliptical orbit, reference systems allow measurements to the radius is constantly varying and so is be defined, resulting in specific the orbital speed, but the angular parameters which describe orbits. A set momentum remains constant. Hence, of these parameters is a satellite’s orbital there is greater velocity at perigee than at element set. Two elements are needed to apogee. define an orbit: a satellite’s position and velocity. Given these two parameters, a Energy satellite’s past and future position and velocity may be predicted. A system’s mechanical energy can also In three-dimensional spaces, it takes be conserved. Mechanical energy (denoted three parameters each to describe position by E) is the sum of kinetic energy (KE) and velocity. Therefore, any element set and potential energy (PE): E = KE + PE. defining a satellite’s orbital motion Kinetic energy is the energy associated requires at least six parameters to fully with an object’s motion and potential describe that motion. There are different energy is the energy associated with an types of element sets, depending on the object’s position. Every orbit has a use. The Keplerian, or classical, element certain amount of mechanical energy. A set is useful for space operations andtells circular orbit’s radius and speed remain us four parameters about orbits, namely: constant, so both potential and kinetic • Orbit size • Orbit shape 13Angular momentum is actually the vector cross • Orientation product of linear momentum and the radius of v - orbit plane in space revolution: hr=×v pv ⇒m(rv ×vv). - orbit within plane

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 12 • Location of the satellite Inclination Angle Semi-Major Axis (a)

Equatorial Orbit . The semi-major axis (a) describes an orbit’s size and is half of the distance Ascending Node between apogee and perigee on the ellipse. This is a significant measurement Inclined Orbit since it also equals the average radius, and thus is a measure of the mechanical Fig. 8-10. Inclination Tilt energy of the orbiting object. and is in a prograde orbit. If 90°< i ≤ 180°, the satellite orbits in the opposite Eccentricity (e) direction of the Earth’s rotation (orbiting westward about the Earth) and is in a Eccentricity (e) measures the shape of retrograde orbit. Inclination orients the an orbit and determines the positional orbital plane with respect to the equatorial relationship to the central body which plane (fundamental plane). occupies one of the foci. Recall from the orbit geometry section that eccentricity is Right Ascension of the Ascending a ratio of the foci separation (linear Node (Ω) eccentricity, c) to the size (semi-major axis, a) of the orbit: Right Ascension of the Ascending Node, Ω (upper case Greek letter omega), e = c/a is a measurement of the orbital plane’s rotation around the Earth. It is an angular Size and shape relate to orbit geometry, measurement within the equatorial plane and tell what the orbit looks like. The from the First point of Aries eastward to other orbital elements deal with the ascending node (0°≤Ω ≤ 360°) (Fig. orientation of the orbit relative to a fixed 8-11). point in space.

The First Point of Aries is simply a Inclination (i) fixed point in space. The Vernal Equinox is the first day of spring (in the northern The first angle used to orient the orbital hemisphere). However, for the plane is inclination (i): a measurement of astronomer, it has added importance the orbital plane’s tilt. This is an angular because it is a convenient way of fixing measurement from the equatorial plane to this principle direction. The Earth’s the orbital plane (0°≤i ≤ 180°), measured counter-clockwise at the ascending node while looking toward Earth (Fig. 8-10). Inclination is utilized to define several Inclined Orbit general classes of orbits. Orbits with Argument of Perigee, inclinations equal to 0° or 180° are Approximately 270 deg equatorial orbits, because the orbital plane is contained within the equatorial plane. If an orbit has an inclination of Ascending Node 90°, it is a polar orbit, because it travels Perigee over the poles. If 0°≤i < 90°, the satellite Line of Nodes orbits in the same general direction as the Fig. 8-13. Argument of Perigee Earth (orbiting eastward around the Earth)

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 13 Inclined Orbit The ancient astronomers called this the First Point of Aries because, at the time,

315 225 this line pointed at the constellation Aries. 0 Ascending Node The Earth is spinning like a top, and like a 180 45 top, it wobbles on its axis. It takes 135 approximately 25,800 years for the axis to Line of Nodes complete one revolution. With the axis changing over time, so does the equatorial

0 degrees = First Point of Aries plane’s orientation. The intersection between the ecliptic and the equatorial Fig. 8-11. Right Ascension of the Ascending Node plane is rotating westward around the ecliptic. With this rotation, the principle equatorial plane and its orbit about the direction points to different constellations. Sun provide the principle direction. The Presently, it is pointing towards Pisces. Earth orbits about the Sun in the ecliptic The orbital elements for Earth satellites plane, and this plane passes through the are referenced to inertial space (a non- centers of both the Sun and Earth; the rotating principle direction) so the orbital Earth’s equatorial plane passes through elements must be referenced to where the the center of the Earth, which is tilted at principle direction was pointing at a approximately 23° to the ecliptic. The specific time. The orbital analyst does intersection of these two planes forms a this by reporting the orbital elements as line that passes though Earth’s center and referenced to the mean of 1950 (a popular passes through the Sun’s center twice a epoch year reference). Most analysts year: at the Vernal and Autumnal have updated their systems and are now reporting the elements with respect to the mean of 2000.

Argument of Perigee (ω)

Inclination and Right Ascension fix the orbital plane in inertial space. The orbit must now be fixed within the orbital plane. For elliptical orbits, the perigee is described with respect to inertial space. The Argument of Perigee, ω (lower case Greek letter omega), orients the orbit Fig. 8-12. Vernal Equinox within the orbital plane. It is an angular measurement within the orbital plane from Equinoxes. The ancient astronomers the ascending node to perigee in the picked the principle direction as that from direction of satellite motion (0°≤ ω ≤ 360°) the Sun’s center through the Earth’s (see Fig. 8-13). center on the first day of Spring, the Vernal Equinox (Fig. 8-12).

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 14 Table 8-3. Classical Orbital Elements Element Name Description Definition Remarks a semi-major orbit size half of the long axis of the orbital period and energy axis ellipse depend on orbit size e eccentricity orbit shape ratio of half the foci closed orbits: 0 ≤ e < 1 separation (c) to the semi- open orbits: 1 ≤ e major axis i inclination orbital plane’s angle between the orbital equatorial: i = 0° or 180° tilt plane and equatorial plane, prograde: 0° ≤ i < 90° measured counterclockwise at polar: i = 90° the ascending node retrograde: 90° < i ≤ 180° Ω right orbital plane’s angle, measured eastward, 0° ≤ Ω < 360° ascension of rotation about from the vernal equinox to the undefined when i = 0° or the the Earth ascending node 180° ascending (equatorial orbit) node ω argument of orbit’s angle, measured in the 0° ≤ ω < 360° perigee orientation in direction of satellite motion, undefined when i = 0° or the orbital plane from the ascending node to 180°, perigee or e = 0 (circular orbit) ν true satellite’s angle, measured in the 0° ≤ ν < 360° anomaly location in its direction of satellite motion, undefined when e = 0 orbit from perigee to the satellite’s (circular orbit) location the ascending node and provide the value True Anomaly (ν) for True Anomaly. There are different types of element At this point all the orbital parameters sets. However, usually only orbital needed to visualize the orbit in inertial analysts deal with these sets. The space have been specified. The final step Keplerian, or classical element, is the only is to locate the satellite within its orbit. element relevant to a majority of space True Anomaly, ν (lower case Greek letter operations. Table 8-3 summarizes the nu), is an angular measurement that Keplarian orbital element set, and orbit describes where the satellite is in its orbit geometry and its relationship to the Earth. at a specified time, or Epoch. It is measured within the orbital plane from ORBIT CHARACTERISTICS perigee to the satellite’s position in the direction of motion (0°≤ν≤360°). Inclination (i) alone determines the True Anomaly locates the satellite with four general orbit classes: respect to time and is the only orbital element that changes with time. There are Prograde — 0° ≤ i < 90° various conventions for describing True Retrograde — 90° < i ≤ 180° Anomaly and Epoch. By fixing one, the Equatorial — i = 0°, 180° other is also fixed. Sometimes they will Polar — i = 90° choose True Anomaly to be 0° and give the Epoch as the time of perigee passage; or they will choose the Epoch as the moment when the satellite passes through

Other common orbits include those used for communication, weather and navigation:

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 15 Geostationary Period =23hrs56min intersection of the orbital plane,14 and the i = 0° Earth’s surface is continually changing. e = 0 The ground track is the expression of GeosynchronousPeriod =23hrs56min the relative motion of the satellite in its Molniya Period =11hrs58min orbit to the Earth’s surface rotating i = 63.4° beneath it. Because of this relative e = .72 motion, ground tracks come in almost any Sun-synchronousPeriod=1hr41min form and shape imaginable. Ground track i = 98° shape depends on many factors: Semi-synchronous-Period =11hr58min Inclination i Period P GROUND TRACKS Eccentricity e Argument of Perigee ω The physics of two-body motion dictates the motions of the bodies will lie Inclination defines the tilt of the orbital within a plane (two-dimensional motion). plane and therefore, defines the maximum The orbital plane intersects the Earth’s latitude, both North and South of the ground track. The period defines the ground track’s westward regression. With a non-rotating Earth, the ground track would be a great circle. Because the Earth does rotate, by the time the satellite returns to the same place in its orbit after one revolution, the Earth has rotated eastward by some amount, and the ground track looks like it has moved westward on the Earth’s surface (westward regression). The orientation of the satellite’s orbital plane does not change in inertial space, the

Earth has just rotated beneath it. The time it takes for the satellite to orbit (its orbital period) determines the amount the Earth rotates eastward and hence its westward Fig. 8-14. Ground Track regression. surface forming a great circle. A satellite’s ground track is the intersection 1 of the line between the Earth’s center and 2 the satellite, and the Earth’s surface; the point on the line at the surface of the Earth is called the satellite subpoint. The 3 ground track, then, is the path the satellite subpoint traces on the Earth’s surface over time (Fig. 8-14). However, the Earth Fig. 8-15. Earth’s Rotation Effects does rotate on its axis at the rate of one revolution per 24 hours. With the Earth rotating under the satellite, the Figure 8-15 shows the effect of the Earth’s rotation on the ground track. The

14Except for equatorial orbits, whose orbital plane is contained within the equatorial plane.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 16 Earth rotates through 360° in 24 hours, giving a rotation rate of 15°/hr.15 With a period of 90 min., a satellite’s ground trace regresses 22.5° westward per revolution (15°/hr × 1.5 hrs= 22.5°). Westward regression is the angle through which the Earth has rotated underneath the satellite during the time it takes the satellite to complete one orbit. Eccentricity affects the ground track because the satellite spends different amounts of time in different parts of its orbit (it’s moving faster or slower). This Fig. 8-16. Geostationary Orbit/Ground Track means it will spend more time over certain parts of the Earth than others. This has satellite in a ideal geostationary orbit has the effect of creating an unsymmetrical the same orbital period as the Earth’s ground track. It is difficult to determine rotational period, its inclination is 0° and how long the satellite spends in each its eccentricity is 0. The ground track will hemisphere by simply looking at the remain in the equatorial plane, the ground trace. The time depends on both westward regression will be 360° and the the length of the trace and the speed of the satellite’s speed never changes. satellite. Therefore, from the earth, the ground Argument of perigee skews the ground track will be a point on the equator. track. For a prograde orbit, at perigee the Now take the same orbit and give it an satellite will be moving faster eastward inclination of 45°). than at apogee; in effect, tilting the ground The period and eccentricity remain the track. same. The westward regression will be A general rule of thumb is that if the ground track has any portion in the eastward direction, the satellite is in a prograde orbit. If the ground trace does not have a portion in the eastward direction, it is either a retrograde orbit or it could be a super-synchronous prograde orbit.

Relative Motions

Because the Earth is a rotating the

velocity of points on the surface is Fig. 8-17. Ground Traces of Inclined, Circular, different depending on their distance from Synchronous Satellites the Earth’s axis of rotation. In other words, points on the equator have a greater 360° so the ground trace will retrace itself eastward velocity than points north and with every orbit. The ground trace will south of the equator. also vary between 45° North and 45° Figure 8-16 conceptualizes a geo- South. The apparent ground trace looks stationary orbit and its ground track. A like a figure eight(Fig. 8-17 for the simplest case. If the orbital parameters 15In reality, the 28-hour rotation rate is with re- are varied (such as eccentricity and spect to the Sun and is called the solar day. The argument of perigee), the relative motions rotation rate with respect to inertial space (the of the satellite and the fixed stars, or background stars) is actually 23 hrs 56 min and is called the sidereal day.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 17

Highly Elliptical High Inclination Inclination (63.4°/116.6°) 12,500 Miles Altitude Altitude: 200-23,800 Mile

Fig. 8-19. Molniya Orbit Fig. 8-18. Semi-synchronous Orbit

the ground track retraces itself every day, Earth’s surface can become quite much the same as the semi-synchronous complicated. For orbits with small orbit inclinations, the eccentricity and argument of perigee dominate the effect of the Earth’s surface speed at different latitudes and can cause the ground track to vary significantly from a symmetric figure eight. These parameters can be combined in various ways to produce practically any ground track. The semi-synchronous orbit (used by the Global Positioning System) also provides a unique ground track. This orbit, with its approximate 12-hour period, repeats twice a day. Since the Earth turns half way on its axis during each complete orbit, the points where the sinusoidal ground tracks cross the equator 5 4 3 2 1 coincide pass after pass and the ground tracks repeat each day (Fig. 8-18). Fig. 8-20. Sun-synchronous Orbit

Figure 8-19 shows a typical Molniya . orbit that might be used for northern Figure 8-20 shows a representative hemispheric communications. The sun-synchronous orbit. In this case, the Russians are credited with the discovery orbital elements represent a DMSP of this ingenious orbit. With the high (Defense Meteorological Satellite degree of eccentricity the satellite travels Program) satellite. The satellite is in a slowly at apogee and can hang over the slightly retrograde orbit; therefore, the Northern Hemisphere for about two thirds satellite travels east to west along the of its period. Since the period is 12 hours, track..

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 18 expensive.16Keeping energy to a minimum restricts the launch trajectories and the launch location. Launch site latitude and orbit inclination are two important factors affecting how much energy boosters have to supply. Orbit inclination depends on the satellite’s mission, while launch site latitude is, for the most part, fixed (to our Fig. 8-21. Inclination versus Altitude existing launch facilities).17 Only minimum energy launches (direct launch) will be addressed. A minimum energy is A sun-synchronous orbit is one in one in which a satellite is launched which the orbital plane rotates eastward directly into the orbital plane (i.e., no around the Earth at the same rate that the plane change or inclination maneuver).By Earth orbits the Sun. So, the orbit must looking at the geometry, the launch site rotate eastward around the Earth at a little must pass through the orbital plane to be less than 1°/day {(360°/year)/(365.25 capable of directly launching into that days/ year) = .986°/day}. This plane. Imagine a line drawn from the phenomenon occurs naturally due to the center of the Earth through the launch site oblateness of the Earth (see the section on and out into space. After a day, this line perturbations). produces a conical configuration due to Sun-synchronous orbits can be the rotation of the Earth. A satellite can achieved at different altitudes and be launched into any orbital plane that is inclinations. However, all the inclinations tangent to, or passes through, this cone. for sun-synchronous satellites are greater As a result of this geometry, the lowest than 90° (retrograde orbits). Figure 8-21 inclination that can be achieved by plots inclination versus altitude for sun- directly launching is equal to the latitude synchronous orbits. of the launch site. If the orbital plane inclination is greater LAUNCH CONSIDERATIONS than the launch site latitude, the launch site will pass through the orbital plane The problem of launching satellites twice a day, producing two launch comes down to geometry and energy. If windows per day. If the inclination of the there were enough energy, satellites could orbital plane is equal to the launch site be launched from anywhere at any time latitude, the launch site will be coincident into any orbit. However, energy is limited with the orbital plane once a day, and so is cost. producing one launch window a day. If When a satellite is launched, it is the inclination is less than the launch site intended to end up in a specific orbit, not latitude, the launch site will not pass only with respect to the Earth, but often through, or be coincident with the orbital with respect to an existing constellation. plane at any time, and so there will not be Also, the geometry of the planets must be any launch windows for a direct launch. taken into consideration when launching an interplanetary probe. Meeting operational constraints determines the 16There are some situations when it is less expen- launch window. The launch system is sive to use an existing system with extra energy designed to accomplish the mission with because a lower class booster will not meet the the minimum amount of energy required mission needs. In this case, there is an extra mar- because it is usually less gin and the launch windows are larger. 17There are various schemes to get around the problem of fixed launch sites: air launch, sea launch, and portable launch facilities, for instance.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 19 A simplified model for determining travel about 17,500 mph. Due to the inclination from launch site latitude and Earth’s rotation, additional kinetic energy launch azimuth is:18 may need to be supplied depending on cos()i = cos(L)• sin(Az) launch azimuth to achieve this orbital i = inclination velocity (17,500 mph). The starting L = launch site latitude velocity at the launch sites vary with Az = launch azimuth latitude. It ranges from zero mph at the poles to 1,037 mph at the equator. The cosine of the latitude reduces the If a satellite is launched from the range of possible inclinations and the sine equator prograde (in the same direction as of the azimuth varies the inclination the earth’s rotation) starting with 1,037 within the reduced range. When viewing mph, only 16,463 mph must be supplied the Earth and a launch site, it is possible (17,500 mph- 1,037 mph). If launched to launch a satellite in any direction from the equator retrograde (against the (launch azimuth). The orbital plane must rotation of the earth), 18,537 mph must be pass through the launch site and the center supplied. Launching with the earth’s of the Earth. rotation saves fuel and allows for larger For launches due east (no matter what payloads for any given booster. the launch site latitude) the inclination There are substantial energy savings will equal the launch site latitude. For when locating launch sites close to the launches on any other azimuth, the equator and launching in a prograde inclination will always be greater than the direction. launch site latitude. Just as the launch site latitude ORBITAL MANEUVERS determines the minimum inclination (launching due east), it also determines It is a rare case indeed to launch the maximum inclination by launching directly into the final orbit. In general, a due west. The maximum inclination is satellite’s orbit must change at least once 180 minus the latitude. to place it in its final mission orbit. Once The actual launch azimuths allowed (in a satellite is in its mission orbit, most countries) are limited due to the perturbations must be counteracted, or safety considerations of not launching perhaps the satellite must be moved into over populated areas, which further limits another orbit. the possible inclinations from any launch As was previously mentioned, a satellite’s velocity and position determine site. However, the inclination can change 19 after launch by performing an out of plane its orbit. Thus, one of these parameters maneuver (see next section). must be changed in order to change its orbit. The only option is to change the Launch Velocity velocity, since position is relatively constant. By changing the velocity, the When a satellite is launched, energy is satellite is now in a different orbit. Since imparted to it. The two tasks of gravity is conservative, the satellite will increasing the satellite’s potential and always return to the point where it kinetic energies must be accomplished. performed the maneuver (provided it Potential energy is increased by raising doesn’t perform another maneuver before the satellite above the Earth (increasing its returning). altitude by at least 90-100 miles). In order to maintain a minimum circular 19The position and velocity correspond to the orbit at that altitude, the satellite has to force of gravity and the satellite’s momentum. Knowing the forces on the satellite and its momentum, we can apply Newton’s second law and pre- 18This is a simplified model because it ignores the dict its future positions (in other words, we know Earth’s rotation, which has a small effect. its orbit).

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 20 gravitational variations or perturbations, Mission Considerations which have a greater influence the closer a satellite is to the Earth. This bulge is Since both position and velocity often modeled with complex mathematics determine a satellite’s orbit, and many and is frequently referred to as the J2 different orbits can pass through the same effect.21 For low to medium orbits, these point, the velocity vectors must differ20 to influences are significant. result in a different orbit while passing One effect of Earth’s oblateness is through the same point. nodal regression. Westward regression When an orbit is changed through its due to Earth’s rotation under the satellite velocity vector, a delta-v (∆v) is was discussed in the ground tracks performed. For any single ∆v orbital section. Nodal regression is an actual change, the desired orbit must intersect rotation of the orbital plane, relative to the the current orbit, otherwise it will take at First Point of Aries, about the Earth (the least two ∆vs to achieve the final orbit. right ascension changes). If the orbit is When the present and desired orbits prograde, the orbital plane rotates intersect, a ∆v is employed to change the westward around the Earth (right satellite’s velocity vector. The ∆v vector ascension decreases); if the orbit is can be determined by subtracting the retrograde, the orbital plane rotates present vector from the desired vector. eastward around the Earth (right The resultant velocity vector is the ∆v ascension increases). required to get from one point to another. In most cases, perturbations must be counteracted. However, in the case of PERTURBATIONS sun-synchronous orbits, perturbations can be advantageous. In the slightly Perturbations are forces which change retrograde sun-synchronous orbit, the the motion (orbit) of the satellite. These angle between the orbital plane and a line forces have a variety of causes/origins and between the Earth and the Sun needs to effects. These forces are named and remain constant. As the Earth orbits categorized in an attempt to model their eastward around the Sun, the orbital plane effects. The major perturbations are: must rotate eastward around the Earth at the same rate. Since it takes 365 days for • Earth’s oblateness; the Earth to orbit the Sun, the sun- • Atmospheric drag; synchronous orbit must rotate about the • Third-body effects; Earth at just under one degree per day. • Solar wind/radiation pressure; The oblateness of the Earth perturbs the • Electromagnetic drag. orbital plane by nearly this amount. A sun-synchronous orbit is beneficial because it allows a satellite to view the Earth’s Oblateness same place on Earth with the same sun angle (or shadow pattern). This is very The Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is valuable for remote sensing missions somewhat misshapen at the poles and because they use shadows to measure bulges at the equator. This squashed object height.22 shape is referred to as oblateness. The North polar region is more pointed than the flatter South polar region, producing a 21J2 is a constant describing the size of the bulge slight “pear” shape. The equator is not a in the mathematical formulas used to model the perfect circle; it is slightly elliptical. The oblate Earth. effects of Earth’s oblateness are 22With a constant sun angle, the shadow lengths give away any changes in height, or any shadow 20 Remember that velocity is a vector — it has changes give clues to exterior configuration both a magnitude and a direction. changes.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 21 Another significant effect of Earth’s Atmospheric Drag asymmetry is apsidal line rotation. Only elliptical orbits have a line of apsides and The Earth’s atmosphere does not so this effect only affects elliptical orbits. suddenly cease; rather it trails off into This effect appears as a rotation of the space. However, after about 1,000 km orbit within the orbital plane; the (620 miles), its effects become minuscule. argument of perigee changes. At an Generally speaking, atmospheric drag can inclination of 63.4° (and its retrograde be modeled in predictions of satellite compliment, 116.6°), this rotation is zero. position. The current atmospheric model The Molniya orbit was specifically is not perfect because of the many factors designed with an inclination of 63.4° to affecting the upper atmosphere, such as take advantage of this perturbation. With the earth’s day-night cycle, seasonal tilt, the zero effect at 63.4° inclination, the variable solar distance, fluctuation in the stability of the Molniya orbit improves earth’s magnetic field, the suns 27-day limiting the need for considerable on- rotation and the 11-year sun spot cycle. board fuel to counteract this rotation. At a The drag force also depends on the smaller inclination (but larger than satellite’s coefficient of drag and frontal 116.6°), the argument of perigee rotates area, which varies widely between eastward in the orbital plane; at satellites. inclinations between 63.4° and 116.6°, the The uncertainty in these variables argument of perigee rotates westward in cause predictions of satellite decay to be the orbital plane. This could present a accurate only for the short term. An problem for non-Molniya communications example of changing atmospheric satellites providing polar coverage. If the conditions causing premature satellite apogee point rotated away from the decay occurred in 1978-1979, when the desired communications (rotated from the atmosphere received an increased amount Northern to Southern Hemisphere), the of energy during a period of extreme solar satellite would be useless. activity. The extra solar energy expanded The ellipticity of the equator has an the atmosphere, causing several satellites effect that shows up most notably in to decay prematurely, most notably the geostationary satellites (also in inclined U.S. space station SKYLAB. geosynchronous satellites). Because the The highest drag occurs when the equator is elliptical, most satellites are satellite is closest to the earth (at perigee), closer to one of the lobes and experience a and has a similar effect in performing a slight gravitational misalignment. This delta-V at perigee; it decreases the apogee misalignment affects geostationary height, circularizing the orbit. On every satellites more because they view the perigee pass, the satellite looses more same part of the earth’s surface all the kinetic energy (negative delta-V), time, resulting in a cumulative effect. circularizing the orbit more and more until The elliptical force causes the subpoint the whole orbit is experiencing significant of the geostationary satellite to move east drag, and the satellite spirals in. or west with the direction depends on its location. There are two stable points at 75 Third Body Effects East and 105 West, and two unstable stable points 90° out (165 East and 5 According to Newton’s law of West).23 Universal Gravitation, every object in the universe attracts every other object in the universe. The greatest third body effects come from those bodies that are very massive and/or close such as the Sun, 23A stable point is like a marble in the bottom of a Jupiter and the Moon. These forces ffect bowl; an unstable stable point is like a marble per- satellites in orbits as well. The farther a fectly balanced on the top of a hill. satellite is from the Earth, the greater the

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 22 third body forces are in proportion to satellites travel the fastest. Thus, this Earth’s gravitational force, and therefore, effect is largest on low orbiting satellites. the greater the effect on the high altitude However, the overall effect due to orbits. electromagnetic forces is quite small.

Radiation pressure DEORBIT AND DECAY

The Sun is constantly expelling atomic So far the concern has been with matter (electrons, protons, and Helium placing and maintaining satellites in orbit. nuclei). This ionized gas moves with high When no longer useful, satellites must be velocity through interplanetary space and removed from their operational orbit. is known as the solar wind. The satellites Sometimes natural perturbations such as are like sails in this solar wind, alternately atmospheric drag take care of disposal, being speeded up and slowed down, but not always. producing orbital perturbations. For satellites passing close to the earth (low orbit or highly elliptical orbits), Electromagnetic Drag satellites can be programmed to re-enter, or they may re-enter autonomously. Satellites are continually traveling Deliberate re-entry of a satellite with the through the Earth’s magnetic field. With purpose of recovering the vehicle intact is all their electronics, satellites produce called deorbiting. This is usually done to their own localized magnetic fields which recover something of value: people, interact with the earth’s, causing torque experiments, film, or the vehicle itself. on the satellite. In some instances, this The natural process of spacecraft (or any torque is advantageous for stabilization. debris – rocket body, payload, or piece) More specifically, satellites are basically a eventually re-entering Earth’s atmosphere mass of conductors. Passing a conductor is called decay. through a magnetic field causes a current In some situations, the satellites are in in the conductor, producing electrical such stable orbits that natural energy. Some recent experiments used a perturbations will not do the disposal job . long tether from the satellite to generate In these situations, the satellite must be electrical power from the earth’s magnetic removed from the desirable orbit. To field (the tether also provided other return a satellite to earth without benefits). destroying it takes a considerable amount The electrical energy generated by the of energy. Obviously, it is impractical to interaction of the satellite and the earth’s return old satellites to earth from a high magnetic field comes from the satellite’s orbit. The satellite is usually boosted into kinetic energy about the earth. The a slightly higher orbit to get it out of the satellite looses orbital energy, just as it way, and there it will sit for thousands of does with atmospheric drag, which results years. in orbital changes. The magnetic field is strongest close to the Earth where

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 8 - 23

REFERENCES

Bates, Roger R., Jerry E. White, and Donald D. Mueller. Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1971.

Koestler, Arthur. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man’s Changing Vision of the Universe. New York: Universal Library, Grosset & Dunlab, 1976.

An Introduction to Orbital Mechanics, CBT Module, Prepared for AFSPC SWC/DOT

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/movies/kepler.html Contains Video clips (AVI) on Kepler’s Laws.

www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/conghand/traject.htm Orbits & Escape velocities. http://astro-2.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/rocket_sci/launch/mir_window.html Launch windows-click on Launch Window for more information.

http://topex-www.jpl.nasa.gov/discover/mission/maintain.htm Limited information on perturbations—uses TOPEX as an example.

www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/rocket1.htm Newton’s Laws.

http://www.usafa.af.mil/ Go to: Dean, Engineering Division-Astronautics, Instructional Wares, then browse.

http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/ Browse.

http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf-toc.htm Select topic of interest

TOC

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ALTITUDE IN KILOMETERS A U

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ALTITUDE IN KILOMETERS A u S p a c e P r i m e r C - 3

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4 S I O N

F A C T O R S

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F A C T O R S

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F A C T O R S Chapter 9

U.S. SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEMS

Space systems can be divided into two categories: the launch vehicle and the payload. The launch vehicle, commonly called the booster, propels the spacecraft and its associated payload into space. Typically for military missions, a specific payload is always flown on a specific booster. For example, the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites are always launched on a Delta II launch vehicle. The same is true for most of our military payloads.

US SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEM Challenger disaster and other launch DEVELOPMENT failures. The first Delta II was successfully launched on 14 February 1989. The Legacy Boosters Delta II 6925 carried nine GPS satellites into orbit. The Delta II model 7925, the Delta current version of this venerable launch vehicle, boosted the remainder of the Delta rockets are a family of medium original GPS constellation and is lift class vehicles by which a variety of currently used to launch the new Block satellites have been launched as part of 2R version of GPS. U.S. and international space programs. It The Delta II's first stage is 12 feet was originally designed as an interim longer than previous Deltas, bringing the launch vehicle consisting of a Thor total vehicle height to 130.6 feet. The Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile payload fairing (shroud covering the third (IRBM) first stage and Vanguard second stage and the satellite) was widened from and third stages. Continued improvements eight to 9.5 feet to hold the GPS satellite. allow the Delta to inject over 4,000 The nine solid-rocket motors (SRM) that pounds into a geosynchronous transfer ring the first stage contain a more powerful orbit (GTO). propellant mixture than previously used. The National Aeronautics and Space Delta 7925 began boosting GPS Administration (NASA) placed the satellites in November 1990. The Delta original contract with the Douglas 7925 added new solid rocket motors with Aircraft Company in April 1959. The cases made of a composite material early three-stage vehicle had a length of called graphite-epoxy. The motor cases 85.4 feet, a first stage diameter of eight built by Hercules Aerospace are lighter, feet and a lift-off weight of 113,500 but as strong as the steel cases they pounds. The modified Thor first stage replaced. The new motors are six feet had a thrust of about 170,000 pounds. longer and provide much greater thrust. On 13 May 1960, the first Delta failed to The main-engine nozzle on the first stage achieve orbit, but subsequent vehicles was also enlarged to give a greater proved to be highly reliable. expansion ratio for improved performance. Built by McDonnell Douglas (which The Delta program has had a history of merged with Boeing in August 1997), successful domestic/foreign military and The Delta II entered the Air Force commercial launches. The Delta has inventory in February 1988. The vehicle accomplished many firsts over its was developed after the Air Force lifetime: it was the first vehicle to launch decided to return to a mixed fleet of an international satellite (Telstar I in expendable launch vehicles following the 1962); the first geosynchronous orbiting

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 1 satellite (Syncom II in 1963) and the first The first Atlas launches were at Cape commercial communication satellite Canaveral in 1957, but only the third (COMSAT I in 1965). launch on 2 August 1958 was a complete success, traveling about 2,500 miles Atlas downrange. The operational Atlas D was flight-tested from the Pacific Test Range The Atlas (Fig. 9-1) was produced in in California, between April and August the 1950s as the first U.S. of 1959. Improved versions, Atlas E and intercontinental ballistic missile to F, were test launched in 1960 and 1961, counter the threat posed by the Soviet respectively. Some operational missiles development of large ballistic missiles. were contained in coffin-like shelters An Atlas booster carried U.S. astronaut (Atlas E) from which they were raised to John Glenn into orbit under the first U.S. a vertical position for launch. The manned program, Project Mercury. increasing vulnerability of launch sites to Its design profited from Soviet ICBMs led to the construction of the thermonuclear break- an underground silo in which the Atlas F through of 1954, which led was fueled, serviced and elevated to the to warheads of lighter surface for launching. weight. Atlas rockets also In its role as a space launch vehicle, played a prominent role in systems are modified for specific space the U.S. space program. missions. Current Atlas II boosters, The Atlas ICBM stood provide a medium lift capability for the 82.5 feet high and had a Fleet Satellite Communications Systems diameter of 10 feet. The (FLTSATCOM) and the Defense lift-off weight was about Satellite Communications System 266,000 pounds, with a (DSCS). The booster generates range exceeding 9,000 approximately 340,000 pounds of thrust miles. at liftoff and can place payloads of up to Attached to the base of 1,750 pounds into polar orbit. Atlas the Atlas structure was a space launch vehicles were used in all gimbal-mounted Rocket- three unmanned lunar exploration dyne LR-105 engine of programs. Atlas Centaur vehicles also 57,000 lb thrust, which launched Mariner and Pioneer planetary operated together with two probes. 1,000 lb thrust swiveling The Atlas booster has been in use for motors used for roll more than 30 years and remains a key control. part of the U.S. space program. The first Two Rocketdyne LR-89 space launch on an Atlas E was in 1974 boost engines burned at and the last launch of the “E” series was takeoff with the central in March 1995. The E series had been sustainer. Each of these used to launch the military’s Defense 165,000 lb-thrust engines Meteorological Satellite Program operated for about 145 (DMSP) satellites.

Fig. 9-1. seconds before separating In May 1988, the Air Force chose ATLAS I (half-stage). The central General Dynamics to develop the Atlas II Atlas engine continued to vehicle, primarily to launch DSCS burn for a total of about 270 seconds. All payloads. This series uses an improved the engines drew their liquid oxygen- Centaur upper stage, the world's first kerosene (RP-1) propellants from common high-energy propellant stage, to increase tanks in the sustainer. Guidance its payload capability. Atlas II also has depended on an inertial system that lower-cost electronics, an improved flight deflected the main engines in conjunction computer and longer propellant tanks with the two roll jets. than Atlas I, which was developed for

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 2 commercial payloads due to the lull of Titan II launch activity caused by several launch failures in the late 1980s. It was used Deployed as an ICBM from 1963 until throughout the 1990's primarily for 1987, the Titan II (Fig. 9-2) is not new to commercial comsats. the space launch role. In 1965, modified Atlas II provides higher performance Titan IIs began supporting NASA's than the earlier Atlas I by using engines manned Gemini and other unmanned with greater thrust and longer fuel tanks space flights. Fifteen of the 50 existing for both stages. The total thrust Titan II ICBMs were refurbished and capability of the Atlas II of modified to support future launches. approximately 490,000 pounds enables The two-stage Titan II ICBM stood the booster to lift payloads of about 6,100 103 feet tall with a diameter of 10 feet, pounds into geo-synchronous orbit. and a lift-off weight of about 330,000 On 15 December 1993, the first Atlas pounds. Operationally, the single reentry IIAS was launched. The rocket can carry vehicle usually carried a thermonuclear 8,000 pounds to a geo-synchronous warhead of five to 10 megatons with a transfer orbit and up to 18,000 pounds to top range of 9,300 miles. The a low earth orbit. The vehicle uses four Titan II was in service Castor 4A solid strap-ons, is 156 feet tall between 1963 and 1987, with and weighs 524,789 pounds at lift off. 54 operational missiles. The Only two of the strap-ons are used at force comprised three wings launch. The other two are air-starts about of 18 missiles each stored in one minute after launch. The launch of underground silos at Davis- the Atlas IIAS completes the Mothan AFB, Arizona, development of the original Atlas family. McConnell AFB, Kansas and The division of General Dynamics that Little Rock AFB, Arkansas. builds the Atlas was acquired by Martin Each of the two first-stage Marietta in 1994. They, in turn, merged Titan II engines develops a with Lockheed in 1996 to form the thrust of 215,000 pounds. Lockheed-Martin conglomerate. The single second-stage As of mid-1999, the radically new engine develops 100,000 Atlas III was about to make its inaugural pounds of thrust. Both stages flight. Due to numerous delays stemming use storable nitrogen from a problem with the upper stage tetroxide and aerozine-50 motor, The Atlas III was finally launched propellants. An inertial on 24 May 1999, flawlessly boosting an system provides guidance Eutelsat communications satellite to commands to the engines. geosynchronous orbit. The new model The engines are gimbal- use a Russian designed RD-180 engine Fig. 9-2. mounted for thrust vector Titan II with two thrust chambers rather than the control. traditional one sustainer/two booster Modified Titan IIs launched Gemini configuration of the original Atlases. Program astronauts into orbit in 1965 and Engines made by Pratt & Whitney under 1966. Other modified Titans were used license will be used for US government to launch Earth satellites and space launches (by US law) but Russian probes. Heavy payloads were launched manufactured engines can be used for by the Titan IIID, which consisted of the commercial payloads. A versatile and two Titan core stages and two strap-on upgraded version of the Atlas III dubbed solid propellant boosters. The Titan IIIC the Atlas V is Lockheed Martin’s entry consisted of the Titan II central core, a into the US Air Force Evolved restartable trans-stage with a thrust Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) exceeding 16,000 pounds and two strap-on program (described later). boosters. The Titan IIIE, which launched two Viking spacecraft to Mars and two

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 3 Voyager probes to Jupiter, Saturn, 5 April 1990 from a B-52 aircraft over Uranus and Neptune, combined the the Pacific Ocean. technology of Titan IIIC with the high- The triangular-winged rocket is set performance Centaur stage. The process free at an altitude of 40,000 feet and falls of adding larger solid rocket motors for five seconds. The first stage engine (SRMs) to the Titan eventually led to the then ignites and flies like a plane during development of the Titan IV. the first-stage burn. It then ascends like a missile in second and third-stage burns. Titan IV Pegasus is designed to carry light payloads weighing between 450 and 600 Previously known as the Titan 34D-7, pounds into polar orbit or up to 900 Titan IV is the newest and largest pounds into equatorial orbit. A nominal expendable booster. The first and second altitude would be around 280 miles. stages of the Titan 34D were stretched The vehicle has three graphite epoxy and one and one-half segments added to composite case Hercules motors, a fixed the SRMs. The 16.7-foot- delta platform composite wing and an aft wide payload fairing skirt assembly that includes three control encloses both the satellite fins, an avionics section and a payload and upper stage. These faring. A fourth stage can be added to improvements allow the increase payload weight. Titan IV to carry payloads of up to 49,000 lbs to LEO, almost equivalent to the space shuttle’s capacity. As the military’s heavy lift class booster, it normally launches large payloads weighing up to 12,700 lbs into geo-stationary orbits or up to 38,000 lbs into low earth polar orbits. The flexible vehicle can be launched with one or two optional upper stages for greater and varied carrying capability. In addition, a solid Fig. 9-4. Pegasus rocket motor upgrade (SRMU) completed testing in 1994 Pegasus weighs about 41,000 pounds giving the Titan IVB model at launch. It is 50 feet long and 50 inches Fig. 9-3. 25 percent greater lift in diameter. The XL model uses Titan IVB capability. The first launch stretched first and second stages, making using the SRMU occurred successfully in it about five feet longer than the standard February 1997. The IVB (Fig. 9-3) Pegasus. The first XL launch in July model will the standard U.S. heavy lift 1994 ended in failure. However, it since vehicle into the next century. has flown successfully over 30 times.

Newer Boosters

Pegasus

Pegasus (Fig. 9-4) was developed privately by Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC). It was first launched into orbit on Fig. 9-5. OSC’s L-1011 Pegasus Launcher

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 4 A new launch platform for the Athena I and II Pegasus was also developed. A modified L-1011 (Fig. 9-5), purchased Lockheed announced its new series of from Air Canada, debuted in mid-1994. expendable launch vehicles in May 1993. First known as the Lockheed Launch Taurus Vehicle (LLV) then called the Lockheed- Martin Launch Vehicle (LMLV), this Taurus is being family of rockets are designed to carry developed by OSC as a light to medium sized payloads to low four-stage, inertial-guided, Earth orbit. solid- propellant launch The LMLV has three vehicle. Its configuration is primary configurations based derived from the Pegasus on the integration of two and adds a types of solid rocket motors, Peacekeeper (now Castor Thiokol Corporation's Castor 120) first stage. The 120 and United Defense Advanced Technologies' Orbus 21D. Research Projects Agency The smallest of the three (DARPA) signed a rocket versions, Athena 1 contract with OSC in July (Fig. 9-7) can carry a 1989 for the initial payload of up to 1,750 development of the pounds to LEO. The first Taurus. launch of this version was The overall length of from Vandenberg in August Taurus is 90 feet and weighs 1995 and ended in failure. A Fig. 9-7. 150,000 pounds at launch. launch of NASA’s Lewis ATHENA Its maximum diameter (first scientific satellite in 1997 stage) is 92 inches. The was successful. Launches are also vehicle, shown in Figure 9- Fig. 9-6. possible from Cape Canaveral. 6, is designed to carry 3,000 Taurus The Athena II uses Castor 120 booster pounds into a low polar for both first and second stages and orbit, up to 3,700 pounds for a due East stands 100 feet tall. When additional launch, and up to 950 lbs to geosynchronous performance is needed, the rocket can be transfer orbit . configured inot the third version by The first Taurus launch occurred at fitting it with Thiokol's Castor-4 solid Vandenberg AFB, California on 13 rocket strap-on boosters March 1994. Taurus can be launched Originally, Lockheed-Martin planned from both the Eastern and Western on up to 10 launches/year, but the actual Ranges and has a mobile capability. It is launch rate has been much lower, designed to respond rapidly to launch presumably due to a lower than expected needs and can be ready for launch within demand for LEO satellite launch services. eight days. The launch site is a concrete The advertised launch cost is $14 million, pad with a slim gantry based on its design making this booster something of a to be a simple “mobile” launch platform. bargain. The last Athena launch was in 2001 from the Kodiak launch site in Alaska.

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 5 Delta III with only three or four strap-ons will handle the heavier payloads in this class. A new intermediate-class launcher, the Delta III was developed without Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles government support by Boeing Corporation for a commercial Heavy- Typical launch costs hover around medium lift payloads. Hughes Aircraft $10,000 per pound of payload placed in Company (now part of Boeing), a orbit. Recognizing the need for a new, commercial satellite builder, bought ten less expensive generation of expendable Delta III launches in 1995 to give Boeing launchers, the Air Force began its a customer base for the rocket and bring Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle down the cost of launch. program in 1995. The goal of the Delta III will boost program was to provide more affordable 8,400 pounds to GTO, and reliable access to space, saving at more than twice what the least 25 percent and as much as 50 Delta II can lift. The percent over the cost of the "heritage" rocket (Fig. 9-8) will have systems of Delta, Atlas and Titan rockets. a new cryogenic upper In essence, the Air Force is buying stage and larger fairing. launch services, not launch vehicles. The first two launches Two competing booster designs ended in failure. The first emerged from the program, but both will was auto-destructed when be used rather than allowing a potential the vehicle lost control and single point of failure. Boeing’s design is the second was due to a called the Delta IV, and Lockheed failure in the second stage. Martin’s is the Atlas V. With the new A third attempt, this time a standardized launch vehicle families, a demonstration launch with single launch pad design, design a dummy payload aboard reliability of 98 percent and completely was successfully launched standardized set up and launch Fig. 9-8. on 23 August 2000. The procedures and equipment, the Air Force Delta III Delta III is being phased hopes to realize significant savings over Launch out in favor of the Delta heritage systems. The projected savings IV, the Boeing entry into through the expected end of the program the USAF’s EELV competition. in 2020 could amount to $5 to 10 billion. The launch services contracted so far Delta MED-LITE Services Program cover the period from 2002 to 2006 and a total of 28 launches, with Boeing Boeing-Orbital Sciences Corporation receiving a contract for 22 launches for (OSC) teaming arrangement is providing $1.7 billion, while Lockheed Martin's with NASA for the Medium Light contract is for six launches for $500 Expendable Launch Vehicle Services million. A recent dip in demand for program to fill the gap between the small satellite launches, however, is keeping launch vehicle market and the medium- the unit prices on the EELVs higher than class market. Med-Lite’s objective is to originally projected since fewer are being support the Mars Surveyor and Discovery produced. programs. Under this program, NASA picked various versions of Boeing’s Delta II for 5 to 14 launches of small Delta IV scientific payloads beginning in 1998. OSC’s Taurus is also included in the Boeing’s version of the EELV is the MED-LITE program and is launching Delta IV. Its first launch was on smaller payloads. A modified Delta II November 20, 2002, when it lofted a European EUTELSAT commercial

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 6 communications satellite into a retain two EELV geosynchronous transfer orbit. The Delta lines resulted in some IV design is based on a modular common launches for the Atlas booster core (Fig. 9-9)-using the liquid V but not as many as hydrogen-liquid oxygen RS-68 engine, the Delta IV model. which produces 650,000 pounds of The first Atlas V thrust. A single common booster core is launch was on August used for medium lift applications, but can 21, 2002 when it be configured with up to four strap-on successfully boosted solid rocket booster to lift from 9,200 to a new European 14,500 lbs to a geosynchronous transfer commercial orbit (GTO). The Delta IV launches communications from pad 37 at Cape Canaveral Air satellite into GTO. It Force Station. The booster with its will launch payload fairing stands from 200-225 feet medium/heavy to tall. For heavy lift applications, two full- heavy payloads into sized common booster cores can be earth orbit from pad strapped onto a center common booster 41 at Cape Canaveral core to allow up to 29,000 lbs to GTO or Air Force Station. A 45,200 lbs to LEO. planned pad on the west coast is on currently on hold as it may not be immediately needed. Like the Atlas III, the Atlas V core uses the Russian RD-180 Figure 9-10 engine and will be Atlas V augmented for heavy payloads with two strap-on boosters. The RD-180 engine is rated at 861,000 lbs of thrust at liftoff. The Atlas V can lift 20,000 lb to LEO or 10,900 lb to GTO. .The booster stands 191 feet tall and is 12.5 feet in diameter.

Manned Boosters

Space Transportation System

Fig. 9-8. Space Transportation The Space Transportation System System (STS Figure (9-xx) (STS), also known as the Space Shuttle Fiure (Fig. 9-11) is a reusable spacecraft designed to be launched into orbit by Figure 9-9 rockets and then to return to the Earth's Delta IV Configurations surface by gliding down and landing on a runway. The Shuttle was selected in the Atlas V early 1970s as the principal space launcher and carrier vehicle to be Lockheed Martin’s entry into the Air developed by NASA. It was planned as Force’s EELV competition is the Atlas V a replacement for the more expensive, (Fig. 9-10). The decision by the USAF to expendable booster rockets used since the

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 7 late 1950s for launching major commercial engines. The shuttle’s main engines and governmental satellites. Together produce over 27 million horsepower and with launch facilities, mission control and empties the external tank in about eight supporting centers, and a tracking and and one-half minutes. data relay satellite system, it would Two solid rocket boosters, each complete NASA's new Space slightly over 12 feet wide and 149 feet Transportation System. tall, provide the Shuttle with a lift to the Although the shuttle launched a few upper atmosphere so the main engines military payloads in its early days, such can work more efficiently. Each as the Defense Support Program satellite, produces an average thrust of 3.3 million the USAF abandoned it as a launch pounds. The propellant in the solid vehicle after the Challenger disaster. rocket motors consists of ammonium However, it could conceivably be used perchlorate, aluminum powder, iron for military missions again if the decision oxide and a binding agent. Total thrust were made to do so. of the vehicle at liftoff (two solid motors After various delays, the program and three liquid engines) is 7.78 million commenced in the early 1980s. Despite pounds. several problems, the craft demonstrated The Shuttle's main engines are ignited, its versatility in a series of missions until the booster rockets are ignited about six the fatal disaster during the launch of the seconds before lift-off at T-6 seconds and Challenger on January 28, 1986 forced a the hold-down bolts are released at T-0. long delay. The program resumed in late The Shuttle lifts off vertically about 2.5 1988 and the modifications to the shuttle seconds later with all five engines affected neither the basic design of the operating. As soon as it clears the craft nor its overall dimensions. gantry, it rolls and pitches to fly with the The three main components of the orbiter upside down, as the craft's design Space Shuttle are the orbiter, the external puts the thrust vector off-center. tank and the solid rocket boosters. The At T+2 minutes 12 seconds, the Shuttle weighs 4.5 million pounds at boosters burn out and are jettisoned from launch and stands 184.2 feet tall and can the external tank at an altitude of carry up to 55,000 pounds of cargo to approximately 26-27 statute miles. The LEO on one mission. boosters then parachute into the sea for The orbiter, 78 feet across the wing recovery, refurbishing and reuse. tips and 122.2 feet long, is the portion Meanwhile, the Shuttle continues on resembling a delta-winged jet fighter. It under the power of the main engines. is a rocket stage during launch, a Just short of orbital velocity, the engines spaceship in orbit and a hypersonic glider are shut down (T+8 min 32 sec) and the on reentry and landing. A three-deck tank is jettisoned (T+8 min 50 sec). The crew compartment and an attitude tank burns up as it reenters the thruster module are in the nose, the mid- atmosphere. body is the cargo hold or payload bay (15 Once the vehicle is in space, it ft wide and 60 ft long) and the tail holds maneuvers using two different systems, the three main engines plus maneuvering the Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) engine pods. and the Reaction Control System (RSC). Each engine, burning hydrogen and The orbiter's own OMS engines act as the oxygen, produces up to 394,000 pounds of third stage that puts the craft into orbit. thrust. The external tank, actually an The OMS uses two bipropellant, 6,000 oxygen tank and a hydrogen tank joined pound thrust rocket engines mounted in by a load-bearing intertank, is the pods on the aft end of the orbiter fuselage. structural backbone of the Shuttle. The hypergolic propellants consist of Measuring 27.56 feet wide and 154.2 feet monomethylhydrazine and nitrogen tall, it carries 1,520,000 pounds of tetroxide, with about 21,600 pounds of liquefied propellants for the main propellant stored within the orbiter in

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 8 titanium tanks. The OMS is used for can fit in the orbiter. The interior of the orbit insertion or transfer, orbit circulation, orbiter is pressurized, allowing the rendezvous and deorbit. astronauts to operate in a short-sleeve environment without spacesuits. Passengers can fly on the shuttle without extensive astronaut training because of the relatively light 3G acceleration during launch and the pressurized cabin. The self-contained crew module is supported within the fuselage by four attachment points, the entire module being welded to create the pressure tight vessel. The module has a fuselage side hatch for access, a hatch into the airlock from the mid-section and a hatch from the airlock into the payload bay. As previously mentioned, the crew module is divided into three levels. The upper flight deck has seats for the mission and payload specialists, the commander, and the pilot. There are dual flight controls and the controls for the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) which extracts payloads from the Shuttle's cargo bay. The mid- level deck has additional seating, a galley, electronics bays and crew sleeping and comfort facilities. The lowest level houses environmental equipment and storage.

Fig. 9-11. Space At the end of the orbital mission, the Transportation System (STS) orbiter is protected from the heat of reentry by heat-resistant ceramic tiles. As dynamic pressure from the air The RCS uses 38 bi-propellant liquid increases, control of the vehicle switches rocket engines and six bipropellant liquid from the RCS to aerodynamic surfaces rocket vernier thrusters. Fourteen of the and the orbiter glides to a landing. engines are on the orbiter's nose, together with two verniers. The remaining engines and verniers are split equally Proposed Boosters between the two OMS pods of the aft end of the orbiter fuselage. The RCS used Operationally Responsive Spacelift the same type propellants as the OMS, Initiative but carries 2,413 pounds of fuel in separate tanks. There is a system to The Air Force began the Operationally transfer fuel to and from the RCS to the Responsive Spacelift initiative in 2003. OMS. The RCS is used to maneuver in The goal of the program is to pave the space during rendezvous and deorbit way for reusable rockets that could be maneuvers. launched at a low cost on short notice. The vehicle is normally manned by a As part of a one year analysis of crew of four (minimum two, maximum alternatives study which began March 1, eight except as noted): the commander, 2003, teams are investigating a variety of pilot, mission specialist and payload space planes, air-launched boosters, and specialist. In an emergency ten people fully reusable as well as expendable or

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 9 partly-reusable spacelifters. The study is scaled up to become the fully orbital closely linked to NASA's Next Sprite. The Sprite will be Generation Launch Technology program, 53 feet tall and consist of six 42-inch the follow-on to their recently scaled- diameter pods around a central core back Space Launch Initiative. A multi- giving it an an overall diameter of 11.2 staged system could be in place by 2014, feet. It will be a three stage launcher depending on funding. Also, a low-cost with six 20,000 lb thrust engines expendable upper stage booster and an followed by a second stage single 20,000 orbital transfer vehicle capable of lb engine. The third stage will produce handling spacecraft servicing would be 2,500 lbs of thrust and place a 700 lb developed. The goal is to have a system payload in a 100 NM low Earth orbit for that can launch within hours to days as $1.8 million. A primary goal is to opposed the weeks to months of simplify launch operations so that liftoff preparation required by current boosters. occurs only 8 hours after the vehicle is Payloads could include the Common brought to the pad. Aero Vehicle (CAV, an reentry vehicle which can deliver a variety of munitions RASCAL to a ground target) or microsatellites. The Responsive Access, Small Cargo, Scorpius-Sprite Affordable Launch (RASCAL) program will design and develop a low cost orbital One possible contender for an insertion capability for dedicated micro- Operationally Responsive Spacelift job is size satellite payloads. The concept is to Micorcosm’s Sprite Mini-Lift Launch develop a responsive, routine, small vehicle (Fig 9-12). Research for the payload delivery system capable of ongoing Scorpius-Sprite program is providing flexible access to space using a funded by the Air Force and the Missile combination of reusable and low cost Defense Agency, and NASA as well as expendable vehicle elements. Microcosm’s own research and Specifically, the RASCAL system development funds. will be comprised of a reusable airplane- Scorpius, the sub-orbital research like first stage vehicle called the reusable vehicle, has already flown and will be launch vehicle and a second stage expendable rocket vehicle. The RASCAL demonstration objectives are to place satellites and commodity payloads, between 110 and 280 lbs (50 and 130 kilograms) in weight, into low earth orbit at any time, any inclination with launch efficiency of $9,100 per pound ($20,000 per kilogram) or less. While the cost goal is commensurate with current large payload launch systems, the operational system, through production economies of scale, will be more than a factor of three less than current capabilities for the dedicated micro payload size. This capability will enable cost effective use of on-orbit replacement and re-supply and provide a means for rapid launch of Figure 9-12 orbital assets for changing national security needs. Sprite With recent advances in design tools and simulations, this program will

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 10 prudently reduce design margins and these requirements and demonstrate this trade-off system reliability to maximize capability in a series of flight tests cost effectiveness. This program will also culminating with the launch of an leverage advancements in autonomous operable CAV-like payload. Far-term range safety, first-stage guidance and capability is envisioned to entail a predictive vehicle health diagnosis, reusable, hypersonic aircraft capable of management and reporting to lower the delivering 12,000 pounds of payload to a recurring costs of space launch. target 9,000 nautical miles from CONUS in less than two hours. Many of the FALCON technologies required by CAV are also applicable to this vision vehicle concept The FALCON program objectives are such as high lift-to-drag technologies, to develop and demonstrate technologies high temperature materials, thermal that will enable both near-term and far- protection systems, and periodic term capability to execute time-critical, guidance, navigation, and control. global reach missions. Near-term Initiated under the Space Vehicle capability will be accomplished via Technologies program, and leveraging development of a rocket boosted, technology developed under the expendable munitions delivery system Hypersonics program, FALCON will that delivers its payload to the target by build on these technologies to address the executing unpowered boost-glide implications of powered hypersonic flight maneuvers at hypersonic speed. This and reusability required to enable this concept called the Common Aero far-term capability. The FALCON Vehicle (CAV) would be capable of program addresses many high priority delivering up to 1,000 pounds of mission areas and applications such as munitions to a target 3,000 nautical miles global presence, space control, and space downrange. An Operational Responsive lift. Spacelift (ORS) booster vehicle will place CAV at the required altitude and velocity. The FALCON program will develop a low cost rocket booster to meet

AU Space primer 7/23/2003 9 - 11 CURRENT LAUNCH SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Table 9-1. Delta II

Delta II

The Delta II is a two- or three-stage booster. Stages one and two use liquid propellant while stage three uses solid propellant. The booster is configured with nine solid rocket strap-ons surrounding the first stage. The current 7925 model uses lighter and longer strap-ons for increased impulse and greater payload capacity.

• Delta II 7925

Stage Thrust (lbs) Length (ft)

I 236,984 85.4 II (7925) 9,645 9.3 III (7925) 5,098 6.7

Total Length: 121 feet Diameter: 8 ft Fairing Diameters: 8, 9.5 or 10 ft Payload: 4,120 lbs to GTO 6,985 lbs to polar 11,330 lbs to LEO

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 12

Table 9-2. Atlas II, IIAS, III

Atlas II, IIAS

The Atlas is a stage and one-half liquid propellant booster. It has continually been upgraded since its original late-1950’s design as the nation’s first ICBM. The Atlas is a medium/heavy lift booster used extensively by the commercial market and for USAF payloads such as the DSCS III satellites.

• Atlas II Engine: Thrust (lbs) Booster: 206,950 each (2) Sustainer: 60,474

Length: 149.6 ft Diameter: 10 ft Payload: 14,916 to LEO 6,094 to GTO

• Atlas IIAS Engine: Thrust (lbs) Booster: 207,110 each (2) Sustainer: 60,525 Strap-ons: 97,500 each (4)

Length: 156 ft Diameter: 10 ft Payload: 18,000 to LEO 8,000 to GTO • Atlas III Engine: 861,075 lbs thrust

Length: 173.2 ft Diameter: 10 ft Payload: 19,050 lb to LEO 8,940 lb to GTO

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 13

Table 9-3. Titan II SLV

Titan II SLV

The Titan II SLV is a former ICBM modified to launch space payloads. Changes to the ICBM include payload interface modifications and the addition of an attitude control system. It is very capable of putting medium/heavy payloads into low earth orbit. It is primarily used by the USAF for launching DMSP satellites into low earth, sun synchronous orbits.

Stage Thrust (lbs) Length(ft) I 430,000 70 II 100,040 40 Payload fairing: N/A 20 - 25

Diameter: 10 ft Payload: 6985 to LEO 2300 to GTO

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 14

Table 9-4. Titan IVB

Titan IVB

The Titan IV is designed to place heavy payloads into orbit using the Centaur-G or Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) upper stage.

Stage Thrust (lbs) Length (ft) I 551,200 86.5 II 106,150 32.6 SRM 1,600,000 ea. (2) 112.9 SRMU 1,700,000 ea. (2) 112.4 Payload fairing: N/A up to 84.0

• Diameter: 10 ft (payload - 16.7 ft)

Payload to GEO: 12,700 lbs

Payload to Polar: 38,000 lbs

Payload to LEO: 49,000 lbs

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 15 Table 9-5. STS

Space Shuttle

The Space Shuttle is the only US manned space vehicle.

Thrust (lbs) SRB's (ea) 3,300,000 lbs. Orbiter (3ea) 393,800 lbs.

Orbiter Dimensions:

Length: 122ft Wingspan: 78ft.

Payload to GEO (lbs.):

46-55,000 lbs. (28o incl) 32,500-40,900 lbs. (57o incl)

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 16

Table 9-6. Pegasus

Pegasus

The only air-launched space vehicle in the world. Primarily launches small experimental/scientific payload to LEO from 1B L-1011 carrier aircraft.

Pegasus XL: Length: 55.18 ft.

Payload: 440 lbs. To GTO (w/fourth stage) 600 lbs. To 287 mi. polar

900 lbs. To 287 mi equatorial

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 17 Table 9-7. Delta IV

Background Information First Launch: October 9, 2002 Launch Site: CCAFS, Space Launch Complex-37

Capability: Up to 45,200 lb to LEO; 29,100 lb to GTO History: Delta IV developed as part of the USAF Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) program Description·Five var iants built around the Common Booster Core (CBC) • Stage 1: The CBC sub-assembly includes and interstage,

liquid oxygen tank, liquid hydrogen tank, engine section, and nose cones for the Delta IV-H. The three Delta IV-M+ configurations use either two or four Alliant graphite-epoxy motors attached to the CBC. Delta IV-H uses two additional CBCs as strap-on liquid rocket boosters. The CBC is powered by a newly developed Rocketdyne RS-68 engine which has a

21.5:1 expansion ratio and produces 650,000 lbs of thrust at sea level. • Stage 2: There are two second-stage configurations. A 4-m version used on Delta IV-M and Delta IV-M+(4,2) and a 5-m version used on other Delta IV configurations. The second stage is powered by a Pratt & Whitney RL10B-2 cryogenic engine. The 4-m version produces thrust of 24,750 lbs, the 5-

m produces thrust of 60,000 lbs. • Payload fairings: 4-m and 5-m composite bisector fairings based on the Delta III fairings. 5-m trisector fairing which is a modified version of the Titan IV isogrid fairing.

Table 9-8. Atlas V

Atlas V Background Information First Launch: 20 Aug 02 Launch Site: LC-41, CCAFS Capability: 20,000 lb to LEO; 10,900 lb to GTO Description·Two stage booster. • Stage 1 utilizes one Russian designed RD-180 booster engine with two chambers burning LOX/RP-1 fed from stage 1 tanks, generating a total of 861,075 lb of thrust at sea level, 933,034 lbs of thrust in vacuum. • RD-180 engine provides throttling capability (75% - 85% max) and gimbaled chambers for 3-axis control. • Stage 2 (Centaur) has a one or dual engine version using Pratt & Whitney RL10A-4-2 turbopump-fed engines that burn LH2/LOX and produce 24,750 lb of thrust each. Profile: Length: 191.2 ft Launch Weight: 733,304 lb Diameter: 12.5 ft Liftoff Thrust: 860,200 lb Payload Fairing: 40 ft x 13.8 ft (Large); 43 x 13.8 ft (Extended)

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 19 REFERENCES

30th Space Wing Fact Sheet. Air Force Space Command Public Affairs Office.

45th Space Wing Fact Sheet. Air Force Space Command Public Affairs Office.

Air Force Magazine. Aug 1997.

Daily news update from MSNBC and Florida Today, 1998-1999.

Inter-service Space Fundamentals Student Textbook.

Jane's Space Directory, 1995-1996.

Joint Space Fundamentals Course, Student Reference Text. Aug 1995.

“Lockheed Still Seeks First Customer for LLV's Debut.” Space News. Sep 13-19, 1993.

London, Lt Col John R., III. LEO on the Cheap, Air University Press, 1994.

“Reborn rocket lifts satellite into space.” Astro News. Apr 18, 1997.

Space and Missile Applications Basic Course (SMABC) Handbook.

“Titan IVB Puts Reputation for Reliability to a Test.” Space News. Feb 17-23, 1997.

HQ USAF/XOO, 30-Day Launch Forecast, 11 May 2000 www.spacecom.af.mil/hqafspc/launches/launchesdefault.htm Information on the latest rocket launches conducted by Air Force Space Command. www.spacer.com Recent news from the Space Daily newspaper. www.pafb.af.mil/launch.htm Upcoming and past launches and related information for the Eastern Launch Site. http://biz.yahoo.com/prnews/030428/dcm036_1.html “Orbital’s Pegasus Rocket Successfully Launches NASA’s GALEX Satellite”, Press Release, Orbital Sciences Corporation, 28 Apr 2003

Jeremy Singer, “U.S. Air Force Sees Quick and Frequent Launches in its Future” Space News Staff Writer, Space News, 14 July 2003 (Operationally Responsive Launch) http://www.te.plk.af.mil/factsheet/taurfact.html Taurus Launch System Fact Sheet, Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center, LAAFB, CA http://www.ast.lmco.com/launch_athenaFacts.shtml Athena Facts, Lockheed Martin

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 20 http://discovery.larc.nasa.gov/discovery/lvserv.doc , Discovery Launch Services Information Summary, NASA, ca. 2000 http://www.af.mil/news/airman/0303/space.html Capt Carie A. Seydel , “The Next Generation”, Airman Magazine Online, March 2003 (EELV Article)

Senior Master Sgt. Andrew Stanley, “EELV targets 2001 Launch”, Air Force Print News, 24 Jun 1999 http://www.darpa.mil/tto/programs/rascal.html DARPA’s Responsive Access, Small Cargo, Affordable Launch (RASCAL) summary, updated July 1, 2003 http://www.darpa.mil/tto/programs/falcon.html DARPA’s Force Application and Launch from CONUS summary, updated July 9, 2003 http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/af_space_030328.html David Leonard, “Air Force to Focus on Quick Reaction Spacelift Vehicles”, Senior Space Writer, Space.Com, 28 March 2003 http://www.smad.com/scorpius/family/sprite.html Microcosm’s Scorpius-Sprite Summary, ca. 2001

AU Space Primer 7/24/200300 9 - 21 Chapter 10

SPACECRAFT DESIGN, STRUCTURE AND OPERATIONS

A typical spacecraft consists of a mission payload and the bus (or platform). The bus is made up of five supporting subsystems: structures, thermal control, electrical power, attitude control and telemetry, tracking and commanding (TT&C).

SPACECRAFT DESIGN PROCESS Regardless of how long it takes, spacecraft design and development The design and development of a typically occur in phases identified as: spacecraft is an engineering process requirements definition, conceptual divided into identifiable phases. In the design, preliminary design, and detailed past, the spacecraft development process (or critical) design. These phases and required several years to accomplish, their sequential relationships are shown especially if it was a government project. in Figure 10-1. Recent advances in satellite manu- Spacecraft development begins by facturing technology, coupled with the defining needs or requirements the growth of commercial markets in system is to satisfy. For example, the satellite communications and imaging, need to gather and store weather images have significantly shortened the process. and data. Or, take photographic images This change is described by a former with less than 15 meter resolution and commander of U.S. Air Force Space transmit the information in real time. Command: The spacecraft mission will be a major determiner of the type orbit chosen for "…new commercial geosynchronous the space craft. satellites are available 18 months Next is the conceptual design phase, after order—soon to be down to 12 in which various system concepts which can satisfy the mission requirements are months. For the small LEO systems, considered and subjected to analysis. time from order to delivery is about The most proficient means to carry out three years...In contrast, the the mission is selected and major risks, acquisition of national security costs, and schedules are identified. systems runs 10 to 15 years... The preliminary design phase follows the same plant will build three conceptual design, and may stretch over a couple of years (Fig. 10-2). During this hundred Teledesic satellites in three phase, variations of the concept chosen years and 15 Global Positioning in the conceptual design phase are System (GPS) satellites in seven analyzed and refined. Subsystem and years...” component level specifications are defined and major documents such as the - General Thomas Moorman Jr., interface control document are written. USAF, Ret. in Air Power Journal, Anticipated performance of systems and subsystems is substantiated and, from Spring 1999 the detailed specifications, a preliminary parts list is identified.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10 - 1 Design Process

C System design/ Conceptual Preliminary Critical De- mission design Design sign requirem ents

Integration Fabrication Spacecraft delivery and test and assembly

Fig. 10-1 Spacecraft design phases

several times during the critical design phase. Design verification is an important part of this phase. Verification involves tests of electronic circuit models, software and engineering models. Design and performance margin estimates are refined and test and evaluation plans finalized.

STRUCTURES SUBSYSTEM

The functions of the structural subsystem are to enclose, protect and support the other spacecraft subsystems and to provide a mechanical interface with the launch vehicle. The enclose and protect functions are especially necessary during spacecraft assembly, handling and transportation from the manufacturing facility to the launch facility. Structural members provide the mating and attachment points for subsystem components such Fig. 10-2 Spacecraft in Preliminary Design as batteries, propellant tanks, electronics modules and so on. The structure must also sustain the stresses and loads The final phase is the critical (or experienced during environmental detailed) design phase which can take testing, launch, perigee and apogee four to five years. It is within this phase firings, and deployment of booms, solar that the specific aspects of structural arrays and antennas. Noises and design are identified, such as finalizing vibrations can be especially severe as the the thickness of structures and load spacecraft experiences high G forces paths. The spacecraft design must during launch. Acoustic noise is the accommodate everything that fits into highest in the early stages of the launch the structure, including equipment, crew, and is transmitted from the rocket provisions and payload. Options for motors by the air through the fairings or secondary structures (plumbing, wiring, housing and into the spacecraft. Steady etc.) are also analyzed and evaluated loads are transmitted through the

Space Reference Guide Second Edition, 8/99 6 - 2 structure as the rockets accelerate the these two structure types where part of spacecraft to the high velocities required the satellite would have a shape such as for injection into orbit. a box, with some equipment attached to A wide range of vibration frequencies the exterior. is transmitted through the spacecraft supports from the rocket motors. The Materials separation ring and other pyrotechnic devices send sudden shocks through the When designing a component for structure. structural use in a spacecraft, the Upon reaching its final orbit position, engineer must at some point in the the loads on the spacecraft are greatly analysis, decide what materials to use reduced in the zero gravity environment, (Fig. 10-4). Thousands of different but the alignment requirements are more materials are used in making a rigorous. The designer must satisfy all spacecraft. Many of them serve dual or requirements, minimize the structure triple roles to save weight and avoid

mass and cost, and Fig. 10-3 Satellite being fitted to rocket faring

Still keep the probability of failure near zero.

Structure Types Fig. 10-4 Various materials evident in a There are two main types of satellite spacecraft structures: open truss and body mounted. complexity. For example, the frame of a An open truss structure has a specific spacecraft could be a heat sink and shape to it (see Fig. 10-3), usually a box electrical ground as well as the main or a cylinder. structure. Inside the body of the spacecraft is a During its lifetime, the spacecraft will honeycomb structure where the be subjected to severe conditions. These equipment boxes are attached. In a body may include various mechanical loads, mounted structure equipment is attached vibrations, thermal shocks, electrical directly on primary equipment such as charges, radiation, and a chemical and an antenna or apogee kick motor. These particulate environment that starts with satellites do not have a specific shape to the salt and sand spray at our launch them. There are also combinations of sites.

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The material selected must meet presence of moisture is a problem with standards of yield, ultimate and fatigue magnesium and its alloys; coatings and strength, specific stiffness, hardness and finishes are needed for protection. toughness, ductility, thermal expansion, Titanium can replace aluminum in creep resistance and melting point. Other higher temperature environments, as it properties must also be examined, since has the ability to remain strong at structural materials often serve more temperatures up to 1,200° F. In than one role. Depending on the situations where a structure must be circumstances, electrical conductance lightweight and strong when subjected to may be a favorable attribute of a 400 - 1,200° F, aluminum cannot be structural member. Thermal conduc- used. Unfortunately, titanium is not as tance and capacitance may also be light or durable as aluminum. It has a desirable depending upon whether the tendency to become brittle at low structure is to insulate internal temperatures and when placed under components or relieve thermal stresses repeated loads. It is also more difficult by conducting thermal energy away to weld. from hot spots. Beryllium is used to make Finally, the availability, formability phenomenally light alloys. Its strength and ease with which parts can be is close to that of steel and its density is machined out of a particular material comparable to aluminum. This makes will influence the selection process. for extremely stiff, lightweight Some are scarce and expensive. Others structures. An added plus is its ability to are extremely brittle or soft. Some are retain its properties at temperatures up to hard to cast, forge or to machine. Almost 1,000° F. every material presents some type of Beryllium is more difficult to fabrication problem. fabricate than aluminum and is Aluminum, magnesium, titanium and susceptible to surface damage while it is beryllium are the elements that make up being machined due to its brittle the major lightweight alloys used in properties. An additional consideration space vehicles. They are all much is beryllium's toxicity. It presents a lighter than steel and are non-magnetic. serious health hazard to unprotected Aluminum alloys are the most widely workers. Finally, beryllium is more used structural materials. Their strength costly than many other metals. to weight ratio is equal to steel, which Graphite, plastics, nylon and ceramics combined with its availability and ease comprise the non-metallic materials used of manufacture, makes them very in spacecraft. Graphite is not usually desirable. Aluminum can be made into thought of as a structural material. It is wire, thin sheets, cast into complex and weak and brittle at room temperature, thick parts, machined, welded, forged but is widely used as a thermal and stamped. Unfortunately, aluminum protection material. Since the strength of and its alloys are unable to withstand high graphite improves with temperature up temperatures. Prolonged exposure to to about 4,500° F, it is very possible that temperatures above 400° F results in a vehicles which must enter Jupiter's loss of strength and creep can set in at atmosphere, or orbit very close to the lower temperatures. Sun, may have some structural parts Magnesium is lighter than aluminum, made out of graphite. but not as strong. It is useful for lower Plastic has many desirable qualities as strength, lightweight applications at a spacecraft component material. It is temperatures up to 400° F. Fabrication very inexpensive, very available and is similar to that of aluminum in that easy to fabricate into intricate shapes. It parts can be made and joined together in is also durable and is a good electrical much the same way. Corrosion in the and thermal insulator. For spacecraft

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 4 interiors, where temperatures are critical temperature (10° C) or it will relatively low, plastic may be a good freeze. replacement for light alloys. The thermal control process has to Nylon has a unique advantage in that meet the requirements of all subsystems. mechanisms made of it may not need Balance between structural and thermal lubrication. Nylon may be the optimal requirements is necessary to achieve the material for low power gear trains in best spacecraft configuration to permit space. proper thermal balance. The general property of ceramics is The thermal control subsystem uses that they are extremely weak in tension every practical means available to and are very brittle. They can, however, regulate the temperature on board a withstand very high temperatures, satellite. Selection of the proper thermal protecting themselves by gradual control system requires knowledge of erosion. Hence, ceramics are useful in mission requirements as well as the some radomes, jet vanes, leading edges operational environment. Temperatures and solid rocket nozzles. within space vehicles are affected by In the future, aerospace fabrication both internal and external heat sources. will make greater use of composites. Composites are two or more materials Sources of Thermal Energy manufactured together to form a single piece that can have almost any property The sources of heat energy in a an engineer specifies. Uni- or omni- spacecraft include people (in manned directional strength, resistance to high missions), electronic equipment, temperatures and resistance to corrosives frictional heat generated as the vehicle are a few of these properties. Examples leaves or reenters the atmosphere, the of composites are: fiberglass and carbon Sun, heat reflected from the Earth epoxy, both structural materials; and (altitude dependent), and Earth thermal carbon-composite, a thermal protection radiation (altitude dependent). Thermal material used on leading edges of the control techniques can be divided into space shuttle. two classes: passive thermal control and active thermal control. THERMAL CONTROL SUBSYSTEM Passive Thermal Control

The spacecraft thermal environment A passive thermal control system is determined by the magnitude and maintains temperatures within the distribution of radiation from the Sun desired temperature range by control of and Earth. The purpose of the spacecraft the conductive and the radiative heat thermal control subsystem is to control paths. This is accomplished through the the temperature of individual selection of the geometrical config- components to ensure proper operation uration and thermo-optical properties of through the life of the mission. Some the surfaces. Such a system does not components are required to be have moving parts, moving fluids or maintained below a critical temperature, require electrical power. Passive i.e. high temperature limits the reliability systems offer the advantages of high and lifetime of transistors due to reliability due to absence of moving increased electromigration effects. parts or fluid, effectiveness over wide Optical sensors require temperature be temperature ranges, and light weight. A maintained within a critical range to disadvantage is low thermal capacity. minimize lens distortion, and hydrazine Passive thermal control techniques propellant must be maintained above a include thermal coatings, thermal

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 5 insulations, heat sinks and phase change • Minimize heat flow to or from the materials. component Spacecraft external surfaces radiate • Reduce the amplitude of energy to space. Because these surfaces temperature fluctuations in com- are also exposed to external sources of ponents due to time-varying energy, their radiative properties must be external radiative heat flux selected to achieve a balance between • Minimize the temperature internally dissipated energy, external gradients in components caused by sources of energy and the heat rejected varying directions of incoming into space. The two properties of external radiative heat. primary importance are the emittance of the surface and solar absorbency. Paints Multi-layer insulation consists of and coatings can be used to reduce several layers of closely spaced reflection and to increase or decrease radiation-reflecting shields which are absorption of heat or light energy. placed perpendicular to the heat-flow Two or more coatings can be direction. The aim of the radiation combined in an appropriate pattern to shields is to reflect a large percentage of obtain a desired average value of solar the radiation the layer receives from absorbence and emittance (i.e. a warmer surfaces. Heat sinks are checkerboard pattern of white paint and materials of large thermal capacity, polished metal). placed in thermal contact with the For a radiator, low absorbence and components whose temperature is to be high emittance are desirable to minimize controlled. When heat is generated by solar input and maximize heat rejection the component, the temperature rise is to space. For a radiator coating, the restricted because the heat is conducted initial values are important because of into the sink. The sink will then dispose degradation over the lifetime of the of this heat to adjacent locations through mission. Degradation can be significant conduction or radiation (Fig. 10-5). Heat for all white paints. For this reason, the sinks are commonly used to control the use of a second surface mirror coating system is preferred. An example of such a coating is vapor deposited silver on 0.2 mm thick fused silica, creating an optical solar reflector. Degradation of thermal coatings in the space environment results from the combined effects of high vacuum, charged particles and ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Thermal insulation is designed to reduce the rate of heat flow per unit area between two boundary surfaces at Fig. 10-5. Satellite body with thermal heat specified temperatures. Insulation may sinks be a single homogeneous material such as low thermal conductivity foam or an temperature of those items of electronic evacuated multi-layer insulation in equipment which have high dissipation, which each layer acts as a low-emittance or a cyclical variation in power radiation shield and is separated by low- dissipation. conductance spacers. Solid-liquid phase-change materials Multi-layer insulations are widely (PCM) present an attractive approach to used in the thermal control of spacecraft spacecraft passive thermal control when and components in order to: the incident orbital heat fluxes, or on- board equipment dissipation, changes

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 6 widely for short periods. The PCM surfaces, or electrical power heaters turn thermal control system consists on or off to compensate for variations in primarily of a container filled with a the equipment power dissipation. Active material capable of undergoing a thermal control techniques include chemical phase change. When the louvers, electrical heaters, refrigerative temperature of spacecraft surfaces thermal control and expendable heat increases, the PCM will absorb excess sinks. heat through melting. When the For a spacecraft in which the changes temperature decreases, the PCM gives in internal power dissipation or external heat back and solidifies. Phase-change heat fluxes are severe, it is not possible materials used for temperature control to maintain the spacecraft equipment are those with melting points close to the temperatures within the allowable design desired temperature of the equipment. temperature limits unless the ratio of Then the latent heat associated with the absorbence to emissivity can be varied. phase change provides a large thermal A very popular and reliable method inertia as the temperature of the which effectively gives a variable ratio equipment passes through the melting is through the use of louvers. When the point. However, the phase-change louver blades are open, the effective material cannot prevent a further ratio is low (low absorbtivity, high temperature rise when all the material is emissivity); when the blades are closed, melted. the effective ratio is high (high One of the more common methods of absorbtivity, low emissivity). The rejecting electronic heat is to mount the louvers also reduce the dependence of electronics just inside the spacecraft bus spacecraft temperatures on the variation structure. Thus, the energy is conducted of the thermo-optical properties of the over a short path to an external radiator. spacecraft thermal control surface Louvers consist of five main (frequently referred to as a radiator and components: baseplate, blades, sometimes as a shearplate). This surface actuators, sensing elements and is usually coated with a low solar structural elements. The baseplate is a absorbence/high infrared emittance surface of low absorbence to emittance coating (usually a white paint). Such ratio which covers the critical set of surfaces are usually positioned by equipment whose temperature is being spacecraft orientation to point to deep controlled. The blades, driven by space. Thus, the natural environment is actuators, are the elements of the louvers minimized or eliminated and maximum that give variable radiation heat rejection occurs. characteristics at the baseplate. When the blades are closed, they shield the Active Thermal Control baseplate from its surroundings. When they are fully open, the coupling by Passive thermal control may not be radiation from the baseplate to the adequate and efficient for the surroundings is the largest. The applications where the equipment has a radiation characteristics of the baseplate narrowly specified temperature range, or can be varied in the range defined by where there is great variation in these two extreme positions of the equipment power dissipation and solar blades. The actuators are the elements flux during the mission. In such cases, of the louvers which drive the blades temperature sensors may be placed at according to the temperature sensed by critical equipment locations. When sensors placed in the baseplate. The critical temperatures are reached, commonly used actuators are bimetal mechanical devices are actuated to springs or bellows. Generally, bimetals modify the thermo-optical properties of are used with the multiple-blade

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 7 actuation system and bellows with the The successful fulfillment of a space single-blade actuation system. mission is dependent on the reliable Electrical heaters (resistance functioning of the power system of the elements) are used to maintain orbiting spacecraft. The stringent temperatures above minimum allowable demands on performance, weight, levels. The heater is typically part of a volume, reliability and cost make the closed loop system that includes a design of the spacecraft power system a temperature sensing element and an truly challenging endeavor. electronic temperature controller Significant advances have been made (thermostat). Electrical heaters are used in this area resulting in the development in an on-off control mode, a ground of reliable and lightweight power controllable mode, a proportional control systems for long duration missions mode or simply in a continuous-on (typically more than five years). Since a mode. The heaters are strips of kapton space mission is inherently expensive, with etched foil-heating elements and the necessity of optimization and built in welded power leads. Heaters are bonded reliability becomes a rule rather than an on structures to maintain temperature exception for all on-board systems. levels and gradients consistent with Therefore, continuous efforts are being interface and alignment requirements. made to realize better performance from In all applications, primary and backup power systems. redundant sets of heaters should be implemented and controlled by Elements of a Spacecraft Power redundant mechanical thermostats with System predetermined set-points. Some sensors require constant cold The amount of electrical power temperatures. These types of sensors on required on board a spacecraft is dictated board spacecraft must be isolated from by the mission goals (i.e. the nature and other system components and may need operational requirements of the a cooling system to function properly. A payloads, the antenna characteristics, the closed system refrigeration cycle may be data rate, the spacecraft orbit, etc.) necessary for high heat loads. Uninterrupted power must often be Radiators are closed loop systems supplied for durations up to ten years or used in conjunction with other types of more. thermal control devices. They are active The generation of electrical power on due to this interaction (i.e., use working board a spacecraft generally involves fluids etc.). Radiator systems require four basic elements: large surface areas to dissipate heat into space; a major disadvantage of this type • A source of energy, such as direct of system. solar radiation, nuclear power or Expendable heat sinks work by chemical reactions transferring heat to a fluid or gas and • A device for converting the then the fluid or gas is vented overboard. energy into electrical energy Thus, the working fluid or gas is • A device for storing the electrical expended. Water, because of its high energy to meet peak and/or latent heat of vaporization, is generally eclipse demands the best expendable coolant. This is an • A system for conditioning, open loop system. charging, discharging, regulating and distributing the generated ELECTRICAL POWER electrical energy at specified SUBSYSTEM voltage levels

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The most favorable energy source for Photovoltaic and solar thermoionic Earth-orbiting satellites is solar radiation devices both harness energy from the (Fig. 10-6). Solar radiation bombards the Sun. The photovoltaic energy source Earth at a level of 126 watt/ft2. Nearly uses potential differences created by electromagnetic radiation illuminating semiconductors to provide power. The solar thermoionic system uses a temperature gradient set up across different types of semiconductors to create a flow of current. It is seldom used and thus, will not be discussed. Another source is the solar dynamic system. This system can theoretically provide many kilowatts of power for extremely long mission durations. In Fig. 10-6. Solar Panels provide energy for this system, the energy from the Sun is earth-orbiting satellites focused onto a vessel containing a working fluid. The fluid heats, expands and can be used to turn a generator. all Earth-orbiting spacecraft use solar This method will be employed on the radiation as a source of energy. Because International Space Station to satellites pass into and out of the Earth's supplement its batteries and solar arrays. shadow solar radiation may not be Nuclear power uses the heat energy useable by itself. A supplemental energy produced during nuclear fission to storage device must be used to provide generate power. power during eclipse and peak demand Choosing a spacecraft power source periods. Chemical sources such as for a particular mission may be difficult. rechargeable storage batteries serve this Continuous power requirements, eclipse purpose. These batteries employ conditions as well as power subsystem electrochemical processes and have weight are major factors in the final typical efficiencies of 75%. choice. Sometimes, a combination of As an alternative to solar energy, energy sources is may be required. radioactive isotope generators have also been used. This power source is Solar Arrays especially practical for exploration missions to the outer planets where solar Solar arrays are mounted on the radiation levels are low. For example, satellite in various forms. They may be the solar radiation reduces from about 54 body mounted, stationary, or on watt/ft2 in the vicinity of Mars to about directional, steerable wings. A solar 4.6 watt/ft2 near Jupiter. It therefore array consists of solar cells which becomes necessary to use other primary convert solar energy into electric power sources of energy for spacecraft by the photovoltaic effect. An array also missions to Jupiter and beyond. contains interconnectors to connect the Batteries and fuel cells produce solar cells, panels on which the solar electrical power through chemical cells are mounted and mechanisms to reactions. The chemical dynamic system deploy the panels in orbit (Fig. 10-7). uses the heat energy liberated by some The power output of a single cell is chemical reactions to heat a working quite low, so the individual cells are fluid, such as sodium, and turn a arranged in series to provide the desired generator. The chemical dynamic voltage, and in parallel to render the system is not considered practical for desired current requirements. In space usage and will not be addressed. addition, solar array modules are often

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• Variation in the angle between the solar array surface normal and solar rays • Radiation degradation in solar cell power characteristics • Array contamination by thruster propellants, etc.

The solar array power characteristics during the lifetime are obtained by superimposing the seasonal variation in power output on the time-varying Fig. 10-7. Spacecraft with large solar array radiation thermal degradation characteristic. Solar array size is driven by a constructed with several strings in combination of satellite power parallel which are connected together in requirements and the efficiency of the a series; a parallel “ladder” network. solar cells to convert solar energy to This is done to minimize power loss electrical energy. At the distance the with a single cell failure. If each string Earth is from the sun (1 AU), the solar were used independently, the loss of a constant is 126 watt/ft2. A new cell is single cell would create an open circuit only 11-12 % efficient when the Sun’s for that entire string and the output from rays are incident at 90° to the surface. that string would be totally lost. With As a result, solar cell output is about 10 the ladder network arrangement, watt/ft2. To improve their efficiency connectivity among the remaining cells and protect the cells from particles and is maintained in any string with a failed radiation, the cells are covered with cell. However, the output may be multiple layers of materials to protect somewhat degraded. them and enhance conversion. A silicon Some satellites cannot use deployable dioxide layer is used to enhance the solar arrays because of the type of desired wavelengths resulting in higher attitude control system they employ. efficiency and giving the cells their Spin-stabilized satellites cannot support characteristic blue color. In order to deployable solar arrays because of the provide a kilowatt of power to the stresses placed on the panels while the satellite payload and vehicle subsystems, satellite rotates. For this reason, spin solar array must have about 100 ft2 of stabilized satellites require body surface area. mounted solar arrays. Body mounting is Optimum solar array efficiency is a very simple approach that utilizes usually achieved between 25° C (77° F) available space on the satellite surface. and 28° C (82° F). The cell may be Some solar arrays are directional. A laminated with a material to reflect the solar array drive is employed to control 4,000 Angstrom wavelength radiation to the angle of the arrays continuously so keep the cell cooler. A change in cell they may be always perpendicular to the temperature will change its voltage- sun's rays. In contrast, stationary arrays current characteristics. An increase in are deployable arrays locked into the cell operational temperature causes a position relative to the spacecraft body slight increase in the cell current and a once deployed. significant decrease in the cell voltage. The power of a solar array varies with Therefore, the overall efficiency time due to: decreases as temperature increases. Thermal control of the solar array panels • The variation in solar intensity is achieved by the absorption of solar

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 10 radiation by the solar cells on the front spacecraft power. A battery is an surfaces of the panels and reemission of electrochemical device that stores infrared energy from the front and back energy in the chemical form and then of the panels. converts it into electrical energy during The power from the solar cell will be discharge. Chemical reactions taking maximum when the angle of incidence place inside the battery produce of illuminating light is zero (i.e. it is electrical energy whose magnitude is perpendicular to the solar cell surface). dependent upon various cell The power decreases as the angle of characteristics (i.e. individual cell incidence deviates from zero. The voltage, efficiency of the electro- primary reason for the increased loss of chemical reaction, size of the cell, etc.). power at greater angles of incidence is Batteries are classified as either the change in reflection coefficients at primary or secondary. Primary batteries large angles. are used on spacecraft in which the battery is the only source of electrical Storage Batteries power and it cannot be recharged. Thus, primary batteries are used for short In most spacecraft power systems that duration missions of usually less than a use solar radiation, the storage battery is week. Primary batteries have the the main source of continuous power. advantages of being cheap, reliable and Batteries must provide continuous power can deliver relatively large amounts of to the spacecraft during peak power energy per pound of battery (20-100 cycles and eclipse periods. The watt-hr/lb). frequency and duration of eclipse Secondary batteries are rechargeable. periods depend on the spacecraft orbit. They convert chemical energy into The eclipse seasons in geostationary electrical energy during discharge, and orbits occur twice per year, during convert electrical back to chemical spring and autumn. These eclipse energy during recharge. This process seasons are 45 days long and center can be repeated many times. Secondary around the vernal and autumnal batteries are used for longer duration equinoxes. There is one eclipse period missions such as Defense Meteorological per 24 hours with the maximum period Satellite Program (DMSP), Defense of 72 minutes. The batteries discharge Satellite Communications System during an eclipse and are charged during (DSCS) and many others, where solar the sunlight period. So, the charge- arrays are the primary source of power. discharge cycles for any storage battery The advantages of secondary batteries on board a spacecraft in geosynchronous are: orbit will be about 90 per year. In the case of low orbiting satellites, • Capability of accepting and the number of eclipses increases as the delivering unscheduled power at altitude of the satellite decreases. For a high rates (eclipse operations and 550 km circular orbit there will be about peak power demands) 15 eclipses per day. The maximum • Large number of charge-discharge shadow duration is about 36 minutes cycles or long charge-discharge during each 96 minute orbit. There will cycle life under a wide range of be about 5,500 charge-discharge cycles conditions per year in this orbit. Depending on the • Long operational lifespan orbit inclination, the spacecraft may be • Low volume in continuous sunlight for long periods • Low cost several times a year • High proven reliability As mentioned above, batteries are necessary to maintain steady, reliable The disadvantages are:

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discharge is generally limited to 50 to • The memory effect process 60%. • The complexity and expense of The batteries exhibit a gradual decay charge-discharge monitoring of terminal voltage during successive equipment discharge periods. This effect is most • Low energy storage capability per pronounced when the charge-discharge pound of battery (2-15 watt-hr/lb) cycle is repetitive, and is referred to as the “memory effect.” When the battery There are many types of secondary is cycled to a fixed depth of discharge, batteries available. However, only some the active material that is not being used are considered suitable for space gradually becomes unavailable, resulting applications. in an effective increase in depth of The nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cad) battery discharge. In addition to the gradual is probably one of the most common decay of discharge voltage, the batteries batteries used in spacecraft today. It has will also exhibit a tendency toward the four main components: the cadmium divergence of the individual cell negative electrode, which supplies voltages during charge and discharge. electrons to the external circuit when it Battery performance can be restored to a is oxidizing during discharge; the nickel certain extent by reconditioning. A positive electrode, which accepts the typical reconditioning process for a electrons from the external circuit; the rechargeable battery consists of effecting aqueous electrolyte, 35% KOH, which a deep discharge and then recharging at completes the circuit internally; and a a high rate. Reconditioning is a process separator made of nylon or polypropylene, begun a few weeks before eclipse season which holds the electrolyte in place and on many spacecraft. isolates the positive and negative plates. Procedures to enhance battery life The primary factors affecting the include maintaining batteries within a useful life of a Ni-Cad cell are battery small temperature range, proper temperature, depth of discharge and reconditioning, and trickle charging excessive overcharge. The most important between eclipse seasons, to prevent effect of high battery temperature is the cadmium migration from negative reduction of separator life. Prolonged electrodes to positive electrodes. exposure of a Ni-Cad battery to high Another type of secondary battery is temperature will hasten the decomposition the nickel-hydrogen battery (Ni-H2). of the separator material. The repeated This battery is actually hybrid battery- overcharging at low temperatures can fuel cell device. It has a positive result in pressure buildup. Therefore, electrode, much like a conventional battery temperature is an extremely battery and a fuel cell negative electrode. critical parameter in the battery life Hydrogen gas is diffused onto a catalyst, design. It is common practice to use a usually platinum, at the negative thermal radiator to keep battery electrode where the reaction occurs. temperature below 24° C (75° F) and to High pressure vessels (500 psi) are use heaters to keep it above 4° C (39° F). required to contain the gas. Repeated deep discharges tend to Nickel-hydrogen batteries are increas- degrade the cell plate structures, causing ingly being used on newer spacecraft cracking. These cracks absorb electro- such as MILSTAR and replacement GPS lyte and gradually the separator dries satellites. Compared to Ni-Cad batteries, out. For a synchronous orbit application NiH2 have higher specific energy, can of 7 to 10 years, a battery will encounter tolerate a higher number of discharge- approximately 1,000 charge-discharge recharge cycles and operate at near- cycles over its lifetime. For this number optimum output over a wider range of of cycles, Ni-Cad battery depth of temperatures.

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enter the electrolyte, thereby diluting it Fuel Cells or be lost as vapor through the cathode. In fuel cells with liquid electrolytes that Fuel cells have played a major role in operate below the boiling point of water, the NASA manned spaceflight an electrolyte circulation programs. They were originally chosen system incorporating an external over batteries as primary electrical evaporator may be necessary to remove power sources for these applications the water. because conventional batteries could not In any event, as long as hydrogen and meet the energy density requirements for oxygen are continuously fed to the fuel the Gemini and Apollo space missions. cell, the flow of electric current will be Consequently, the decision was made to sustained. By electrically connecting a develop fuel cells for manned orbital number of cells together in series or flights. The fuel cells were to be parallel, it is possible to form a fuel cell powered by cryogenic hydrogen and “stack” of any desired voltage or current. oxygen stored in pressurized insulated The U.S. Space Shuttle uses three fuel tanks. cells, each with an output of A fuel cell is a device that directly approximately 30-33 V at 250 A, to converts the chemical energy of produce power for various loads during reactants (a fuel and oxidizer) into low a mission. Since fuel cells produce voltage direct current (DC) electricity. water as a by-product, fuel cells provide Like the primary and secondary batteries potable drinking water for the crew and discussed earlier, a fuel cell can be used as evaporator cooling for the accomplishes this conversion via vehicle. electrochemical reactions. However, Among the primary advantages of unlike these conventional batteries, it fuel cells are that they provide does not consume reactants that are continuous power (as long as fuel and stored within its structures, but uses oxidizer are supplied), have low weight reactants that are stored in external but high output power and produce tanks. A fuel cell consists of two water as a by-product. Their advantages sintered, porous nickel electrodes make them very useful for manned separated by an ion-conducting missions. electrolyte like potassium hydroxide. The main disadvantages of fuel cells The fuel cell can operate as long as it is are their expense and the possibility that continuously fed with reactants and loss of cooling can result in an reaction products are removed. Because explosion. Consequently, elaborate it is easy to make the reactant tanks control systems are required to keep larger, a fuel cell's period of operation them operating. can be made much longer than that for a conventional electrochemical battery. Nuclear Power At the negative electrode, incoming hydrogen gas ionizes to produce hydrogen Most spacecraft nuclear power ions and electrons. Since the electrolyte generators are capable of delivering a is a non-electronic conductor, the range of power from a few watts up to electrons flow away from the electrode several hundred. The challenging into the external circuit. At the positive problems encountered with shielding electrode, oxygen gas reacts with nuclear power generators have precluded migrating hydrogen ions from the their use on manned missions (Fig. 10- electrolyte and incoming electrons from 8). However, they have been used very the external circuit to produce water. successfully on many deep space Depending on the operating temperature missions where solar flux levels are too of the fuel cell, the product, water, may

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 13 low for photovoltaic solar cells to be like nuclear generators on earth. Both effective. processes involve material having high Political and environmental problems energy radiation levels of several types: with nuclear powered satellites were alpha particles, beta particles and underscored in 1978 after COSMOS 954 gamma particles. plunged to earth, scattering nuclear This energy can be harnessed to material over a large part of northwest produce electricity on spacecraft. The Canada. From the beginning of the U.S. radioactive material is encased in a space nuclear power program, great special metal container from which the emphasis has been placed on the safety decay particles cannot escape. As the of people and the protection of the container absorbs energy produced by environment. The operational the alpha and beta particles, it is heated philosophy adopted for orbital missions to a high temperature. This heat can be requires that the normal lifetime in space employed in conjunction with a be long enough to permit radioactive thermoelectric couple to produce the decay of the radioisotope fuel to a safe necessary electricity. The heat from a level prior to reentry into the Earth's nuclear reactor can be utilized in two biosphere. Stringent design and basic methods called static and dynamic. operational measures are used to The static method uses no moving parts and is usually preferred for this reason. The dynamic conversion systems use the heat to perform mechanical work on a turboalternator assembly which generates the electricity. The advantages of nuclear energy include its ability to provide power for long duration missions without reliance on solar illumination, high system reliability and high power output versus low mass. Among the primary disadvantages of nuclear power systems are their high cost, heavy shielding requirements (which restricts their use on manned missions), need for complex cooling Fig. 10-8 NASA Galileo Spacecraft with systems to prevent core meltdown and two nuclear powered generators relatively low efficiencies (less than 18% efficiency). The high level of environmental concern and corres- minimize the potential interactions of the ponding political ramifications all but radioactive materials with the global preclude use of nuclear systems in Earth populace and to keep any such exposure orbiting satellites. levels within limits established by international standards. ATTITUDE CONTROL Like fuel cells, nuclear power SUBSYSTEM generators have a major role in space exploration. There are two basic types Attitude control can be defined as the of nuclear powered generators. process of achieving and maintaining a Radioisotope thermoelectric generators desired orientation in space. An attitude (RTG) rely on the decay of maneuver is the process of reorienting the radioisotopes. The second type uses the spacecraft from one attitude to another. heat of the nuclear fission process, much An attitude maneuver in which the initial

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 14 attitude is unknown, when maneuver Control—Implementation of corrective planning is being undertaken, is known actions as attitude acquisition. Attitude stabilization is the process of maintaining Stabilization—The property of a body to an existing attitude relative to some maintain its attitude or to resist external reference frame. This reference displacement, and, if displaced, to frame may be either inertially fixed or develop forces and movements tending slowly rotating, as in the case of Earth to restore the original condition orbiting satellites. An attitude control system is both the Perturbation—A disturbance in the process and hardware by which the regular motion of a celestial body, the attitude is controlled. In general, an result of a force additional to that which attitude control system consists of three caused the regular motion, specifically, a components: navigation sensors, guidance gravitational force. section and control section. A navigation sensor locates known reference targets Coordinate System—Any scheme for the such as the Earth or Sun to determine the unique identification of each point of a spacecraft attitude. The guidance given continuum. Various systems in section determines when control is use are Polar, Cartesian, Spherical, and required, what torques are needed and Celestial how to generate them. The control section includes hardware and actuators Active and Passive Control Systems that supply the control torques. There are two categories of attitude Definitions control systems: active and passive. Active systems use continuous decision Station Keeping—The sequence of making and hardware (closed loop) to maneuvers that maintains a vehicle in a maintain the attitude. The most common predetermined orbit sources of torque actuators for active control systems are thrusters, electro- Attitude—The position or orientation of magnets and reaction wheels. In contrast, a body, either in motion or at rest, as passive attitude control makes use of determined by the relationship between environmental torques (open loop) to its axes and some reference line or plane maintain the spacecraft orientation. such as the horizon Gravity gradient and solar sails are common passive attitude control methods Attitude Adjustment—Changing the (Fig. 10-9). orientation of the spacecraft within its Attitude control systems are highly orbit mission dependent. The decision to use a passive or active control system or a Orbit Adjustment—Changing the orbit combination of the two depends on itself mission pointing and stability requirements, mission orbital Navigation—Determination of space- characteristics and the control system's craft’s current position and velocity stability and response time. For example, a near-Earth, spin-stabilized Guidance—Computation of corrective spacecraft could use magnetic coils for actions attitude maneuvers and for periodic adjustment of the spin rate and attitude.

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detect ICBM launches as well as movement of troops, ships, aircraft, etc. During orbital transfer maneuvers, it is necessary to be as precise as possible. Therefore, stringent requirements on the accuracy of the spacecraft orientation must be achieved by the attitude control system before firing. Aligning the spacecraft for perigee and apogee motor firing requires a knowledge of the orbit characteristics at the time at which the motors are fired. This knowledge optimizes the transfer maneuver by minimizing both time and propellant

Fig. 10-9. Astronauts working on satellite requirements for the orbital transfer. If with a gravity boom the spacecraft relies on solar energy for electrical power generation during the transfer maneuver, then the spacecraft Above synchronous altitudes, thrusters must be optimized for maximum solar would be required for these functions cell illumination during the transfer. because the Earth's magnetic field is Finally, the spacecraft must be generally too weak at this altitude for reoriented again after the completion of effective magnetic maneuvers. the transfer maneuver. Any satellite orbit requires Disturbance torques are environ- stabilization to increase its usefulness mental torques (i.e. drag, solar wind, and effectiveness. For instance, when a magnetic field, gravity, micrometeoroid satellite is not stabilized, it must use impacts) or unintentional internal omni-directional antennas so that ground torques (i.e., liquid propellant slosh, stations can receive its downlink center of gravity changes). Because information regardless of the satellite’s these can never be totally eliminated, orientation. This necessitates a high some form of attitude control system is power transmitter and only a small required. Control torques, such as those portion of the total power is radiated to produced by thrusters, are generated Earth. On the other hand, if there are intentionally to control spacecraft means to stabilize the satellite so its attitude. directional antennas can be pointed at Traditionally, spacecraft employing the Earth, then lower power may be used solid propellant apogee motors have to transmit information to the ground. adopted spin-stabilization during the There are four functions spacecraft parking and transfer phases. Even attitude control systems incorporate: spacecraft that have active attitude satellite pointing, orbital transfer control systems in their operational maneuvers, stabilization against torques orbits are frequently spin-stabilized in an and satellite de-spin. initial (transfer orbit) phase of their Solar arrays generate maximum mission. Spin stabilization during power when they are perpendicular to transfer orbit allows thermal control to the Sun. In addition, some satellites be distributed evenly throughout the carry scientific payloads which must spacecraft. If the spacecraft is required observe a celestial body. In order to to be three-axis stabilized, it must be observe it, the spacecraft must be able to despun before being injected into the accurately find the object, track it and appropriate attitude. If the spacecraft is point applicable sensors at it. Sensors to be spin stabilized then the spin rate must be accurately pointed at Earth to

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 16 must be increased or decreased, Unfortunately, the location of the depending on the final spin rate required. Earth's horizon is difficult to define because its atmosphere causes a gradual Navigation Sensors decrease in radiated intensity away from the true or hard horizon of the solid As mentioned before, sensors are surface. Earth resources satellites such as required to determine the orientation of the spacecraft and its current state. The types of sensors used on a particular vehicle depend on several factors including the type of spacecraft stabilization, orbital parameters, operational procedures and required accuracy. Sun sensors are the most widely used sensor types; one or more varieties have flown on nearly every satellite. The Sun is sufficiently bright to permit the use of simple, reliable equipment without discriminating among sources and with minimal power requirements. Many Fig. 10-10 LANDSAT with earth and star missions have solar experiments, most sensors with Sun-related thermal constraints, and Landsat (Fig. 10-10), communications nearly all require the Sun for power. and weather satellites typically require a Consequently, missions are concerned pointing accuracy of 0.05 degrees to less with the orientation and time evolution than a minute of arc, which is typically of the Sun vector in body coordinates. beyond the state of the art for horizon Attitude control systems are frequently sensors. based on the use of a Sun reference Earth emanates infrared radiation, and pulse for thruster firings, or more the IR intensity in the 15 micron spectral generally, whenever phase-angle band is relatively constant. Most information is required. Sun sensors are horizon sensors now use the narrow 14 also used to protect sensitive equipment, to 16 micron bands. Use of the infrared such as star trackers, from harmful spectral band avoids large attitude errors particle bombardment as well as to due to spurious triggering of visible light position solar arrays to achieve horizon sensors off high altitude clouds. maximum power con-version efficiency. In addition, the operation of an infrared The orientation of the spacecraft to horizon sensor is unaffected by night. the Earth is of obvious importance to Infrared detectors are less susceptible to space navigation, communications, sunlight reflected by weather and Earth resources satellites. the spacecraft than are visible light To a near-Earth satellite, the Earth is the detectors and therefore, avoid reflective second brightest object and covers up to problems. Sun interference problems 40% of the sky. The Earth presents an are also reduced in the infrared band extended target to a sensor compared where the solar intensity is only 400 with a point source approximations used times that of the Earth, compared with for Sun and star detectors. 30,000 in the visible spectrum. Consequently, detecting only the Most horizon sensors consist of four presence of the Earth is normally basic components: a scanning mechanism, insufficient for even crude attitude an optical system, a radiance detector determination and nearly all sensors are and signal processing electronics. The designed to locate the Earth's horizon . scanning mechanism is used to scan the

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 17 celestial sphere and houses the actual variety of different spacecraft attitude sensor. control systems. The optical system of a horizon Star sensing and tracking devices can sensor consists of a filter to limit the be divided into three major categories: observed spectral band and a lens to star scanners, which use the spacecraft focus the target image on the radiance rotation to provide searching and sensing detector. Optical system components function; gimbaled star trackers, which depend greatly on the sensor design. In search out and acquire stars using many cases, rotating mirrors or prisms mechanical action; and fixed head star are incorporated into the optical system trackers, which have electronic to provide the scanning mechanism. searching and tracking capabilities over Knowledge of the scan rate or duty a limited field-of-view. Sensors in each cycle allows the conversion from time to of these classes usually consist of the angle either on board the satellite or on following components: a sun shade; an the ground. Typically, sensors are optical system; an image definition designed and calibrated so that the device which defines the region of the system output may be used directly for field of view that is visible to the attitude control and determination within detector; the detector; and an electronics a specified accuracy under normal assembly. Furthermore, gimbaled star operating conditions. trackers have gimbaled mounts for Some horizon sensor systems have angular positioning. been designed for specific mission Stray light is a major problem for star conditions and thereby achieve increased sensors. Therefore, an effective sun accuracy and simplicity but at the cost of shade is critical to star sensor reduced versatility. These systems performance. Carefully designed light operate over a narrow range of orbits baffles are usually employed to and attitudes and include moving and minimize exposure of the optical system static edge trackers and radiometric to sunlight and light scattering caused by balance systems. dust particles, clouds and portions of the Star sensors measure star coordinates spacecraft itself. Even with a well in the spacecraft frame and provide designed sun shade, star sensors are attitude information when these typically inoperable within 30 to 60 observed coordinates are compared with degrees of the Sun. known star positions and magnitudes The star sensor optical system obtained from a star catalog. In general, consists of a lens which projects an star sensors are the most accurate of image of the star field onto a focal plane. navigation sensors, achieving accuracy The image definition device selects a to the arc-second range. However, this portion of the star field image in the capability is not achieved without sensor’s field of view which will be considerable cost. Star sensors are visible to the detector. This portion is heavy, expensive and require more known as the instantaneous field of view power than most other navigation (IFOV). The image definition device sensors. In addition, computer software may be either a reticle consisting of one requirements are extensive, because or more transparent slits etched on an measurements must be preprocessed and opaque plate, or an image dissector tube identified before attitudes can be in which the IFOV electronically scans calculated. Because of their sensitivity, the FOV. The detector transforms the star sensors are subject to interference optical signal into an electronic signal. from the Sun, Earth and other bright Finally, the electronics assembly filters objects. In spite of these disadvantages, the amplified signal received from the the accuracy and versatility of star detector and performs many functions sensors have led to applications in a specific to the particular star sensor.

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These functions include defining the completely known and the models used magnitude of the stars as well as relative to predict the magnetic field direction positions which will be used to and magnitude at the spacecraft's determine spacecraft attitude. position are subject to relatively Star scanners used on spinning substantial errors. Furthermore, because spacecraft are the simplest of all star the Earth's magnetic field strength scanners because they have no moving decreases with distance from the Earth parts. The image definition device (Earth's magnetic field in low Earth orbit employed by this type of sensor consists is about 0.5 gauss) residual spacecraft of two V-slits through which the star magnetic biases eventually dominate the light passes. The spacecraft rotation total magnetic field measurement. causes the sensor to scan the celestial Magnetometers are generally limited for sphere. As the star image on the focal use to spacecraft with altitudes below plane passes a slit, the star is sensed by 1,000 km. the detector. If the amplified optical A gyroscope is any instrument which signal passed from the detector to the uses a rapidly spinning mass to sense electronics assembly is above a and respond to changes in the inertial threshold value, then a pulse is generated orientation or its spin axis. There are by the electronics signifying the star's three basic types of gyroscopes used on presence. The interpretation of the star spacecraft: rate gyros, rate-integrating scanner measurements becomes gyros, and control moment gyros. The increasingly more difficult as spacecraft first two types are attitude sensors used motion deviates from a uniformly to measure changes in the spacecraft spinning body. orientation. Control moment gyros Gimbaled star trackers are commonly generate control torques to change and used when the spacecraft must operate at maintain the spacecraft's orientation. a variety of attitudes. This type of Rate gyros measure spacecraft tracker has a very small optical field of angular rates and are frequently part of a view (usually less than one degree). feedback system for spin rate control or Gimbaled star trackers normally operate attitude stabilization. The angular rate on a relatively small number of target outputs from rate gyros may also be stars. A major disadvantage of gimbaled integrated by an on-board computer to star trackers is that the mechanical provide an estimate of spacecraft attitude action of the gimbal reduces their long displacement from some initial term reliability. In addition, the gimbal reference. Rate-integrating gyros mount assembly is frequently large and measure spacecraft angular displacement heavy. directly. In some applications, rate- Fixed head trackers use an electronic integrating gyro output consists of the scan to search their field of view and total spacecraft rotation during small acquire stars. They are generally smaller time intervals. An accurate measure of and lighter than gimbaled star trackers the total attitude displacement may then and have no moving parts. be obtained by integrating the average Magnetometers can be used to angular rates constructed from incremental measure both the direction and displacements. magnitude of the Earth's magnetic field to the milligauss accuracy. They are Control Actuators reliable, lightweight and have low power requirements. They operate over wide Control actuators are used to correct temperature range and have no moving the attitude of a spacecraft such that it parts. However, magnetometers are not attains and stays in the desired attitude. accurate inertial navigation sensors There are two types of attitude control because the Earth's magnetic field is not methods: passive and active.

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its original stable orientation. This Passive Attitude Control effect can be greatly enhanced by extending lightweight booms with small Passive attitude control techniques weights on the ends. The boom attempts include spin stabilization and gravity to align with the vertical, but will gradient stabilization. Passive systems oscillate about the vertical, unless some involve no active elements, require no damping mechanism is employed. In altitude sensors and have a high order to stiffen the damping force, reliability. However, passive systems horizontal biasing booms or high gain are extremely sensitive to environmental electrical nulling devices are used. torques and payload motion, limited to Passively damped systems are favored near circular orbits, and have a local for small satellites (less than 1,000 vertical accuracy from 2 to 3 degrees at pounds) and for low altitudes (below 500 miles to 10 degrees at synchronous 1,000 nautical miles), where the gravity altitude. gradient torque is stronger. Spin-stabilization is a passive technique that involves spinning the Active Attitude Control vehicle is at a constant rate (on the order of once per second). Because of their Active attitude control techniques motion, spinning satellites can only scan include momentum exchange, mass a target rather than fix on a point . Thus expulsion, external magnetic torques and “dual-spin” satellites were developed in solar torques. Momentum control which part of the satellite is spun for devices are the most common attitude stabilization, while another part is control actuators. They work by varying nonspinning ("despun") for mission the angular momentum of small masses requirements such as pointing an within the spacecraft. There are three antenna. The spinning motion gives types of these devices: momentum angular momentum to the vehicle, which wheels, reaction wheels and control- tends to reduce the effects of small moment gyroscopes. disturbance torques on vehicle Momentum wheels are the simplest, orientation. and consist of a single, constantly Gravity gradient stabilization works spinning wheel. The rotating mass gives by orienting the spacecraft along an axis the satellite a stiffness or resistance to of gravitational force. Gravitational outside torques. To provide pointing in influences can be significant enough at more than one axis, momentum wheels low altitude that a satellite can maintain are oriented at 90° angles to each other. fairly stable orientation. The gravity Thus, the satellites orientation can be gradient approach takes advantage of fixed within 0.1 and 10°. gravitation's stronger pull closer to the Reaction wheels differ from Earth than when farther away. The momentum wheels in that they spin only difference between the close and far when the satellite needs to be oriented conditions can be used to generate a differently or when controlling the effect torque which aligns the satellite long of an externally produced torque. axis with the local vertical. One method Spacecraft employing these devices is to place the vehicle such that the usually have three or four, oriented at maximum moment of inertia (usually the right angles. The fourth is for longest dimension) aligns with the local redundancy. Reaction wheels can vertical pointing towards or away from achieve 0.001° pointing accuracy. the Earth. If a disturbance alters the Both the momentum and reaction vehicle out of this orientation, the wheel devices have limiting speeds. If varying force of gravity acting on disturbances act continuously in the different parts of the vehicle returns it to same direction so that wheel speed

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 20 approaches maximum (saturation), the along the Earth's magnetic field. These spacecraft must use another method (like magnetic controls are relatively light and mass expulsion) to reduce or "dump" can be programmed to desaturate the angular momentum. To change a momentum wheels. They can also be vehicle’s orientation, the motor can be used to compensate for the natural commanded to change the spin rate of magnetic effects of satellite components. the wheel. The vehicle compensates in Torques caused by solar radiation the opposite direction in order to pressure can be used for attitude control conserve momentum. by orienting panels in the flow of solar Control-moment gyroscopes are the radiation. The torques are small, but other momentum-based active control when extended over a long period, can devices. They are as accurate as reaction have significant affect. Advantages to wheels but can respond at a faster rate, solar and magnetic torquers are that they making them more desirable in tracking do not require onboard propellant and applications. They are also more they provide smooth corrections. On expensive and complex than reaction GPS satellites, magnetic torquing is the wheels. Mass expulsion uses a primary method of reaction wheel propulsion system to perform both small desaturation. Solar torques provided velocity corrections and attitude control. attitude control on the Mariner IV A large number of small thrusters, called spacecraft. reaction-control jets, can work together to provide translational acceleration TELEMETRY, TRACKING AND (velocity correction) or can work in pairs COMMANDING SUBSYSTEM to provide torques for attitude control. (TT&C) For angular motion, the thrusters are located near the vehicle extremities in Telemetry order to develop the maximum torque for the least thrust or thruster size. Telemetry is measurement data Thrusters operate by expelling either hot transmitted to operators at ground or cold gas. Cold gas is stored under stations over a radio link. It contains pressure and released to provide thrust. information which is used to evaluate Hydrozine is a hot gas system using a both the satellite's and the booster's chemical catalyst instead of an oxidizer performance. Telemetry data for combustion. The rate of mass transmissions begin prior to launch, and expenditure, or the total mass expended, continue throughout the life of the depends upon the angular or linear satellite. Launch and injection into orbit velocity required, the size of the vehicle are especially critical times because data and the location of the thrusters. This from the booster, upper stages (if used) active control system is insensitive to and satellite must be received and disturbance torques, provides the widest evaluated. variety of control orientations and is The satellite's telemetry data, whether highly precise. The major drawback in analog or digital, contains two general any mass propulsion system is the need classes of information. The first, payload to carry propellant, which adds or mission data, varies with the mission considerable weight to the vehicle, of the satellite. Examples of payload especially for long missions. data types are meteorological, Magnetic and solar torquers make use oceanographic, astronomical and Earth of environmental forces to impart resources information. Spacecraft health stability and develop attitude changes. and status data types are relatively Electrical current run around a piece of standard, regardless of the type of metal on the spacecraft creates an mission. This data consists of pressure, electromagnet which will align itself temperatures, flow rate, current, voltages

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 21 and events as they occur throughout the Radar tracking satellites is similar to satellite systems, subsystems and radar tracking aircraft. Radio frequency components. Once the satellite is on energy is transmitted from a ground orbit, operators settle into more or less antenna up to the satellite. The energy routine operations in which they reflected back to the ground is received continuously monitor the bus and by the tracking station. Satellite range is payload telemetry in order to respond then computed by measuring the time quickly to problems. required for the signal to make the trip. These measurements and calculations, Tracking taken over time, are used to determine range rate and relative motion. Before we can communicate with a Doppler tracking measures changes in ballistic missile or orbiting satellite, we transponder frequencies (satellite radio must know where it is with respect to wave transmissions) which are caused our ground stations. Tracking is the by relative velocity differences. It process of making observations of the requires calculation of the relative spacecraft's position relative to a velocity of a satellite in relation to an tracking station or other fixed point observer (ground station). whose position is accurately known. Interferometer tracking measures Orbit determination is a process in phase differences in signals from the which the tracking observations are used spacecraft, as received on the ground by to determine the spacecraft's orbital precisely located antennas and reflectors. characteristics and its position in space. As the name implies, optical tracking Tracking stations use elevation, azimuth, employs telescopes and optical range and range rate data to determine instruments to search for and track the satellite position relative to time. satellite via light reflected off its The simplest way to track a satellite is surfaces. This method can only be used through the use of a beacon or a at night and under clear skies. transponder which announces the satellite's presence. In current tracking Commanding arrangements, most satellites use a transponder system from which range Commanding is the process of rate data is extracted. Beacons are also communicating to the satellite from a used as locating devices on recovery ground site (Fig. 10-11). The satellite is capsules. A transponder is triggered controlled via commands sent to change "On" only after receiving a specially voltages, temperatures, aperture settings coded signal from a ground tracking and other parameters aboard the station. Upon receipt of this signal, the spacecraft. This task is accomplished by transmitter is activated and the coded signal is turned around by satellite and sent back to the tracking station. In addition to providing a greater degree of security, coded transponders enable operators in the tracking system to derive extremely accurate range information by measuring the elapsed time between the transmission and subsequent reception of the coded signal. Various other tracking methods include Doppler tracking, radar tracking and ranging, interferometer tracking and optical tracking. Fig. 10-11. A Ground Command and

Control Site AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 10- 22 transmitting coded instructions from the command execution is necessary while ground station over radio frequency the satellite is still within sight of a carrier, referred to as the uplink, to the ground station. SPC's are sent to the satellite's receiving equipment. satellite while it is still within a ground Examples of events executed by station view, but it causes certain commanding include ascent control, functions to be performed after the orbit adjust, reentry by separation, satellite has passed out of sight of a engine ignition or cutoff and on/off of ground station. internal systems. In some cases, an Some spacecraft have self-sustaining entire sequence of events may be started reference packages which contain by a single, preprogrammed command. preloaded commands. The advantage of SINGLE commands are employed such systems is that the preloaded when controlling specific satellite commands allow the satellite to respond functions. A SINGLE command is a autonomously to situations and changes command that is equal to one set of which are within an expected range of binary digits which will cause only one values. Spacecraft which contain no self- function to be performed in the satellite. sustaining reference package must be A BLOCK command is one in which continuously monitored and commanded one command number may represent a by the ground control site for proper number of single commands which will station keeping. be transmitted to the satellite in a specific order. Commands can be further identified as either Real-time Commands (RTC) or Stored Programs Commands (SPC). The primary difference between these commands is the time of execution. A Real Time Command initiates events on the satellite upon receipt of the command. RTC's are desired if

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REFERENCES

Air University Space Handbook (AU-18), A Warfighter’s Guide to Space, Vol. II, 1993.

Bates, R.R., D.D. Mueller, and J.E. White. Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York, Dover Publications, Inc., 1994.

Pisacane, Vincent L. and Robert L. Moore, eds, Fundamentals of Space Systems. New York, Oxford University Press, 1994.

Sellers, Jerry Jon et. al., Understanding Space, An Introduction to Astronautics. New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994.

U.S. Army Space Reference Text, Space Division, U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, 1993.

MS PowerPoint Class Lectures on Spacecraft Subsystems, DARPA/NASA Sierra College, June 2000. (http://www2.psyber.com/~minerva/lecture.htm)

TOC

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Chapter 11

U.S. SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Instantaneous worldwide communications, connecting all nations, has been a dream of mankind for ages. Until the development of technologies to build, launch and operate artificial earth satellites, specifically communications satellites, the means to make such connections was unavailable. Through communications satellites, it is now possible to access telephone, telegraph, instant news information and computer links around the globe. This global connectivity provides military commanders with the ability to exercise nearly on-scene command and control. Communication satellite systems and uses continue to develop rapidly.

HISTORY Pierce, unaware of Clarke’s article 10 years earlier, elaborated on the utility of One of the most remarkable prophe- communications “mirrors” in space: a cies of the twentieth century was pub- medium-orbit “repeater” and a 24-hour lished in the magazine Wireless World in orbit “repeater.” Pierce compared the 1945. In a short article, “Extra- communications capacity of a satellite, Terrestrial Relays,” British scientist and estimated to be 1,000 simultaneous tele- fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described phone calls, and the communications ca- the use of, in 24-hour orbits positioned pacity of the first transatlantic telephone above the world’s land masses, to pro- cable (TAT-1), which could carry 36 si- vide global communications (Fig. 11-1). multaneous telephone calls. Since the cable cost $30-50 million, Pierce won- Clarke stated: dered if a satellite would be worth a bil- “An artificial satellite lion dollars. at the correct distance from the earth could make Communications by one revolution every 24 Moon Relay hours, i.e., it would remain stationary above the same The U.S. Navy be- spot and would be within gan conducting experi- optical range of nearly half ments in 1954 bouncing of the earth's surface. radio signals off of the Three repeater stations, moon. These experi- 120 degrees apart in the ments led to the world's correct orbit, could give first operational space television and microwave communications sys- coverage to the entire Fig. 11-1. Clarke Orbit tem, called Communi- planet.” cation by Moon Relay (CMR) (Fig. 11-2), The relay was used Clarke’s theory made little impact un- between 1959 and 1963 to link Hawaii til John R. Pierce of AT&T’s Bell Labo- and Washington, DC. ratories evaluated the various technical In 1957, the Soviet Union launched options and financial prospects of satel- the world’s first artificial satellite, lite communications. In a 1954 speech Sputnik I. This sparked great interest and followed by an article published in 1955, speculation, as many began to consider

AU Space Primer 11 - 1 7/23/2003 communications satellites. The success of Echo I had more to do with the motivations of following communications satellite research than any other single event.”

The Echo I spacecraft was a 100-ft. diameter balloon made of aluminized polyester. It was inflated after being put into a 800-900 nautical mile orbit. Radio waves could be reflected off of the Fig. 11-2. Communications by smooth aluminum surface. Moon Relay Echo demonstrated satellite tracking and ground station technology that would the benefits, profits and prestige later be used in active systems. After associated with satellite communications. Echo II was launched on 25 January In the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, 1964, NASA abandoned passive commu- NASA began experimenting with passive nications systems in favor of the superior (reflector) communications satellites such performance of active satellites. as Project Echo. About the same time, In 1961, three active satellite programs the Department of Defense, with were started under contract to and with ADVENT program, worked to develop cooperation of NASA. Two were for me- active (or “repeater”) satellites that dium-orbit satellites and one for a 24-hour- amplify the received signal at the orbit “repeater.” The programs culmi- satellite. nated in the 1962 launch of two medium- NASA launched Echo 1 on 12 August orbit satellites, TELSTAR and RELAY, 1960 (Fig. 11-3). Leonard Jaffe, the and the 1963 launch of SYNCOM, the director of the communications program first 24-hour orbit (geostationary) satellite. Meanwhile, the military program to build a geostationary satellite (ADVENT) was experiencing delays in launcher availability and cost over-runs. There- fore, and also in light of the complexity of the satellite, the program was canceled. The first operational military satellite communications system began five years later and was comprised of two Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program (IDSCP) satellites, which were launched in July 1967. These satellites were de- Fig. 11-3. Echo I Satellite signed to launch in groups of up to eight, and a total of 26 IDSCP satellites were launched in four groups to near geosta- NASA Headquarters, wrote: tionary, 18,300 statute mile orbits. The IDSCP evolved into what is today’s De- “Numerous experiments were fense Satellite Communications System conducted with Echo I in the early months (DSCS). The IDSCP satellites are often involving practically all of the types of referred to as DSCS Phase I. communications. Echo I not only proved In February 1969, the IDSCP was fol- that microwave transmission to and from lowed by the Tactical Satellite Communi- satellites in space was understood and cations (TACSATCOM) program. This there would be no surprises but it program was used to evaluate mobile dramatically demonstrated the promise of user needs in tactical situations. One

AU Space Primer 11 - 2 August 2003

TACSATCOM satellite was placed in satellites, operate in the Ultra-high geostationary orbit to support the Tactical Frequency (UHF) spectrum at 225 - Communications Program. The 400 MHz. TACSATCOM would become the Fleet • The Defense Satellite Communica- Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM) tions System (DSCS) operates in Program. the Super-high Frequency (SHF) spectrum at 7250 - 8400 MHz. CURRENT OVERVIEW • The third system, Milstar, operates mainly in the Extremely-high Fre- Continuous global coverage from a quency (EHF) spectrum at 22 - 44 medium altitude satellite orbit (200- GHz. 10,000 NM above the earth) would require from 18 to 24 satellites. Full global Each of the three systems above pro- coverage between 70O North latitude and vide support for a fourth system, the Air 70O South latitude can theoretically be Force Satellite Communications system achieved using three equally spaced (AFSATCOM). AFSATCOM is not a (120O apart) geostationary satellites. Op- system of dedicated satellites, but a sys- erationally, four or more satellites are tem of dedicated channels or transponder required to provide this coverage in order packages riding on the satellites of the to mitigate the effects of a satellite failure MILSATCOM system. AFSATCOM is on our networks. Four satellites provide used to disseminate Emergency Action overlapping capabilities, greater traffic Messages (EAMs) and Single Integrated handling capacity and a measure of re- Operations Plan (SIOP) information. dundancy. The 50th Space Wing, located at Schriever AFB, Colorado, controls DSCS Satellite systems have significantly rd th improved the reliability and the accuracy and Milstar, through the 3 and 4 Space of aviation and maritime communications, Operations Squadrons (3SOPS, 4SOPS), moving those functions out of the high respectively. Control of the UFO and frequency (HF) portion of the radio spec- FLTSAT constellations transferred from trum. The advantages of satellite commu- 3SOPS to the Navy's Satellite Operations nications are extensive. Although subma- Center (NAVSOC), Pt. Mugu CA, in mid rine cables, fiber optics and microwave 1999. The responsibilities of 3SOPS, radio can effectively compete with satel- 4SOPS and NAVSOC for satellite con- lites for geographically fixed wide-band trol include commanding on-board satel- service, the satellite is unchallenged in lite systems, providing tracking data for the provision of wide-band transmissions orbit determination and conducting te- to mobile terminals. The inherent flexi- lemetry analysis. The operators also pro- bility that a satellite communications sys- vide trend analysis and vehicle anomaly tem provides is essential to the conduct resolution. Program direction for the of military operations both nationally and above communication systems is the re- globally. There no viable alternatives to sponsibility of the agencies that manage satellite communications for military ap- the various communications payloads. plications. Military Satellite Communications FLEET SATELLITE (MILSATCOM) comprises three primary COMMUNICATIONS systems (all in geosynchronous orbits), (FLTSATCOM) operating in three specific frequency regimes as follows: The FLTSATCOM system provides near global operational communications • The Fleet Satellite Communications for naval aircraft, ships, submarines and System (FLTSATCOM), consisting ground stations. It also provides com- of the Fleet Satellites (FLTSAT) munications between the National Com- and UHF Follow-on (UHF F/O) mand Authority (NCA) and the strategic

AU Space Primer 11 - 3 August 2003 nuclear forces as well as between other The U.S. Navy's NAVSOC at Pt. high-priority users. High priority users Mugu, CA performs Command and Con- include the White House Communica- trol (C2) of FLTSAT and UHF F/O con- tions Agency, reconnaissance aircraft, stellations under the Operational Control Air Intelligence Agency and ground (OPCON) of Naval Space Command forces (e.g., Special Operations Forces). (NAVSPACECOM). FLTSATCOM operates primarily in the UHF band, but uses SHF for the AIR FORCE SATELLITE Navy’s shore-based Fleet Satellite Broad- COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM cast uplink. Some of the satellites also (AFSATCOM) carry EHF transponders for use with MILSTAR ground terminals. The AFSATCOM provides secure, reliable FLTSATCOM constellation comprises and survivable two-way global commu- four FLTSATCOM satellites (Fig. 11-4) nications between the NCA and the stra- located in geosynchronous orbits. The tegic nuclear forces. The AFSATCOM remaining FLTSATs will be retired and system is used for EAM dissemination, replaced by UHF F/O satellites (already JCS/CINC Internetting, CINC force di- in orbit) after the EAM dissemination and rection message dissemination, force re- nuclear reporting mission of port back and other high-priority user AFSATCOM transitions to Milstar. traffic dissemination. Strategic nuclear forces include ICBM launch and control centers, B-52, B-1B and B-2 bombers and nuclear capable submarines (SSBNs). On the FLTSATCOM satellites, all twelve 5 KHz narrow-band channels and the one 500 KHz wide-band channel have been dedicated to the AFSATCOM mission. Seven of the twelve 5 KHz narrow-band channels are regenerative and can only be used for 75 BPS digital communications (not voice). The frequency range is UHF. In addition to FLTSATCOM satellites, AFSATCOM also has transponders on board other host satellites to provide coverage over the

Fig. 11-4. FLTSAT North Pole. There are two systems in use for polar coverage: the Satellite Data FLTSAT Mission Subsystems System (SDS) and Package D, a piggy- back payload on classified host vehicles. FLTSAT communications packages SDS satellites include a payload similar include one SHF uplink/UHF downlink to the twelve-channel 5 KHz system on- fleet broadcast channel on a 25 KHz board the FLTSATs. However, all transponder, nine 25 KHz channels, twelve are regenerative and can only be twelve 5 KHz narrow-band channels and used for 75 BPS data. Package D satel- one 500 KHz wide-band channel for use lites provide a UHF package similar to by high-priority users. Up to fourteen 25 the SDS satellites. Ground control is ac- KHz users can be accommodated on the complished by the host satellite network. 500 KHz wide-band channel at any one time. Antennas include UHF transmit UHF FOLLOW-ON (UHF F/O) and receive antennas, S-band omni- directional antenna (to relay Navy SHF The UHF F/O system consists of eight broadcasts) and the EHF transmit and (plus one spare) satellites (Fig. 11-5), receive antennas on Flights 7 and 8. located in the same geosynchronous or-

AU Space Primer 11 - 4 August 2003 bital positions as FLTSATCOM (two waiver has been granted. DAMA is a UHF F/Os at each FLTSAT location). modified time sharing technique to allow The Navy owns the FLTSATCOM and more users to share the same UHF channel, 5 KHz or 25 KHz.

DEFENSE SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM (DSCS)

Fig. 11-5. UHF Follow-on (UHF F/O) The DSCS is a general-purpose satellite communications system operating in UHF F/O systems and is responsible for the Super-high Frequency (SHF) spec- the system configurations and for their trum. The system is comprised of geo- communications support to all services. synchronous satellites, a variety of The main mission of UHF F/O is to sup- ground terminals and a control segment. port global communications to Naval It provides secure voice, teletype, televi- forces. UHF F/O provides channels to sion, facsimile and digital data services replace the 5 KHz narrow-band channels for the Global Command and Control previously available on FLTSATCOM and System (GCCS). The system also pro- replaces the 500 KHz DOD wide-band vides communications links for manage- channel with an appropriate number of 5 ment, command and control, intelligence and 25 KHz channels. UHF F/O does not and early warning functions. replace the regenerative, frequency- The primary users of the DSCS are hopped 5 KHz channels serving the EAM GCCS, Defense Information Systems Net- dissemination and nuclear reporting mis- work (DISN), Defense Switched Network sion of AFSATCOM. The Milstar sys- (DSN), Defense Message System (DMS), tem and the EHF transponders on UHF Diplomatic Telecommunications Service F/O fulfill these latter requirements. (DTS), Ground Mobile Forces (GMF) and Each UHF F/O has 18 channels of 25 the White House Communications Agency KHz bandwidth and 21 channels of 5 (WHCA). DSCS also supports allied na- KHz bandwidth; essentially doubling the tions. FLTSATCOM capability. Since there Several types of ground terminals are are two satellites at each orbital position, in use. The Air Force and Navy are re- 78 UHF channels will be available over sponsible for airborne and shipborne ter- the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean minals, respectively. The strategic ter- regions as well as CONUS. There are no minals, AN/FSC-78, AN/GSC-39 and 500 KHz wide-band channels on UHF AN/GSC-52 are maintained and operated F/O. Flights four through ten have EHF by the Army, Air Force and Navy, de- transponders for use by Milstar ground pending on their location. These large terminals. Flights eight through ten also terminals are equipped with 60-ft or 38-ft carry EHF Ka band transponders for use diameter, high-gain parabolic dish anten- by the Global Broadcast Service (GBS) nas, have power outputs on the order of to broadcast missile warning, intelli- 10,000 watts and are capable of process- gence, video and imagery data to tactical ing thousands of voice channels. Other units. terminals include Tactical Satellite All UHF F/Os are Electromagnetic (TACSAT) terminals used by the Ground Pulse (EMP) protected. Although each Mobile Forces (GMF). Owned by the channel can relay signals from all current Army and Marine Corps, these terminals military UHF SATCOM radios (those consist of the AN/TSC-93B, with an 8 ft that do not require processed channels), dish antenna, and the AN/TSC-85B with the JCS requires all UHF SATCOM an 8 or 20 ft dish antenna. The Air Force radios operate in the Demand Assigned TACSAT terminals are the AN/TSC- Multiple Access (DAMA) mode unless a 94A, with an 8 ft. dish antenna, and the

AU Space Primer 11 - 5 August 2003

AN/TSC-100A, with both the 8 and 20 ft. (EIRP) required to meet specified link dish antennas. The TACSAT terminals quality. The control segment optimizes are housed in shelters that can be trans- the network configuration for the FDMA, ported by HMMWV (TSC-93B & TSC- TDMA and SSMA operations. It also 94A), 2 ½ ton or 5 ton truck (TSC-85B) responds to jammers and generates or mobilizers (TSC-100A). command sets to configure the satellite Other special user terminals controlled and processes telemetry from the by the JCS include the AN/TSC-86 satellites. DSCS standard light terminal and the Jam Resistant Secure Communications DSCS Space Segment (JRSC) terminal, AN/GSC-49. Both terminals are deployed with 8 as well as DSCS evolved in three phases 20 ft dish antennas. starting with the IDSCP satellites as Some smaller terminals have only a Phase I (sometimes called DSCS I). single link capability (e.g., AN/TSC-93), Phase II began in 1971 with the launch of whereas others are able to transmit as two DSCS II satellites (Fig. 11-6) into many as 9 links (carriers) and can receive geostationary orbit. The third phase 12 links (e.g., AN/FSC-78). The capacity of each link can vary from 1 to 96 voice circuits or digital data at rates from several kilobits per second to greater than 10 MPS. Currently, both Frequency Divi- sion Multiple Access (FDMA) and Spread Spectrum Multiple Access (SSMA) are used, with some terminals having both types of equipment. During Operation Desert Storm, over 100 TACSAT terminals were deployed to Saudi Arabia and provided more than 80% of the communications. Fig. 11-6. DSCS II Satellite Each of the five operational and spare satellites has a primary and alternate network control station located at major began in 1982 with the launch of the first nodes such as Ft. Detrick, Maryland. DSCS III satellite. The DSCS control segment allocates The constellation today (Fig. 11-7) satellite capacity to best serve user consists of five primary DSCS III satel- requirements. Control segment computer lites and five residual “spares” with lim- algorithms provide an allocation process ited operational capabilities. The satel- that makes use of the considerable lites are at an altitude of approximately flexibility of the DSCS III satellites. 22,300 miles in geostationary orbits This flexibility includes the antenna around the equator. All ten satellites are patterns and connectivities and also in continuous 24-hour operations with the involves precise calculations of the spares primarily used for GMF training Effective Isotropic Radiated Power missions.

AU Space Primer 11 - 6 August 2003

Fig. 11-7. DSCS III Notional Constellation

In addition to the DSCS III satellites, there are some DSCS II satellites (turned off) still in orbit that could be activated, on a limited basis, at any time. The DSCS II satellite located over the Indian Ocean is still active and used for training purposes. The five primary DSCS III satellites provide overlapping footprints for worldwide communications between 70O North latitude and 70O South latitude. Communications beyond these latitudes becomes very weak due to earth’s flatten- ing in the vicinity of the poles. Heavy terminals, such as the FSC-78 with the large 60 foot antenna, could access a Figure 12-8. M-Hop DSCS III satellite from some locations above 70O North or below 70O South latitude. The five satellite constellation of DSCS allows most earth terminal locations to access at least two satellites. Key sites around the world are

equipped with two earth terminals, each accessing a different satellite. These dual terminal sites allow the signal from one Fig. 11-9. DSCS III satellite to be retransmitted to another, DSCS III Satellite extending the distance beyond one satellite’s coverage area. This is called an The DSCS III spacecraft (Fig. 11-9) “M-hop” (Fig. 11-8). M-hops make is a three-axis, momentum stabilized communications between opposite sides vehicle with an on-orbit weight of about of the planet possible. 2,350 pounds. The spacecraft's rectangular body is 6 x 6 x 7 cubed feet, with a 38 foot span (with solar arrays deployed). The solar arrays generate 1,100 watts, decreasing to 837 watts after

AU Space Primer 11 - 7 August 2003 five years. The communications payload aboard each satellite provides a wide- Antennas band spectrum of 1000 MHz (500 MHz uplink and 500 MHz downlink) that is divided into six channels by six limited Receive: Two earth Coverage (EC) bandwidth transponders (Table 11-1). One Multiple Beam (MBA) Four of the six channels/transponders can be switched by ground command Transmit: Two Earth Coverage (EC) between a number of antennas consisting Two Multiple Beam (MBA) of: One Gimbaled Dish (GDA)

• Four earth coverage horns: two Transponders transmit while two receive. Channel 1 • A 61-beam waveguide-lens, receive Bandwidth: 50 MHz Multiple Beam Antenna (MBA) that Transmitter Power: 40 W provides selective coverage and Transmit Ant. Options: MBA, GDA nulling for anti-jam protection. • Two 19-beam, waveguide-lens Receive Ant. Options: EC, MBA transmit MBAs to provide selected Channel 2 antenna patterns that match the net- Bandwidth: 75 MHz work of ground receivers, and a high- Transmitter Power: 40 W gain, gimbaled dish transmit antenna Transmit Ant. Options: MBA, GDA for adjustable spot beam coverage. Receive Ant. Options: EC, MBA

The DSCS frequency plan falls Channel 3 within the SHF spectrum (X band) with Bandwidth: 85 MHz uplink frequencies of 7900MHz to 8400 Transmitter Power: 10 W MHz which the transponders down- Transmit Ant. Options: EC, MBA translate to the downlink frequencies of Receive Ant. Options: EC, MBA 7250 MHz to 7750 MHz. Any type of Channel 4 modulation or multiple access may be used since none of the transponders Bandwidth: 85 MHz process or demodulate the signals. Transmitter Power: 10 W In addition to the six wide-band SHF Transmit Ant. Options: EC, MBA, GDA transponders, a Single Channel Receive Ant. Options: EC, MBA Transponder (SCT) provides secure and Channel 5 reliable dissemination of EAM and the Bandwidth: 60 MHz SIOP communications from command post ground stations and aircraft world Transmitter Power: 10 W wide. The SCT receives communications Transmit Ant. Options: EC from the ground terminals and airborne Receive Ant. Options: EC command posts at SHF or UHF, and Channel 6 transmits them at UHF and SHF. Bandwidth: 60 MHz The last four DSCS III satellites are be- Transmitter Power: 10 W ing upgraded prior to launch under the DSCS Service Life Enhancement Program Transmit Ant. Options: EC (SLEP). The first two SLEP improved Receive Ant. Options: EC satellites, B8 and B11, were launched in Table 11-1. DSCS III Communications 2000. The remaining two will launch in Subsystem 2002 and 2003. Under SLEP, the solar panels are upgraded to provide more provide 50 watts of transmitted power; power and all of the transponders are to the channel five transmit antenna options be upgraded to

AU Space Primer 11 - 8 August 2003 will be changed to allow connection to pand into 18. The terminal can transmit the Gimbaled Dish Antenna (GDA). up to approximately 2,600 watts by combining the four 650 watt transmitters. DSCS Ground Segment The heavy class terminal, FSC-78, is electrically the same as the GSC-39 with The ground segment consists primarily the exception of the antenna and low of three groups of earth terminals: noise amplifiers. The FSC-78 is equipped with a 60–ft antenna (Fig. 11- • The strategic terminals are the 11) that uses cryogenically cooled para- medium and heavy class terminal metric amplifiers. Even though the located at fixed stations maximum transmitter output of both ter- • The TACSAT terminals are used by minals is the same, the maximum EIRP the GMF and are deployed by the of the FSC-78 is far greater than that of Army, Air Force and Marine Corps the GSC-39 due to the increased gain of throughout the world • Finally, the special user terminals are the airborne and shipborne terminals, the JRSC terminal and the JCS controlled DSCS Standard Light terminal.

The strategic terminals provide 24- hour support to both DOD and non-DOD users. These users include GCCS, DISN, DSN, DMS and the DTS. The medium class of the strategic terminals consists of the AN/GSC-39 and AN/GSC-52. Both terminals utilize a 38 foot antenna with redundant solid-state Fig. 11-11. FSC-78 low noise amplifiers. 60-ft Antenna The AN/GSC-39 is capable of trans- the larger antenna. mitting up to 18 individual carriers and receiving as many as 30. It is equipped with two 5,000 watt transmitters that can DSCS Ground Mobile Forces (GMF) be combined for a total output of near 10,000 watts. GMF operate in their own sub- network on the DSCS satellites. The GMF sub-network is not operationally compatible with the DSCS networks. This is due to the incompatibility of the GMF TACSAT terminal’s signal processing equipment with that of the DSCS strategic terminal. In order for the GMF to gain access to the DSCS network, a DSCS Gateway terminal must be used. A DSCS Gateway terminal is a strategic terminal with a complement of Fig. 11-10. AN/GSC-52 signal processing equipment used by the The AN/GSC-52, a state-of-the-art TACSAT terminals. The signal from the Medium Terminal (SAMT) (Fig. 11-10) GMF network is processed to its lowest comes equipped to transmit and receive form by this equipment and then up to 12 carriers with the ability to ex- reprocessed by the DSCS signal

AU Space Primer 11 - 9 August 2003 processing equipment for retransmission The Army and Marine Corps’ Non- in the DSCS network. nodal terminal is the TSC-93B, which is A GMF network consists of at least equipped with one 500-watt transmitter two TACSAT terminals, each transmit- and can transmit and receive only one ting one carrier which is received by the carrier. It is housed in a shelter other. The TACSAT terminals are classi- transported on a HMMWV and is fied in one of two categories: Nodal or deployed with an 8-ft antenna. Non-nodal. Nodal terminals (AN/TSC- The Air Force nodal terminal is the 85B and AN/TSC-100A) have the ability TSC-100A, which is similar to the TSC- to transmit one carrier and receive up to 85B. The TSC-100A is equipped with four. Non-nodal terminals (AN/TSC- two higher power transmitters that can be 93B and AN/TSC-94A) can transmit and combined for a total output power of receive only one carrier. Each carrier has approximately 1,800 watts. It is capable the capacity of up to 96 telephone calls or of transmitting and receiving up to four 10 MPS of data. Links with more than carriers and is deployed with both an 8 32 telephone circuits or a data rate and 20-ft antenna. These antennas allow greater than 3 MPS are far too difficult to the TSC-100A to access two satellites support with the small 8 and 20-ft anten- simultaneously. It is housed in a modified nas and are rarely used. S-280 shelter transported on mobilizers. There are three basic GMF network The TSC-94A is the Air Force’s Non- configurations. The simplest consists of nodal terminal which is equipped much two terminals, each transmitting one car- like the TSC-93B, except for the two rier received by the other. This is called 500-watt transmitters and other a “Point-to-point” configuration. Any equipment redundancy. It also deploys combination of Nodal or Non-nodal ter- with only the 8-ft antenna and is housed minals can be used. One terminal could in a shelter transported on a HMMWV. be a DSCS Gateway terminal, while the other two configurations are called “Hub- DSCS Control Segment spoke” and “Mesh.” The Hub-spoke configuration consists The Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff of a Nodal terminal as the “Hub” and up has primary responsibility for DSCS with to four “spokes” that can be Nodal, Non- USCINCSPACE having Satellite Opera- nodal or DSCS Gateway terminals. In the tions Manager (SOM) responsibilities as Hub-spoke configuration, the hub terminal defined in CJCSI 6250.01. The Defense transmits one carrier that is received by Information Systems Agency (DISA) is all four spokes. In turn, each spoke the DSCS SATCOM System Expert transmits one carrier back to the hub. (SSE), and network manager, and exe- A Mesh configuration is a combina- cutes DSCS command and control in tion of two or more hub-spoke configura- support of the Global and Regional tions that are linked together. If a Nodal SATCOM Support Centers (GSSC, terminal is used as one of the spokes in a RSSC). DISA is a DOD agency that re- hub-spoke configuration, three additional ports directly to the Chairman of Joint terminals could be added as spokes to Chiefs of Staff and the Assistant Secre- this terminal to create a mesh. tary of Defense for C3I. The DISA mis- The TSC-85B is the nodal terminal sion is to develop, test, manage, acquire, used by the Army and Marine Corps. implement, operate and maintain infor- This terminal is equipped with two mation systems for C4I and mission sup- redundant 500-watt transmitters and port under all conditions of peace and equipment to transmit one and receive up war. The DISA core mission areas in- to four carriers. It is deployed with either clude: an 8 or 20-ft antenna, and is housed in a modified S-250 shelter transported on a 2 • Global Command and Control Sys- ½-ton or 5-ton truck. tem (GCCS). An information sys-

AU Space Primer 11 - 10 August 2003

tem designed to support deliberate time monitoring and control for the and crisis planning with the use of DSCS and GMF networks. They also an integrated set of analytical tools perform payload control, which involves and flexible data transfer capabili- making changes to transponder and ties. It will become the single C4I antenna configuration. system to support the warfighter, JCS, as specified in CJCSI 6250.01, foxhole to command post. validates all DOD and non-DOD • Defense Information Systems Net- MILSATCOM requirements, apportions work (DISN). A program for the resource capacity, approves satellite re- graceful technology evolution from positioning and resolves conflicts. the use of DOD networks and sys- USSPACECOM, for the JCS, provides tems to the use of commodity ser- operational direction along two paths. vices wherever possible. It re- USCINCSPACE is responsible for places DSNET and supports DSN, assuring access to, and use of, space for SIPRNET, NIPRNET and FTS 2000 the U.S. and its allies and for operating (Fed Telecomm System). DISN also Joint Staff designated space systems in provides information transport ser- support of U.S. and allied military forces. vices for voice, text and imagery. USCINCSPACE is also the principal • Defense Message Service (DMS). space advocate and advisor to the CJCS. A program geared towards reducing Responsibilities include: cost and staffing while maintaining existing levels of service and secu- • Assessing the worldwide impact of rity for DOD messages. Its goal is proposed satellite movements for secure, accountable and reliable • Providing recommendations to the writer to reader messaging for the CJCS warfighter at reduced cost. • Providing a space assessment to • Global Combat Support System DISA and the Joint Staff based on (GCSS). GCSS uses GCCS as a MILSATCOM requirements as baseline. It is a strategy to inte- documented in the Satellite grate existing combat support sys- Database (SDB). tems to gain efficiency/interoperability in support- USCINCSPACE provides operational ing the warfighter. It will provide a command through its components in fused, real-time combat support order to: view of the battlespace, eliminating stove-piped systems by achieving a • Operate and maintain the Mission common operating environment Control Centers (MCCs) (COE). • Execute tracking, station-keeping and ephemeris generation DSCS launch, on-orbit operations (sta- • Execute satellite movements as dition-keeping), telemetry analysis, tracking rected by the CJCS. data for orbit determination and commanding of on-board subsystems is the USCINCSPACE provides operational responsibility of the 3SOPS. 3SOPS is a command through USARSPACE in order component of the 50th Operations Group, to: 50th SW at Schriever AFB, Colorado. Under USARSPACE, the 1st Satellite • Operate and maintain all DSCSOCs Control (SATCON) Battalion mission is • Provide personnel resources to to provide communications network ensure network and payload control control for the DSCS. The 1st SATCON • Operate and maintain GSSC and Battalion operates and maintains five RSSC's and for GMFSC network DSCS Operations Centers (DSCSOCs) planning and coordination worldwide. The DSCSOCs provide real-

AU Space Primer 11 - 11 August 2003

DISA Code DOT provides technical The CSPE determines the mission’s sat- direction through the GSSC and RSSC's ellite communications requirements and in order to: develops a Satellite Access Request (SAR) for the RSSC. • Direct network and payload control executed by the DSCSOCs The SAR consists of the following: • Direct station keeping and movements executed by the MCCs • Who, When, What, Where and How The RSSCs, through coordination, • Unit and Mission, date/time, data will: rate, terminal types and location, • Obtain satellite-engineering pa- network configuration and priority rameters to be used for resource allocation to the GMFSC and assis- The RSSC will: tance in resolving conflicts from the DISA. • Coordinate with DISA for re- • Receive and process satellite access sources to support the SAR requests from the CINCs for • Perform network planning with pa- GMFSC access and provide satel- rameters given by DISA if the SAR lite access authorizations. can be supported. • Develop Satellite Access Authori- DSCS Access zation (SAA) with the satellite, look angles, power, frequency and Access to the DSCS satellites is controller. accomplished differently depending on whether the user desires the DSCS The SAA is sent to the originating network and the GMF network. For CSPE, DISA and the controller. The DSCS network access, the following is a CSPE produces deployment orders and summary of the process: configuration sheets for terminals while DISA directs the controlling DSCSOC to 1) Users identify their requirements. update their operational database. 2) Users submit their requirements to Finally, 30 minutes prior to the mission their respective CINC. start time, the controller contacts the 3) The CINC’s J6 will coordinate with terminals and directs access to the the GSSC, applicable RSSC and satellite. DISA for the required resources. 4) DISA will engineer the link pa- MILSTAR rameters to support the requirements. The information is passed Milstar provides highly robust, secure to the DSCS Ops Centers where the and survivable communications among Network Controllers add/subtract/ fixed-site and mobile terminals. The monitor the entire net. name “Milstar” originated as the acro- 5) The user is informed of the circuit nym for Military Strategic and Tactical design (power/bandwidth/times of Relay satellite system. In the early ‘90’s usage). the acronym was adopted as the system 6) Communication stays open between name, and is therefore not written in capi- all parties to assure the warfighters’ tal letters. The MILSATCOM Joint Pro- needs are met. gram Office manages Milstar at the Space and Missile Systems Center, Los For GMF access, the tactical user re- Angeles AFB, California. ceives mission tasking and begins the Originally, Milstar was required to planning process with the Communica- provide assured connectivity through all tions Systems Planning Element (CSPE). levels of conflict for strategic nuclear and

AU Space Primer 11 - 12 August 2003 strategic defense forces. The Milstar Low tioned at 120° West longitude and flight Data Rate (LDR) payload was designed 2 is positioned at 4° East longitude. The to meet this requirement, and each of block I satellites will be replaced with an three Services developed LDR terminals operational constellation of block II satel- to use the Milstar LDR payload. How- lites having MDR (4.8 KBPS to 1.544 ever, in the National Defense Authoriza- MBPS) payloads. Four block II vehicles tion Act for FY91, Congress requested were produced. However, the first Mil- the DOD to restructure the Milstar sys- star II failed to reach orbit after its April tem to reduce cost, increase the utility of 1999 launch. Three Milstar II's remain to the system to tactical users, and eliminate be launched. the most enduring nuclear warfighting Like other satellite systems, Milstar is capabilities. The DOD responded by re- comprised of three segments, the Space ducing the number of large strategic ter- Segment, Mission Control Segment and minals and increasing the number of the Terminal Segment. smaller tactical terminals. Other changes included the elimination of the most du- Space Segment rable nuclear survivable capabilities for satellites and terminals and the addition The Space segment consists of 3-axis of a Medium Data Rate (MDR) capability stabilized satellites measuring approxi- on satellite 3 and beyond, to support tac- mately 51 feet in length. The 116-ft. solar tical users. arrays generate almost 8,000 watts of Operating primarily in the Extremely power. Often described as a “switchboard High Frequency (EHF) and Super High in the sky”, the Milstar payloads have on- Frequency (SHF) bands, Milstar satisfies board computers that perform communi- the U.S. military’s communications re- cations resource control. Milstar requirements with worldwide, anti-jam, sponds directly to service requests from scintillation resistant, Low Probability of user terminals without satellite operator Intercept (LPI) and Low Probability of intervention, providing point-to-point Detection (LPD) communications ser- communications and network services on vices. a priority basis. The Milstar payloads The first Milstar satellite (Fig. 11-12) can reconfigure in real-time as user connectivity needs change. Milstar also employs satellite crosslinks to establish and maintain worldwide connectivity without having to rely on M hops. In the satellite’s EHF and SHF bands, high gain transmit and receive antennas with small apertures produce narrow beams which are difficult to jam. Fig. 11-12. Milstar Mission Control Segment

The Mission Control Segment was launched from Cape Canaveral on 7 performs Milstar state of health February 1994 aboard a Titan IV booster maintenance, constellation control, satellite with a Centaur upper stage. The second repositioning and communications Milstar satellite was launched from Cape management. A primary feature of this Canaveral on 6 November 1995. They segment is its survivability, which are in low-inclination, geosynchronous derives from its combination of fixed orbits at an altitude of approximately station at Schriever AFB, Colorado and 22,300 miles. The first two satellites are ground mobile control stations. block I units with only LDR (75 to 2400 BPS) capability. Milstar flight 1 is posi-

AU Space Primer 11 - 13 August 2003

Terminal Segment consistently provide it in a time frame that allows the warfighter to act within The Terminal Segment includes fixed the decision cycle time of the adversary. and mobile ground terminals, ship and The amount of time to transmit a single submarine terminals and airborne termi- Air Tasking Order (ATO) over Milstar nals. The Army, Navy and Air Force are LDR is in excess of one hour. Milstar developing and procuring terminals that MDR, at a full T1 data rate, requires are inter-operable. close to 6 seconds (Fig. 11-13). GBS, The 4SOPS, a component of the 50th even with the limiting factor of current Operations Group, 50th Space Wing, encryption equipment, transmits the data Schriever AFB, is responsible for overall in less than one half second. command and control of the Milstar sat- Additionally, because it is a broadcast ellite constellation. The 4SOPS executes stream of data, it can send to many small these responsibilities through the Milstar receivers simultaneously. Operations Center (MOC) at Schriever AFB, Mobile Constellation Control Sta- GBS High Capacity Data Dissemination tions (MCCSs) and the Milstar Support (JWID 96) Facility (MSF). MOC personnel located in the Operations Building at Schriever SATCOM 2.4 Kbps 56 Kbps 512 Kbps 1.4 Mbps 23 Mbps* AFB, perform satellite command and MILSTAR WIN SIPRNET MILSTAR GBS control, communications resource man- ATO 1.02 2.61 17.09 5.7 0.38 agement, systems engineering support, 1.1 MB Hrs Min Sec Sec Sec mission planning and anomaly resolution Tomahawk 100 4.29 0.47 0.16 0.01 for the Milstar system. The MOC has MDU 0.03 MB Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec two fixed CCSs which interface with the 8x10 Imagery 22.2 57 6.25 2.07 8.4 geographically distributed Mobile CCSs, 23 MB Hrs Min Min Min Sec to execute satellite command and control. The Milstar Support Facility personnel, DS TPFDD 9.65 9.92 1.09 21.59 1.45 also located in the Operations Building, 250 MB Days Hrs Hrs Min Min perform ground control maintenance and * Currently limited to 12 Mbps encrypter rates testing, and hardware and software con- Fig. 11-13 Capacity Comparison figuration control. Another unique benefit of GBS is that it GLOBAL BROADCAST SERVICE can transmit to relatively small, phased (GBS) array receive antennas mounted on mobile platforms. This provides the The Global Broadcast Service (GBS) capability to send imagery or other large is based on technology of the commercial file products in real-time to aircraft, ships TV industry to broadcast one-way, very and vehicles in motion. large streams of data (or video) to large The GBS program leveraged numbers of small receiver antennas Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS), simultaneously. The need for a Government Off The Shelf (GOTS) worldwide, high throughput broadcast technology and Non-Developmental system became evident during the Gulf Items (NDI) to facilitate faster system War. Service-owned and leased acquisition and fielding. Additionally, commercial communications channels the acquisition was divided into three were so overwhelmed that crucial phases. information such as maps and GBS Phase I is a continuation of a intelligence data had to be airlifted to the Concept of Operations (CONOPS) warfighter. GBS was initiated as the testbed initially placed in service by the program to fill that need. The GBS is National Reconnaissance Office (NRO). intended to provide a large quantity of The testbed is operated by DISA and broadcast data to the warfighter, and managed by USSPACECOM. It employs

AU Space Primer 11 - 14 August 2003 a single over-CONUS leased commercial beams. Two of the spot beams provide Ku band satellite transponder and is used 500 nm nadir footprints while the third to support operational military provides a 2000 nm nadir footprint. Fig. broadcasts, exercises and to integrate 11-14 shows representative GBS Phase II system lessons learned into GBS Phase spot beam footprints. The beams can be II. shifted from one edge of the coverage to GBS Phase II establishes an interim the opposite edge in approximately three operational capability using GBS minutes. transponder packages hosted on UHF GBS Phase III will further evolve the F/O satellites 8, 9, and 10. Each of these capabilities of GBS beyond the 2005 GBS transponder packages has two 30 timeframe. GHz (K band) uplink antennas and three 20.2-21.2 GHz (Ka band) downlink spot

9-inch pattcch array TraTranspondpondeerrss Dowwnnllinkink Steerablblee SpotSpot BeBeaamsms FiFixed Uplink 1 22--iinch A 13-inch patch array disshh 13-inch patch array 3 2 22-inchnch B Steerraable Uplink dish Anttenenna Switch 4 C 2x24 Mbps 22-inchnch 1xT1 Mbps dish

3x63x6 MMbpMbpsbpss FFllexexiibilbilityity 1x1xT1T1 MMbbpsps in UUpliplinnkk/ DoDownlwnlink (500 NM) CComombbinainations 1919.5.5 MMbpsbps (2,00,000 NM) (500 NM) 2x 1xT1 Mbps 2244 MMbbpsps

Primimary InjInjeection 16-meteeter TerTermmiinnalal 2222-inncch RRxx-onlnlyy UUsserer TTeerrmminalals

Fig.11-14 Phase II Transponder Footprint

AU Space Primer 11 - 15 August 2003

REFERENCES

Military Satellite Communications Handbook Volume II, Air Force Space Command Directorate of Requirements, 2 January 1996

Defense Satellite Communication System Fact Sheet, 50thSW, May 1999

Milstar Communications System Fact Sheet, Air Force Space Command, November 1999

Ultrahigh Frequency Follow-On Communications Satellite System Fact Sheet, Air force Space Command, March 1999

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction CJCSI 6250.01, Satellite Communications, October 1998

Communications Satellites: Making the Global Village Possible, David J. Whale http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html

DISA Circular 800-70-1, Operation and Control of the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS), February 1993

DISA Circular 800-70-1, Supplement 2, Volume I & II, Satellite Communications Reference Data Handbook, August 1984

“Global Broadcast Service (GBS), A ‘Fat Pipe’ for a Lean Military.” TSgt Futrell, USAF. 76th Space Operations Squadron

Jane’s Space Directory, 1999-2000, Edition 15, Jane’s Information Group, Surrey, UK, Edited by Davis Baker

Joint Broadcast Service (JBS) Concept of Operations Brief, NRO Operational Support Office, 1996

NASA Communications Satellites History -- http://www.hq.nasa.gov/

"Satellite Communications Support Center Concept of Operations", Headquarters, U.S. Space Command, 1 June 1999

DSCS Web Page, Los Angeles AFB -- http://www.laafb.af.mil/SMC/MC/DSCS/dscs.htm

Global Broadcast Service Concept of Operations, US Space Command, 25 January 1996

Milstar Joint Program Office -- http://www.laafb.af.mil/SMC/MC/Milstar/

AU Space Primer 11 - 16 August 2003

GBS Joint Program Office -- http://www.losangeles.af.mil/SMC/MC/GBS/

AU Space Primer 11 - 17 August 2003

Chapter 12

MULTISPECTRAL IMAGERY

Multispectral Imagery (MSI) is steadily growing in popularity within DOD as a digital means for mission planning, thermal signature detection and terrain analysis. It is frequently used as a map substitute when standard Mapping, Charting and Geodesy (MC&G) products are outdated or inadequate. The ability to record spectral reflectances in different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum is the main attribute of MSI, which can be useful in a number of applications. This chapter addresses some of the theory and applications related to MSI.

OVERVIEW DOD. Imagery purchased through NIMA was bought with a DOD-wide dis- In recent years, an increasing share of tribution license and can be copied and training and equipment resources have distributed freely within DOD, without been dedicated to field users of MSI, copyright constraints. The Commercial such as US Marine Corps (USMC) and Satellite Imagery Library (CSIL) is an ar- US Army (USA) topographic units. US chive of all DOD purchased commercial Air Force (USAF) and US Navy applica- satellite imagery. The CSIL is main- tions of MSI have also been gaining ac- tained by the Defense Intelligence ceptance, supporting image mapping, Agency (DIA) for NIMA and available mission planning, navigation and target- electronically on the Intelink Network. ing. These products and others have been Further information on how to order widely used in operations such as CSIL products can be obtained by visit- DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM, ing the list of NIMA/CIP & CSIL Web- support to activities in the former Yugo- sites provided in the references at the end slavia, Somalia, Haiti, many “special” of this chapter. operations and in a large number of train- Many DOD organizations use MSI ing exercises. and are capable of production capabilities MSI provides information not avail- or are knowledgeable of where to obtain able by only exploiting the visible region support for operations and exercises. of the electromagnetic spectrum. It typi- Historically, MSI users who develop a cally provides such things as terrain in- support network along the lines of their formation over broad areas in an most important applications generally unclassified format. These attributes fare better in their use of MSI. Though make MSI convenient to share with per- this type of loose organizational structure sonnel and organizations that are not usu- is anathema to many DOD leaders, it is ally privileged with controlled infor- this informal network of users that has mation from “national” assets. Multina- been largely responsible for the successes tional forces, news media and civil of MSI and its applications. authorities can all share the benefits of MSI. HISTORY MSI is currently available from commercial sources for Government or pri- Remote sensing was used by the mili- vate users. Copyright law and tary in World War II, Korea and Vietnam restrictions on sharing data protect almost for tactical and strategic reconnaissance every image (except older imagery with and surveillance. MSI is a direct out- little commercial value). The National growth of the operational success of Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) is Color Infrared (CIR) imagery of the the executive agent for the purchase of 1960’s. In Vietnam, CIR imagery was commercial satellite imagery within frequently used to distinguish artificial

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features, such as camouflage, from a film) products derived from the digital background of natural vegetation. The information provided by the sensor. successes of this and other applications of These digital-film techniques initially CIR imagery fueled practical considera- were very expensive, but as the cost of tion of imaging devices that could not computers fell and versions of image only exploit the IR (Infrared) spectral re- processing software which could run on gion, but could also discriminate between most types of operating systems became blue, green, red and near IR regions of the available, many new MSI applications electromagnetic spectrum. The electro- found markets within military units, other magnetic spectrum extends from the short wave cosmic ray region to the long wave TV and radio wave region received at home. Technology of the early 1970’s led to the development of a new sensor, the 4-band Multispectral Scanner (MSS), which was used on the original Landsat 1 (see below). This sensor digitally imaged four spectral regions (blue, green, red and near infrared). Today, MSI covers the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from the ultraviolet region through the infrared region. Remote sensing and the MSS sensor offer other advantages besides being able to image in specific spectral regions. These include the ability to “capture” images digitally, transmit the imagery DOD agencies and the civilian sector. electronically, store the information on Fig. 12-1: ERTS-A in Checkout magnetic media and process the digital information using computers. Since the The first satellite to use MSI for Earth information is captured by the sensor as a remote sensing was the Earth Resources matrix (rows and columns) of numbers, Technology Satellite-A (ERTS-A), (Fig. computers provide a perfect means to sift 12-1) which was later renamed Landsat 1 through the combinations of bands and by the National Aeronautics and Space present the information on a computer Administration (NASA). It was the first monitor. The information can be easily in a series of satellites designed to pro- manipulated to support specific analysis. vide repetitive global coverage of the An image can be merged electronically Earth’s landmasses. Landsat 1 was with other information, such as slope or launched in July 1972 and finally ceased land cover data, allowing analysts to to operate in January 1978. The second derive greater information from the satellite in the series was launched in imagery. January 1975. Four additional In the early days of space-borne LANDSATS have been launched in multispectral imaging, computers were 1978, 1982, 1984, and 1999 (LANDSAT only readily available at fixed sites 3, 4, 5, and 7 respectively. Landsat 5 is within DOD and at large civil institutions operating beyond its design life. LAND- such as universities. Therefore, much of SATs 1, 2, 3 and 4 are no longer opera- the early work performed with MSI was tional. conducted using “hardcopy” (paper or

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used on LANDSATs 4 and 5 included MSS, but a more capable sensor called the Thematic Mapper (TM) was added to increase the spectral and spatial capability of these systems. The TM sensor captures information in seven spectral bands:

• Band 1 - .42-.52 microns (blue) used for such things as soil, vegetation and coastal water mapping • Band 2 - .52-.60 microns (green) used for such things as depicting green reflectance of vegetation • Band 3 - .63-.69 microns (red) used for such things as differentiating Fig. 12-2: Landsat 7 vegetation based on chlorophyll absorption LANDSAT 6 also was launched but • Band 4 - .76-.90 microns (near IR) failed to successfully achieve orbit in Oc- used for such things as vegetation tober 1993. LANDSAT 7 was launched and biomass surveys on April 15, 1999 (Fig. 12-2). One of the • Band 5 - 1.55-1.75 microns (short LANDSAT 7 improvements is the En- wave IR) used for such things as to hanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+), sense vegetation moisture and which will produce data in six spectral snow/cloud reflectance differences bands at 28.5 meter spatial resolution, • Band 6 - 10.4-12.5 microns (long one panchromatic band with a 15 meter wave IR) used for such things as spatial resolution, and one long wave IR thermal mapping band with a 60 meter spatial resolution. • Band 7 - 2.08-2.35 microns (short NASA was responsible for operating wave IR) used for such things as the LANDSAT satellites through the determining vegetation moisture early 1980’s. In 1985, as part of an effort and depiction of minerals (based on to precipitate commercialization of space, hydroxyl ions) for geological LANDSAT was commercialized and all mapping rights became the property of the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT). Another satellite whose product has However, in November 1996, Space Im- enjoyed broad acceptance within DOD is aging and Lockheed-Martin reached an the French satellite called “SPOT” (Satel- agreement to purchase EOSAT; now re- lite Pour L’Observation de la Terre). ferred to as Space Imaging EOSAT. SPOT satellites carry two High Resolu- Landsat 7 was developed as a tri- tion Visible (HRV) sensors with the ca- agency program between NASA, NOAA, pability of collecting imagery in either and the USGS. NASA was responsible three spectral bands (green, red and near for the development and launch of the infrared regions) or one panchromatic satellite as well as the development of the band. SPOT 4, the newest satellite in the ground system. NOAA provided its op- line (Fig. 12-3), added a fourth short erational expertise to the developers of wave band to its MSI. MSI bands are col- the ground system while USGS is re- lected at 20 meter spatial resolution while sponsible for receiving, processing, ar- the panchromatic band is collected at 10 chiving and distributing the data. meter spatial resolution. The SPOT data Earlier LANDSAT satellites carried most frequently used by the DOD is the the MSS, the most capable sensor on panchromatic imagery. SPOT sensors LANDSATs 1, 2 and 3. The sensor suite have the capability to scan 27 degrees

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off-nadir, allowing for repeat coverage of time. This ability to actively image in all an area every two to twenty-six days, de- weather conditions offers a much needed pending where on the earth's surface the alternative during periods when cloud image is being taken. SPOT’s panchro- cover prevents imaging with a passive matic mode also yields an image with a sensor (sensors that do not provide their better spatial resolution (see the “Theory” own illumination) such as LANDSAT, section for a complete discussion of reso- SPOT and the IRS satellites. lution). RADARSAT provides the first routine surveillance of the entire Arctic region and accurately monitors disasters such as oil spills, floods and earthquakes. RADARSAT provides imagery that is of exceptional value in supporting a wide

Fig. 12-3: Spot 4

By the mid-1980’s, India was well on its way to developing the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS). IRS-1A was launched in 1988, and an identical follow-on satellite, IRS-1B, was launched in 1991. Both satellites are equipped with sensors that acquire multispectral data comparable to that available from range of DOD and civilian applications. LANDSAT and SPOT satellites. In De- Fig. 12-4: IRS-1D at liftoff cember 1995, the IRS-1C was launched. IRS-1C has enhanced capabilities in The first European Remote Sensing terms of spatial resolution, with a 5 meter Satellite (ERS-1) was launched in July panchromatic band and a wide-field ca- 1991 (Fig. 12-5), with a second (ERS-2) pability for large area monitoring. IRS- launched in April 1995. The ERS satel- 1D, identical to IRS-1C, became India's lites use SAR microwave techniques to newest imaging satellite with its launch acquire measurements and images, rein September 1997 (Fig. 12-4). gardless of cloud and sunlight conditions. RADARSAT, a Canadian satellite, ERS sensors have the capability to was launched in 1995 and is equipped measure echoes from ocean and ice sur- with an advanced Synthetic Aperture Ra- faces, sea surface and cloud-top tempera- dar (SAR). A SAR is a powerful micro- tures and provide information about wave instrument that transmits pulsed ocean waves (length and direction). The signals to Earth and then processes the ERS mission is oriented primarily to- returned signals. SAR-based technology wards ocean and ice monitoring, which is provides its own illumination, enabling it particularly important since oceans cover to see through clouds, haze, smoke and approximately three-quarters of the darkness, thus providing images of the Earth’s surface and have a dominant Earth in all weather conditions, at any effect on the global climate system.

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not visible to the human eye. Important features like mineral and oil-bearing rock structures are more easily detected using data collected in these longer wavelength IR bands. For instance, actively growing vegetation can be easily separated from many other features in the near infrared (NIR) region because the chlorophyll in the plants is reflected to a far greater extent in the NIR band than any other feature return. Emitted or thermal radiance in the midwave and longwave regions is also detectable by passive spectral sensors. Heat sources such as industrial processes and power-generating facilities generate IR energy that are detectable from both aircraft and satellite sensors sensitive to these spectral regions. Multispectral sensors are designed to Fig. 12-5: ERS-1 at Checkout support applications by providing bands that detect information in specific THEORY combinations of desirable regions of the spectrum. Figure 12-7 illustrates the The electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. utility of spectral regions. 12-6) provides the medium exploited by The number and position of bands in Multispectral Imagery. Regions of the each sensor provide a unique combina- spectrum are selected for coverage by tion of spectral information and are tai- sensor bands to optimize collection for lored to the requirements the sensor was certain categories of information most designed to support. For example, evident in those bands. Multispectral LANDSAT TM, with bands in both the bands in the near infrared (NIR) region near IR (chlorophyll detection) and short- and shortwave infrared (SWIR) regions wave IR (wetness) are capable of measur- are used to discriminate features that are ing the health of vegetation.

Cosmic Rays Visible Thermal IR TV & Radio UV X Rays Near IR Microwave

10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1101 102345610 10 10 10 107108

Blue - 0.4 - 0.5 um Green - 0.5 - 0.6 um Red - 0.6 - 0.7 um

Fig. 12-6 Electromagnetic Spectrum

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REFLECTED SOLAR RADIATION EMITTED RADIATION

PANCHROMATIC WAVELENGTH IN MICROMETERS NEAR UV BLUE GREEN RED NEAR IR SHORT WAVE IR MIDWAVE IR LONGWAVE IR

0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 1.0 1.4 1.8 3.0 5.0 14.0

SWIR

BLUE • DISCRIMINATION OF OIL ON WATER • MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL AND VEGETATION • SCATTERED BY ATMOSPHERE, ILLUMINATES • LIMITED CLOUD PENETRATION MATERIAL IN SHADOWS NOT SEEN IN LONGER • CONTRAST BETWEEN VEGETATION TYPES WAVELENGTHS • CHLOROPHYLL ABSORPTION BAND AT 0.40um NEAR IR • BEST PENETRATION FOR CLEAR WATER • INTERNAL LEAF TISSUE STRONGLY REFLECTIVE, DECREASES AS MOISTURE STRESS INCREASES • 0.76 - 0.9um - SHORELINE MAPPING; BIOMASS CONTENT GREEN • REFLECTANCE OF CAMP PAINT ALMOST EQUAL TO LEAVES • DIFFERENCE IN SPECTRA OF SOME EVERGREEN AND DECIDUOUS • WATER PENETRATION FOR CLEAR WATER VEGETATION • CONTRAST BETWEEN CLEAR AND TURBID WATER • DISCRIMINATION OF OIL ON WATER DUE TO SURFACE TENSION EFFECT LWIR • CONTAINS REFLECTANCE PEAK OF VEGETATION IN VISIBLE REGION • THERMAL ANALYSIS • SOME VEGETATION DENSITY AND COVER TYPE • THERMAL INERTIA - DIURNAL AND SEASONAL RED MWIR • CHLOROPHYLL ABSORPTION BAND 0.66um FOR VEGETATION • SOLAR REFLECTION FROM SPECULAR METAL DISCRIMINATION ROOF BUILDINGS • LIMITED WATER PENETRATION CAPABILITY • HEAT EMISSIONS AND STEAM REFLECTANCE • REFLECTANCE OF HIGH IR REFLECTING PAINT DIFFERENT FROM OVER SMOKE STACKS AND FIRES LEAVES AT 0.66um AND 0.7 TO 0.75um • SMOKE PENETRATION • CAROTENE AND XANTHOPHYLL REFLECTANCE REGIONS (DEAD • DAYTIME REFLECTANCE MIXED WITH EMITTED FOLIAGE) PHOTONS (HEAT) • NIGHTTIME EMITTED PHOTONS (HEAT) Fig. 12-7. Spectral Regions Numeric values (also called bright- matched against four LANDSAT bands. ness values) are recorded as a means of In this example, grass and artificial turf identifying the brightness associated with show similar reflectivity properties the light reflected from different material across this portion of the spectrum, ex- in each spectral band. cept for LANDSAT band 4 (NIR). Figure 12-8 illustrates the difference Choosing the correct position across in reflectivity of materials across a por- the spectrum optimizes the ability to dis- tion of the electromagnetic spectrum, criminate between various materials. In

LANDSAT TM Bands 12 3 4

R 50 Grass e f l 40 e Concrete c t a 30 n “Loamy” Soil c e 20 Fallow Field

(%) 10 Asphalt Artificial Turf Clear Water 0

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Wavelength in Micrometers Fig. 12-8. Spectral Responses and Band Positions

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this example, band 4 should be used to (pixels). In a digital system, a pixel repre- discriminate between grass and artificial sents an area on the Earth’s surface. The turf. SPOT panchromatic sensor has pixels that A spectral collection system records are the average of the light reflected from a electromagnetic (EM) radiation. The EM 10 meter by 10 meter area (10m x 10m) on radiation detected by the collection system the ground. Therefore, SPOT panchro- may be solar reflected energy or thermal matic imagery can be said to have 10 me- (photons) emitted by an object. EM radia- ter pixels. LANDSAT TM has a 28.5 tion may be thought of as a wave, having an associated wavelength measured from wave peak to wave peak. UV Vis NIR SWIR MWIR LWIR Figure 12-9 depicts how wavelengths are measured between wave peaks. 100% Shorter wavelengths have shorter distances e between wave peaks; longer wavelengths c n ta t have greater distances between wave i sm

peaks. The amount and type of radiation an r T reflected are directly related to an object’s of t n surface chemical and physical character- e c r e P

0% 100% Transmittance = Completely transparent atmosphere in that spectral region 0% Transmittance = Complete obscuration by atmosphere in that spectral region Fig. 12-10: Atmospheric Windows meter pixel size. Spatial resolution is another way of Fig. 12-9. Wavelength Measurement stating the size of pixels for a digital system. Pixel size is a direct indicator of the istics. spatial resolution of the sensor because pixels are the smallest elements that can A portion of the reflected EM radia- be detected by the sensor. Spatial resolution exits through the atmosphere and is tion is a measure of the smallest angular received and recorded by the satellite. or linear separation between two objects Those areas of the atmosphere that allow that can be resolved by the sensor. More for transmission of EM radiation are simply put, it is the smallest separation known as atmospheric windows. In other between two objects on the ground that areas of the electromagnetic spectrum, can be detected as a separate object. This the atmosphere itself reflects, absorbs or type of resolution is related to the Ground scatters too much energy (because of par- Sampling Distance (GSD) of a system. ticulate matter, aerosols and water vapor) GSD is defined as the distance between blocking the passage of EM radiation, centers of pixels or in other words, the making it impossible for the sensor to ob- centers of areas sampled on the ground. tain measurable information. This block- An image from the LANDSAT TM sen- ing effect is called “atmospheric sor, which has a GSD of 28.5 meters, will attenuation.” Remote sensing instru- not normally allow for detection of an ments are designed primarily to record object that is five meters. With current information passed through these atmos- systems, resolution is usually referred to pheric windows. Figure 12-10 demon- in meters and each pixel will sample a strates this concept. square area on the ground in terms of me- This reflected energy is received by ters. the sensor array in the form of individual Spectral resolution refers to the spec- brightness values or picture elements tral position and bandwidth of the bands

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a sensor collects. The LANDSAT TM images that have minimal geometric dis- sensor could be said to have moderate tortions. Distortions in nadir imagers are spectral resolution (seven relatively wide normally due to Earth's curvature and bands) in contrast to the SPOT panchro- space environmental effects that disrupt matic sensor that has poor spectral reso- the stability of the satellite, introducing lution due to its single very broad band. pitch, yaw or roll. LANDSAT, being a Generally, the narrower the band and the nadir imager, is restricted to imaging higher the number of bands, the better the along predictable tracks, or “paths,” ac- spectral resolution. cording to orbital characteristics and the A temporal resolution refers to the time field of view of the sensor. it takes an imaging system to return to an Directional systems have the ability to area to collect another image. It is essen- view the Earth away from the ground tially a satellite’s revisit time. All im- track of the satellite’s orbit or, “off- agery collected provides an electronic nadir.” SPOT is an off-nadir imager with “snapshot” of a particular area and mo- the ability to image up to 27 degrees ment. To understand changing condi- across track (side-to-side) in each tions of a particular area may require a direction. The opportunities presented by number of images. off-nadir systems include a reduction in Temporal resolution must be consid- the amount of elapsed time between the ered when ordering imagery from any periods when the satellite can image the source. If a satellite is not over a re- same point on Earth, referred to as quester’s area of interest when needed, “revisit time” or temporal resolution, and you must wait until the satellite's next re- the ability to produce stereo views. visit time. If the area is cloud-covered However, due to the effect of imaging during imaging, the user may have to across a spherical surface, users of off- wait for another imaging opportunity. If nadir imagery pay the price of higher using LANDSAT 5, the revisit time geometric distortions within the image. would be 16 days (in conjunction with Orbital characteristics have direct LANDSAT 7, it is cut to 8 days). influence on the imaging capacity of all Radiometric resolution refers to the spaceborne sensors. Systems such as sensitivity of a spectral band. LANDSAT, SPOT and IRS are dependent LANDSAT, SPOT and IRS detect and re- upon reflected energy from the sun that cord an image in each band in 256 levels makes them effective imagers only of brightness (an 8-bit image). One mul- during periods of sunlight. In addition, tispectral imager aboard the TIROS the usefulness of MSI is enhanced for weather satellite, called the Advanced many applications when the images are High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), captured at specific sun elevation angles. collects imagery in 1,024 levels of Therefore, commercial imaging satellites brightness (a 10-bit image). Therefore, are typically placed in an orbit described TIROS is said to have greater radiomet- as a “sun-synchronous orbit,” allowing the ric resolution than LANDSAT, even satellites to predictably collect imagery in though the spatial resolution of this sen- specified sun angles. Each satellite orbits sor is significantly less than that of the with specific times established for other. equatorial crossing; a feature that allows Viewing geometries for MSI satellites reliable prediction of imaging times at are available in two varieties: nadir view- points along its ground track. ing and off-nadir/directional viewing. These satellites are also dependent Nadir refers to the point on the planet di- upon maintaining a standard distance rectly below the satellite. Nadir imagers from the Earth’s surface in order to main- look straight down at the Earth and have tain a consistent spatial resolution. If the no ability to look at objects away from satellite were to drift higher or lower in nadir under any deliberate circumstance. relation to the Earth’s surface, the spatial Such systems are excellent for providing resolution of each image would change as

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well, reducing the usefulness of the im- images can portray the terrain in near- ages to users who depend upon consis- natural colors, with some enhancements tency. “Circular” or “low eccentricity” applied to ease utilization by non-trained orbits are a necessity for imaging systems personnel. Image maps are most useful to ensure consistent spatial resolution. when topographic maps are not available Each satellite is carefully placed in an or- or when used as supplements to older bit to meet the specifications of its sensor maps. MSI provides a means of rapidly package. updating older, out-of-date topographic Space environmental effects impact maps with image maps that provide a MSI satellites the same as they affect current, broad-area, synoptic view of the other satellites. Because they are in area of operations. The maps are relatively low Earth orbits, they are processed to user specifications in terms particularly susceptible to the Earth’s of color, size, map projections and scale. atmospheric effects. Image Mosaics are produced from two MILITARY APPLICATIONS or more products and made into one larger geographic area. Mosaics are pro- Although not a complete list, the duced by digitally “stitching” images following MSI applications are among together, usually for visual effect. Prior the more commonly used by today’s to “stitching,” images are pre-processed military. to ensure an acceptable match of brightness value ranges (histogram matching) Analysis Images are among the and those bands selected for the final simplest of MSI products, normally product appear visually similar. consisting of a natural colored image of the desired site. The image is minimally Perspective Views are a combination processed to reduce the production time of MSI and elevation data such as Digital and is constructed in pre-determined Terrain Elevation Data (DTED) and sizes according to need. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) (produced and maintained under the Context Images are similar to Analysis auspices of the NIMA). The two- Images but are frequently produced in dimensional MSI image is draped over black and white to facilitate correlation the three-dimensional digital terrain data with black and white high resolution and processed to simulate a view of an images used by intelligence analysts. area or target of interest from a given The purpose of Context Images is to position, altitude, azimuth and distance. provide a broad area perspective around a target. Relocatable Target Graphics are developed from many sources of informa- Image Maps are a common application tion including MSI. In this product, of Multispectral Imagery and exploit the several inputs are combined and evalu- broad-area coverage capabilities of MSI. ated using geographic information system An Image Map is nothing more than an techniques to enable prediction of the image of the area of interest with a movements of mobile targets. Elevation commonly understood grid overlaid. matrices are converted to slope and Typically, the images are rectified so that evaluated to determine places where mo- features on the Image Map correspond to bility restrictions would prevent target features on a selected coordinate system movement. MSI data is thematically and are in proper relationship to features classified to further reduce the potential on the Earth’s surface. The advantage of hiding areas. Known information about these products is that the user receives a operating characteristics of relocatable literal image that requires little mobile targets is included in the analysis experience or training to use. These to provide predictive movement informa-

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tion. High-resolution imagery is used to tive terrain databases,” in most cases, evaluate areas too small to be identified they can be developed much more through other processes. quickly and within acceptable tolerances The data is combined in a processing for supporting many tactical and strategic scheme to predict the movement of vehi- activities. cles given a known point of origin and terrain factors revealed through the HISTORICAL USE analysis of the above data. Graphics reg- IN MILITARY OPERATIONS istered to a selected map base are then produced to indicate the probability of Prior to DESERT SHIELD movement across the terrain. Both hardcopy and softcopy products are con- Before DESERT SHIELD, MSI was structed in this manner, depending upon generally treated as a dubious source of user requirements. terrain information. Institutional DOD production agencies maintained a dogma Stereo Imagery is used to create eleva- that MSI was nearly useless as a source tion matrices and is made possible by off- of mapping and terrain information. nadir imaging systems or, less frequently, Many service-specific agencies felt the by two images from a single nadir imag- same way. However, several organiza- ing system. Two images of the same tions refuted this negative position and ground area are captured from different prevailed in establishing educational and points in space (producing a stereo view training opportunities. Their goal was of the area) and software is used to estab- the establishment of MSI as a source of lish a mathematical relationship between information that could be exploited prof- points that can be identified on each im- itably at the tactical level. Organizations age. Elevation data is then extracted us- most effective in this pursuit included: ing specially designed software and placed in a file to be used as needed. • Army Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence - Imagery Branch; TERCAT (TERrain CATegorization) is • Army Intelligence and Threat a pseudocolor thematic image in which Analysis Center (ITAC); the MSI data has been classified into • Army Space Command groups representing different terrain (ARSPACE); types and land cover. TERCATs are use- • U.S. Army 30th Engineer Battalion; ful in displaying vegetation classes, soil • Naval Space Command (NAVSPACE) types and hydrology. They also support Detachment of U.S. Space the analysis of lines of communications Command (USSPACECOM); (LOCs), avenues of approach, cover and • Defense Intelligence Agency ; concealment, landing and drop zones. • U.S. Air Force 497th Intelligence Group (IG). Terrain Analysis Products are emerging as an important MSI product, draw- DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM ing upon the ability of MSI to “thematically classify” statistically simi- DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM lar brightness values representing various saw the first wholesale application of types of terrain occurring in the image. MSI, led by the organizations listed Land-cover types (vegetation, urban ar- above. MSI became quite useful among eas, water) and density information are tactical forces and other agencies that locked in the spectral images awaiting soon provided MSI products. MSI extraction using a variety of automated developed into a useful tool and provided techniques and human judgment. Al- map supplements to out-of-date maps as though terrain analysis products derived well as a terrain database. Products that from MSI are not as accurate as “objec- were of greatest value included:

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(DMA), U.S. Army Topographic Engi- • USAF Mission Planning (Mission neering Center (TEC), U.S. Army ITAC, Support System) using panchromatic EROS Data Center and the USAF Mis- SPOT imagery as a backdrop for sion Support System. mission planning and in 3D Somalia renderings of the battlefield; • U.S. Army Image Maps produced During operations in Somalia, a large by the 30th Engineer Battalion; number of organizations pooled resources • U.S. Army Intelligence templates to acquire and produce MSI products in a (B&W I-Maps with daily updates of fairly coordinated fashion. Most result- enemy positions E-Mailed from U.S. ing products were centered around Army ITAC to Riyadh); Mogadishu, but the Army produced ter- • U.S. Army 30th Engineer Battalion rain analysis graphics at the Army Space graphics that displayed a B&W im- Command, Topographic Engineering age map at the center of a map-size Center and at the deploying Army or- graphic with actual reconnaissance ganization, the 10th Mountain Division. imagery imbedded around the mar- The USMC developed products in sup- gin. These showed high resolution port of the forces deploying, as did the views of enemy positions not other- Naval Space Command, the U.S. Army wise visible on the lower resolution ITAC and the USAF. I-Maps; • DIA Scud-busting operations. Haiti

Former Yugoslavia MSI support to Haitian operations was similar to that seen in Somalia, with or- MSI production covering the former ganizations working together to produce a Yugoslavian area was a free-for-all as number of what, by this time, had become agencies attempted to use the capabilities standard products. One unique product assembled for DESERT STORM. Every that emerged from the Haitian experience unit produced data for their own users, was produced by the Army Space Com- resulting in a plethora of partially coordi- mand, featuring an MSI product in the nated products and images. Perspective center of a full-sized Image Map, with views came into their own as a separate video snapshots of key points along Presi- product during this period. Several or- dent Aristede’s repatriation motorcade ganizations placed dedicated commer- route. cial-off-the-shelf (COTS) and government-off-the shelf (GOTS) mis- PRODUCT AND DATA sion planning and rehearsal systems with AVAILABILITY units alerted for possible deployment to the former Yugoslavia. The National Imagery and Mapping A variety of products were produced Agency (NIMA) was established 1 Octo- during this event including Image Maps, ber 1996. This agency combined into a terrain analysis graphics and useful single organization, the imagery tasking, graphics of the ground routes for relief exploitation, production and dissemina- supplies bound for civilian enclaves. tion responsibilities as well as the map- Briefings by MSI production agencies ping, charting and geodetic functions of were used to show senior national and eight separate organizations of the de- military leadership the extremely hostile fense and intelligence communities. terrain U.S. forces would face if deployed NIMA incorporates the former DMA, to that theater. Participants during this Central Imagery Office (CIO) and the period included ARSPACE, NAV- Defense Dissemination Program Office SPACE, Air Force Space Command, the in their entirety as well as the mission former Defense Mapping Agency and functions of the CIA’s National Photographic Interpretation Center

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tographic Interpretation Center (NPIC). production systems call for UNIX Also included in NIMA are the imagery work stations exploitation, dissemination and process- • I/O Devices: CD-Player, 8mm & ing elements of the DIA, National Re- 4mm tape reader/writer connaissance Office (NRO) and the • Storage: Large Disk Drive (typi- Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office cally no smaller than five GB, al- (DARO). though production systems may Besides this major restructuring for have greater than 25GB of storage) support, a new system is in place for the • Graphic display screen: 8-bit color handling of Production Requirements supports elementary processing; (PRs) within DOD. This system is called 24-bit color is required for analy- COLISEUM, or the Community On-Line sis and production activities Intelligence System for End-Users and Managers. Eventually, anyone with a Hardcopy systems: PC and having access to the Global Command and Control System (GCCS) • CPU, I/O, Storage and Display: will be able to enter PRs via this method. same capabilities as soft-copy sys- Although NIMA and COLISEUM rep- tems resent a major change in terms of support • Hardcopy Output: High resolution to DOD, the process in the Air Force for color printers of the size required acquiring MSI is still through intelligence to support the application channels. As a result, the Collection Manager remains the best starting point Rectification requirements: for operational and intelligence driven MSI requirements at the unit level. • A means of establishing ground The following organizations provide control an informal union of MSI related talent • A means of associating ground especially supportive on short notice and control with features on the image during periods of crisis and contingen- (software) cies: • Software to “warp” or rectify the image to a specified coordinate • ARSPACE; system • NAVSPACE; • Air Force Space; Orthorectification: • U.S. Army TEC; • USAF 480th IG (replaced the • A means of establishing extremely 497th IG as MSI POC); accurate ground control • USSPACECOM MIMES (Joint • A means of associating ground requirements only). control with features on the image • Software to warp image to a coor- MSI PROCESSING dinate system and elevation REQUIREMENTS Digital Elevation Data Extraction: The following information is provided as a means for students to understand • Orthorectification capability common processing requirements for • Software to extract the digital ele- MSI products. vation matrix

Softcopy systems: Perspective View Generation:

• CPU: PCs will support elementary • Imagery of the area of interest processing, although standards for • An elevation matrix (file) of the area of interest

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• Software to process imagery and elevation data into a softcopy or hardcopy graphic

RESOLUTION REVOLUTION

With the successful launch of Space Imaging’s IKONOS 2 in 1999, the spatial resolution available with commercial imagery has improved significantly. IKONOS 2 offers one meter panchromatic and four meter multispectral imagery, using bands similar to LANDSAT. By 2003, it is expected that there will be somewhere in the range of 13 satellites from five different nations on orbit with one meter or better panchromatic. Some of these satellites will also have MSI and even hyperspectral imagery (HSI) with eight meter or better resolution. HSI will provide capabilities similar to MSI, but with greater refinement. Instead of collecting reflectivity in seven relatively wide bands as we do with Landsat, HSI sensors will collect against hundreds of narrower bands. It is expected that this will greatly improve the ability to discriminate between various materials as previously explained in discussing Figure 12-8.

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MSI LEXICON

• Digital Image - an image that has been placed in a digital file with brightness values of picture elements (pixels) representing brightness of specific positions within the original scene. The original scene may be the Earth as digitized by sensors in space or it may be a picture scanned by a desktop or other variety of scanner

• Hyperspectral Imagery – similar to MSI but with data collected in hundreds of spectral bands. The increased number of sensor bands provides higher spectral resolution and more opportunities to detect subtle spectral differences in signatures that are too narrow to be differentiated on MSI.

• Multispectral Imagery - imagery collected by a single sensor in multiple regions (bands) of the electromagnetic spectrum.

• Panchromatic Imagery - black and white imagery that spans an area of the electromagnetic spectrum, typically the visual region.

• Pixel - Picture element, the smallest element of a digital image. • Radiometric resolution - the ability of a sensor to detect levels of reflectance. • Resolution - a unit of granularity. • Spectral resolution - the ability of a sensor to detect information in discrete regions of the EM spectrum.

• Spatial resolution - the smallest sized feature that can be distinguished from surrounding features usually stated as a measure of distance on the ground and, in a digital image, directly associated with pixel size.

• Temporal resolution - the span of time between collection of successive images.

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OPERATIONAL EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITES

Table 12-1 is provided as a reference for operational Earth Observation Satellites.

Table 12-1. Operational Earth Observation Satellites* SPATIAL TEMPORAL SYSTEM SENSOR LAUNCH ORBIT RESOLUTION RESOLUTION SWATH DATE (km/degrees) (in meters) (in days) (in km) Canada Radarsat SAR 4 Nov 95 792 / 98.6 8 - 100 24 50 - 500 ESA ERS-1 SAR 17 Jul 91 780 / 98.5 26 / 102 35 100 ERS-2 SAR 21 Apr 95 780 / 98.5 26 3 - 35 99 France SPOT 1 Pan, MSI 22 Feb 86 825 / 98.7 10 / 20 2.5 - 26 117 SPOT 2 Pan, MSI 22 Jan 90 820 / 98.7 10 / 20 2.5 - 26 117 SPOT 4 Pan, MSI 24 Mar 98 820 / 98.7 10 / 20 2.5 - 26 India IRS-1B Pan, MSI 29 Aug 91 900 / 99.3 36.25 / 72.5 22 148 IRS-1C Pan, MSI 28 Dec 95 817 / 98.69 5.8 / 23.5 / 70.5 24 142 IRS-1D Pan, MSI 28 Sep 97 300 x 823 / 5.8 / 23.5 / 70.5 24 142 98.6 IRS-P2 MSI 15 Oct 94 817 / 98.6 36.25 22 142 U.S. LANDSAT 5 MSI 1 Mar 84 705 / 98.2 30 16 185 LANDSAT 7 Pan, MSI 15 Apr 99 705 / 98.2 15 / 30 16 185

*Basic information taken from Jane’s Space Directory, 1995-96 and updated with Air Force Magazine (April 1997) and various Internet references.

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REFERENCES

ASPRS Conference Notes, Washington D.C., 22-26 May 2000.

“Crowding In on the High Ground,” Air Force Magazine, April 1997, Pages 38-42.

Commercial Satellite Imagery Providers Websites: EarthWatch Incorporated http://www.digitalglobe.com Orbital Imaging Corporation http://www.orbimage.com/ Space Imaging, Inc. http://www.spaceimaging.com/ SPOT Image Corp. http://www.spot.com

Morgan, Tom, ed. Jane’s Space Directory, 1998-99, 14th Edition, Jane's Information Group, Coulsdon, Surrey CR5 2YH, UK, 1998.

Multispectral Imagery Reference (MSI) Guide, LOGICON Geodynamics, Inc., 1997.

USIGS Commercial Satellite Imagery Concept of Operations (FOUO), Version 1.0, July 1999.

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WEATHER/ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES

Timely knowledge of weather conditions is of extreme importance in the planning and execution of military operations. Real-time night and day observations of current weather conditions provide the operational commander with greater flexibility in the use of resources for imminent or ongoing military operations. The military has firmly established the importance of meteorological data from satellites in the effective and efficient conduct of military operations. Satellite-based remote sensors provide situational awareness of environmental conditions and allow geographical access to areas that otherwise would not be directly available.

DEFENSE METEOROLOGICAL segments: the Space Segment, the Control SATELLITE PROGRAM (DMSP) Segment and the User Segment. Space Segment Mission The Space Segment consists of the The DMSP mission is to provide an expendable launch vehicle, the spacecraft enduring and survivable capability to (vehicle) and the individual sensor collect and disseminate global visible and payloads. Currently, the DMSP satellite infrared cloud data and other specialized is launched on the Titan II launch vehicle meteorological, oceanographic and solar- from Vandenberg AFB, California. The geophysical data in support of worldwide launch weight of the satellite is 3,212 DOD operations. This service must be lbs., with a final on-orbit weight of 1,750 available through all levels of conflict. lbs (including the 520 lb sensor payload). DMSP was designed to provide the The satellite is injected into a near military with a dedicated weather circular, sun-synchronous, 450 nautical observing system. Under peacetime mile (NM), near-polar orbit with a period conditions, weather data are also available of 101.6 minutes and an inclination of from civil weather satellites, such as 98.75 degrees. This sun-synchronous Geostationary Operational Environmental orbit is crucial for DMSP operations. Satellite (GOES) and the Television The launch profile is such that the InfraRed Operational Satellite (TIROS) satellite crosses the Equator at the same polar orbiting satellite. The National local solar time and, consequently the Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration same light level, each day. In this sun- (NOAA) now operates all of these synchronous orbit, the orbital plane systems. While such systems provide precesses eastward at the same rate the useful information, the DMSP has earth orbits about the Sun (approximately specialized meteorological capabilities to one-degree per day). meet specific military requirements. The space-based portion of DMSP Through DMSP satellites, military weather nominally consists of two satellites with forecasters can detect developing patterns nodal crossings of early morning and of weather and track existing weather midmorning. The on-orbit satellites systems over remote areas. operational at the end of December 2000 The DMSP accomplishes its mission were designated as the Block 5D-2 (Fig. through a system of space and ground 13-1). based assets categorized into three

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13 - 1 consist of the same major component subsystems as the Block 5D-2 satellites (Fig. 13-2). However, 5D-3 satellites have increased payload capacity, increased power capability, improved on- orbit autonomy (60 days), and a design life duration of 5 years. The first launch of a 5D-3 satellite (DMSP F-16) is scheduled for early 2001. Although DMSP F-15, launched in December 1999, featured the new 5D-3 satellite bus, Fig. 13-1. DMSP 5D-2 Deployed it carried the legacy 5D-2 sensors. Precise launch dates depend on how long This model is the second in the Block the satellites are able to remain on orbit 5D series and was first launched on 20 and meet mission requirements. The 5D- December 1982. This $40 million 3 satellites will be designated Flights 16- spacecraft is a 3-axis stabilized, earth- 20. oriented vehicle. Using a hands-off, Each satellite carries an Operational precision attitude-control system, the Linescan System (OLS) as the primary spacecraft is capable of maintaining a .01 sensor. Up to 12 additional mission degree pointing accuracy in all three axes. sensors can be carried on-board the This pointing accuracy is required to satellites. The combination of the OLS avoid optical distortion in the primary and the other mission sensors results in sensor. The vehicle carries redundant on- an existing capability for the DMSP to board computers in both the spacecraft satisfy many of the meteorological body and primary sensor. This redundancy requirements of the DOD. While each of has reduced the possibility of a single- the sensors provides valuable mission point failure and increased the mean on- data, only the OLS and the Special orbit lifetime of the spacecraft to 3-4 Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) will years. be addressed in detail. A brief description The next version if DMSP satellites is of the other sensors will follow. the Block 5D-3. Block 5D-3 satellites Operational Linescan System. The OLS

Fig. 13-2. DMSP Block 5D-2 Satellite

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13 - 2 is the primary sensor on-board the linear resolution of .3 nautical satellite for providing visual and infrared miles. However, satellite contact imagery. The OLS, built by duration (typically 10 minutes) Westinghouse Corporation, is a limits the vast quantity of fine sophisticated cloud imager consisting of resolution data, which can be an oscillating-scan radiometer and a data stored for subsequent transmission processor and storage system. It is to the ground. As a solution, the designed to gather, process and output capability exists on board the data in real-time to tactical sites, and spacecraft to digitally average or store (on four recorders), both day (Fig. "smooth" the fine data into a 1.5 13-3) and night visual data and infrared nautical mile resolution format. spectrum imagery. The recorders on 5D- • Data smoothing permits global 3 satellites have been upgraded from coverage in both the Thermal digital tape recorders to a more reliable Smooth (TS) and visual Light solid state design. The OLS scanning Smooth (LS) modes. Nighttime radiometer (in actuality, a Cassegrainian collection of visual imagery can be telescope) oscillates at six cycles per accomplished in the LS mode by second and scans a 1,600 nautical mile- using a low-resolution Photo wide swath with little or no distortion at Multiplier Tube (PMT). The PMT the edges. is effective under one-quarter or better moonlight conditions. The OLS also has the capability to combine fine-resolution data, interleaved with "smooth," for real time downlink to remote ground terminals.

The capacity for on-orbit storage of fine-resolution data for subsequent transmission to the ground is limited to 40 minutes. This is less than half of the satellite’s 101 minute single-orbit period. The stored data is transmitted down to a ground station at a 4:1 ratio during a single satellite contact. Smoothing the fine-resolution data inputs permits global coverage in a LS or TS mode. Up to 400 minutes of smoothed recorded data can be played back at a 40:1 ratio during typical ground station contact. The OLS data management unit has a Fig. 13-3 OLS Image capability for acquiring, processing, recording and outputting data from up to Imagery collected by OLS is formatted 12 other mission sensors. One of the into three data types: most significant of these sensors is the SSM/I. • The thermal detector collects thermal fine resolution data Special Sensor Microwave Imager continuously day and night. (SSM/I). The SSM/I is a seven channel, • Light (visual) fine data is gathered passive microwave radiometer sensing during daylight only. Fine radiation at 19, 22, 37 and 85 GHz. It resolution data has a nominal detects the horizontal and vertical polarizations at 19, 37 and 85 GHz. The AU Space Primer 7/23/2003

13 - 3 microwave brightness temperatures are • Plasma Monitor System SSI/ES-3 converted to environmental parameters (Block 5D-3 only). This sensor is such as sea surface wind speeds, rain an upgrade to the SSI/ES-2 and rates, cloud water, liquid water, solid performs the same mission. moisture, ice edge and ice age. The • Precipitating Electron and Ion SSM/I data are processed at centralized Spectrometer (SSJ/4). Detects and weather facilities and some tactical sites. analyzes electrons and ions that The data are collected in a swath width of precipitate into the ionosphere almost 760 NM. The resolution is 13.6 producing the auroral displays. The NM at the lower three frequencies and sensor supports those missions 7.8 NM at 85 gHz. which require knowledge of the state of the polar ionosphere such Other Sensors: Other DMSP sensors as communications, surveillance include: and detection systems (for example, the Over-the-Horizon (OTH) radar) • Microwave Temperature Sounder that propagate energy off or (SSM/T-1). A passive microwave through the ionosphere. sensor used to obtain radiometric • Precipitating Particle Spectrometer measurements at seven frequencies. SSJ/5 (Block 5D-3 only). A The data provides atmospheric follow-on to the SSJ/4 with a new temperature profiles for pressure detector design capable of providing a levels between the earth’s surface greater detailed analysis of the to 30 km. ionosphere. • Microwave Water Vapor Profiler • Gamma Ray Detector (SSB/X). (SSM/T-2). A passive microwave The SSB/X sensor is an array-based sensor used to obtain water vapor system that detects the location, mass in seven layers and relative intensity and spectrum of x-rays humidity at six levels. It provides emitted from the Earth's atmosphere. data on contrail formation as well • Gamma Ray Detector (SSB/X-2). as location of weather systems with An upgraded SSB/X with the high water vapor content with no additional capability to detect associated clouds. gamma ray bursts. • Microwave Imager/Sounder SSMIS • Triaxial Fluxgate Magnetometer (Block 5D-3 only). Also a passive (SSM). Provides information on microwave sensor; however, it geomagnetic fluctuations that affect combines the capabilities of the HF communications. SSM/I, SSM/T-1 and SSM/T-2 for • Ultraviolet Limb Imager (SSULI- the Block 5D-3 satellite. Block 5D-3 only). Uses the • Ionospheric Plasma Drift and ultraviolet spectrum to provide Scintillation Monitor (SSI/ES). A additional data for users of HF suite of four sensors that measures communications, satellite drag and ion and electron temperatures, vehicle re-entry issues and OTH densities and plasma irregularities radar. characterizing the high latitude • Ultraviolet Spectrographic Imager space environment. SSUSI (Block 5D-3 only). Gives • Enhanced Ionospheric Plasma Drift the 5D-3 satellite the ability to and Scintillation Monitor (SSI/ES- obtain photometric observations of 2). This sensor is an upgrade to the the nightglow and nightside aurora. SSI/ES. Data is used to support HF • Laser Threat Warning Sensor (SSF). and UHF communications and is An operational static earth viewing, used for atmospheric drag laser threat warning sensor. calculations for low earth orbit Currently in prototype on the 5D-2 satellites. satellites, the operational version will fly on the 5D-3 satellites. AU Space Primer 7/23/2003

13 - 4 The 6 SOPS was then officially inactivated on 11 June 1998 as a result of the operational mission being assumed by Control Segment NOAA at the SOCC. Subsequently the 6 SOPS Air Force Reserve Unit was activated The Control Segment (Fig. 13-4) at Schriever AFS and provides a “hot makes use of ground station sites that backup” capability for the MPSOC plus operate to command and control the takes 10-15% of the satellite contacts per DMSP satellites. These sites collect and week. process environmental data collected by The Air Force Satellite Control Network the DMSP constellation, which is then (AFSCN), using its Automated Remote routed, to the DMSP user community. Tracking Station (ARTS) can be used for Through its communications links, the routine tracking, telemetry and control control segment provides all functions (TT&C) functions. Only three (Thule necessary to maintain the state of health ARTS, New Hampshire ARTS, and Hawaii of the DMSP satellites and to recover the ARTS currently have the necessary payload data acquired during satellite hardware and software enhancements to orbit. Although real-time, primary- retrieve DMSP mission data. Additionally sensor payload data are available to the NOAA site at Fairbanks, Alaska deployed tactical terminals worldwide, supports DMSP data retrieval. access to stored data is obtained only User Segment

While the Control Segment meets the ongoing needs of the DMSP satellites, the DMSP user community is serviced by centralized and tactical components of the User Segment. The User Segment consists of earth-based processing and communications functions required to receive, process and distribute global weather data to support Air Force, Army, Navy and Marine Corps requirements. Vans and shipboard terminals, using Fig. 13-4. DMSP Control Segment Coverage direct read-out of real-time infrared and visible spectrum images from the DMSP when the DMSP satellite is within the satellites, also form a part of this segment. Field-Of-View (FOV) of a DMSP The Air Force Weather Agency compatible ground station. (AFWA), the 55th Space Weather The Multi-Purpose Satellite Operations Squadron (55 SWXS) and the Fleet Center (MPSOC) manned by the 6 SOPS Numerical Meteorological and at Offutt AFB, Nebraska (co-located with Oceanographic Center (FNMOC) are the the Air Force Weather Agency), was the centralized components of the User primary center for DMSP operations. As Segment. Products provided by AFWA part of the merger of DMSP with its civilian include aviation, terminal and target counterpart, NOAA, the MPSOC was forecasts; weather warnings and closed during May 1998. NOAA assumed advisories; automated flight plans and all functions related to flying and supporting exercise/special mission support. They the DMSP constellation at their Satellite recover the stored mission data from the Operations Control Center (SOCC) at Control Segment, process it, combine it Suitland, MD on 29 May 1998. All with data from other sources (GOES, functions to include classified mission NOAA, etc.), generate weather and space planning were assumed by NOAA. environmental products and provide

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13 - 5 operational support to their respective towed over virtually any terrain or customers. transported on C-130 or larger aircraft to AFWA is the lead DOD organization for the overall processing and distribution of centralized meteorological mission sensor data in support of worldwide military activity. AFWA forwards solar-geophysical mission sensor data to the 55 SWXS, where the data will be processed and used to develop space environmental products for customers. The FNMOC, located in Monterey, California, receives DMSP data to provide operational products and forecasts to the Department of the Navy. Specifically, FNMOC provides naval Fig. 13-5, Deployed Mark IV forces with analyses and forecasts of Terminal oceanographic and marine weather areas of deployment. Once deployed, it parameters at any global location, to can be set up and operational within 8-10 include ocean surface/ocean subsurface hours. temperatures and other meteorological The DMSP satellite does not conditions. AFWA and FNMOC also constantly transmit tactical data; it must provide support to other elements of the be commanded to do so. A tactical user DOD, the NCA and many government (shipboard or land based) must make agencies. their requirements known to the AFWA. The tactical components of the DMSP The AFWA coordinates with the NOAA User Segment are the fixed and mobile Operations Center to command the land and ship-based tactical terminals satellite to transmit the tactical data operated by the Air Force, Navy and the during specific portions of its orbit. Not Marine Corps. These terminals are all mission sensor data is available to the capable of recovering direct readouts of tactical user, but the information from the real-time visible and IR cloud cover data OLS and SSM/I is available. from the DMSP satellites as well as Another TACTERM, the Mark IV B, SSM/I data. increases the ability to process DMSP, Tactical terminals (TACTERMs) have TIROS and GOES satellite data, allowing been a part of DMSP since the early for processing and displaying OLS and 1970s. These TACTERMs have the mission sensor data by the tactical user. capability to receive, process, decrypt The AN/SMQ-10 and AN/SMQ-11 (when necessary), display and distribute shipboard receiving terminals are the data from any DOD or NOAA complete satellite meteorological terminals meteorological satellite. They also receive that receive, process and display real- localized information from the satellite, time DMSP data. The system is designed with the satellite transmitting the to be used aboard aircraft carriers and information it is currently observing down designated capital ships. The SMQ-11, to the tactical user. Softcopy data an upgrade to the SMQ-10, is capable of (terminal display) is available real-time receiving full resolution DMSP OLS and and hardcopy data is available within ten SSM/I data as well as data from other minutes. Imagery resolution can be both civilian satellites (NOAA/TIROS). fine (0.3 NM) and smooth (1.5 NM). A fully capable field system, the Small The Mark IV terminal (Fig. 13-5) is a Tactical Terminal (STT) is a lightweight, transportable satellite terminal designed two-man portable, direct receiving, for worldwide tactical deployment in processing and display system (Fig. 13- hostile environments. Mounted in a 6). The STT processes and stores data, standard shelter, the Mark IV can be generates meteorological soft and hard AU Space Primer 7/23/2003

13 - 6 copy display products, and forwards • Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) data imagery and data to other systems. It (basic and above). receives and automatically processes the • High-resolution imagery transmitted DMSP Real-time Data Smooth (RDS) by geostationary satellites (enhanced and Real-time Data Fine (RTD). [Note: and above) the basic terminal is only capable of processing smooth data (RDS).] The Army primarily uses the Basic Terminal, which receives only APT and WEFAX data, while the Air Force uses the Enhanced, LSTT and JTFST terminals.

DMSP Summary

DMSP satisfies DOD’s requirements for an enduring and survivable capability to collect and disseminate global visible and infrared cloud data to support worldwide DOD operations. Additionally, the DMSP collects and disseminates other specialized meteorological, terrestrial, oceanographic and solar-geophysical data. The nominal two-satellite constellation Fig. 13-6. Small Tactical Terminal Concept provides worldwide data in a timely manner to the AFWA, FNMOC and 55 The STT comes in four configurations: SWXS (these are the three primary Basic, Enhanced, Light-Weight STT centralized processing facilities). Real (LSTT) and the Joint Task Force Satellite time regional data are also provided to Terminal (JTFST). The basic STT can be deployed fixed and transportable (ground upgraded to Enhanced by adding an or ship-based) tactical terminals. AN/TMQ-43 enhancement kit. The kit DMSP and its civil counterpart, adds the capability to ingest, process and TIROS, do have one drawback - they display RTD data from DMSP, and High cannot meet the data refresh rate Resolution Picture Transmission (HRPT) requirements needed by all forecast data from NOAA satellites. The new functions. To partially offset this LSTT can do everything the enhanced limitation, TACTERM’s receive data terminal can do but uses a smaller three- relayed from available civilian and foot tracking dish. The four-foot dishes foreign geostationary satellites. will be phased out as they need maintenance by replacement with the 3-ft CIVIL/FOREIGN dish. The LSTT also has a smaller GEOSTATIONARY WEATHER display system and can be carried in nine SATELLITES cases vice 12. The STT receives data directly from The average time it takes to get a the satellites in data streams consisting of DMSP/TIROS product to its user is 15- visual and infrared imagery and mission 45 minutes depending on satellite sensor data. It receives and displays: overpass and priority of the tasking. To help offset this time delay, civilian and • Polar-orbiting Automatic Picture foreign geostationary satellites are Transmission (APT) imagery (basic employed. Geostationary satellite systems configuration and above). such as NOAA’s GOES and Europe’s • High Resolution Picture Trans- METEOSAT offer a rapid refresh rate of mission (HRPT) imagery. (Enhanced, cloud/weather data every 30 minutes. LSTT, JTFST). These satellites also offer a constant look AU Space Primer 7/23/2003

13 - 7 angle resulting in high quality “nightly provides a communications relay for news” pictures (Fig. 13-7). Spatial India as a secondary mission. resolution can be as good as .5 nautical On 26 June 2000, the Chinese miles; however, resolution degrades the launched a geostationary satellite, Feng farther away you get from the nadir Yun 2C. The Feng Yun is positioned at (center of the field of view). 105O East longitude. Currently NOAA operates three GOES The ability for weather satellites to satellites over the United States: image land masses as well as clouds has opened the door for other types of civil/commercial imaging systems that further study the world environment. Primarily designed to aid in scientific studies of the Earth’s environment, such as rain forests, desert regions, etc., environmental satellites have been used to gain wide-area imagery for military purposes.

A LOOK AHEAD

On 10 May 1994, the White House, Office of the Press Secretary, issued a Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) entitled “Convergence of U.S. Polar- Fig. 13-7. Geostationary METEOSAT orbiting Operational Environmental Scan Satellite Systems (NPOESS).” The satellite system that will result from that directive will be designated • GOES East at 75O West longitude O National Polar Orbiting Operational • GOES Central 1 spare at 105 West Environmental Satellite System longitude O (NPOESS). DMSP and TIROS have • GOES West at 135 West longitude already been merged to be operated jointly by the NPOESS Integrated The METEOSAT, similar to GOES, Program Office (IPO) and NOAA. The covers the Atlantic Ocean/European transition to the NPOESS is scheduled to landmass. Spatial resolution of the begin by the year 2008. METEOSAT is 2.5-5 km at nadir (located NASA, as a convergence participant at 0 degrees longitude). identified in the presidential directive, Other international geostationary developed the TERRA Project (formally satellites include Japan’s Geostationary known as the Earth Observatory System Meteorological Satellite (GMS) and the (EOS) AM-1 satellite). The satellite was Indian National Satellite System (INSAT). launched on December 18, 1999. EOS The GMS is based on an older GOES AM-1 is the first in the EOS program design and maintains similar capabilities. series. It was launched from the U.S. Air Operated by Japan, it currently has two O O Force Western Space and Missile Center, satellites geostationed at 135 and 140 Vandenberg AFB, into a 705 km (438 East longitude. mile) sun-synchronous orbit with a INSAT is operated by India and, due morning (1030L) sun-shadow crossing to it’s imaging over the Indian landmass, time. Operational lifetime is 6 years. India has chosen not to share INSAT data The EOS AM-1 spacecraft provides with the rest of the world. However, detailed measurements of clouds, there is an agreement in place with the aerosols and the Earth’s radiative energy Indian government that allows INSAT balance, together with measurements of data to be passed to the US. INSAT also the land surface and its interaction with AU Space Primer 7/23/2003

13 - 8 the atmosphere through exchanges of denied and data-sparse regions and to energy, carbon and water. These forecast target area weather, theater interactive processes present scientific weather, en route weather (including questions of the highest priority in the refueling areas) and recovery weather. understanding of global climate change. Surface and upper-level wind data are The suite of instruments on the EOS used to support all aspects of military AM-1 spacecraft is highly synergistic, operations, such as assessing radioactive and measurements from each instrument fallout conditions, nuclear, biological and directly address the primary mission chemical weapon effects, movement of objectives. For example, four of the five weather systems and predicting winds for instruments will acquire simultaneous weapons delivery. These data are required complementary observations of cloud for all aspects of forecasting support to properties as well as provide error free aircraft and paradrop operations. earth surface images. All instruments Precipitation information (type, rate) is together will contribute to detecting required to forecast soil moisture, soil environmental changes and thereby, trafficability, river stages and flooding accelerate understanding of the total conditions that could impact troop and Earth system. force deployment/employment. Ocean tides information is vital to naval SUMMARY operations for the safe passage in and out of ports, river entrances and for the The importance of meteorological landing of amphibious craft. Sea ice information during a hostile conflict conditions can have a significant impact cannot be minimized. Environmental on surface/subsurface ship operations. conditions impact all phases of military The location of open water areas or areas operations from logistics, to mission of thin ice are crucial to submarine planning, to strike execution, to post- surfacing operations, submarine missile conflict operations. The timely and launch and penetration by air dropped reliable relay of environmental data to sonobuoys which are used for detecting military planners is critical to the success submarines. Knowledge of the location of any military operation. The DMSP and size of icebergs is also imperative for provides this critical information the safe navigation of surface ships and including cloud cover data, ocean surface submarines. This information could wind speeds, precipitation information, provide an important advantage over ocean tides information, sea ice adversaries in submarine and conditions, etc. antisubmarine warfare. Cloud cover data are needed to determine weather conditions in data

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13 - 9 REFERENCES

Bates, Charles and Fuller, John. America’s Weather Warriors. Texas A&M Press.

Corbley, Kevin P. via Satellite. “Satellites – Keeping Constant Watch Over Global Weather Conditions.”

Hughes, Patrick. A Century of Weather Service. Gordon & Breach Publishers, 1970. http://www.fnmoc.navy.mil/ http://www.noaa.gov/ Home page of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. http://www.oso.noaa.gov Current news on NOAA satellite systems from NOAA’s Office of Satellite Operations. http://www.alcatel.com/telecom/space/observe/meteosat.htm Technical and operational information on Europe’s “Meteosat” meteorological satellite. http://smis.iki.rssi.ru Website of the Space Monitoring Information Support Laboratory, a division of the Russian Academy of Sciences Space Research Institute. Various information and links on space objects and activities. http://www.ipo.noaa.gov Explains creation of the National Polar-Orbiting Environmental Satellite System.

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U.S. SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

Satellite navigation systems, such as the U.S. NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) came of age with the Gulf War of 1991. GPS supported coalition forces in targeting, navigation, reconnaissance, refueling, air- and sea-launched cruise missiles and providing the Army logistics forces with accurate navigation across the trackless desert to keep up with moving ground forces. Today, GPS is used in a variety of applications, both military and civilian, and the uses are continually expanding.

TRANSIT NAVSTAR GPS

Transit, the first navigation satellite, The NAVSTAR GPS is a dual-use was developed by the Applied Physics (civil and military) radio navigation Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University system. GPS is the Department of for updating the inertial navigation Defense (DOD) solution to the systems of the U.S. Navy’s Polaris requirement for a worldwide, continuous, submarines. The Transit System, which all weather positioning system. GPS had an 80-100 meter accuracy, was provides extremely accurate latitude, operational in the 1960s. Transit longitude, altitude and velocity Systems provided navigational support to information, together with system time, the U.S. Navy and commercial users. to suitably equipped users anywhere on The Transit System was deactivated in or near the earth. In terms of navigation, December 1996 after the Navigation GPS is nothing short of revolutionary. Satellite Timing and Ranging Global GPS provides three-dimensional Positioning System (NAVSTAR GPS) positioning anywhere in the world, in any constellation was declared fully weather. In terms of accuracy, GPS has operational on 27 April, 1995. (see Fig. an accuracy of 16 meters Spherical Error 14-1). Probable (SEP), which is a factor of 10 better than its nearest competitor (LORAN-C) in two-dimensional positioning, and it has no equal in three- dimensional positioning. Very rarely does the military develop a system which has specific and tangible benefits to both the military and civilian community. GPS is one of those systems. From a civilian perspective, NAVSTAR GPS represents a navigational aid which is available at the cost of a NAVSTAR GPS user set. The use of GPS in civilian applications is widespread and changes daily. By 1999 over 700 different models of GPS receivers were available for purchase with prices as low as $100. Examples of civilian use of GPS include public health and safety, aviation, survey/mapping,

Fig. 14-1. Block II GPS Satellite scientific research, transportation, maritime navigation, agriculture and

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 1 recreation. SPS specification called for a 2-D From the military perspective, accuracy of 100 meters, 2 drms. In NAVSTAR is employed in methods general terms, this meant that 95 percent ranging from stand-alone systems for of the time, SPS accuracy had to be supporting ground troops to support of within 100 meters of a receiver’s actual fully integrated systems capable of location on the earth’s surface. This was weapons delivery. GPS is a space-based equivalent to 76 meters, spherical error radio navigation system which is probable (SEP), meaning that 50 percent managed for the U.S. government by the of the time a receiver’s position solution U.S. Air Force and the Department of had to be within a spherical radius of 76 Transportation; the Air Force is the meters from the receiver’s actual system operator. GPS was originally location. SPS time transfer accuracy was developed as a military force normally to be within 340 nanoseconds enhancement system and will continue to (billionths of a second) of Universal play this role. Coordinated Time (UTC, or Zulu time, 95 percent) although there was no formal Services specification for SPS timing or velocity accuracy. In an effort to make GPS service In times of crisis, SPS accuracy could available to the greatest number of users have been degraded much more than the while ensuring that national security 100 meter specification. (The technical interests of the United States are method, called Selective Availability protected, two levels of GPS service are [SA] will be discussed later.) This provided: decision rests with the US National Command Authorities but there is no • The Standard Positioning Service intent by the US government to ever use (SPS) is designed to provide SA again. accurate positioning capability for PPS is invariably the most accurate civil users throughout the world. direct positioning, velocity and timing • The Precise Positioning Service information available worldwide. PPS is (PPS) provides full system limited to users specifically authorized by accuracy, primarily to U.S. and the U.S. allied military users. Although the military is the prime user of Precise Positioning Service (PPS) PPS, authorized civilians are also allowed to use the service. Figure 14-2 shows the published accuracy specifications for GPS as Standard Positioning Service (SPS) determined with four satellites in view.

SPS is the standard specified level of positioning and timing accuracy that is SPS PPS available to any user on a continuous Position 10M(2-D,95%)* 16M (3-D, 50%) worldwide basis. The accuracy of this service will be established by the DOD Velocity N/A 0.1M/s and DOT based on U.S. security interests, although current policy is to Time 40ns* 100ns allow the maximum available accuracy. * New SPS specifications are still to be determined Both SPS and PPS accuracy Fig. 14-2. SPS/PPS Position Accuracies specifications are expressed in terms of probability. Currently, SPS 2-D There are three formal PPS accuracy (horizontal) accuracy is 10-20 meters, specifications, as opposed to only one for twice distance root mean squared (2 SPS. PPS 3-D (spherical) position drms). During the 1990s, the only formal accuracy must be 16 meters (SEP) . In

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 2 general, PPS position and timing are the second generation Block II/IIA specifications are about five times as satellites. Originally projected to have a accurate as SPS. PPS timing accuracy design life of seven years. The Air Force must be within 100 nanoseconds, drms revised the projected life of the Block II's (i.e., one sigma, or 68 percent of the to 8.6 years. The last of 28 Block II time). Finally, PPS velocity accuracy satellites was launched 6 November must be within 0.1 meter per second, 1997. The current generation of satellites drms (again, 68 percent). is called Block IIR (“R” for “replacement”). They have a ten year Architecture: Three Segments design life and are able to operate autonomously (without Control Segment The Global Positioning System does intervention) for up to 180 days. The not refer only to the NAVSTAR satellites first successful Block IIR launch took that orbit the earth. It consists of three place on 22 July 1997. The follow-on to distinct segments: the Space Segment, the Block IIR generation of satellites is in the Control Segment, and the User development and will be called Block Segment. All three have a role to play in IIF. Originally, there was a contract for providing users with accurate position, six Block IIF satellites with options for velocity, and timing data. an additional 27, a total of 33. Currently, however, new requirements for 2nd and rd Space Segment 3 civil signals, a new military signal and spot beam capability (described later) The GPS Space Segment is composed have driven DoD to plan for only 6 more of nominally 24 satellites in six orbital Block IIFs for a total of 12. Then a new planes (see Fig. 14-3). The satellites GPS Block III contract will be let to operate in circular 20,200km (10,900nm) build the satellites that will incorporate orbits at an inclination angle of 55 the new requirements. degrees with a 12-hour period. There are four satellites in each orbital plane. The Nuclear Detection (NUDET) Payload spacing of satellites in orbit are arranged so that five to eight satellites are always The GPS satellites carry a secondary visible to users worldwide. payload for detecting the characteristic optical, x-ray, and electromagnetic pulse emissions from nuclear explosions. The payload can pinpoint ground zero to within a 1.5 kilometer radius. NUDET data can be crosslinked between satellites and downlinked to the appropriate agencies on earth.

Control Segment

A worldwide network of GPS ground facilities known as the GPS Control Segment is in place to ensure that the NAVSTAR satellites are operational and passing accurate positioning data to GPS users. These facilities include a Master Control Station, ground antennas, and monitor stations. The Master Control Station (MCS) at Fig. 14-3. GPS Constellation Most of the satellites in the constellation Schriever Air Force Base, Colorado (see

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 3 Fig. 14-4) is operated and maintained by Control Network (AFSCN) for launch the 2nd Space Operations Squadron and anomaly resolution. (2SOPS) of the 50th Space Wing. The 2SOPS at the MCS is responsible for all routine, day-to-day NAVSTAR satellite operations. Another unit, the 1st Space Operations Squadron (1SOPS), provides • Navigation • support during launch, early orbit, and •C Navigation data anomaly resolution. An Alternate Master Control Station (ACMS) is under construction at Vandenberg AFB. It's MCS projected operational date is 2005.

Monitor MCS Ground

Fig. 14-5. Control Segment Interactions A total of six monitor stations are located around the world to provide a constant monitoring capability. A total of five ground antennas are located around the world to provide control of the satellites. Most ground antennas are collocated with a monitor station. Fig. 14-4. GPS Master Control Station The 2SOPS has four dedicated ground antennas collocated with monitor stations The other elements of the Control at Diego Garcia (Fig. 14-6), Kwajalein Segment allow the MCS to monitor the Atoll, Ascension Island and Cape quality of the satellites’ navigation data Canaveral (currently used only for launch and to control the satellites. To monitor but will eventually become fully the navigation data, monitor stations operational). The fifth ground antenna is passively track navigation signals from all NAVSTAR satellites in view and transmit the data to the MCS for processing and error detection. Navigation error corrections are generated at the MCS and sent to each satellite once every 24 hours as a “navigation upload”. The navigation uploads are uplinked to the satellites via ground antennas. The ground antennas also receive and pass telemetry and tracking data to the MCS from the satellites and transmit commands from the MCS to the satellites, as depicted in Fig. 14-6. GPS Ground Site at Diego Garcia Figure 14-5. The ground antennas are similar to the Remote Tracking Stations the Colorado Tracking Station (Pike) used by the Air Force Satellite Control located at Schriever AFB, Colorado. Network (AFSCN); however, the GPS Pike is an AFSCN resource, but has the ground antennas can only communicate necessary hardware and software to allow with GPS satellites. In contrast, the 2 SOPS usage. 1SOPS uses the Air Force Satellite Stand-alone monitor stations are at Schriever AFB (not part of the Pike

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 4 Tracking Station) and Oahu Island, for four unknowns”. The receiver Hawaii. Future plans call for adding data determines the distance to a satellite by from fourteen monitor stations operated measuring the amount of time for a by the National Imagery and Mapping special radio signal from the satellite to Agency to enhance navigation data arrive at the receiver’s antenna. Since monitoring and processing. radio waves travel at the speed of light, the receiver multiplies the radio signal Telemetry, Tracking and Commanding travel time by the speed of light to (TT&C) calculate the distances. If only three satellites are used, the receiver can only The three major functions of satellite solve for a 2-D position, i.e., latitude and control, known as telemetry, tracking and longitude. Using more than four commanding (TT&C), are executed by a satellites yields an increase in 3-D four-person mission control crew in the position accuracy (i.e., “six equations, MCS who conduct 24-hour operations. four unknowns”). The crew consists of a crew commander, Each satellite broadcasts navigation payload system operator (for navigation signals on two frequencies, L1 (1575.42 payload and monitor station operations), MHz) and L2 (1227.6 MHz). A satellite- a space vehicle officer (for satellite bus specific coarse acquisition (C/A) code is subsystem operations), and a satellite modulated onto L1. A satellite-specific system operator (for ground antenna/data precision code (P-code) is modulated communications connectivity). Orbital onto both L1 and L2. A navigation analysts and program engineers provide message is superimposed onto both the program specific knowledge and support C/A and the P-code. It contains the to the crews. The operators perform pre- “almanac”, or orbit data for all the contact planning, real time contact and satellites in the constellation, as well as post-contact evaluation. other information on satellite operational status, etc. User Segment Most civilian GPS receivers can only acquire the C/A code on L1, which is a The GPS User Segment is made up of significant limitation on their accuracy. a wide variety of military and civilian Since the GPS signals refract and are users with their GPS receivers, often delayed as they pass through the earth’s referred to as user equipment (UE). GPS ionosphere, ionospheric error data is UE consists of a variety of configurations included on the navigation message to and integration architectures that allow L1-only SPS receivers to estimate typically include an antenna and receiver- the signal delay. However, most PPS processor to receive and compute military receivers can acquire not only navigation solutions to provide the C/A code on L1 but also the P-code positioning, velocity and precise timing on both L1 and L2. Receiving on two to the user. frequencies allows for a real time measurement of ionospheric delays. How GPS Works This, combined with the inherent design of the P-code, contributes to a more The basic principle behind GPS is accurate position solution for PPS “time of arrival” ranging. It is not quite receivers than is possible with only one the same thing as triangulation. To frequency. determine a 3-D position on the earth, a GPS receiver typically calculates the Sources of Error distance to four NAVSTAR satellites overhead and mathematically solves for Several sources of error exist which time, latitude, longitude and altitude. It can degrade the accuracy of UE position essentially uses “four equations to solve solutions. Most involve things that

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 5 produce uncertainty in the time it takes of up to a kilometer (over 0.5 nm). for the signal is space to reach a Finally, terrain can affect whether receiver’s antenna. Space Segment errors GPS signals are received at all. such as satellite clock errors, variations in Receivers give best results when used satellite subsystem stability, and outdoors in open areas, as in Figure 14- unexpected orbital perturbations produce 7. Tall buildings, canyon walls, foliage, timing errors, as do ionospheric and etc. can block the satellite’s signals. tropospheric delays. Control Segment error contributions include minor errors Denial of Accuracy and Access in the orbital data predictions included in the navigation uploads to the satellites. There are two primary methods for On the ground, navigation signals denying unauthorized users full use of the reflected from terrain or buildings can Global Positioning System. The first, as create signal time of arrival delays known mentioned before, is Selective as multipath errors. Receiver noise and Availability (SA) and the second is Anti- resolution is also a significant source of Spoofing (A-S). error, especially in civilian receivers where quality varies based on model and Selective Availability (SA) price. A very important potential source of Selective Availability, the intentional human error to keep in mind involves the degradation of positioning accuracy, was datum, or type of map, being used with discontinued by presidential directive on the GPS receiver. Most receivers display 1 May 2000 and there is no intent to ever coordinates in World Geodetic System use SA again. The SA feature allows the 1984 (WGS84) mode as well as many intentional introduction of errors into the other reference frames. Users should satellites’ navigation data to prevent double check the datum in use to unauthorized users from receiving full precluded plotting GPS coordinates based system accuracy. The errors can come in one datum on a map drawn in another from altering the satellite’s atomic clocks datum. Mixed up datums and grids can (dithering) or altering the orbital data in cause misinterpretations of position data the satellites’ navigation messages (epsilon) or a combination of the two. The epsilon error in satellite position roughly translates to a like position error in the receiver. Encrypted correction parameters are included in the navigation signal that allow PPS receivers with the correct crypto keys to remove the SA errors from the navigation data. SA was originally activated on 4 July 1991. For almost ten years national policy set the level of SA to limit SPS accuracy to the 100 meter (95 percent) specification. Now that SA is set to zero (it’s always turned on), the SPS accuracy is 10-20 meters (95 percent).

Anti-Spoofing (A-S)

A-S is meant to negate hostile imitation of the GPS signals (i.e., fake

Fig. 14-7. GPS Receiver used by Ground satellite transmissions) by encrypting the Forces in Open Terrain P-code into the Y-code. Otherwise, the

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 6 false transmissions could lead to false data over several hours can achieve position solutions. The encrypted code is accuracies of a few centimeters. The US usually referred to as the P(Y) code. The Coast Guard has a fully operational A-S feature was activated when the DGPS network along the US coastline system became operational. To decrypt with coverage extending approximately the P(Y) code back into usable P-code, a 90 kilometers (50 nm) inland and out to GPS receiver must a have special sea. decryption device. The first generation device was called the Auxiliary Output Exploitation of DGPS for Guidance Chip (AOC). An improved device called Enhancement (EDGE) the PPS Security Module came next. A new device known as the Selective EDGE is an effort to integrate DGPS Availability Anti-Spoofing Module into precision guided munitions such as (SAASM) is under development. the Joint Direct Attack Munition SAASM will be tamper-resistant and will (JDAM). A munition guidance package greatly simplify crypto key distribution equipped with a DGPS receiver uses and handling. differential corrections to enhance A receiver that has the ability to weapon accuracy. The concept has been decrypt the SA correction parameters or proven with GBU-15 tests at Eglin AFB, the P(Y) code or both is considered to be Florida. a PPS receiver. SPS receivers, by definition, have neither SA nor A-S Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) decryption capability. WAAS is a Federal Aviation GPS Augmentation and Improvements Administration project to expand on DGPS by broadcasting differential Many means of making GPS even corrections not just from a ground based more accurate by using a second source differential station, but from a of data (augmentation) or by some other geostationary communications satellite means are available or are in for continent-sized regions. The development. Some of the more architecture calls for 24 Wide area prominent methods are described below. reference stations throughout the US to provide satellite-relayed differential Differential GPS (DGPS) corrections for the entire region. WAAS will allow pilots to perform "Category 1" DGPS is a means of augmenting GPS precision approaches – a technique used based on the principle that GPS position in bad weather where a pilot must see the errors are generally the same for runway at no less than 200 feet above the receivers in the same geographical ground and at a distance of one-half mile region. DGPS requires a network of – throughout the WAAS coverage area. differential stations and special DGPS- Accuracies of 3-5 meters (SEP) are capable receivers. A differential station expected. A related FAA system under is established at a precisely surveyed development called the Local Area position. The station uses a GPS receiver Augmentation System (LAAS) will be to compare the GPS coordinates to the based at major airports and will provide known location, then transmits the errors for the more stringent Category 2 and 3 to DGPS-capable receivers in the region. precision approaches. Plans to provide DGPS essentially corrects for all errors in initial WAAS capability have slipped the navigation data, including the from September 2000 to 2002 due to Selective Availability errors. With the software problems and increasing costs. differential corrections, DGPS receivers One problem area resulting in cost can achieve accuracies of less than one overruns is the requirement for the meter, SEP. Static receivers collecting system to virtually never fail to warn

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 7 pilots of an erroneous GPS signal, a Autonomous Navigation (AUTONAV) feature known as integrity. The AUTONAV feature on Block IIR Wide Area GPS Enhancement (WAGE) and IIF satellites is based on crosslinking navigation data between satellites. Cur- WAGE is an attempt to improve GPS rently, each Block IIA satellite requires a accuracy by providing more accurate dedicated navigation upload every 24 satellite clock and ephemeris (orbital) hours. With AUTONAV, all navigation data to specially-equipped receivers. In upload data for the whole constellation the current system, accuracy degrades will be uplinked to one satellite, then slightly as the data in the daily navigation crosslinked to all the others. The uploads ages. New software at the AUTONAV crosslinks use the same fre- Master Control Station allows the latest quency, L3, used for the NUDET data error corrections for all satellites to be crosslinks. AUTONAV will significantly uploaded each time a navigation upload reduce the MCS crew’s workload. In- is sent to a satellite. The special stead of performing one navigation up- receivers are able to use the constellation load per day per satellite, only one up- clock and orbital data from the most load per month will allow the system to recently updated satellite in view. meet accuracy specifications. Full WAGE has the equivalent effect of AUTONAV capability will be available changing the navigation upload rate from by Block IIF flight 18 and will provide once every 24 hours to once every three accuracies of less than 2.5 meters (SEP) . hours. Other WAGE related improvements involve including the GPS Aiding NIMA monitor station data in MCS navigation data calculations and GPS aiding refers to coupling non- automating and streamlining the GPS navigation data sources into a navigation upload process to allow composite navigation solution. These operations focused on a given theater. sources include inertial navigation Accuracy is expected to be 2.5-5 meters systems (INS), barometric altimeters, (SEP). and/or non-GPS derived data on satellite positions or time. These external inputs Accuracy Improvement Initiative (AII) can help in acquiring or maintaining lock on GPS signals, thus maximizing the AII is planned to enhance GPS efficiency and reliability of the composite accuracy by improving the quality of navigation system. The GPS/INS navigation data calculated at the MCS. It combination in particular synergistically includes several attributes of WAGE increases the performance and reliability including the improved MCS software, of both systems. INS drift is reduced by data connectivity to fourteen NIMA frequent GPS updates and in most cases monitor stations, and shorter navigation can continue to provide acceptable uploads to support up to three (vice one) navigation data if the GPS signal is lost. uploads per day per satellite. Unlike WAGE, no special receivers are required Second and Third Civil Signals to take advantage of the improved accuracy. AII is also compatible with the The addition of two new GPS “civil Block IIF AUTONAV feature described signals” was announced in March 1998 below. The performance objective is a by Vice President Al Gore. These second 33% improvement in overall GPS and third civil frequencies would accuracy from 1995 levels. significantly enhance the accuracy of civilian receivers, allowing the ionospheric delays to be measured as PPS receivers do now by using both the L1

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 8 and L2 P(Y) Code signals. The second buildings, canyon walls, foliage, etc. can civil signal would be at 1227.6 along block the satellite’s signals. From a with the military L2 signal, and would be military perspective, however, the most used for general, non-safety critical serious limitation is GPS susceptibility to applications. This signal is to be on GPS jamming. satellites launched starting in 2003, with initial operational capability (IOC) for GPS Jamming users in 2009 when 18 satellites with the new signal are on orbit. The third Any signal can be jammed. The most signal, proposed for 1176.45 MHz common jamming method, “brute force” (neither L1 nor L2, but a new frequency jamming, involves overpowering an designated “L5”), is designated for adversary’s desired radio signals by safety-of-life applications such as search transmitting noise on the same frequency and rescue and is planned for GPS being used by the adversary. The GPS satellites launched in 2005 and signal is particularly easy to overpower afterwards. IOC for the L5 civil signal is because the signal strength received at planned for 2012. The extra signals the earth’s surface is very low, about – would increase SPS accuracy down to 7 166 dbw for the P(Y) code on L2, even meters (95 percent). lower than the natural background radio noise of the earth. (The unique nature of New Military Signal and Spot Beam the code is what allows a receiver to detect the GPS signal against the earth’s Another upgrade to GPS is a new background noise.) If the jamming-to- military signal to allow the US and its signal ratio is above the level that the allies to keep a navigational advantage receiver can maintain lock on, then all it over their adversaries. Plans call for the “hears” is the noise until the jamming new military signal, along with the new stops or the receiver is removed from the 2nd civil signal, to be on flights 9-14 of area being jammed. However, no one has the new Block IIR satellites and any the resources to jam the entire frequency subsequent GPS satellites. Just as with spectrum. the 2nd civil signal, this signal is to be on To maintain a measure of jam GPS satellites launched starting in 2003, resistance, GPS uses several techniques. with initial operational capability (IOC) The first method was designed into the for military users in 2009 when 18 navigation signal at the outset. It satellites with the new signal are on orbit. involves the bandwidth of the P(Y) code, Plans also call for a military spot beam, which is about 20 MHz centered on the intended to overcome jamming by L1 and L2 frequencies. This increasing the power over a limited area. transmission technique is called “spread The spot beam will be on board GPS spectrum” transmission. The result of satellites starting with the seventh Block using spread spectrum is that an IIF. adversary must jam the entire 20 MHz bandwidth to effectively jam the Limitations of GPS navigation signal. Jamming only part of the bandwidth does not prevent users Although GPS has demonstrated a from receiving and reconstructing the tremendous capability, there are several navigation signal. areas of concern with the system. It is GPS aiding is another method dependent on the Control Segment currently available to counter the effects ground sites, which are potentially of GPS jamming since an external data vulnerable to attack. If a Differential source can compensate for the loss of the GPS system is in use, a special DGPS GPS data. For example, if a GPS receiver must be used. Also, the satellite receiver is coupled with an INS in an signals travel line-of-sight, and tall aircraft, the INS can continue to provide

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 9 navigation data as the plane approaches a GPS provides a large share of the jammer and loses lock on the GPS terrestrial force enhancement provided by signals. Air Force space forces. Military Spoofing, considered a form of applications for precision navigation and “smart” jamming, is effectively positioning are prevalent throughout all prevented by the encryption of the P- services. These applications include Code into the Y-Code as previously mine emplacement and location, sensor described. emplacement, instrument approaches, low-level navigation, guided munitions, NAVWAR Program target acquisition, and command and control. (Fig. 14-8) As in the civilian In 1996, President Clinton issued a sector, new military applications are Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) continually being invented. declaring that within a decade, possibly as soon as the year 2000, GPS Selective Availability would be set to zero. On 1 May 2000, the President decided to set SA to zero, immediately increasing SPS accuracy by a factor of ten. This decision was prompted by the increasing worldwide civilian dependence on GPS. There is a corresponding military dependence and threat from the guidance accuracy provided by GPS. The Navigation Warfare, (NAVWAR)

acquisition program was commissioned Fig. 14-8. GPS Military Applications to investigate technological means to protect the friendly use of satellite Military GPS Receivers navigation, prevent an enemy’s use of satellite navigation, and preserve the GPS receiver capabilities have civilian sector’s use of satellite progressed steadily over the past few navigation outside a military area of years. This discussion will begin with operations. older model military receivers because Protection innovations from the they may still be in use, perhaps with NAVWAR program center on three allied forces if not with US forces. Older areas: user equipment improvements, model military receivers fall into three signal augmentation, and improvements categories: low, medium and high to the GPS signal in space. User dynamic receiver sets. The main equipment improvements include jam- differences between the sets are the resistant antennas and improved receiver number of channels and the dynamic electronics. Augmentation efforts range of the environment suitable for the include ground-based or airborne receivers. The number of channels “pseudolites” to transmit a signal in a primarily affects the speed at which the jamming environment that helps receiver can be initialized. receivers acquire and maintain lock on A three dimensional position fix the satellite’s signals. The signal in requires four satellites. Old single space improvement ideas range from channel systems, such as the low increasing satellite transmitting power to dynamic sets primarily used by ground changing the waveform of the signal. An units, must lock onto one satellite at a analysis of alternatives is ongoing. time. The accuracy is not affected, but the time to initialize the set is. Medium Military Applications of GPS dynamic sets add a second channel, while the high dynamic sets are installed on

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 10 aircraft because they have five or more dependent on GPS or a GPS/INS channels. combination navigation system to In general, as the receivers go from low provide all-weather day or night to high dynamic sets, there is a substantial precision attack. Many of these weapons increase in the number of channels and the were used in Operation Allied Force in acceptable range of velocity, acceleration Serbia and Kosovo in 1999. For and jerk is greater. The more turbulence a example, the B-2 uses the GPS-Aided vehicle experiences, the more channels Targeting System (GATS) to accurately these sets require. Newer model military geolocate fixed targets on the ground receivers are multi-channel sets. The which it can then attack with the Joint hand-held Precision Lightweight GPS Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). The Receiver (PLGR), for example, can lock JDAM is a 2000 lb. “dumb” bomb with a onto five GPS satellites at once (see Fig. GPS guidance tail kit that transforms it 14-9). Its follow-on, the Defense into an independently targetable, adverse- Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR), like weather, seekerless precision munition. modern aircraft GPS receivers (see Fig. Other GPS-guided systems in 14-10), will be a 12-channel set, allowing development include the Joint Stand Off it to lock onto all satellites in view. Weapon (JSOW) and the Joint Air-to- Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM). Conventional Air Launched Cruise Missiles (CALCMs), the Navy’s Tactical Land Attack Missile (TLAMs), and ICBMs all use GPS. US Army indirect fire weapons such as the Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) and the Army Tactical Missile System (ATACMS) take advantage of GPS positioning. The Army also uses the precision timing available from GPS to synchronize its frequency-hopping Single Channel Ground and Air Radio System (SINCGARS) radios. Foreign weapon Fig. 14-9. Hand-held Precision systems are also incorporating GPS as the Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR) French have done with their new Apache cruise missile. Other GPS applications continue to be explored, two of which will be discussed here: the Hook-112 SAR Radio and the Combat Survivor/Evader Locator (CSEL).

Hook-112 Search and Rescue (SAR) Radio

Fig. 14-10. Miniaturized Aircraft GPS Receiver (MAGR)

Weapon Systems

A wide variety of weapon systems are

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 11 The Hook-112 SAR radio (see Fig. rescue teams, and a GPS encryption 14-11) combines an aircrew survival feature, the new Selective Availability radio with a GPS receiver to provide the Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM), that precise location of a downed crewman. The process, a burst transmission to a satellite then down to a rescue unit, ensures that an enemy cannot easily locate a downed crewman. The system also provides rescue teams with a precise location (within 100 meters, 95 percent) to use in finding the crewman. In addition, SAR aircraft equipped with interrogator equipment can receive the Hook-112 signal as far as 100 miles away. Image how useful this would have been for Captain O’Grady when his F-16 was shot down in Bosnia and he had to Fig. 14-11. Hook 112 SAR Radio spend several days evading capture, afraid to talk on his radio because the adds improved security in battlefield enemy was monitoring the SAR environments. frequencies. The Hook-112 Survival Radio System provides voice communications, a beacon and a distance measuring equipment transponder, all of which currently exist with the AN/PRC-112 Survival Radio. It also provides accurate GPS Standard Positioning Service, custom or “canned” messages that can be added to location and identification messages as well as location coordinates (using global latitude and longitude or local area military grids). The U.S. Air Force plans to install interrogator equipment on unmanned aerial vehicles to further reduce the risks to airborne rescue personnel until the pick-up phase of the rescue missions begins.

Combat Survivor/Evader Locator (CSEL)

The Hook 112 radio is an interim solution until the Combat Survivor/Evader Locator becomes Fig. 14-12. CSEL available. The CSEL (see Fig. 14-12) is a lightweight, low-power, over-the- The first 30 CSELs were delivered in horizon radio using an integrated GPS December 1997 for operational test and receiver. The CSEL is capable of reliable, evaluation. However, technical and precise GPS geolocation, over-the- human factors problems have delayed horizon satellite data communication fielding the CSEL until 2002. Plans for with the Joint Service Rescue Centers, line-of-sight voice communications with

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 12 initial buys call for the Army, Navy, and Air Force to share 11,000 handheld units.

SUMMARY

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is a concept with practically unlimited potential. The capabilities of GPS as a navigation aid make the NAVSTAR satellite constellation an extremely valuable asset to our armed forces in the terms of force projection, enhancement and management. As users develop confidence in the ability of GPS to deliver on its promises, user sets will undoubtedly proliferate and be employed in almost limitless ways.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 13 REFERENCES

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CJCS Master Navigation Plan. CJCSI 6130.01, 1994.

“GPS and the Budget: DoD Pushes Forward, DOT out of the Loop”, GPS World, Apr 2000 (More GPS articles available at http://www.gpsworld.com)

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Horn, Jeff. Differential GPS Explained. Sunnyvale, CA: Trimble Navigation, 1993.

Lockheed Martin Federal Systems and Overlook Systems Technologies, Inc. for Air Force Materiel Command, Space and Missile Systems Center/CZG, Contract No. F04606-95-D-0239. GPS Accuracy Improvement Initiative Operational Approach Final Report. Los Angeles Air Force Base, CA, 1997.

Morgan, Tom, ed. Jane’s Space Directory, 12th Edition, 1996-1997. Jane’s Information Group, Limited, 1996.

National Research Council, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems. The Global Positioning System – A Shared National Resource. (No longer available on the Web, but mentioned at http://www4.nas.edu/cets/asebhome.nsf/web/Reports_of_the_ASEB )

Newman, Mike E., CAPT. CSEL (Briefing). Naval Air Systems Command, Patuxent River, MD, 1998 (http://pma202.navair.navy.mil/oag98/cselT)

Wright Laboratory Armament Directorate. “GPS Inertial Navigation Technology”. Eg- lin AFB, FL

USAF Space Systems Division, NAVSTAR GPS Joint Program Office, NATO Team. NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction. Los Angeles Air Force Base, CA, 1991.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 14 “Vice President Gore Announces New Global Positioning System Modernization Initia- tive”, White House press release, 25 Jan 1999, http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri- res/I2R?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/1999/1/25/17.text.1

Interagency GPS Executive Board Website, “Frequently Asked Questions About SA Termination”, 10 May 2000, http://www.igeb.gov/sa/faq.shtml

“President Clinton: Improving the Civilian Global Positioning System (GPS),” White House press release, 1 May 2000, http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri- res/I2R?urn:pdi://oma.eop.gov.us/2000/5/2/8.text.2

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 14 - 15

Chapter 15

MISSILE WARNING SYSTEMS

This chapter will address the missile warning systems which U.S. Space Command (USSPACECOM) controls in support of the North American Aerospace Defense Com- mand (NORAD) agreement to protect the Continental U.S. and Canada from ballistic missile attack. Also covered are systems developed for theater-level missile defense developed in accordance with the Missile Defense Act of 1991, as amended by Congress in 1992, for the protection of forward deployed U.S. forces and it's allies.

SPACE-BASED WARNING These centers SENSORS immediately forward the Defense Support Program (DSP) data to various agencies The Defense Support Program (DSP), and areas of with a system of geosynchronous satel- operations lites, is a key part of North America's around the Early Warning System. In approximate world. 22,000 mile geosynchronous orbits, DSP The DSP satellites (Fig. 15-1) serve as the conti- program nent's first line of defense against ballis- came to life tic missile attack and are normally the Fig. 13-1 DSP Satellite with the first first system to detect missile launches. launch of a The system’s effectiveness was proven DSP satellite in the early 1970s. Since during the Persian Gulf conflict, when that time, DSP satellites have provided DSP detected the launch of Iraqi Scud an uninterrupted early warning capabil- missiles and provided timely warning to ity that has helped deter superpower civilian populations and coalition forces conflict. in Israel and Saudi Arabia. In addition Over the years, the DSP system has to missile launches, the DSP system also seen many improvements in both the has numerous sensors on board to detect satellites as well as the ground stations. nuclear detonations (NUDETs). Initially, there were phase one and phase DSP ground stations feed processed two, first and second generation, satel- missile warning data via communica- lites weighing approximately 2,000 tions links which include the Survivable pounds with solar paddles generating Communications Integration System about 400 watts of power. Then came (SCIS) and MILSTAR satellites. These the third generation satellite called Mul- reports are sent to USSPACECOM and tiple Orbit Satellite/Program Improve- NORAD operations centers at Cheyenne ment Module (MOS/PIM). Despite the Mountain Air Station (CMAS), Colo- multiple orbit option available on this rado, the Alternate Missile Warning generation of satellites, it was never ex- Center (A/MWC) at Offutt AFB, Ne- ercised. This generation of satellite braska and other forward users. brought in, among other things, the anti- jam command capability known as CI-1. CI-1 was continued as part of the fourth

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 15-1 generation of satellites known as Sensor active cooling system. Previous genera- Evolutionary Development (SED). The tions of the satellite relied on an ice major improvement in this generation pack-type of device, which, via freezing was the increase in primary focal plane and thawing, would maintain the focal cells from 2,000 cells to 6,000 cells. plane temperature at -100OF. Unfortu- Along with the increased cell count was nately, at the end of the satellite design the experimental Medium Wave Infrared life, the focal plane “ice pack” was at its (MWIR) package, also known as second end of life, leaving the focal plane tem- color, which was placed on Satellite perature to rise. A rise in the focal plane 6R/Flight 12. This package was a proof- temperature causes mission degradation. of-concept for implementation on the DSP satellites have routinely ex- fifth and final generation of DSP satel- ceeded their design life by many years. lites, DSP-1. We refer to this fifth gen- Launched in December 1984, DSP eration as the final generation of DSP Flight 12 for example, was on orbit and satellites because of the development of operational for well over twelve years the Space Based Infrared System and its original design life was three (SBIRS), the DSP follow-on which will years. The design life on DSP-1 era be discussed later. birds is five years. There are currently The DSP-1 era started with Satellite three DSP-1 satellites that have sur- 14 and will extend through Satellite 23 if passed their design life. DSP Satellite all DSP-1 satellites currently in the 14 for example is now going on its tenth hanger are launched. DSP-1 brought year of operational service. As the ca- new innovations to the program: the pabilities of the DSP satellite have AFSAT Modulation Compatibility Sub grown, so has their weight and power. System (AMCSS), introduced to support Unlike the old lightweight, low power data requirements of the Mobile Ground satellite, the new generation of DSP sat- System (MGS) as well as local and ellite weighs over 5,000 pounds and the global summary messages. The AMCSS solar arrays generate more than 1,400 also provided the replacement for the watts of power. CI-1 anti-jam commanding system for On the ground station side of the DSP use by the Large Processing Stations house, there have been many upgrades (LPS), such as the Continental U.S. as well. In the early to late 1980s, two (CONUS) Ground Station (CGS) and the programs, the Large Processing Station Overseas Ground Station (OGS). The Upgrade (LPSU) and the Peripheral Up- OGS was closed on 1 Oct 99 and the grade Program (PUP), were executed. data is now relayed back to the CGS for These programs resulted in the total re- processing. The satellite downlinks, placement of the OGS and CGS suite of Link-1 and 2, were changed signifi- mainframe computers and all peripheral cantly. Each was broken into two chan- devices. This was followed by the re- nels, I and Q. The format for Link-1/2 I placement of the Satellite Readout Sta- and Q channels is Quadra Phase Shift- tion (SRS) hardware and software under Keyed (QPSK). The purpose for the the SRS Upgrade (SRSU) program. dual channel downlinks was to support Also, the Data Distribution Center the laser crosslink. The I channel was to (DDC) received a makeover with re- support the local satellite and the Q placement of all hardware and software channel was to carry the data from the under the Ground Communications remote satellite. The laser crosslink Network Upgrade (GCNU) project project never succeeded and was eventu- (1990-1992). In the 1980s, the Simpli- ally canceled. The I and Q channels fied Processing Station (SPS) was re- now carry local satellite data only. An- placed with the European Ground Sta- other new innovation was the semi- tion (EGS). The SPS, a fixed version of

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 15-2 the MGS, was housed in a shelter and is tilted slightly off center. This tilt al- used the MGS software suite. The up- lows coverage by the sensor out past the grade replaced the shelters, hardware lim (edge) of the earth. Cells in the cen- and software completely. ter of the sensor bar are placed in such a way as to cover the NADIR (center of Mission of DSP the FOV) area called NADIR fill.

The primary mission of DSP (Mission A) is to detect, characterize and report in real time, missile and space launches occurring in the satellite Field Of View (FOV). DSP satellites track missiles by observing infrared (IR) radiation emitted by the rocket’s exhaust plume. IR is a small part of the large electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. DSP also has an additional mission (Mission B) of detecting, characterizing and reporting nuclear detonations in support of Nuclear Test Ban monitoring.

The DSP Satellite

The DSP satellite is approximately 33 feet long, 22 feet in diameter, weighs over 5,000 pounds and is comprised of the satellite vehicle also referred to as the bus and the sensor (Fig. 15-2). The bus is made up of many subsystems that Fig. 15-2. Defense Support Program Satellite provide power, attitude control, thermal control and communications for the sat- DSP-1 Sensor Overview ellite and sensor. The satellites are placed in a near The sensor (Fig. 15-3) detects circular, near equatorial, geosynchro- sources of IR radiation. A tele- nous orbit. Global coverage can be effi- scope/optical system and a Photoelectric ciently achieved with three satellites. Cell (PEC) detector array, comprised Additional satellites can provide dual primarily of lead sulfide detectors and coverage, providing for more accurate some Mercad-Telluride cells for the processing potential. MWIR detection capability, are used to The Attitude Control Subsystem detect IR sources. IR energy enters the (ACS) maintains the spinning motion of opening in the IR sunshade, passes the satellite about its earth-pointing axis. through the corrector lens, travels past The satellite spins one revolution every the PEC array, reflects off the mirror and ten seconds (6 rpm). The sensor bar, is focused onto the PEC array. containing all the infrared (IR) detector cells, is fixed firmly to the satellite body. The spinning of the satellite then allows the slightly tilted boresight of the sensor bar to scan the entire hemisphere perimeter. The telescope is not aligned along the Z-axis (earth pointing axis) but

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instruction. The links perform as follows:

• Link 1 Downlink - transmits the following data: IR data (Mission A), NUDET sensor data (Mission B), star sensor data, jet firing and calibration alert data. • Link 2 Downlink - transmits state of health (SOH) information obtained from voltage, current and temperature sensors and various other status monitors.

Fig. 15-3. DSP Sensor Schematic

A PEC array (Fig. 15-4) contains more than 6,000 detector cells. The cells are sensitive to energy in the infrared spectrum. As the satellite rotates, the earth's surface is scanned by this array. With the PEC array scanning the FOV, a cell passing across an IR source will develop a signal with an amplitude pro- Fig. 15-4. PEC Array portional to the source’s intensity. The signal is then amplified, passed through an analog to digital converter and placed • Link 3 Uplink - transmits satellite on the Link-1 downlink for transmission and sensor commanding data from to the ground station. the ground station to the satellite. The intensity of the IR energy is • Link 4 Downlink - satellite has measured in kilowatts (kW). A standard two onboard impact sensors, which unit of measure for the area of a sphere are basically accelerometers, to de- (IR energy radiated omni-directionally) tect is a steradian. Therefore, the intensity of impacts on the satellite from space the IR energy per unit area can be ex- debris. Link 4 is the link on which pressed in kilowatts per steradian this data is transmitted. (kW/s). • Link 5/6 - link associated with the canceled laser crosslink system. Communications Subsystem Overview Equipment removed and replaced with ballast. The satellite has transmitters, receiv- • Link 7, 8 - serve as a backup or ers and antennas for six encrypted com- secondary set of communications munication links used to downlink satel- links called the Mission Data Mes- lite data and receive uplink command sage (MDM) rebroadcast system.

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MDM consists of an uplink and Satellite Operations Center (SOC). The downlink, which serve as a trans- SOC houses the mission processing crew ponder to exchange information that evaluates and releases all DSP mis- between various ground stations. sion data. This center is the focal point for all ground station operations. DSP Ground Stations The MGS, located out of Greeley ANGS, CO consists of six fully deploy- DSP ground support now consists of able units (tractor trailer rigs). The one Large Processing Station (LPS) MGS is assigned to the 137th Space CGS, a simplified processing station Warning Squadron. Once deployed, an known as EGS, and a Mobile Ground MGS SOC can send its data back to the System (MGS). The CGS has responsi- DDC or directly to the Missile Warning bility for processing and reporting satel- Center at Cheyenne Mountain Air Sta- lite mission data as well as commanding tion (CMAS) via satellite broadcast operational DSP satellites within its line methods. of sight. The second processing station, EGS (location classified), has mission Data Distribution Center (DDC) data responsibility, but does not have satellite commanding or the NUDET The DDC, collocated with CGS, func- detection processing capability. The tions as a communications center for all CGS has three main functional elements. elements of the DSP system. The DDC routes mission data from the ground Satellite Readout Station (SRS). The stations to the users. The DDC contains purpose of the SRS is to perform the dual data processors that process both satellite communications and data condi- High Speed Data (HSD) and Low Speed tioning function. Conditioned data is Data (LSD), secure-voice terminals and forwarded to the DRC for processing. a secure-teletype communications cen- The SRS at CGS has been upgraded as ter. Dedicated and encrypted data, voice part of the SRS Upgrade (SRSU) pro- and teletype links from the ground sta- gram in the early to mid 1990s. tions are routed to the DDC. The DDC then retransmits these messages to the Data Reduction Center (DRC). The DRC users. operates as a vital part of DSP mission processing. The DRC accomplishes the Ground Communications Network following: (GCN)

• Extracts significant data from the The GCN provides all required commission data stream regarding mis- munications capability between the sile launches and nuclear detona- ground stations, DDC and the users. tions. Primarily, the network consists of inter- • Either automatically or via opera- site communication circuits (land lines tor intervention, generates mission and satellite links), modems, crypto- event and status messages for graphic equipment, data terminals and a transmission to the users. Technical Control Facility (TCF). The • Processes data to support satellite hub of the GCN is the DDC. Data, se- station-keeping and pointing func- cure voice, and secure teletype circuits tions. from the ground stations to the DDC are • Processes data to support ground routed over dual, diverse, dedicated and station equipment checkout and encrypted links. housekeeping. Another portion of the GCN is the Survivable Communications Integration

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System (SCIS). CGS has a SCIS device All three legs rely on IR detection to broadcast DSP message traffic to for- for detection and profiling of theater ward users. The GCN is the primary ballistic missile launch. mode for transmission of DSP data. The backup for broadcast is the SCIS com- ALERT. The ALERT facility is run mercial high speed data circuits. From by the Air Force’s 11th Space Warning EGS there are still GCN HSD circuits in Squadron at Schriever AFB, CO and place to ship HSD directly to the DDC provides for a central CONUS process- High Speed Message Processor (HSMP). ing element sending worldwide tactical This function of the GCN is still active missile threat data 24 hours a day. because the only way to get DSP data to the Low Speed Message Processor JTAGS. JTAGS is the mobile, in- (LSMP) and all the LSD users is through theater element of TES and provides the the HSMP at the DDC. theater CINC a direct downlink of DSP data for in-theater processing. Theater Missile Warning ARSPACE has operational control of the JTAGS (Fig. 15-6). Due to the growing need to get the smaller tactical threat of theater class ballistic missiles out to the warfighter, the Theater Event System was created.

Theater Event System (TES)

The TES (Fig. 15-5) provides highly accurate tactical threat data through the use of stereo processing of the Defense Support Program (DSP) satellite data. The TES is composed of three elements: Attack and Launch Early Reporting to Theater (ALERT), the Joint Tactical Fig. 15-6. Joint Tactical Ground Station Ground Station (JTAGS), and the Tacti- cal Detection and Reporting TACDAR. TACDAR is an addi- (TACDAR). tional sensor that can provide missile launch reports. The TACDAR sensor rides on a classified host satellite and Theater Event System therefore will not be discussed in this reference. Inquiries on TACDAR may

g in J be forwarded through rt o o in p t e T J R a USSPACECOM/J33. T y c TA rl t R a ic E E r a G te l L h a G S c e n ro A h u T u a n L o THEATER d d t n S How do I get TES Data? a ta k c ti a WARFIGHTERS o tt n A The TES has the primary mission of TACDAR reporting theater/tactical type threats. Tactical Detection and Reporting For theater warning, the TES system

Fig. 13-5. TES (ALERT, JTAGS, or TACDAR) reports the launch (voice and data) in theater over two types of satellite broadcast networks known as the Tactical Data Dissemination System (TDDS) and/or

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 15-6 the Tactical Information Broadcast Ser- the DSP satellites in their geosynchro- vice (TIBS). Theoretically, one event nous orbits. The direct downlink must could be reported by all three TES ele- have a clear path to the antenna, un- ments, but the “first detect--first report” blocked by hills, trees, or buildings. procedures help control and deconflict JTAGS allows the TES to be integrated multiple reports of the same event. (hard wired) into theater assets including Warning data goes out over the thea- those mentioned above. Hard-wiring ter satellite broadcast networks and can allows the quickest dissemination of be incorporated in battle management early warning data. Based on this warn- systems such as Air Defense Systems ing data, a voice warning over in- theater Integrator (ADSI), the Constant Source communication networks could also be Terminal, the Combat Intelligence Cor- set up. relator (CIC), and the Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS). The Air TACDAR. TACDAR information is Force’s ALERT Facility (11th SWS) is limited in that it cannot be directly under the 21st SW for TES reporting. downlinked into theater. Processing must occur in the CONUS and then the TES Capabilities/Limitations information relayed across the satellite broadcast network following report ALERT. ALERT is dependent upon processing. the DSP ground sites for receipt of DSP Questions regarding TES data, the data. The DSP Ground Stations, satellite broadcast network, and TES TACDAR, and ALERT are all fixed data receivers should be addressed to ground sites. Critical spares, redundant USSPACECOM (J3CP/J3M), HQ power supplies, and logistics support USSPACECOM, PETERSON AFB infrastructures (including the use of the CO//J33OW//, DSN 692-6987, or Mobile Ground Stations to reconstitute COML 719-554-6987. strategic warning) are in place for each of these sites. If a ground site outage Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) occurs and it prevents getting a particular DSP satellite’s data, then ALERT SBIRS will be the DSP follow-on could also use 1st Satellite Operations system for the future. SBIRS is a con- Squadron (1SOPS), 50 SW, and the Air solidated, flexible system that will meet Force’s Satellite Control Network U.S. infrared space surveillance needs (AFSCN) to receive the needed down- through the next several decades. link. However, use of the AFSCN is based on a priority scheme, and there SBIRS Mission will be times when ALERT will not get a contested AFSCN antenna. The SBIRS mission is to develop, deploy, and sustain space-based surveil- JTAGS. To get a JTAGS into thea- lance systems for missile warning, mis- ter, a warfighting CINC simply requests sile defense, battlespace characteriza- for the deployment. JTAGS is deployed tion, and technical intelligence. The on a C-141 or larger aircraft, and sets up SBIR High Engineering and Manufac- to roughly the size of a small moving turing Development (EMD) contract, van. The JTAGS once in theater be- awarded in November 1996, will be a comes the Joint Task Force’s Ground 10-year effort. SBIRS is intended to be Component Commander’s asset. As an integrated “system of systems” in- such, the CINC is responsible for man- cluding multiple space constellations ning, power, and security requirements. and an evolving ground element. The JTAGS is dependent on a clear view to integrated SBIRS architecture will pro-

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vide Theater Missile Defense (TMD) ing station, will incrementally replace track data after target acquisition to the the existing DSP infrastructure over the interceptor systems and Defense Battle FY99 - FY04 time frame. The first Manager, cueing interceptors to commit SBIRS GEO launch is scheduled for and launch earlier than autonomous ra- 2004. This element is the first of two dars alone. This cueing effectively ex- planned elements that will provide an tends an interceptor’s range and in- enhanced follow-on capability to the creases its effectiveness. current DSP system. The SBIRS low component is envi- SBIRS Architecture sioned to provide a unique, precision midcourse tracking capability critical for The baseline SBIRS architecture (Fig. effective ballistic missile defense as well 15-7) includes four satellites in Geosyn- as providing enhanced capability to sup- chronous Earth Orbit (GEO), a yet to be port missile warning, technical intelli- determined number of Low Earth Orbit gence and battlespace characterization. The Common Ground Segment will be delivered incrementally. The first increment consolidates DSP and Attack HEO = SWIR/MWIR and Launch Early Reporting to Theater (Molniya type orbit) (ALERT) mission functions at one CONUS ground station, the MCS, and is scheduled to become operational in Nov 2001. A second increment will be accepted for operation by the government around the 2004 timeframe and provides LEO TBD all ground segment functions necessary GEO = GEO = for high altitude space-based IR early SWIR/MWIR SWIR/MWIR warning elements. The ground segment has the ability to incorporate functions Fig. 13-7. Space Based Infra-Red System and equipment in a third increment nec- (LEO) satellites, a set of infrared sensors essary for the Low space element when hosted on two satellites in Highly Ellip- it is deployed. tical Orbit (HEO) and ground assets. The ground assets include: GROUND BASED WARNING • CONUS-based Mission Control SENSORS Station (MCS), a backup and survivable control station Ballistic Missile Early Warning Systems (BMEWS) • Overseas Relay Ground Stations (RGS) Independent studies conducted by both the U.S. and the U.K. in the 1950s • Relocatable terminals indicated the need for ballistic missile early warning facilities. The U.S. study • Associated communications links concluded that a three radar system should be built across the northern tier. The SBIRS High Component ele- The U.K. study indicated the need for a ment, featuring a mix of geosynchronous single facility located in England. After Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites, Highly subsequent negotiations between the two Elliptical Earth Orbit (HEO) satellites, governments, the BMEWS network was and a new consolidated Ground Process- born.

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BMEWS Site I is located at Thule (SLBM)/ICBM attack against the U.K. AB, Greenland (Fig. 15-8). Site II is at and Europe. BMEWS’ tertiary mission Clear AFB, Alaska and Site III is at RAF is to conduct satellite tracking as collat- Fylingdales in the U.K. These sites eral sensors in the Space Surveillance originally used separate detection and Network (SSN). tracking radars but were both upgraded to phased array technology in the late PAVE PAWS 1980s to early 1990s. Increasing technology provided the Former Soviet Union (FSU) with the capability to launch ballistic missiles from an underwater Sea-Launched Bal- listic Missile (SLBM) platform. Studies indicated the need for dedicated early warning facilities to detect such an attack. The first two sensors, Otis and Beale, came on line in 1980 with an additional two, PAVE PAWS South East Fig. 15-8. BMEWS, Thule AB, Greenland (PPSE) and PAVE PAWS South West (PPSW) following seven years later. The 12th Space Warning Squadron PPSE and PPSW have since been deac- (12SWS) at Thule now operates a dual tivated and closed (1995). face, solid state, phased-array radar PAVE PAWS NE (Fig. 15-9) is lo- (AN/FPS-123). The 13SWS at Clear cated at Cape Cod AS, Massachusetts operates three detection radars and is operated by the 6SWS. PAVE (AN/FPS-50s), each 400 ft long and 165 PAWS NW is at Beale AFB, California ft high. Clear also operates a tracking and is run by the 7SWS. Both sites op- radar (AN/FPS-92) that is 84 ft in erate a dual-face, phased-array radar diameter and weighs 100 tons. Under (AN/FPS-123). the Clear Upgrade Program, Clear will upgrade to a dual-faced phased array radar. The project, started in FY98, will use existing equipment from El Dorado Air Station’s PAVE PAWS radar (PAVE PAWS South West) since it was deactivated and has transitioned into cold storage. The new dual faced phased array radar in Alaska is scheduled to be completed by Jan 2001. Royal Air Force (RAF), Fylingdales is the site of the world's first three-faced Fig. 15-9. PAVE PAWS, Cape Cod AS phased array radar (AN/FPS-126). The Initial Operating Capability (IOC) was The 6SWS is atop Cape Cod's Fla- carried out in July 1992 and Joint trock Hill. The 6SWS occupies 120-plus (U.S./U.K.) Operational Capability acres of what was once Otis Air Force (JSOC) in November 1992. Base, and is now the Massachusetts BMEWS provides warning of an In- Military Reservation. The squadron tercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) receives host-tenant support from attack on the CONUS and Southern Hanscom Air Force Base, Otis Air Na- Canada. BMEWS also provides warning tional Guard Base and from the U.S. of a Sea-Launched Ballistic Missile Coast Guard Station on Cape Cod.

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PAVE is an Air Force program name while PAWS is an acronym for Phased PARCS is located just 20 miles south Array Warning System. of the Canadian border at Cavalier AS, The primary purpose of PAVE PAWS North Dakota. PARCS (Fig. 15-10) is to detect an SLBM attack, determine was originally built as part of the the potential numbers and probable des- Army’s Safeguard Anti-Ballistic Missile tination of the missiles, then report this (ABM) system. In 1976, the ABM sys- information to NORAD, U.S. Strategic tem was deactivated and the sensor be- Command (USSTRATCOM) and the came available for Air Force use in De- National Command Authority (NCA). cember 1977. PARCS’ primary mission Additionally, PAVE PAWS provides is to provide warning and attack charac- information on the location and velocity terization of an SLBM/ICBM attack of earth-orbiting satellites to against the U.S. and southern Canada. USSPACECOM and the Space Control Its secondary mission is to track earth Center (SCC) at Cheyenne Mountain orbiting objects for the Space Surveil- AS, Colorado. lance Network (SSN). The main difference between phased PARCS is a single-faced, phased ar- array and conventional radar is that ray radar. The radar, communications phased array systems like PAVE PAWS equipment, computer and operations are steered electronically. The phased room are housed in a reinforced concrete array radar incorporates nearly 3,600 building. The single-faced radar is small, active antenna elements coordi- northern looking over the Hudson Bay, nated by two computers. One computer is on-line at all times and the second computer will automatically take control if the first fails. The computers feed energy to the antenna units in precise, controlled patterns, allowing the radar to detect objects at very high speeds since there are no mechanical parts to limit the speed of the radar sweep. The PAVE PAWS radar can electronically change its point of focus in milliseconds, while conventional dish-shaped radar may take up to a minute to mechanically swing Fig. 15-10. PARC S Radar Site from one area to another. and is sloped at a 25O angle. Due to its The PAVE PAWS main building is initial design as part of the ABM system, shaped roughly like a pyramid with a it can rapidly characterize the type of triangular base 105 feet on each side. missile attack for use by NORAD and The two radiating faces, each containing the National Command Authorities. approximately 1,800 active antenna ele- O Also, due to its greater power and rapid ments, are tilted back 20 from the verti- scan rate, PARCS is one of the most cal. PAVE PAWS radar beams reach valuable sensors in the SSN. outward for approximately 3,000 nauti- O cal miles in a 240 sweep. At this ex- Summary treme range, it can detect an object the size of a small automobile. Smaller ob- The DSP strategic ICBM processing jects can be detected at closer range. sites, the TES tactical ballistic missile processing sites, and the host of missile Perimeter Acquisition Radar Attack warning radar sites around the globe Characterization System (PARCS) provides the world’s most sophisticated

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missile warning system for the National Command Authorities, Unified Com- manders and the entire joint military community.

REFERENCES

Interviews with Subject Matter Experts: Steven Brozo, Tom Dembowski and Ken Phil- lips, Betac Team.

BMEWS Security Classification Guide (SCG), 1983.

BMEWS Site I SCG, 1989.

DSP Security Classification Guide, Feb 93.

HQ AFSPC/DOOO, Current Operations Division.

21SW Fact Sheet, Public Affairs, Peterson AFB, CO.

SAF Fact Sheet, Defense Support Program, Office of Public Affairs, HQ AFSPC, Peter- son AFB, CO.

TRW, Satellite Systems Engineers, Spacecraft Training Manual, Satellites 0014-0017, Volume I, Spacecraft Overview.

UI10-17, USSPACECOM Instruction, Tactical Event System, 17 Jul 1995

U.S. Government/Commercial Internet Sites:

http://www.spacecom.af.mil/norad/ Home page of the North American Aerospace Defense Command. www.spacecom.mil/norad/tbm.htm Overview of Theater Ballistic Missile topic.

www.spacecom.af.mil/USSPACE/dsp.htm Overview of the Defense Support Program. www.laafb.af.mil/SMC/PA/Fact_Sheets/dsp_fs.htm USAF Fact Sheet on the Defense Support Program.

www.defenselink.mil/speeches/1997/di1215.html Prepared statement of Air Force Gen. Howell M. Estes III, commander in chief, North American Aerospace Defense Command and U.S. Space Command, before the Senate Armed Services Committee, March 13, 1997.

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www.dtic.mil/armylink/index.html ArmyLink Home page (U.S. Army Public Affairs Office).

www.losangeles.af.mil/SMC/MT/sbirs.htm Information on the Space Based Infrared System. www.hanscom.af.mil/esc-pa/news/1998/aug98/texas.htm 1998 news release on the Phased Array Warning System know as Pave PAWS, located at Eldorado Air Station, Texas for re-use in the Clear (Alaska) Radar Upgrade program.

TOC

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Chapter 16

SPACE EVENT PROCESSING

Space systems have become a critical component of US military operations. Military commanders rely on navigation, communications, environmental surveillance and warning information received from or provided via space systems. Any degradation to these systems could have a significant impact on the success of a military operation. In addition, the US must protect its ground assets from intelligence collection by other countries.

and identifying all man-made objects OVERVIEW orbiting the earth. Some of the important roles of space surveillance are track- The United States Space Command ing present positions of space objects, (USSPACECOM) was established in detecting new satellites, and predicting 1985 in order to normalize the use of when and where a space object will space in support of US deterrence capa- reenter the earth’s atmosphere, thereby bilities and centralize all military activity preventing a triggering of a false missile related to US space systems. alarm due to a reentering space object. USCINCSPACE advocates the space Additional roles include producing a requirements of other unified command- catalog of all man-made space objects, ers. determining who owns an orbiting space USSPACECOM conducts operations object and informing NASA whether or through its component commands: 14th not objects may interfere with the Shut- Air Force portion of Air Force Space tle or the International Space Station Command, Army Space Command and now under construction. Naval Space Command. SPACE EVENT PROCESSING SPACE EVENTS When a space event occurs, the A space event is an activity impacting USSPACECOM Space Control Center on a US space asset or an activity in- (SCC) (Fig. 16-1) is responsible for volving another nation’s space assets. determining if the event is accidental, The asset could be a satellite, a ground incidental or the result of a hostile action station or the up/down-links. Possible directed against the United States. The space events include: SCC gathers information from a variety of sources to make this determination. • Directed energy/laser beam The SCC at Cheyenne Mountain Air • Nuclear detonations Station, Colorado is the focal point for • Electronic warfare all space surveillance tracking informa- • Anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons tion. Naval Space Command provides systems the Alternate SCC (ASCC) and could • Sabotage take over all operations if necessary. Once USCINCSPACE has been pro- SPACE SURVEILLANCE vided with the SCC’s report, the CINC may request a Space Event Conference A critical part of USSPACECOM’s with the National Military Command mission is space surveillance, which Center (NMCC). During the Space includes detecting, tracking, cataloging Event Conference, USCINCSPACE

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 16 - 1 describes the activity and will provide tool that informs customers of expected one of the following assessments: foreign intelligence satellite overflights. SATRAN reporting is site-specific • NO—An attack against a space and provides sufficient warning to allow system has not occurred nor is one recipients time to respond to a potential in progress. threat by employing cover, concealment or cessation of activity until the threat is • CONCERN—Events are occur- passed. ring that has raised the level of Under JCS guidance, the Defense In- concern. Further assessment is telligence Agency (DIA) is the manager necessary in order to determine the for SATRAN. Operational execution of nature of the activity involved. the program has been delegated to the Pending completion of the ongoing USSPACECOM Combined Intelligence assessment, precautionary meas- Center (CIC) at Peterson AFB, Colo- ures to enhance responsiveness or rado. survivability are suggested. The Naval Space Operations Center (NAVSPOC), a component of Naval • YES—A verified attack against a Space Command, is delegated the re- space system has occurred. This sponsibility of providing satellite recon- means that all-source data connaissance OPSEC support to US Navy firms the hostile event has oc- and Marine Corps assets only. curred or is occurring. Likewise, the US Army White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) produces satellite overflight times for users of the White Sands Ranges only.

CONCLUSION

The nature of space operations is such that its theater of operations is not normally host to the personnel affected. USCINCSPACE has no combat forces assigned. Also, all of USSPACECOM’s ground facilities are located in another Commander-in-Chief’s area of responsibility. As a result, when a verified at- Fig. 16-1. Space Control Center tack occurs or is in progress, USCINC- Operator SPACE relies on the other unified commanders to protect US assets and, when necessary, respond to space events with SATELLITE RECONNAISSANCE force. ADVANCE NOTICE (SATRAN) USSPACECOM’s Space Control PROGRAM Center and the Combined Intelligence Center provide other unified command- USSPACECOM is tasked by Annex ers with the information necessary to A of the Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan avoid threats to space or ground systems. (JSCP) to provide timely notification of potential space-based reconnaissance of US forces worldwide by a foreign nation. This program is known as SATRAN and is a proven, reliable Operations Security (OPSEC) support

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 16 - 2

REFERENCE

USSPACECOM REG 55-10.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 16 - 3

Chapter 17

U.S. MISSILE SYSTEMS

This chapter covers land-based On 27 October 1955, a contract was Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles awarded to produce another ICBM, the (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic Titan I. The Thor and Jupiter Intermediate missiles (SLBMs), and (briefly) cruise Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) programs missiles. also began in December of 1955, with the highest possible priority. The Army had Brief History of the ICBM responsibility for all short-range (under 200 miles) surface-to-surface missiles. Origins The Navy had control of all ship-based missiles and the Air Force got all other The first reference to use of rockets surface-to-surface missiles. dates from 1232 when the Chinese defenders of K'aifung-fu used “fire arrows” against attacking Mongols. Progress in rocketry was slow, at best, for the next seven centuries. The Germans began development of a missile arsenal during the 1930s at Kummersdorf and Peenemünde, with increased emphasis during World War II. These experiments resulted in the “Vergeltsungswaffe Ein” and “Zwei,” (Revenge weapons one and two), or V-1 and V-2. The V-2 was 46 feet long and used alcohol and liquid oxygen as propellants. It reached an altitude of 50 to 60 miles, had a maximum range of 200 miles and carried a one ton warhead. The system's accuracy was two and one-half miles. The war ended before the results of research into longer-range (transatlantic) two-stage rockets called the A-9 and A-10 could be used. These weapons might have been operational by 1948. The United States and the Soviet Union recruited as many German scientists as possible following the war.

Each began their own research programs Fig. 17-1. Thor and Atlas I Missiles into the use of missiles as weapons. Funding and weight limitations prevented The first U.S. IRBM was the Thor these programs from quickly advancing. (Fig. 17-1). It was deployed in the It wasn't until 1954 that Air Force United Kingdom between 1959 and 1963. Secretary Talbott directed all necessary The Thor was housed horizontally in an steps be taken to advance the Atlas above-ground shelter. It had to be raised ICBM project.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 1 to the vertical position and fueled before connected with, and in command of, one launch. Its propellants were RP-1 (a high silo and missile. The Titan I system had grade kerosene) and liquid oxygen. The three silos connected to the underground Thor had a range of 1,500 nautical miles launch control center. Another difference (NM) and could place a one megaton was that the Titan I used a radio-inertial warhead within 4,600 feet of the target. guidance system similar to the Atlas D. The sixth and last Titan I squadron First Generation ICBMs became operational at Mountain Home AFB, Idaho on 16 August 1962. Only The first Atlas D ICBM was launched four months later, on 20 December, the 9 September 1959 at Vandenberg AFB, last Atlas F squadron at Plattsburgh AFB, California. General Thomas D. Power, New York achieved operational status. CINCSAC, then declared the Atlas Even as these milestones were operational. Only six days later, a reached, the days of the first generation Minuteman R & D tethered launch ICBMs were numbered. The newer Titan occurred at Edwards AFB, California. II and Minuteman ICBMs were more sur- This was a model with inert second and vivable and quicker reacting, along with third stages and a partially charged first being more economical to operate and stage. It had a 2,000 foot nylon tether to more reliable. On 24 May 1963, General keep the missile from going too far. On Curtis E. LeMay, Air Force Chief of 31 October 59, the first nuclear-tipped Staff, announced the phaseout of the At- Atlas was on alert at Vandenberg AFB. las D and E and the Titan I. By its com- Deployment of the Atlas continued in pletion, that phaseout also encompassed the three versions, the D, E and F models. Atlas F, with the last Atlas F being The D model was housed horizontally in removed from alert at Lincoln AFB, Ne- an above-ground, soft building and braska on 12 April 1965 and shipped to erected for launch (plus three D models Norton AFB, California for storage. were in soft, vertical gantries at Vandenberg AFB). It used a Second Generation ICBMs combination of both radio and inertial guidance. The second generation of ICBMs, the The E model incorporated many Titan II and the Minuteman, shared only improvements over the D model. one characteristic--they were housed and Perhaps the most significant was the launched from hardened underground replacement of radio guidance with an silos. The Titan II was a large, two-stage all-inertial system, making the E model liquid-fueled missile that carried a single invulnerable to jamming. The E model warhead. Its range was about 5,500 NM. was also housed horizontally, but it was The missiles were deployed at three in a semi-hard “coffin” launcher that was wings. Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona buried to reduce its vulnerability to blast was the home of the first operational and overpressure. wing. McConnell AFB, KS and Little The F model was kept in an Rock AFB, AR were the other two. underground, hardened silo and raised to The Titan II offered five distinct ad- the surface by an elevator for launch; this vantages over the Titan I. First, its reac- was called “hard silo-lift.” The silo was tion time was reduced from 15 minutes to nearly 180 feet deep. less than one minute because it used stor- The Titan I was also being developed able hypergolic propellants. Second, it and deployed in a similar configuration used an all-inertial guidance system, a as the Atlas F. Both used the same major improvement over its radio- propellants and the same silo lift controlled predecessor. Third, the mis- technique. One primary difference was sile carried the largest and most powerful in the command and control. The Atlas F warhead ever placed on a U.S. missile. system had one launch control center Fourth, each launch complex contained

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 2 only one missile, instead of the cluster of officers. Control of a single Titan missile three used in Titan I; this separation en- was done from the Launch Control Center hanced survivability. And last, the Titan (LCC). Minuteman uses a similar proce- II was designed to be launched from be- dure, but the crew controls 10 to 50 mis- low ground inside its silo, also to limit its siles. vulnerability to damage, except during Because the Titan was increasingly the earliest stages of flight. expensive to operate and hampered by a The Minuteman is a three-stage, solid- series of accidents, the Reagan Admini- fueled missile housed in a remote launch stration announced its deactivation in Oc- facility. Its range is also in excess of tober 1982. The system deactivation 5,500 NM. From the beginning, it was began in 1984, and the last Titan II wing intended to be a simple, efficient and sur- was deactivated in August 1987. The vivable weapon system. Its main features Bush Administration began deactivation are reliability and quick reaction. of the Minuteman II to comply with Stra- The first Minuteman, the Minuteman I tegic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) “A,” went on strategic alert during the requirements. The last Minuteman II was Cuban missile crisis of October 1962. removed in 1998. President Kennedy later referred to this missile as his “ace in the hole” during Third Generation ICBMs negotiations with the Soviets. The Minuteman II became operational While Titan II missiles were deployed in 1964 and replaced many of the Min- in only one model, the Minuteman series uteman Is. This system, known as the spanned several models. The latest, and LGM30F, or more simply the “F” model, only operational version, is the Minute- was over 57 feet long, weighed over man III “G.” The last Minuteman III was 73,000 pounds and carried one warhead, deployed in July 1975, so this is the old- like the Minuteman I. est ICBM on alert. It is almost 60 feet The Titan crew consisted of two officers tall and weighs approximately 79,000

Fig. 17-2. Typical ICBM Flight Profile and two enlisted technicians, where the pounds. The Minuteman III originally Minuteman crew is composed of only two carried three reentry vehicles, each capa-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 3 ble of maneuvering to strike a different pushes the Peacekeeper up and out of the target. Upon START II entry into force, canister prior to first stage ignition. the Minuteman force will be downloaded The presently deployed ICBM force to a single reentry vehicle. consists of Minuteman III “G” and The Minuteman is hot-launched (igni- Peacekeeper missiles. They are deployed tion occurs in the silo) and flies out as follows: through its own flame and exhaust. An avcoat material protects the first stage • 200 Minuteman III, Malmstrom AFB, from the extreme heat generated during Montana this process. Once ignition occurs, the • 150 Minuteman III, Minot AFB, missile will pass through several phases North Dakota, and of flight, beginning with the boost phase. • 150 Minuteman III and 50 Peace- A typical flight profile is shown in Fig- keeper, F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming. ure 17-2. The newest U.S. ICBM is the ICBM Characteristics Peacekeeper. It is a four-stage, solid-fuel missile which replaced 50 Minuteman III Mission Profile and Equipment missiles at F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming. These missiles are deployed in converted The ballistic missile as a weapon is of- Minuteman silos. The first ten Peacekeeper ten compared to an artillery cannon and missiles achieved operational alert status in its ballistic projectile. Important to the December 1986 as part of the 400th accuracy of the artillery projectile are its Strategic Missile Squadron. When elevation and speed. Apart from atmos- START II enters into force, Peacekeeper pheric resistance, gravity is the only vital will be deactivated. force operating on the projectile, causing The Peacekeeper is 71 feet long and a constant acceleration fall to earth. As weighs 195,000 pounds--nearly three the distance to the target increases, so times the weight of a Minuteman III. must the elevation (angle of launch to- This allows it to carry up to 12 reentry ward the target) or speed (muzzle veloc- vehicles, although 10 is the operational ity) of the projectile increase. configuration. The missile is about seven In order for the ballistic missile reen- and one-half feet in diameter on all of its try vehicle (RV) to reach the target, the stages. missile must be aimed toward the desired All four stages are protected during impact point and given a specific speed launch and in its flight environment by an and altitude. There is one point some- ethylene-acrylic rubber coating. No abla- where along the missile flight path at tive material is needed because it uses a which a definite speed must be achieved. cold-launch technique similar to the sys- The flight control system is responsible tem used by the Submarine Launched for getting the missile to this point. Ballistic Missile (SLBM) submarines. From the moment of lift-off, the mis- The Peacekeeper is protected inside the sile must stabilize in its vertical climb. It canister by Teflon-coated urethane pads. must be rolled about its longitudinal axis Nine rows of pads are used to protect and to the target azimuth and pitched over guide the missile smoothly up and out of toward the target. The missile must be the canister. The pads fall away when accelerated, staged and given any neces- exiting the canister. sary corrections along its roll, pitch and The cold launch system uses a rein- yaw axes, and various engines must be forced steel canister to house the missile. ignited and terminated at precise times. At the bottom of the canister is a Launch In addition, the reentry vehicle must be Ejection Gas Generator (LEGG). A armed and separated from the missile. small rocket motor is fired into 130 gal- These operations are performed by the lons of water contained in the LEGG res- flight control system through two basic ervoir. This creates steam pressure that subsystems; (1) the autopilot subsystem

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 4 (or attitude control) and (2), the inertial atmosphere and yet maintain the needed guidance subsystem or radio. accuracy. An intense program covering An inertial guidance system is shock tests, materials research, hypersonic completely independent of ground wind tunnel tests, ballistic research, nose control. It is capable of measuring its cone drop tests and hypersonic flight was position in space, computing a trajectory used during development. taking the payload to the target. It There are several design requirements generates (1) steering signals to properly for an RV. Foremost is the ability to orient the missile, (2) engine cutoff survive the heat encountered during signals, and (3) the warhead prearming reentry. A body reentering the atmosphere signals. at speeds approaching Mach 20 experiences temperatures in excess of Reentry Vehicle Design 15,000 degrees Fahrenheit. In practice, the RV never reaches this temperature A “ballistic missile” is only powered because of a strong shock wave ahead of for a short time during flight. The total the blunt body that dissipates more than flight time for an ICBM is about 30 90 percent of this energy to the minutes, but powered flight lasts only atmosphere. In addition, the internal five to 10 minutes. The remainder of the temperature must be kept low enough to time is spent “coasting” to the target. allow the warhead to survive reentry. As The velocity of powered flight may reach the RV reenters the atmosphere, it 15,000 mph, but it really is gravity that encounters tremendous deceleration does the work of getting the payload to forces--as high as 50 Gs. All internal the target. Once the vehicle begins to operational components must function encounter atmospheric drag during under these extreme conditions and reentry, aerodynamic heating and braking additionally, must withstand the high begins. Induced drag and lift affect the lateral loads and intense vibrations also reentry vehicle’s trajectory. There are no encountered. control surfaces on a true ballistic reentry An RV may be deflected from its vehicle. It acts more like a bullet as it calculated trajectory by aerodynamic lift falls to the target. forces. Stability, assisted by a form of Reentry vehicles have two types of attitude control and further augmented by heat shielding: heat sink and ablative. some means of averaging deflection, Heat sink vehicles disperse heat through must be designed into the RV. An a large volume of metal, while ablative arming and fusing mechanism must be vehicles have coverings that melt or burn incorporated into the RV to prevent non- off. Essentially, the covering absorbs the programmed weapon detonation. It also heat and sloughs off, carrying away the must have a sensing mechanism to heat. Continued use of heat sink vehicles indicate the proximity of the target and became impractical because of the trade- arm the warhead. The weight of the off between RV weight, booster size and vehicle must be kept to a minimum to range. The use of ablative vehicles maximize range. The higher the terminal reduced these problems. velocity, the less likely the RV will be Reentry is incredibly severe, with an intercepted. Higher velocity also interesting tradeoff between survivability decreases the probability of missing the and accuracy. In general, the steeper the target due to atmospheric deflection. reentry angle, the more accurate the ballistic vehicle. However, the steeper Nuclear Weapons Effects the angle, the higher the temperature and G-loading encountered. The problem is Nuclear weapons effects are normally to design a reentry vehicle that will not divided into three areas: initial, residual vaporize when reentering the earth's and long-lived. Residual effects are

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 5 those which begin about one minute after ground shock is nearly 250 times worse the detonation and continue for about two than the greatest earthquake. The lateral weeks. These would include fallout and accelerations are transmitted over large associated radiation. Long-lived effects distances at very high speeds. Heat is would include the subsequent damage to another product, with the sun's thermal the environment and some radiation radiation a useful comparison. The concerns. It is generally the initial temperatures in the fireball reach upwards effects that are most germane to military of 14,000 degrees Fahrenheit. As a matters. There are six primary nuclear comparison, the sun's surface temperature weapon effects: is approximately 11,000 degrees. Finally, a ground burst will generate • Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) large amounts of dust and debris. The • Nuclear radiation debris can bury undamaged structures • Air blast while the dust clouds can act as • Ground shock sandblasting equipment on aircraft and • Thermal radiation missiles flying through them. • Dust and debris. The most familiar phenomena relating to both blast effects and target hardness is Each of these effects can be compared overpressure. This is measured in to our normal phenomena. Electro- pounds per square inch (psi). A one magnetic pulse is similar to a lightning cubic foot block of concrete exerts one bolt, producing a tremendous surge of psi on the ground beneath. electrical current and generating huge Stacking a second block on the first magnetic fields – both of which affect will increase the pressure to two psi, etc. electrical equipment. Depending on the Five Washington Monuments placed atop altitude of the explosion, it can have each other equates to 500 psi; a sonic effects thousands of miles from the boom registers a mere 0.3 psi. detonation. Nuclear radiation is similar Blast overpressure is heightened by to a powerful X-ray and varies depending the interaction of the primary shock wave on the burst option used (Fig. 17-3). and a reflected shock wave. The primary wave is radiated outward from ground zero and compresses the air in front of it. This wave will strike the earth and reflect upward and outward, creating the reflected wave. This reflected wave moves faster than the primary wave because the air resistance has been decreased by the passage of the first wave. The primary wave will be Fig. 17-3. Nuclear Weapon Effects versus Distance reinforced by the reflected Air blast is the wind generated by the wave, forming a “mach detonation. These winds are ten times front.” A drawing of this phenomenon stronger than those found in the most would resemble the letter “Y” with the powerful hurricane. They actually “slap” intersection of the “Y” termed the “Triple the earth hard enough to contribute to the Point.” Below the triple point, the two ground shock at the detonation site. The blast waves will strike like a single,

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 6 powerful blow. Anything above the following results at a distance 3,200 feet triple point is the overpressure. (0.6 miles) from ground zero: Table 17-1 shows the effects of • Fireball diameter: 2.8 miles overpressures on building materials. • 5.5 billion kW hours X-rays The power of a nuclear explosion is • 14,000 degrees almost incomprehensible, but the • 250 G lateral acceleration following example may help to put it into • 500 psi perspective. Five million one-ton pickup • 3,500 mph winds trucks loaded with TNT would have the • 20 inches of debris same explosive yield as a single five • Debris weighing as much as 2,000 megaton nuclear weapon. A surface lbs. impacting at 250 mph burst of this weapon will yield the • Crater: 3,000 ft wide; 700 ft deep

Table 17-1. Overpressure Sensitivities Structural Element Failure Approximate Side-on Peak Overpressure (PSI) Glass windows, large & small Shattering, occasional frame failure 0.5 - 1.0 Corrugated asbestos siding Shattering 1.0 - 2.0 Corrugated steel paneling Connection failure followed by 1.0 - 2.0 buckling Wood-frame construction Failure occurs at main connections, allowing a whole panel to be blown in 1.0 - 2.0 Concrete or cinder block wall Shattering panels, 8-12 inches thick 1.5 - 5.5 (unreinforced) Brick wall panel, 8-12 inches thick Shearing and flexure 3.0 - 10.0 (unreinforced)

The effects on people are shown in Table 17-2 (next page). Note: “rem” stands for Roentgen Equivalent in Man; it’s a standard measurement of radiation effects on humans. A rem is the equivalent of one roentgen of high-penetration x-rays.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 7 Table 17-2. Nuclear Radiation Effects on People Dose in Rems Radius in feet from 20 KT Probable Effects (see note Air Burst above) Unprotected Troops in Persons Covered Foxholes 0 - 80 5,550 4,200 No obvious effects. Minor blood changes possible. 80 - 120 5,250 3,900 Vomiting and nausea for about one day in 5-10% of exposed persons. Fatigue, but no serious disability. 130 - 170 4,800 3,750 Vomiting and nausea for about one day followed by some symptoms of radiation sickness in about 25% of exposed persons. No deaths anticipated. 180 - 260 4,500 3,600 Vomiting and nausea for about one day followed by some symptoms of radiation sickness in about 50% of exposed persons. No deaths anticipated. 270 - 390 4,200 3,300 Vomiting and nausea in nearly all persons on first day, followed by other symptoms of radiation sickness. About 20% deaths within two to six weeks after exposure. Survivors convalescent for up to three months. 400 - 550 3,900 3,000 The “mid-lethal dose.” Vomiting, nausea, and radiation sickness symptoms. About 50% deaths within one month. Survivors convalescent for up to eight months. 550 - 750 3,750 2,850 Vomiting and nausea in all persons within a few hours, followed by other symptoms of radiation sickness. 90% to 100% deaths. The few survivors convalescent for six months. 1,000 3,600 2,550 Vomiting and nausea in all persons exposed. Probably no survivors. 5,000 3,000 2,250 Incapacitation almost immediately. All persons will die within one week.

Current ICBMs

Minuteman III (LGM-30G)

The Minuteman “G” model is a three- stage, solid-propellant, inertially guided, Intercontinental Ballistic Missile with a range of more than 6,300 miles. It employs a Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV) system with a maximum of three reentry vehicles. The Post Boost Control System (PBCS) provides maneuvering capability for deployment of the reentry vehicles and penetration aids. It is comprised of a Missile Guidance Set (MGS) and a Fig. 17-4. Minuteman Launch Facility (LF) Propulsion System Rocket Engine (PSRE). The “G” model is maintained on alert in a hardened, underground, unmanned Launch Facility (LF) as

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 8 depicted in Figure 17-4, the same as the Minuteman “F” model. The third stage is “F” model was. The LFs are at least larger than the “F” model and it uses a three miles apart and three miles from the single, fixed exhaust nozzle with the LCC. Each LF in the squadron is Liquid Injection Thrust Vector Control connected to other squadron resources by (LITVC) system and roll control ports for a buried cable system. This allows one attitude control. The third stage is a LCC to monitor, command and launch its Thiokol SR73-AJ-1 motor that delivers own ten missiles (called a flight) and all 34,500 pounds of thrust (the third stage fifty missiles in the squadron when on the Minuteman II also uses this motor, necessary. but it only generates 17,100 pounds of Enhancements and modifications are thrust). Thrust termination is similar to the in progress to maintain the viability of “F” model but there are six thrust the force at least until the year 2020. On termination ports mounted at the forward the missile itself, the first and second- end of the third stage. These stage motors are being washed out and “blow out” when the desired point in repoured. The third stage motors are being space is reached to employ all weapons. remanufactured. A major effort is under The actual deployment of the reentry way to test an environmentally acceptable vehicles and penetration aids is propellant replacement. The Rapid accomplished by a “mini fourth stage,” Execution and Combat Targeting the PBCS. It fires a liquid-fueled engine (REACT) Service Life Extension periodically to maneuver throughout the Program (SLEP) is designed to provide deployment sequence. This process long-term supportability of the aging allows the “G” model to hit up to three electronics components. It also modifies separate targets at different ranges with the launch control center allowing real- great accuracy. time status information on the weapons and communications nets to correct operability Airframe. The missile consists of rocket problems, improve responsiveness to motors, interstages, a raceway assembly launch directives, and the Mark 12 or 12A reentry system. and provide rapid The reentry system includes a payload retargeting mounting platform, penetration aids, capability. reentry vehicles and an aerodynamic shroud. A shroud protects the reentry Propulsion System. vehicles during the early phases of Three solid propel- powered flight. All three stages of the lant rocket motors “G” model are delivered preloaded from make up the pro- the manufacturers and emplaced into the pulsion system of LF as one unit. The PBCS and the the Minuteman “G” reentry system are assembled on the model (Fig. 17-5). missile in the launch tube after missile The first stage uses emplacement. a Thiokol M-55 solid propellant motor that generates 200,400 pounds of thrust. The second stage motor is built by Aerojet (SR19-AJ- 1), developing 60,700 pounds of thrust. These stages are identical to the Fig. 17-5. Minuteman

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 9 Peacekeeper (LGM-118A)

The Peacekeeper is a four-stage, inertially guided ICBM, with a range of more than 6,000 miles. The first three stages are solid propellant with Kevlar 49 casings. The fourth stage is liquid propelled. The Peacekeeper can carry eleven Mark 21 or twelve Mark 12A reentry vehicles. The operational deployment is ten Mark 21s. The guidance and control system is in stage four and uses a raceway with fiberoptic cabling to transmit commands to the first three stages. Peacekeeper missiles are maintained on alert in modified Fig. 17-6. Peacekeeper Launch Facility Minuteman LFs (Fig. 17-6) and commanded by modified Minuteman Airframe. The missile consists of rocket LCCs. Only one squadron of Peacekeeper motors, interstages, a raceway assembly, missiles is operational and it is deployed and the reentry system. The reentry at F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming. system is the Post Boost Vehicle minus the fourth stage. Peacekeeper is Propulsion System. Unlike the assembled in its canister at the LF Minuteman, Peacekeeper's engines do not following delivery of the components ignite in the silo. The missile is in a from the manufacturer. Along with canister with a Launch Ejection Gas several special vehicles, an “air elevator” Generator (LEGG). Like a sea-launched is used in this assembly process to lower ballistic missile, the Peacekeeper is the missile one stage at a time into the ejected from the canister and propelled canister. This isn't an easy task. It's been some 80 feet into the air before the first described as “similar to stacking BBs.” stage engine ignites. Peacekeeper's first three stages are solid propellant with U.S. SLBMs single exhaust nozzles. The first stage nozzle is movable through hydraulic SLBM History actuators powered by a hot gas generator and turbine centrifugal pump. A similar In 1955, the National Security Council gas generator turbine assembly extends requested an IRBM for the defense of the the nozzles on stages two and three. U.S. They further decided that part of the These Extendable Nozzle Exit Cones IRBM force should be sea-based. As a (ENEC) are folded before stage ignition result, the Navy was directed to design a and extend to provide better performance sea-based support system for the existing characteristics without increasing stage liquid-fueled Jupiter IRBM. This led to diameter or length. The fourth stage, the development of the Special Projects deployment module, guidance and Office (SPO) by the Secretary of the control section and shroud make up the Navy. The SPO was tasked with Post Boost Vehicle (PBV). The system adapting the Jupiter IRBM for shipboard operates like the PBCS on the launch. Originally, the Jupiter was an Minuteman “G” model using the new Army missile designed for land-based Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere launches. Because of the unique handling (AIRS) and the Missile Electronics and and storage requirements of liquid Computer Assembly (MECA). propellants, Navy crews encountered

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 10 storage and safety problems. As a result, Polaris. The Polaris (A1) program began the Navy began a parallel effort to the Air in 1957; later versions were called A2 Force in the development of alternate and A3. Its innovations included a two- solid-fueled rocket motors. stage solid propulsion system, an inertial Breakthroughs in solid fuels, which navigation guidance system, and a resulted in smaller and more powerful miniaturized nuclear warhead. motors, occurred in 1956. Reductions in Production ended in 1968 after more than the size of missile guidance, reentry 1,400 missiles had been built. The last vehicles and warheads further aided in version, the A3, had an increased range smaller missile technology. The first (2,900 miles compared with 1,700 miles solid-fueled missile incorporating this for the A2 model) and multiple warhead new technology was named Polaris. The capability. The missile was replaced by first submarine launch of a Polaris the Poseidon SLBM and later by the occurred in July 1960 from the USS Trident. GEORGE WASHINGTON. Three hours later a second missile was successfully Poseidon. The Poseidon (C3) weapon launched. These two shots marked the system was deployed on Poseidon beginning of sea-based nuclear (Lafayette-class) submarines. The deterrence for the U.S. Poseidon submarine was similar to the Since then, the Fleet Ballistic Missile one that carried the Polaris. They carried (FBM) has progressed through Polaris 16 missiles. Poseidon submarines, now and Poseidon, to the Trident I and Trident out of service (except for two converted II missiles of today. The Poseidon added to SSNs) were deployed from Charleston, MIRV capability while both generations South Carolina and Holy Loch, Scotland. of Trident increased range and accuracy. There are other changes as well. The Trident I. The Trident I (C4) backfit launcher system evolved from compressed weapon system was initially deployed on air units to steam-gas generators. The Poseidon submarines starting in 1979. The missile guidance systems now use in- Trident I system consisted of the Trident flight stellar updates. Navigation has I missile and updated launch and matured from external fixes to on-board preparation equipment. The Trident I computers. The missile fire control system missile has increased range and accuracy has developed through semiconductor and over the Poseidon (C3). The updated solid-state electronics to the present weapon system included many microchip technology. improvements resulting from new The first SSBN was constructed by technology. cutting a fast-attack submarine (USS The Trident I was deployed on early SCORPION) into two pieces and Ohio-class submarines in 1981; the pre- inserting a 16 tube missile compartment Ohio class submarines were retired in section. Since then, several classes of 1995. This weapon system consists of submarines have been designed and built the Trident I missile and new/modified specifically for the FBM mission. The launch and preparation equipment. The Ohio (726)-class submarine is the newest modifications to the launch and preparation generation of SSBN. The first submarine equipment result largely from of this class was deployed in 1981. This improvements in electronics technology. is the same class of submarines that carry The Ohio-class submarine was designed the Trident II strategic weapon system from the ground up to carry the new (SWS) and missile. Currently, the United weapon system. It is larger, faster and States has two different strategic weapon quieter than the Poseidon submarine and systems (Trident I and Trident II). carries 24 Trident I missiles.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 11 Trident II. The Trident II (D5) was tall, 2.6 feet wide, and weighs 4,200 deployed on the later Trident (Ohio- pounds. Each stage is controlled by a class) submarines, starting in March 1990. single movable nozzle activated by a gas This weapon system consists of Trident II generator. The PBCS and RV mounting missiles and a combination of new and platform surrounds the third stage rocket modified preparation and launch motor. At a predetermined time, a small equipment. The Trident II missile is rocket located on the top of the third significantly larger than the Trident I stage fires, backing it away from the because of the increased size of the first PBCS. Now taking on a doughnut stage motor, giving it a greater payload appearance, the PBCS fires and proceeds capability. The Trident II uses the latest to the RV deployment points. electronics for improved reliability and maintainability. The launch platform is Airframe. The airframe of the C-4 is basically the same submarine that carries similar to the Poseidon C-3. The C-4 has the Trident I. They are deployed from a length of 34 feet, a diameter of about Naval Submarine Bases at Bangor, WA six feet, and weighs about 73,000 and Kings Bay, GA. pounds. An aerodynamic spike The Trident II is also provided to the (AEROSPIKE) actuates by an inertial United Kingdom (U.K.) which puts its pyrotechnic device during first stage own warheads on the missiles. The U.K. flight. This aerospike increases missile deploys them on Vanguard-class range by reducing aerodynamic drag by submarines. about 50 percent. The nose fairing on the C-4 is also constructed of Sitka Spruce. Current SLBMs The fairing jettisons during second stage burn. Trident I C-4 Trident II D-5 The Trident I C-4 is a three-stage, solid propellant, inertial/stellar-guided, The Trident II D-5 is a three-stage, ICBM. It has a range of 4,000 nautical solid propellant, inertial/stellar guided, miles (4,600 statute miles). It carries a ICBM. It has a range of over 4,000 MIRVed system and was originally nautical miles (over 4,600 statute miles). deployed on the Lafayette- It carries a MIRVed re-entry system and class (all retired) and is deployed on Ohio-class submarines. currently on the Ohio-class 3 (Trident) submarines. Propulsion Subsystem. Three solid propellant rocket motors make up the Propulsion Subsystem. propulsion subsystem of the Trident II D- 2 Three solid propellant 5 missile (Fig. 17-8). Each stage of the rocket motors make up the D-5, like the C-4, contains nitroglycerin propulsion system of the C- 4 missile (see Fig. 17-7). and nitrocellulose-based propellants in the Each stage of the missile motor casing. The motor casing for the contains a nitroglycerin and first and second stages is constructed of nitrocellulose-base propellant 1 graphite and epoxy, while the third stage encased in a Kevlar/epoxy of the D-5 consists of Kevlar/epoxy rocket motor casing. Stage I materials; these materials are lighter than is 14.75 feet long or about half the missile's length. It those used in the Trident I. Stage one is approximately 26 feet long, almost seven is six feet wide and weighs approximately 19,300 pounds. Fig. 17-7. feet wide, and weighs 65,000 pounds. The third stage is ten feet Trident I Stage two is eight feet long, seven feet

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 12 wide and weighs beam and has a submerged displacement approximately 19,000 of 18,700 tons. Although over two times lbs. The third stage is 10 larger than the Franklin-class in volume feet tall, 2.5 feet in 3 displacement, the Ohio-class requires diameter, and weighs only 16 officers and 148 enlisted crew 4,200 pounds. A single members. The Ohio-class submarine movable nozzle, actuated carries up to 24 Trident I or Trident II by a gas generator, 2 missiles. controls each stage. Like the C-4, the third stage of Cruise Missile Weapon Systems the D-5 is surrounded by the PBCS and the RV Cruise missiles are described here for mounting platform. 1 comparison with the previous weapon During third stage systems. There are several major separation, the stage slides differences between ballistic missiles and back through the cruise missiles. First is that ballistic equipment section along missiles are only in powered flight for a support rails. Taking on short time (being fired hundreds of miles a doughnut appearance, up, then letting gravity carry them to a the PBCS fires and target). Cruise missiles are continuously proceeds to the powered because they fly close to the deployment points for Fig. 17-8. earth. The second major difference is a RV release. Trident II consequence of the first; cruise missiles have a much shorter range. Third, cruise Airframe. The Trident II D-5 is 44 feet missiles fly at subsonic speeds while in length, approximately seven feet in ballistic missile warheads arrive at up to diameter and weighs 130,000 pounds. Mach 20; so cruise missiles have a lot in Like the Trident I C-4, the D-5 employs common with unmanned aircraft. an AEROSPIKE during first stage burn. Cruise missile weapon systems consist The nose fairing is constructed of Sitka of the Air Launched Cruise Missile Spruce and jettisons during second stage (ALCM), the Sea Launched Cruise burn. All other airframe characteristics Missile (SLCM) and the Advanced of the D-5 are the same as the Poseidon Cruise Missile (ACM). While the launch C-3 and the Trident I C-4. techniques used by each system are different, their airframe characteristics, Ohio Class Submarine guidance systems, propulsion systems and flight profiles are similar. All 18 Ohio-class submarines were operational as of 1998. Shown in Fig. Airframe 17-9, each is 560 feet long, 42 feet in Cruise missile airframes (Fig. 17-10) are approximately 20 feet long and 20 inches in diameter. These missiles weigh close to 3,000 pounds at launch. The guidance system in the forward portion of the missile uses two separate techniques to achieve outstanding accuracy. A Terrain Contour Matching (TERCOM) system provides periodic location updates correcting any drift or errors in the Fig. 17-9. Ohio-class Ballistic Missile Submarine inertial guidance set. Later missiles include GPS guidance. Aft of the

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 13 guidance compartment is the warhead. vertical launch tubes (in addition to the The ALCM and ACM carry nuclear standard 4 horizontal tubes). warheads, while the SLCM may be either The Tomahawk is an all-weather, nuclear or conventional. Behind the subsonic missile which, when launched warhead is the fuel tank for the turbofan from a submarine, rises to the surface and engine. After the fuel tank is the deploys small wings and starts a small midsection where the missile's wings turbofan engine which propels it toward meet the fuselage. the target. The small size of the Tomahawk gives it a low radar cross section and its low-level flight profile makes it difficult to intercept. The TLAM is launched on a preset course above the water and, as it crosses over land, switches to an inertial and Terrain Contour Matching (TERCOM) system to guide the missile to its target

Fig. 17-10. Sea Launched Cruise Missile (SLCM) with an accuracy measured in feet. SLCM and ACM wings are eight feet TLAM warheads consist of seven inches long and extend straight out conventional high explosives (TLAM-C) from the fuselage. ALCM wings are 12 or scattering bomblets (TLAM-D). feet long and swept back 25 degrees. Aft Block III TLAMs have an extended range of the midsection is the air inlet for the and incorporate a Global Positioning turbofan engine. SLCM and ACM air System (GPS) receiver for improved inlets are on the bottom of the airframe reliability and time-of-arrival control to while the ALCM's is on top. SLCM and permit coordinated strikes between other ALCM air inlets are kept retracted into missiles and aircraft. The GPS feature the airframe until needed during flight. will also make it easier to retarget the Immediately behind the air inlet is the tail missiles while at sea, thus enhancing cone section which contains an F-1017- mission planning. WR turbofan engine. This engine weighs 145 pounds and produces about 600 ALCM Airframe pounds of thrust. The tail cone section also provides attachment points for the The ALCM's overall dimensions and missile's tail fins. Finally, there is a solid component locations are similar to the rocket motor on the SLCM. This rocket SLCM. The ALCM (Fig. 17-11) differs accelerates the missile to a speed of 550 from the other cruise missile variants in mph the shape of its airframe and wings, the location of its air inlet and its lack of a Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) solid rocket motor.

The Tomahawk is a long-range cruise missile that can be used against surface ships or land targets, employing several different types of warheads. The missile entered service in submarines in 1983, and is also launched from surface vessels. TLAMs are launched from standard 21- inch torpedo tubes and, in the later Los Angeles-class submarines, from 12 Fig. 17-11. ALCM

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 14 Launch Flight Profile

The SLCM comes in a canister, which Flight profiles from the ITCP to the functions as a shipping and storage target are similar for both cruise missiles. container and firing tube. A canister A pre-programmed path stored in its loaded with a warhead-equipped missile onboard computer (inertial guidance is an All-Up-Round (AUR). When a navigational system) guides the missile launch command is received, the SLCM's from the ITCP to the target. The solid rocket motor fires and accelerates TERCOM system compares information the missile to a speed of 550 mph. The about the land terrain relief stored in the tail fins deploy six seconds after the cruise missile's computer memory with booster ignites. Two seconds later the the actual terrain it is flying over. turbofan sustainer engine starts and Various altimeters collect the actual propels the missile to its Initial Timing terrain relief data. The missile's position Control Point (ITCP). Since ALCM's is determined and commands are sent to initial velocity is provided by its carrier an automatic pilot which corrects the aircraft, it does not need a rocket booster. course. Digital maps of terrain areas are The ALCM's wings, elevons and fin compiled by first digitizing the height of deploy immediately after the missile is a point on the earth's surface whose released from the aircraft. The turbofan coordinates are known. Adjoining points engine then starts and the flight control are then established, assembled into a system begins. The ALCM then digitized map of the area, and stored in proceeds to the ITCP. the memory of the cruise missile's computer.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 15 REFERENCES

General references on missiles:

Baar, J., and W.E. Howard. Polaris, 1960.

Beard, Edmund. Developing the ICBM, 1976.

Cohen, William S., Secretary of Defense. Annual Report to the President and the Con- gress, 8 Feb 00 – outlines DoD’s programs for the coming year, http://www.dtic.mil/execsec/adr2000/adr2000.pdf (in .PDF format) - Chapter 8, Nuclear Forces and Missile Defenses (9 pages) - Appendix D-1, DoD Strategic Forces Highlights (1 page)

Collier's Encyclopedia, Crowell-Collier Publishing Company, 1963, Volume 17.

Gatland, Kenneth. Missiles and Rockets, 1975.

Neufeld, Jacob. Ballistic Missiles in the United States Air Force, 1945-1960. Office of Air Force History, United States Air Force: Washington, DC, 1990

Pegasus. Facts On File, Inc.: Facts on File World News Digest, 1990.

Space and Missile Orientation Course Study Guide, 4315 CCTS/CMCP, Vandenberg AFB, CA, 1 June 1992.

“Strategic Missiles,” Air Force Magazine, May 1993.

US Strategic Command, Offutt AFB, NE, 6 Jul 00, http://www.stratcom.af.mil - “The Forces” has links to strategic weapon systems and bases - “Fact Sheets” has links to strategic weapon systems

General references on nuclear effects:

Comprehensive Study on Nuclear Weapons, United Nations Centre for Disarmament, report to the Secretary-General, Vol 1, New York, 1981.

Hansen, Chuck. U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History. New York, Orion Books, 1988.

McNaught, L.W. Nuclear Weapons & Their Effects. New York, Brassey's Defence Publishers, 1984.

Tsipis, Kosta. Arsenal: Understanding Weapons in the Nuclear Age. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1983.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 16

ICBM-related Fact Sheets/Summaries:

20th Air Force, FE Warren AFB, WY – ICBM component of USSTRATCOM, http://www.warren.af.mil/20af/default.htm

91st Space Wing, Minot AFB, ND – representative of the 3 ICBM wings, http://www.minot.af.mil/base/squadrons/91sw.html

USAF Fact Sheet, Atlas E, Office of Public Affairs, Hq Air Force Space Command, Peterson AFB, CO, Nov 91.

USAF Fact Sheet, LGM-30G Minuteman III, Public Affairs Office, Peterson AFB, CO, Aug 99, http://www.af.mil/news/factsheets/LGM_30_Minuteman_III.html

USAF Fact Sheet, LG-118A Peacekeeper, Public Affairs Office, Peterson AFB, CO, Oct 99, http://www.af.mil/news/factsheets/LG_118A_Peacekeeper.html

SLBM Submarine Fact Sheets/Summaries:

Fleet Ballistic Missile Submarines, Dept of the Navy, Washington, DC, nd, http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/ships/submarines/centennial/images/ssbns_new.pdf

Fleet Ballistic Missile Submarines – SSBN, Dept of the Navy, Washington, DC, 21 Sep 99, http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/factfile/ships/ship-ssbn.html

Submarine Operations Today (slides), Dept of the Navy, Washington, DC, nd, http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/ships/submarines/centennial/subops/index.htm

Trident I (C-4) Missile and Trident II (D-5) Missile, 28 Apr 00, http://www.sublant.navy.mil/weapons.htm#C-4 and http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/factfile/missiles/wep-d5.html

Impact of Strategic Disarmament on Missiles:

The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (full text plus agreed statements, understandings, and protocols), http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/treaties/abmpage.html

START III at a Glance (fact sheet), Arms Control Association, Washington, DC, Jan 99, http://www.armscontrol.org/FACTS/start3.html

Treaty on the Further Reduction and Limitation Of Strategic Offensive Arms (START II) fact sheet, Bureau of Public Affairs, US State Dept, 20 Mar 96, http://www.state.gov/www/regions/nis/russia_start2_treaty.html

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 17 Text, statements, analysis by Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington, DC, http://www.ceip.org/programs/npp/start2.htm

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 17 - 18 Chapter 18

REST-OF-WORLD (ROW) SATELLITE SYSTEMS

For the longest time, space exploration was an exclusive club comprised of only two members, the United States and the Former Soviet Union. That has now changed due to a number of factors, among the more dominant being economics, advanced and improved technologies and national imperatives. Today, the number of nations with space programs has risen to over 40 and will continue to grow as the costs of spacelift and technology continue to decrease.

RUSSIAN SATELLITE SYSTEMS The satellite section of the Russian In the post-Soviet era, Russia contin- space program continues to be predomi- ues its efforts to improve both its military nantly government in character, with and commercial space capabilities. most satellites dedicated either to civil/ These enhancements encompass both military applications (such as communi- orbital assets and ground-based space cations and meteorology) or exclusive support facilities. Russia has done some military missions (such as reconnaissance restructuring of its operating principles and targeting). A large portion of the regarding space. While these efforts have Russian space program is kept running by attempted not to detract from space-based launch services, boosters and launch support to military missions, economic sites, paid for by foreign commercial issues and costs have lead to a lowering companies. of Russian space-based capabilities in The most obvious change in Russian both orbital assets and ground station space activity in recent years has been the capabilities. decrease in space launches and corre- The influence of Glasnost on Russia's sponding payloads. Many of these space programs has been significant, but launches are for foreign payloads, not public announcements regarding space Russian. This can be attributed not only programs focus primarily on commercial to the recent breakup of the Soviet space promotion and budgetary justifica- Union, but also to the fact that Russian tion of the civil and commercial space satellites are gradually becoming more programs. Admissions of their military sophisticated and longer-lived. This in- use of space remain infrequent, and the creased operational efficiency is the mark economic measures reported by space of a more mature military space program program managers, appear to be designed which can reduce redundancy while ac- largely to avoid calls for further constraints. complishing its missions. Economic Despite restructuring throughout the problems throughout Russia have lead to Russian military, the objectives of the many problems in building and launching military space programs have not these new satellites. While Russia retains changed. Military space strategy still the surge launch and reconstitution capa- requires sufficient capability to provide bilities that are essential for military op- effective space-based support to terres- erations in crisis or conflict, money and trial military forces and the capability to lack of maintenance to ground facilities deny the use of space to other states. cast doubts on the viability of this former Maintaining this capability has, however, Soviet capability. proved extremely difficult in post-Soviet Russia. Space-Based Military Support Missions and Operations

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18 - 1 An extensive array of spacecraft was from two separate cosmodromes; Ple- developed to support the Soviet, now setsk in Russia and Tyuratam in Kazakh- Russian, armed forces and political lead- stan. Due to the current political consid- ership. These satellite systems conduct erations between Russia and Kazakhstan, missions which include: imagery; elec- it is doubtful that Russia would launch an tronic and radar reconnaissance; launch ASAT system from Tyuratam. No Rus- detection and attack warning; ocean sur- sian ASAT has been launched since veillance and targeting; command, con- 1982. trol, and communications; geodetic, navi- Russia maintains a significant ASAT gational, and meteorological support; capability against low-earth and medium- anti-satellite (ASAT) operations; and earth orbit satellites, but capabilities military R&D. Reports in 1999 indicated against high altitude ones are limited. that Russia's military space forces had Future ASAT developments could in- barely the resources to meet the needs of clude new directed energy weapons or the nation's armed forces. direct-ascent non-nuclear interceptors. These systems, in turn, are supported In addition to the co-orbital intercep- by a tremendous infrastructure on the tor, Russia has additional potential ASAT ground, including the Ministry of De- capabilities. These capabilities include: fense (MOD) main space command, con- exo-atmospheric ABM missiles, located trol and telemetry complex near Moscow. around Moscow, that could be used Improvement, maintenance and refur- against satellites in near-earth orbit; at bishment of this infrastructure has con- least one ground-based laser, that may tinued despite a lower launch rate. Plans have sufficient power to damage some are ongoing to streamline the command unprotected satellites in near-earth orbits; and control systems, both civil and mili- and electronic warfare assets that proba- tary, to optimize the networks. bly would be used against satellites at all Russian sources have stated that more altitudes. Research and development of that 70 percent of the spacecraft and technologies applicable to more advanced ground facilities active in 1999 have out- ASAT systems continue. Areas of inves- lived their guaranteed service lives. tigation that appear to hold promise include high energy laser, particle beam, Anti-satellite Systems radio frequency and kinetic technologies.

The Russian military and political Photographic Reconnaissance leadership is fully aware of the value of military space systems. They have developed the capability to disrupt and de- Photographic reconnaissance by satel- stroy the military space systems of poten- lite to gather high resolution images of tial enemies. Russia built a dedicated military installations and activities was so ASAT system that probably became op- clearly of value to both the East and West erational in 1971. In August 1983, Mos- that its development was one of the main cow announced a unilateral moratorium incentives in the early years of the space on the launch of ASAT weapons. How- era. Russia has both the older film return ever, Russia continued the testing of systems and newer digital, near-real-time, ASAT elements and procedures on the imaging systems. As with most of its ground, and the associated booster, the satellite programs, Russian capability SL-11. The SL-11 is also the same here has declined since the break-up of booster used to launch the ELINT Ocean the Soviet Union. During the 1980's the Reconnaissance Satellites (EORSATs) Soviet Union launched over 30 photo- and Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satel- reconnaissance satellites, always having lites (RORSATs), although the last at least one imagery satellite in orbit. RORSAT launch was in 1988. The co- Russia currently has not been able to orbital interceptor has been launched maintain anything near this rate. In fact,

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18 - 2 between September 28, 1996 and May 15, 1997, there were no Russian imagery satellites in orbit. Russia’s COSMOS film return “spy” satellites (Fig. 18-1) normally operate in low orbits that pass over geographic areas of interest. These satellites are designed to withstand the heat of reentry so that they can be recovered. They are used mainly for military purposes, but do have civilian uses. A current commercial venture is using

Fig. 18-2. Molniya 1 Communications Satellite The Ekran (Screen), Gorizont (Hori- zon) and Raduga (Rainbow) series, were the Soviet Union’s first generation of Fig. 18-1. Cosmos geosynchronous satellites. The Ruduga was the first system launched in 1975. older Russian film return satellites to This system is used primarily for military image areas of the earth for commercial and government communications chan- sales. The imagery is processed at a nels in addition to some domestic links. resolution of two meters and then digi- Launched in 1976, the Ekran was the tized and made available for sale via Soviet Union’s first civil geostationary Internet. This project is a joint Russian- communications satellite, providing di- US venture called SPIN-2 (SPace INfor- rect TV broadcast to Siberia. mation - 2 meter). Gorizont was the next geostationary system, first launched in 1978 (Fig. 18- Communication 3). This constellation is mainly used for TV distribution, telecommunications Russia operates several communica- services and maritime/mobile aeronauti- tions satellite systems. These satellites cal receivers in western regions of Russia operate in highly inclined, geostationary via the Moskva system. In design, this and low-earth orbits. system is very similar to the Ruduga. The Molniya (Lightning) satellite series orbits in a highly inclined orbit that places it over the Russian landmass for approximately eight hours of its 12 hour orbit. With satellites placed 90 degrees apart, 24 hour communications are possible. This series was first launched in 1965. The Molniya-1 series are primarily used for military and government communications (Fig. 18-2). The Molniya-3 series are for civil and domestic telecommunications as well as TV broadcasts. Fig. 18-3. Gorizont Communications Satellite

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18 - 3 These systems are being replaced by Navigation newer generations of geostationary satellites. The Ekran is being replaced by the Russia maintains three satellite navi- Gals series while the Gorizont follow-on gational systems: a low altitude military, is the Express system. a low altitude civil and a medium altitude Russia has one additional geostation- system, GLONASS. ary system, a Satellite Data Relay Net- The low alti- work (SRDN) with the satellite some- tude military times referred to as Luch or Loutch. This satellites, Parus system was intended to relay communi- (sail) provide cations between manned satellites and primary naviga- ground controllers. First launched in tional support to 1985, they were used extensively to relay their maritime communications with the MIR space sta- forces. The tion and the manned Soyuz spacecraft. It civil system has was also used to support the test flight of two different the Russian space shuttle Buran in 1988. versions. The In 1992, Russian press reported that MIR original version was operating without satellite links due is Tsikada while Fig. 18-4. Nadezhda to cost, leaving the station out of contact a version with with ground control for up to 9 hours a the Cospas/Sarsat search and rescue trans- day. Currently there is only one opera- ponder is called Nadezhda (Hope). (Fig. tional SRDN satellite in orbit. This is 18-4) used by the MIR during special events, The GLONASS (Global Navigation such as space walks and docking opera- Satellite System, Globalnaya Navigatsion- tions. naya Sputnikovaya Sistema) system is Russia also has many other communi- similar to the U.S. GPS satellite naviga- cation satellites in lower orbits used pri- tion system. Like the GPS, GLONASS marily for military communications. has many civil applications and commer- There are a variety of systems, most cial receivers are available (Fig. 18-5). launched in multiples of six or eight at a time. These systems often use a store and dump method of communications, receiving transmissions from locations around the world and storing the messages until over a Russian receiving station. A version of the sextet system without the military transponders was offered commercially in 1990 to foreign buyers interested in establishing their own store and forward communications networks. This system is marketed under the name Gonets. Fig. 18-5. GLONASS Navigation Satellite Of all the Russian satellite systems, the communications constellations are in While the Parus and civil systems the best shape. These systems are, how- have had regular replacements and are in ever, showing their age and those in orbit good shape, the GLONASS system is need to be replaced by current or up- not. Designed to operate with a 24 satel- graded systems. This problem was high- lite constellation, first achieved in De- lighted by launch failures in 1996 and cember 1995, satellites have reached the 1999, to place a Raduga satellite in orbit. end of their operational live and have not been replaced. Currently the GLONASS system is operating with less than 15 sat-

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18 - 4 ellites. This is barely adequate for Rus- for submarine launched missiles. In sian military needs but without regular 1988, a new series of early warning satel- replacements in the near future, the sys- lites, Prognoz, (Fig. 18-7) took over the tem may breakdown and be unable to geosynchronous location. perform its mission beyond the year As with 2001. many of Rus- sia's satellite Meteorological and Natural Resources systems, the early warning Russia’s weather satellites provide constellation them with vital is not fully environmental operational. information In 1999, only including three of the cloud coverage nine Oko of earth; the slots were flow of radia- filled. These tion in near- three satel- Fig. 18-7. Prognoz earth space; lites orbit the Earth every 12 hours in highly elliptical Fig. 18-6. Elektro and atmospheric dust orbits, but are unable to see the U.S. mis- formations. sile sites for about seven hours during Russian maintains both geo-stationary each orbit. One Oko and one Prognoz (Elektro) (Fig. 18-6) and polar orbiting are currently in geo-stationary orbit to (Meteor) weather satellites. The Meteor cover the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean. system was first launched in 1969 while the geo-stationary Elektro was not ELINT Reconnaissance launched until 1994. Their natural resource satellites col- Russia also has satellites to gather lect and analyze data covering a wide Electronic Intelligence (ELINT). Their range of areas. These include agriculture, task is to identify and locate military ra- forestry, geology, mineral surveys, hy- dio and radar stations, making it possible drology, oceanography, geography and to identify command and control centers, environmental control. Natural resource forward battle elements, air defense units data can be collected by photo- and reveal military movements. There reconnaissance satellites, manned MIR have been several types of ELINT satel- missions and by oceanographic satellites. lites, although only two types are thought to be currently deployed.

Early Warning Ocean Reconnaissance

Russian early warning satellites are The primary function of ocean recon- used for detection of ballistic missile naissance satellites is to detect, locate and launches. The first system, Oko (eye) target U.S. and Allied naval forces for was placed in Molniya orbits allowing destruction by anti-ship weapons. Two Russia to view the continental U.S. First satellites that performed this mission are launched in 1972, this system reached the ELINT Ocean Reconnaissance Satel- full operational capability of nine satellite (EORSAT) and the Radar Ocean Re- lites in 1987. Four early warning satel- connaissance Satellite (RORSAT - no lites have been placed into geosynchro- longer active). These systems are de- nous orbits (1975, 1984, 1985 and 1987) signed to work in pairs, their combined to develop geo-stationary technologies data building a comprehensive view of and to provide coverage over ocean areas surface activity. The RORSAT has an

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18 - 5 active search system which can locate manned and reactivated in early Septem- ships in all weather conditions, while the ber. The space station was continuously EORSAT is a passive collector of trans- occupied until 30 Aug 1999. The MIR’s missions from both radio and radar units. capabilities for military and scientific research were vastly enhanced by launching the 20-ton Kvant-2 module in late November of 1989. As part of its equipment, the Kvant-2 carries an external gimbaled platform outfitted with a variety of sensors. Reporting indicates that these sensors are for earth resource studies only; however, military applications are also possible. Kvant-2 has a larger hatch for egress into space. It also delivered a manned maneuvering unit to the MIR. Kristall, the materials technology module, was added to the MIR complex Fig. 18-8. Okean Oceanographic in June 1990 to facilitate the production Satellite of various materials under microgravity A third satellite with a more civilian conditions. Such materials have civil mission is the Okean. Its primary mission is ice and oceanographic reconnaissance (Fig. 18-8). Another category includes “minor military” satellites. These satellites have missions of radar calibration, atmospheric drag measurement and spacecraft technology experimentation.

Scientific Satellites

Russia launches some scientific satel- Fig. 18-9. MIR Space Station Complex lites that have instruments to study physical activity such as shock waves and applications as well as military. solar wind. Some satellites that contain living organisms are launched to study Kristall also has a docking port, origi- biological conditions in space. nally designed as a potential means of docking the Russian space shuttle orbiter. Man and Man-related Space Programs It is now attached to the Docking Module used by the U.S. shuttle fleet. Manned Russian programs include the In 1995, the Spektr module was added MIR (Peace) space station (Fig. 18-9), to the station. The focus for this module whose core was launched in 1986. This is Earth observation. Both Russian and complex provides a space-based science American equipment are carried on-board lab to conduct military and civilian ex- the Spektr. This module also has addi- periments. The first addition to MIR was tional solar panels to increase the power the Kvant-1 module in 1987, containing capability of the MIR space station. astrophysics instruments, additional life With the increase in international co- support and attitude control equipment. operation, arrangements were made for After a four month hiatus in mid-1989, the U.S. Space Shuttle to dock with MIR. the MIR space station complex was re- In June 1995, the U.S. shuttle docked to MIR for the first time. However, to make

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18 - 6 that possible, the MIR configuration had the ISS make it almost impossible to to be changed. During a spacewalk, Rus- maintain both MIR and the ISS. sian cosmonauts moved the Krystall In 2000, MIRCorp, a commercial en- module to give the shuttle enough clear- terprise, leased the use of MIR. Made up ance to dock. The module had to be re- of RSC Energia, MIRs builder and other turned to its original position after the financial groups, MIRCorp is now re- mission. In November 1995, the shuttle sponsible for funding, supply, control and delivered and installed a Docking Mod- mission for the MIR. With private con- ule to the Krystal module. trol of MIR, its future remains to be seen. The latest addition was the Priroda Between April and June 2000 a crew was module in April 1996. Its primary pur- sent to the station for checkout and to pose is to add Earth remote sensing capa- return it to operational status. A paying bility to the station. The module also customer is training for a flight to MIR in contains hardware and supplies for sev- early 2001. Funding is still the driving eral joint U.S.-Russian science experi- issue on MIRs live span. ments. With the final assembly complete in Russian Space Shuttle 1996, the core module had long exceeded its planned life of five years. The station The Russian shuttle Buran (Snowstorm) also was a critical platform for develop- was launched in the fall of 1988 on an ing the International Space Station. unmanned flight (Fig. 18-10). Technical During 1997, MIR suffered several and financial problems in Russia have problems with internal systems. In Feb- halted this program. ruary, there was a fire in the oxygen- generating system that was extinguished, followed in March by additional repairs to the oxygen-generating system. Also in March 1997, the crew had a partial power outage and encountered problems with the motion control system. During April 1997, an overheated carbon dioxide re- mover had to be shut down and a cooling leak repaired. Potentially, the most damaging event occurred in June 1997, when a Progress resupply vehicle collided with the Spektr module. This collision damaged the solar panels and created a leak in the module. The crew had to seal off the Spektr from the rest of the station to prevent total loss of air in MIR. This rapid sealing off involved disconnecting cables from the Spektr to the station, resulting in a loss of 50 percent of the sta- Fig. 18-10. Buran tions power producing capability. Fur- ther, computer problems have put the Solar System Exploration future of the MIR into serious doubt. MIR has survived in space for over 12 Russia has launched numerous probes years and was occupied continuously for to the Moon, Venus and Mars. Collec- almost 10 years. With the start of the tion and return of soil samples from the International Space Station, ISS, in 1998, Moon, mapping and other scientific ex- the future of MIR in unknown. While periments have taken place. Russia would like to keep its space sta- Both solar system exploration and tion in orbit, its commitments to support earth orbit science missions have suffered

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18 - 7 under budget constraints. No new pro- Communications grams have started in recent years, or are likely to, and it has been a struggle for These European countries have com- Russian to maintain operations of some munications/TV broadcast satellites: already in orbit. Some of the current • United Kingdom - Skynet series programs would not survive without for- • France - Telecom series eign participation. • Germany - DFS series • Hungry - CERES UKRAINE SATELLITE SYSTEMS • Italy - Italsat series • Luxembourg - Astra series • Norway - Thor series After Russia, Ukraine has the most ac- Spain - Hispasat series tive space program. Several booster and • • Sweden - Siries satellite manufacturing companies and subcontractors exist in Ukraine. Some of There are also several international the old Soviet Union's satellite and space communications satellites that Europe control sites are also located in Ukraine. uses internationally:

Ocean Reconnaissance • Eutelsat, European Telecommuni- cations Satellite Organization, 47 Ukraine currently operates only one members satellite. Based on a Soviet ocean recon- • Inmarsat, International Mobile Sat- naissance satellite, this Ukraine built satellite Organization, 79 members ellite family is used for all-weather radar • Intelsat, International Telecommu- ice and oceanographic surveillance by nications Satellite Organization, both Russia and Ukraine. This satellite 136 members family is called Okean (Ocean) by the Russians. In 1995 a joint Russian/ Earth Resources Ukrainian project launched an Okean which the Ukrainians took over full op- ERS Series erational control in late 1995. This program is called Sich by Ukraine. Im- The European Remote Sensing (ERS) proved versions of the Okean are planned satellite system has three different radar by Ukraine. These versions when used sensors for all-weather sensing (Fig. 18- exclusively by Ukraine will be known as 11). It is intended for global measure- Sich-2 and Sich-3. ments of sea wind and waves, ocean and

EUROPEAN SATELLITE SYSTEMS

The majority of the satellites produced or launched by European nations have been for scientific research or communications (including television). Many of these projects are also multi-national in construction or usage. To cover all the countries in Europe and their various national and international programs is beyond the general scope of this publication. Fig. 18-11. ERS - series Satellite

ice monitoring, coastal studies and a small amount of land imagery. An ESA

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18 - 8 project, the system had contractors tional d’Etudes Spatiales), the French throughout Europe. National Space Center, and developed ERS-1 was launched in 1991, followed with the participation of Sweden and Belgium. The system comprises a series of spacecraft plus ground facilities for satellite control and programming, image production and distribution. The exploitation is managed by CNES and SPOT Image. CNES is directly responsible for on-orbit control of the satellite and the execution of the acquisition plan. SPOT Image is in charge of pre- processing the image telemetry and pro-

Fig. 18-12. North Sea oil spill detected by ERS by ERS-2 in 1995. Both satellites were placed in polar, low-earth orbit (LEO). One of the first Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) commercial earth resource satellites, the demand for ERS-1 products exceeded the preparatory studies and surveys. The range of customers is enormous, from individual scientists to multi-institutional research groups and from small high-tech firms to multi- Fig. 18-13. SPOT Imaging Satellite billion dollar firms and large public services (Fig. 18-12). ducing the products. It is also responsi- FRENCH SATELLITE SYSTEMS ble for the commercial exploitation of SPOT data. Receive locations for SPOT Within the European community, imagery are organized as two networks; a France has the most active national satel- centralized network and a decentralized lite program. These programs include network (Fig. 18-14). The central net- both commercial and military applica- work is comprised of the main imagery tions. In addition to communications, receiving stations at Toulouse, France France has developed, launched and now and Kiruna, Sweden. The decentralized controls earth resources, military imagery network consists of receive locations and a signals intelligence testbed satel- around the world having contracts with lite. SPOT Image to receive SPOT imagery. The basic difference between the two Earth Resources Satellites networks is that the centralized stations can receive data recorded on the satellite, SPOT Series hence imagery of any part of the Earth. The other stations can only receive im- The Satellite Probatorire d’Observation ages directly from within their zone of de la Terre, SPOT, is an optical earth re- visibility, a circle about 2,500 km around sources satellite (Fig. 18-13). The satel- the station. This decentralized network lite was designed by CNES (Centre Na- consisted of twenty stations in 1997.

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18 - 9

Fig. 18-14. SPOT Image Receive Stations SPOT has two imaging modes, pan- Military Systems chromatic and multispectral. The 10 meter resolution panchromatic (black & In December 1985, the French gov- white image) is for applications calling ernment approved the development of a for fine geometrical detail. The multis- military reconnaissance satellite for pectral mode that images in three bands, launch in the 1990’s. The satellite would green, red and near infrared, gives a color be based on the SPOT series with up- composite image. The imaging systems graded optics and recording systems. are capable of tilting the image viewing The development was aided by funding area to obtain stereo images. from Italy and Spain. SPOT-1 was launched in February 1986 and withdrawn from active service Helios in December 1990. SPOT-2 was launched in January 1990 to replace SPOT-1. In July 1995, Helios-1A was launched SPOT-3 was launched in September 1993. into a 680 Km polar, sun-synchronous Each satellite has a design life of three orbit. Helios provided the fourth inde- years; however, in the case of SPOT-1 pendent military surveillance capability and SPOT-2, they are proving to have a after those of the U.S., Russia and China. longer operational life. The imagery system is stated to be a mul- In late 1996, at just over three years, tispectral, digital (near-real-time) camera SPOT-3 suffered an unrecoverable mal- with a one meter resolution. function. SPOT-2 remained operational NATO's 1999 air campaign in the Bal- and SPOT-1 was reactivated in January kans has emphasized the importance of 1997 to maintain SPOT coverage. Both space systems. Several European nations SPOT-1 and -2 have inoperable data re- are looking at national and joint efforts to corders and therefore, can only operate in improve European reconnaissance sys- the real-time acquisition mode. SPOT-4 tems. Conditions in the Balkans also was launched March 20, 1998. With showed the need for radar and infrared SPOT-4 active, the SPOT system is now reconnaissance systems. Helios-1A was back to its full capability. the only non-US observation satellite used in the campaign. While the systems

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18 - 10 performance was publicly praised, in a piece of space debris. Subsequent ob- drove home the point of European reli- servations and analysis seemed to con- ance on U.S. systems. Many European firm the collision of a section of a 10 year governments feel they have to prepare for old Ariane rocket stage with the 6-meter a time when European defense forces will long stabilization boom of CERISE. This be engaged in a conflict in which the is the first ever collision between two United States does not take part and catalogued space objects. The collision Europe must have its own assets. While is especially unusual because it was well seen as important, this development may documented by tracking systems and take 10 to 15 years. involved all European hardware (Fig. In December 1999, the second satellite 18-16). of the series, Helios-1B, was launched. Work is ongoing for the follow-on, He- lios-2. This satellite is planned to include an infrared imaging system as well as an optical camera. The proposed time frame for a Helios-2 is around 2002.

CERISE

In addition to military imagery, France Fig. 18-16. Depiction of is beginning the development of an CERISE/Ariane collision ELINT satellite reconnaissance capability. On the same launch as Helios in July In December 1999, a second testbed 1995, the 50 kg CERISE (Caracterisataion satellite, Clemetime, was launched along de l’Environnement Radioelectriqur par un with the Helios-1B imaging satellite. Instrument Spatial Embarque) was launched to help characterize the Earth’s radio environment in research that could lead ASIA/PACIFIC SATELLITE to a national ELINT satellite. The tech- SYSTEMS nology testbed had a designed lifespan of 2.5 years (Fig. 18-15). Throughout Asian and Pacific Rim countries there are many satellite programs and users. Currently, only the Peoples Republic of China, Japan and India have satellite launch capability. As in Europe, many Asian and Pacific nations use international satellite systems in addition to buying satellites and launch services to place a satellite in orbit. Most of these satellites are for communications: radio, telephone or television. As with Europe, to cover all the nations in Asia and their various national and international programs is beyond the general scope to this document. Fig. 18-15. CERISE On 24 July 1996, ground controllers Communications observed a sudden change in attitude of the CERISE. The satellite appeared to be The majority of the satellites used by tumbling rapidly end-over-end. Initial Asian and Pacific nations are communi- investigations suspected a collision with cations systems. These systems are generally built and launched by another

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18 - 11 country. The following Asian nations lites relay meteorological data from fixed have communications/TV broadcast sat- and mobile stations within their field of ellites: view.

• Australia - 4 Optus satellites MOS series • Hong Kong - 3 Asiasat, 3 Apstar • Indonesia - 4 Palapa, 1 Cakrawarta Japan’s first domestic earth resources • South Korea - 2 Mugunghua satellite was the Marine Observation Sat- • Malaysia - 2 Measat ellite (MOS) launched in 1987. A second • Philippines - 1 Agila was launched in 1990. The MOS satel- • Thailand - 3 Thaicom lites were developed to acquire expertise • Singapore - 1 ST-1 for later operational systems. These satellites monitored atmospheric water va- JAPANESE SATELLITE SYSTEMS por, ocean currents, sea surface temperature and ice floe distribution in addition Within Asia, Japan has the most ex- to land applications. Sensors included a tensive space program. Japan has the Multi-Spectrum Electronic Self-Scanning ability to build, launch and control space Radiometer (MESSR), a Microwave systems and satellites. Most Japanese Scanning Radiometer (MSR) and a Vis- launches have been Japanese scientific, ual and Thermal Infrared Radiometer communications and earth resources sat- (VTIR). Both satellites are now out of ellites. A major problem with the Japa- service, MOS-1B ending its mission life nese space program getting into the in May 1996. commercial market has been the cost of their launches. JERS series

Communications The Japan Earth Resources Satellite (JERS) was the second domestic remote The Japanese have several different sensing satellite and the first to operate at communications corporations that own all-weather radar wavelengths (Fig. 18- and control satellites. Most systems are 17). The synthetic aperture radar (SAR) located in geostationary orbits. These is accompanied by an optical sensor. The systems include: JERS-1 was launched in February 1992.

• Broadcasting Satellite Systems, BSAT • 2 BSAT Satellites • Japan Satellite Systems, JSAT • 5 JSAT Satellites • Space Communications Corp, SCC • 3 Superbird Satellites • Telecommunications Advancement Fig. 18-17. JERS-1 satellite Organization of Japan • 2 Broadcast Satellite (BS) The SAR system has a resolution of 18 • 2 N-Star meters and is used for monitoring land use and type, glacier extent, snow cover, Earth Resources surface topography, ocean currents and waves. The four band optical sensor Japan began Earth monitoring with covers the visible and near infrared re- weather satellites in 1977. Currently gion. It is used for pollution monitoring there are two Geostationary Meteorologi- in oceans and lakes, land use classifica- cal Satellites (GMS), Himawari 4 and 5, tion, cloud and snow discrimination. in orbit over the Pacific Ocean. In addi- Imagery can be stored on board and tion to earth weather images, the satel- transmitted to the main processing site in

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18 - 12 Japan or imagery of a local area can be spin stabilized satellite, and the DFH-3, a sent real-time to other ground sites lo- three axis stabilized system. cated in Asia, Europe, North America During the mid-to-late 1990's, China and Antarctica. had problems with both its booster and Launched in February 1992, the mis- satellites. The DFH-2 series was to be sion on JERS-1 was to last only two replaced by the newer DFH-3. Three years, but it was operational and obtain- DFH-3 satellites were lost or became ing observation data on the earth for six- non-operational after only a short time in and-a-half years. Operation of JERS-1 orbit (1994, 1996, and 1997). During this was terminated on October 12, 1998 after timeframe the DFH-2 satellites also were a malfunction the day before. becoming non-operational. To get over the communications problems caused by ADEOS series the DFH-3 program, China has had to buy older satellites already on orbit or Japan’s latest earth resources satellite order western built systems is the ADEOS (Advanced Earth Observa- With the return of Hong Kong to tion Satellite) launched in August 1996. China control in July 1997, the satellites This satellite acquired global observation controlled from there, APStar and Asi- data corresponding to environmental aSat, may in the future be included as changes, such as global warming, deple- Chinese systems. Currently these satel- tion of the ozone layer, decrease of tropi- lites are still controlled by the commer- cal rain forests, occurrence of unusual cial companies that bought them. Of note weather and other tasks. Payload in- is that the Chinese government owns75% cluded both Japanese and foreign sensors. of APStar. In June 1997, the satellite developed major power problems and is now totally Earth Observation out of service with little hope of recovery. Studies are underway to determine FSW series the problem prior to the launch of ADEOS-2. The FSW series are recoverable satellites (Fig. 18-18) used primarily for im- CHINESE SATELLITE SYSTEMS agery, military reconnaissance/earth resources starting in 1975. Since 1987, The Chinese space program is devel- Micro-gravity experiments have also oping a wide variety of satellites. Much conducted using the FSW capsules. of the development is slow, as the Chi- China has launched 17 of these flights, nese have limited access to Western or several of them containing foreign micro- Russian technology. They are working gravity experiments. on communications, earth resources/ imagery, weather, and science/space research.

Communications

STTW and DFH series

The STTW series are generally the test version of their communications satellites, the DFH series are the final. Some- times, both designations apply after a satellite reaches orbit and is declared operational. China has successfully launched and operated both its DFH-2, a Fig. 18-18. FSW capsule

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18 - 13 FY Series INDIAN SATELLITE SYSTEMS

This series is China’s first weather sat- India, with more than three-quarters of ellite attempt. The FY-1 series are polar its population dependent on agriculture, orbiting, while the FY-2s are placed into concentrates its space development ac- geosynchronous orbits. tivities on related applications satellites. China launched two FY-1 satellites, The two prime goals involve operational one of which is still operational. FY-2A space-based remote sensing and commu- was launched in June 1997 but ceased nications satellites. operations in April 1999. FY-2B was launched in June 2000. Communications

ZY-1 Series (CBERS) INSAT series

In 1988, China and Brazil signed a co- India’s first communications satellite operative program to develop two earth was built by the U.S. and uniquely pro- resources satellites. The program is vided for simultaneous domestic commu- called Zi Yuan (resource) in China and in nications and earth observation functions, Brazil and elsewhere the China-Brazil primarily meteorology. The INSAT-1 Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS) series were launched between 1982 and (Fig.18-19). The first satellite was 1990. INSAT-1A and 1C failed soon launched in October 1999. after launch. INSAT-1B was launched from the U.S. shuttle in 1983 and functioned until 1991. INSAT-1D is still operational in 2000. The INSAT-2 series was built primarily by Indian companies and performs much the same functions as the INSAT-1 series. The INSAT-2A and INSAT-2B have increased communications capability from the INSAT-1. The INSAT-2C and 2D have additional communications capability but had their earth observation functions removed. Launched in July 1997, INSAT-2D failed in orbit during October 1997 due to an electrical fault. To replace this lost communications capability, India purchased already in orbit ARABSAT-1C from the Arabsat consortium in December 1997. The satellite was moved to an Indian orbital slot dur- Fig. 18-19 ZY-1, CBERS ing the December-January time frame. Satellite control is done mainly from The satellite was renamed INSAT-2DT China, with Brazilian control being per- and began operations in January 1998. formed only while in view of Brazil. A INSAT-2E was launched in April 1999. second CBERS is being planned. This satellite is the last of the Indian built On 1 September 2000, China launched INSAT-2 series. In addition to the com- a FY-2, remote sensing satellite. This munications payload, this satellite again satellite is not the second CBERS satel- carries the earth observation/meteorology lite, thought much of the technology may sensor. be shared. This system is though to be a Chinese only system, with possible military use.

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18 - 14

Fig. 18-21. The Mall, Washington D.C. IRS-1C Panchromatic, 6-meter resolution Earth Resources including monitoring droughts, providing timely area on crop yield assessments, IRS Series vegetation discrimination, mapping of potential ground water zones and studies The Indian Remote Sensing satellite for potential irrigation, land use and land system (IRS series) is India’s first domes- cover maps. tic dedicated earth resources satellite. The next generation of satellites, the The first two satellites of this system IRS-1C and 1D, carry the four band mul- carry the Linear Imaging Self Scanning tispectral LISS-3 with a resolution of 23 (LISS) four band multispectral scanner. meters; a panchromatic sensor with a These bands are excellent for vegetation resolution of 6 meters (Fig. 18-21); and discrimination and land cover mapping. a two band Wide Field Sensor (WiFS) This system has a spatial resolution of with a resolution of 188 meters. In addi- either 72 or 36 meters. (Fig. 18-20) tion, the 1C and 1D offer onboard re- IRS-1A was launched in 1988 and recording, stereo viewing capability and tired from routine service in 1995. IRS- more frequent revisits. 1B was launched in 1991 and is still ac- As part of developing both a satellite tive. Imagery from these satellites is and launcher industry, India built multi- received in India and at other ground ple parts for their IRS satellites. These sites around the world. Information ac- extra parts allowed India to gain addi- quired can be used for many purposes, tional expertise in satellite construction and gave them a useful payload to launch on their developmental PSLV space booster. The prime IRS-1 series would be launched on foreign boosters for safety, while the others would be part of the PSLV program. The first PSLV launch carried the IRS-1A’s engineering model, refurbished and called the IRS- 1E. This payload ended in the ocean when the PSLV’s first launch on 20 Sep- tember 1993 ended in failure. The next PSLV test carried the IRS- P2, a demonstrator for the IRS-1C and 1D bus. This satellite was placed into orbit in October 1994. IRS-P3 was launched on the third PSLV test in March Fig. 18-20. IRS-1B LISS-2 1996. The payload included an improved 36 meter resolution three band WiFS sensor and an X-ray Chesterfield, Missouri astronomy experiment provided by India

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18 - 15 as well as a German Modular Optoelec- tronic Scanner (MOS) for oceanographic ArabSat series applications. In May 1999, India launched a new The Arab Satellite Communications version of its IRS series, the IRS-P4 built Organization (ASCO) was formed in for oceanographic research. This system 1976 to meet the increasing communica- carries the Ocean Color Monitor (OCM), tions needs of the Arab countries. There an eight band spectral camera. The sys- are currently over twenty members across tem collects data on chlorophyll concen- the Middle East and North Africa. The tration, phytoplankton blooms, atmos- satellites used by ArabSat were built in pheric aerosols and water suspended Europe and America; launched into geo- sediments. Also on board is the Multi- stationary orbits by ESA and NASA; frequency Scanning Microwave Radi- while Japan was the prime contractor for ometer (MSMR). The MSMR operates in the ground receive sites. four microwave frequencies to collect sea ArabSat-1A was launched in February temperature, wind speed, atmospheric 1985, followed by ArabSat-1B in June. water content. Now called Oceansat-1, ArabSat-1A began drifting in late 1991 it joined India's four other operational and was declared out of service in March IRS satellites (IRS-1B, 1C, 1D, and P-3). 1992. ArabSat-1B followed a year later, Additional IRS-P series satellites are starting to drift in October 1992 and de- planned to develop new and improved clared out of service early 1993. sensors. As the technology is developed, ArabSat-1C was launched in February additional satellites will be produced and 1992. It supports regional television, launched. Some of the planned systems telephone, data and fax relay. In early include an ATMOS series for atmos- 1993, only ArabSat-1C was operational, pheric observations, CartoSat for map- raising the possibility of leasing a satel- ping and an improved IRS-2 series. lite until ArabSat-2 was ready. Canada’s Anik-D2 was selected, moved to cover MIDDLE EAST/NORTH AFRICAN the Middle East in 1993 and renamed SATELLITE SYSTEMS ArabSat-1D. This satellite was operational until February 1995, when it de- Throughout the Middle East and Af- pleted its fuel and was raised above geo- rica there is only one nation with a com- stationary. As ArabSat-2 was still not plete space capability, Israel. Most other available, ASCO leased Telstar 301 in nations in this part of the world are cur- 1994. The satellite was moved late that rently only users of satellite systems, year and renamed ArabSat-1E. This sys- generally as part of a consortium. Egypt tem also provides domestic telephone, recently had a satellite built and launched data and television. that they are the prime users and sole In 1996 the ArabSat-2 series was controllers. ready, with ArabSat-2A being launched in July and ArabSat-2B following in No- Communications vember. Arabsat-1E has ceased operations, while Arabsat-1C was sold to In- Most of the Middle East and Africa dia. The next generation of satellites, use of satellite systems has been for Arabsat-3A was launched in February communications. IntelSat and Inmarsat 1999. This newest satellite is dedicated have served those nations in this region to Direct TV Broadcasting with 20 Ku- that use satellite communications sys- band transponders. This gives ASCO a tems. Other than communications, earth constellation of three satellites. resources receive stations are present in a few countries (Israel, Saudi Arabia, South Africa), some of which also have access to weather satellite data.

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18 - 16 ISRAELI SATELLITE SYSTEMS ing. The payload carried on the Ofeq-3 is a light-weight electro-optical scanner or In addition to its own satellite pro- Earth Resources Monitoring System, grams, Israel also has receive stations for which was developed in Israel. The Is- earth resource imagery from SPOT and raeli media reported this as their first the ERS series satellites. Israel also has international projects with European and Asian countries as well as NASA.

Communications

Israel has one communications satellite for which they were the prime contractor. In addition, they are uses of the Intelsat system, in which they hold a 1.06% share.

AMOS Satellite Fig. 18-22. Ofeq-3 “spy” satellite. The AMOS-1 (Affordable Modular Optimized Satellite, also referred to as the In January 1998, Israel planned to Afro-Mediterranean Orbital System) was launch Ofeq-4 to replace Ofeq-3, which launched by an ESA Ariane-4 in May was nearing the end of its planned opera- 1996 into geostationary orbit. The trans- tional life. This launch failed due to a ponders are optimized to cover the Mid- malfunction of the booster soon after dle East and Central Europe. The system launch. Israel statements indicate that performs broadcasting services of multi- they will continue to develop, built, and ple digital television channels to Cable launch earth observation/reconnaissance Headends, Direct-To-Home, business satellites. data and voice transmission to include Recent press reports indicate Israel is interactive learning. marketing Ofeq satellites and technology Israel is currently working on the for commercial sales. AMOS-2/CERES (Central European Re- gional Satellite), a joint venture with TechSat Series Hungry. TechSat is a collaboration to develop a Ofeq series simple, low cost, low power platform for technology testing. TechSat-1 contained Israel’s first satellite was the Ofeq-1 an amateur store and forward trans- technology demonstration satellite, ponder, an earth-observation digital cam- launched in September 1988. A second era, a spectroradiometer for ozone studies test satellite, Ofeq-2, was launched in and an X-ray imager. This satellite was April 1990. These first-generation satel- lost in March 1995 during the first at- lites were spin stabilized and carried only tempted launch of Russia’s Start booster test payloads. from Plesetsk. Ofeq-3 (Fig. 18-22) was the debut of On July 10, 1998, TechSat-2 was the second-generation of light Israeli sat- launched on a Russian Zenit booster into ellites. Launched in April 1995, this sat- a sun-synchronous 830 Km polar orbit. ellite was also listed as a technology The 48 kilogram satellite contains a wide demonstrator, but unlike Ofeq-1 and 2, variety of experiments. They include a carried an operational payload. With a 3- test of superconducting material that axis stabilization system, the satellite is would allow satellites to carry more being proposed and marketed to carry channels in a smaller space, a charged payloads for astronomy and remote sens- particle detector to determine frequency

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18 - 17 and damage of charged particle impacts, Egypt also owns and operates the two an ultraviolet sensor, an x-ray detector, a Satellite Control Stations (SCS). The new stabilization system, and field test of primary control Tracking, Telemetry and a new horizon sensor. Control (TTC) station with its Satellite In September, Israel announced that Control Center (SCC) is located near Techsat-2 had completed what is termed Cairo. A backup SCS is in Alexandria. the first successful test of superconduc- ESA launched NileSat-102 for Egypt tive material in space. on 17 August 2000. This new satellite will cover the African continent in an OTHER MIDDLE EAST/AFRICAN effort to promote cooperation among SATELLITE USERS African countries in the media field.

EGYPT AFRICA

Egypt has long been a member of the Africa, long the world’s most ne- ArabSat and InmarSat communications glected satellite market, is finally being organizations. In 1998, Egypt became taken more seriously as a major market the first Arab country and the first Afri- for all types of satellite services. No Af- can nation to own and operate its own rican countries have domestic satellites satellite. This TV, radio, and data trans- with the exception of Egypt, who con- mission satellite will allow viewers trols a satellite built by someone else and throughout the Mediterranean and Mid- South Africa, which controls a recently dle East to have programs in a region built university research satellite previously dominated by Saudia Arabian launched. Many African satellite users and non-Arab broadcasters. will use an upcoming Intelsat through the auspices of the Regional African Satellite NileSat Series Communications Organization. One dedicated satellite for Africa has been NileSat 101, sometimes just NileSat-1 launched, which will beam radio pro- (Fig. 18-23), was launched in April gramming directly to listeners throughout 1998. With this launch Egypt became the Africa. first Arab and African nation to own and operate its own satellite. The satellite AfriStar was designed primarily for Direct-To- Home television but will also offer free Launched in October 1998, AfriStar is and pay TV, audio (radio), data services, intended to provide high quality digital and other related services. With 12 information, international news, and en- transponders, the system is capable of tertainment programs through Africa. transmitting at least 84 TV channels. Owned and operated by WorldSpace, a NileSat 101 began transmitting programs registered public charity, located in the at the end of May 1998. United States. AfriStar will allow local African radio stations of all sizes to reach an audience on the whole of the continent. While the satellite will be controlled from the AfriSpace, Inc. regional operations in Washington D.C., programming can be sent to the satellite from ground stations in London, Eng- land; Toulouse, France; and Johannes- burg, South Africa. Plans include the Fig. 18-23. NileSat 101 building of a studio in Africa that would be run by Africans with an African advisory board.

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18 - 18 AfriStar is the first of three planned NORTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA satellites intended by WorldSpace to provide digital audio communications to After the United States, Canada and developing nations around the world. Mexico are the only nations in North or AsiaStar and AmeriStar are planned for Central America with any significant launch in either late 1999 or in 2000. space capability. Canada builds and controls its own SOUTH AFRICA satellites and was developing a privately funded space launch facility at Churchill, South Africa became the first African Manitoba. This launch facility has only nation to have its own domestically built launched sub-orbital flights to date and satellite placed in orbit. A program spon- the private operator of the SpacePort an- sored by the University of Stellenbosch, nounced it was going out of business in near Cape Town designed, built, and is 1998. controlling the satellite. Mexico is primarily a user of communications satellites. The first generation Sunsat of US built satellites were the Morels series followed by the current Solidaridad The Stellenbosch UNiversity SATel- series that provide telephone, data, TV lite or Sunsat is an educational and re- distribution, and mobile services. search project. In addition to carrying earth resources and communications pay- CANADIAN SATELLITE SYSTEMS loads, the program was intended to encourage engineers and engineering in Telesat series South Africa, and gain international recognition of South Africa's ability to con- Canada has an extensive communica- tribute and compete in the high technol- tions satellite system. The first satellite, ogy world. Anik-A1 (also Telasat-1) was launched in The Sunsat (Fig. 18-24) carries both a November 1972. This satellite was fol- three-color MSI imager and a commer- lowed by Anik-A2 in 1973, Anik-A3 in cial color video camera as earth resources 1975 and Anik-B1 in 1978. systems. It also carries amateur radio The first of the Anik-C series, C3, was gear, high school experiments, a US launched in late 1982, followed by C2 in sponsored GPS receiver to conduct at- June 1983. Anik-C1 launched in April mospheric, ionospheric and geodesic 1985. Both C1 and C2 were sold to Ar- mapping, and other NASA sponsored gentina in 1994 to provide interim ser- experiments. vices until a dedicated system became avail- The 61 able. Anik-D2 was launched in 1984 and kilogram satellite, then sold in 1993 to become ArabSat-1D. considered a critical milestone The Anik-E series has suffered several for the South mishaps. While both satellites, E1 and African space E2, are active and performing their mis- program, was sion, both have had technical problems launched into a that have reduced their capability. polar orbit in Canada’s latest satellite is the February 1999. MSAT-1. This satellite was launched in April 1996. The system provides mobile telephone, radio, data and positioning Fig. 18-24 SUNSAT service to land, aviation and maritime users.

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18 - 19 dad-1 and -2 were launched in November Earth Resources 1993 and October 1994, respectively. The Morelos-2 provides domestic televi- Canada uses several different earth re- sion, telephone and data services. The sources satellite systems. The country Solidaridad satellites provide these same has ground receive stations for ERS-1, services in addition to mobile and inter- JERS-1, Landsat and SPOT. In addition, national services. Mexico's latest satel- Canada has developed and controls its lite is the SATMEX-5, which will pro- own radar Earth resources satellite. vide a complete range of telecommunications services, direct TV broadcasting, Radarsat rural telephony, distance learning and telemedicine to Mexico and Spanish- speaking communities in North and Latin America. This satellite was launched in December 1998.

SOUTH AMERICA

South America is served by a small number of dedicated satellites, however, service is also provided by a variety of trans-Atlantic, PanAmSat and other At- lantic Ocean satellites. Only Brazil and Argentina have their own communications satellites systems.

BRAZILIAN SATELLITE SYSTEMS

Brazil is the most advanced nation in South America involved in the space Fig. 18-25. RADARSAT business. They are capable of manufacturing their own space launch vehicles Radarsat is a cooperative program be- and satellites and controlling them. Bra- tween the Canadian Space Agency zil’s first space launch vehicle ended in (CSA), NASA and NOAA (Fig. 18-25). failure 3 November 1997. One of the CSA built and operates the system, four strap-on engines failed to ignite and NASA furnished the launch vehicle and 65 seconds later, the launch controllers facilities. In exchange, U.S. government had to destroy it. The next launch at- agencies have access to all archived Ra- tempt was in December 1999. This darsat data and around 15% of the satel- booster suffered a failure in its second lite’s observing time. stage. Radarsat is a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) system with a resolution between Brazilsat series 30 and 90 meters. The first Radarsat was launched in November 1995 into a polar Brazilsat-A1 and A2 were launched in orbit. It is designed to give primary cov- February 1985 and March 1986, giving erage of Canada and the Arctic regions. Brazil its own communications. The A1 satellite was sold in 1995 and the antenna MEXICAN SATELLITE SYSTEMS re-aimed to North America. A2 is currently an on-orbit spare. These satellites Mexico currently operates four com- carried limited television, telephone and munications satellites. Morelos-2 was data services. launched in November 1985. Solidari-

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18 - 20 The currently active communications satellites are the Brazilsat-B series. B1 Argentina’s space activities emphasize was placed into geosynchronous orbit in applications. A user of Inmarsat and August 1994, with B2 following in Intelsat, Argentina, in 1993, signed an March 1995. This series increased the agreement for a South American commu- number of transponders over the Brazil- nications satellite. Two Canadian satel- sat-A series and added X-band trans- lites provided an interim service begin- ponders for government and military ning in 1993. uses. Brazilsat-B3A was launched in Feb- ruary 1998 and B4 in August 2000. Nahuel series

Nahuel (Fig. 18-27) will serve the southern part of the South American continent for the first time with high performance links. Launched in January 1997, the satellite provides television distribution, telephone, data and business services. This contract also included the construction of a ground control station in

Fig. 18-26. SDC-1 Data Relay Satellite SDC series

The SDC series of Satellite Data Col- lectors are the first satellites built by Bra- zil. SDC-1 relays data gathered by ground-based data collection platforms throughout Brazil, which is then transmitted to an acquisition station. The SDC-1 was placed into orbit in February 1993 Fig. 18-27. Nahuel 1A from the Pegasus (Fig. 18-26). Argentina. This control station is located SDC-2A was planned for the first near the capital, Buenos Aires, and was launch of the Brazilian space booster but approved for operations in November was destroyed when the booster failed 65 1996. Since then, over 50 technicians seconds into the flight. In October 1998 have been trained in satellite operations. the second of the series, SCD-2, was The station is designed to control the launched by a Pegasus booster. operation of three satellites. Brazil has plans for other data relay satellites and is developing its own re- SUMMARY mote sensing programs. A joint Chinese- Brazilian Earth Resources Satellite, The expansion of ROW countries into CBERS, launched in 1999. Currently, space will continue. Communications Brazil also has ground stations to receive and Earth observations are expected to data from ERS-1, Landsat and SPOT. lead the way for new entries into the list of space using nations. ARGENTINE SATELLITE For emerging nations with inadequate SYSTEMS or antiquated communications infrastruc-

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18 - 21 ture, satellites are an ideal way of rapidly pability. acquiring a modern communications ca-

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18 - 22 REFERENCES

Jane’s Space Directory 1995-96, 1997-98, 1998-99, 1999-2000, Jane’s Information Group Inc.

Jane’s Military Communications 1996-97, 2000-2001, Jane’s Information Group Inc.

“Vectors”, Vol. XXXVIII No. 2 1996, Hughes Electronics.

EOSAT - The Earth Observation Satellite Company, http://www.spaceimage.com.

Eurimage, http://www.eurimage.it, “European earth resources images.”

SPOT Image, http://www.spot.com, “Earth resources images from SPOT.”

European Space Agency, http://www.esri.esa.it, “Earth observations, projects,” Earthnet online, http://pooh.esrin.esa.it.8888.

Intersputnik, http://www.intersputnik.com, International Organization of Space Commu- nications.

Arabsat, http://www.arabsat.com, Arab Nations Space Communications Organization.

Eutelsat, http://www.eutelsat.com, European Space Communications Organization.

China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite, http://www.inpe.br/programs/cbers/english.html

“Go Taikonauts”, http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/1921

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18 - 23 Chapter 19

REST OF WORLD MISSILE SYSTEMS

The ballistic missile threat posed to the U.S. from the Soviet Union during the 1950s- 1960s necessitated the development of U.S. missile launch warning systems. By the 1970s, the first satellites of the Defense Support Program (DSP) were launched and placed into geo-stationary orbits to detect hostile ballistic missiles. This chapter will review the missile threat capability of the Former Soviet Union (FSU) as well as other ROW nations, focusing on those ballistic missiles which can be detected by U.S. space- based sensors.

RUSSIAN MISSILE SYSTEMS capable system can carry a number of warheads and strike different targets When the Soviet Union broke up in using just one missile. Equally the early 1990’s, the result was four important, the accuracy of these missiles nations versus one with nuclear ballistic gave them the capability to strike missiles; Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and hardened targets such as U.S. ICBM Kazakhstan. However, by early 1997, silos. Additionally, the introduction of only Russia retained a strategic nuclear cold-launch technology gave the FSU the missile force; the other three countries capability to re-launch from the same having shipped their warheads back to silo. The cold-launch system consists of Russia. The Russian strategic capability a gas generator located at the bottom of revolves around a triad of Submarine the silo which ejects the missile out of the Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), silo. Once clear from the silo, the main land-based Inter-continental Ballistic engine of the missile ignites, thus Missiles (ICBMs) as well as land-attack minimizing damage to the launch facility. cruise missiles (CMs) carried on strategic bombers and nuclear attack submarines. SS-18 (SATAN) Weapon System Despite the reductions of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START I/II), The SS-18 (Fig. 19-1) is the the Russian strategic offensive force will centerpiece of the Russian Strategic retain approximately 50 percent of its Missile Force and of the Fourth firepower deployed on land-based ICBMs. Generation ICBM force. This system Also, these ICBMs will continue to fulfill was designed to target hardened the most important targeting require- Minuteman missile silos. The SS-18, meanest in any strategic nuclear strike. which is larger than the U.S. Peacekeeper, has been Fourth Generation ICBMs modernized many times over the life of The Fourth Generation Soviet ICBMs, the program. Silo consisting of the SS-18 and SS-19, were (Fig. 19-2) conversion introduced into the operational inventory activity has replaced in the late 1970s. This generation of some of the older SS- missiles gave the FSU a modernized and 18 force with the sophisticated force. MOD 5 MIRV and For the first time, the FSU deployed the single RV MOD 6. Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicles (MIRV) technology. A MIRV- Fig. 19-1. SS-18

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 1 MIRV technology (more targets with one missile) and a cold-launch (reload/refire) capability. However, FSU strategic planners realized that their land-based ICBM force was still threatened by a preemptive strike from the U.S. With this in mind, they concentrated their efforts in creating a more survivable force. The introduction of the SS-24 and SS-25 in Fig. 19-2. SS-18 Silo loading the mid-1980s highlights the FSU’s success with mobile systems (to be These upgrades temporarily offset the completely accurate, their success with firepower losses required under the mobile systems began with the START I. START I reduces the number deployment of the SS-20 IRBM in 1977). of allowed SS-18 to 154 and START II Furthermore, the incorporation of these requires the elimination of all SS-18s by systems has enhanced the survivability of January 2003. START II also eliminates the ICBM force and assures the Russians all land-based MIRV’d missiles by 2003. that their requirements for responsiveness and accuracy will be met. By the year 2000, the mobile ICBM segment of the SS-19 (STILLETO) Weapon System inventory could account for about one third of the Russian force. The SS-19 is the third of the Fourth Generation ballistic missiles developed SS-24 (SCALPEL) Weapon System by the FSU. Unlike the SS-17 and SS- 18, this missile is hot-launched from its The SS-24 is a solid propellant MIRV silo. Under a special provision of system that can be targeted against soft START II, Russia is allowed to keep 105 and semi-hardened targets. This missile single warhead versions of the SS-19. has been deployed in two different In December 1994, the launch of an modes, rail-mobile and in retrofitted SS- SS-19 was reported as a trial to determine 19 silos. The SS-24 MOD 1, a rail the suitability of use as a civilian satellite mobile system, was first deployed in launcher, called ROCKOT. On May 16, 1987 and it is currently deployed at three 2000, Russia announced the successful launch garrisons. SS-24 missile trains Commercial Demonstration Flight (CDF) reportedly have three missile launch cars, of their ROCKOT launch vehicle from several locomotives, a power generator the Plesetsk Cosmodrome. The goal of car, a command car, and several support the CDF was the commissioning of the cars. The rail garrisons are assessed to ROCKOT as an operational launch contain four trains each and are capable vehicle as well as the qualification of the of deploying on the 145,000 km railroad dedicated EUROCKOT launch facilities system. Alert duties were cut back at Plesetsk. drastically in 1994, due to costs and security concerns. Fifth Generation ICBMs All silo based SS-24 MOD 2s have been decommissioned. In accordance The Fifth Generation of ICBMs, with START-II, the SS-24, rail as well as introduced in the 1980s, was the result of silo versions, will be phased-out and new force objectives. During the 1970s, destroyed. with the Fourth Generation of ICBMs, the Soviets acquired tremendous technological advances that gave them better accuracy (hard-target capability),

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 2 SS-25 (SICKLE) Mobile ICBM System

The SS-25 joined the operational inventory in 1985. This system is a road- mobile, single warhead, three-stage solid- propellant missile, comparable in size to the U.S. Minuteman ICBM. The SS-25 is carried on a seven axle-wheeled, Fig. 19-4. SS-27 TEL Transporter Erector Launcher (TEL) (Fig. 19-3). This weapon system gives Russia The road-mobile version will be fielded a highly survivable ICBM with an sometime in the near future. Previously, in the former Soviet Union, most ICBM systems were built in the Ukraine. The SS-27 was designed so that it could be totally manufactured in Russia. Among the Russian stated system improvements are anti-ballistic missile features and a space navigation system.

Submarine Launched Ballistic Missile Fig. 19-3. SS-25 TEL Systems (SLBMs) inherent refire capability. The garrison Russia currently has three primary bases that house this system consist of SLBM platforms: the Delta III, Delta IV garages equipped with sliding roofs for and the Typhoon class submarines. the TEL and other support buildings for These nuclear powered ballistic missile critical mobile equipment (such as submarines, referred to as SSBNs, are generators and command/control vehicles). based on the Kola Peninsula in northern Production of the SS-25 has ended as Russia and on the Kamchatka Peninsula this missile will be replaced by the newer in the Russian Far East. SS-27. The mobile missile garrisons are Current Russian doctrine dictates that constrained by START I which stipulated ballistic missile submarines should that in peace time, mobile units will be deploy in waters close to Russian confined in a 25 square kilometer area landmass, since these patrol areas (known around their garrison. Russia has also as bastions) can be protected by aircraft, developed mobile satellite launchers from sonar networks, surface ships and the SS-25 boosters, which are called Russian attack submarines. Additionally, “Start 1” launch vehicles after the treaty. it should be noted that the Russian SSBN force is capable of striking most of the SS-27 Weapons System CONUS from pier-side, reducing the need to deploy well away from Russian The SS-27 is an evolutionary upgrade shores. of the SS-25. This new system is a cold- launched, three stage, solid propellant Delta III/SS-N-18 (STINGRAY) ICBM that will be deployed in both silo- based and mobile versions (Fig. 19-4). The Delta III carries the two-stage Development of the SS-27 began in the SS-N-18, the first MIRV’d Soviet late 1980's with the first test launch in SLBM. This submarine carries 16 December 1994. Initial deployment of missiles, each with three MIRV the silo-based version began in 1998. warheads.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 3 Following implementation of START the program ahead. The Typhoon’s SS- I and II, it is expected that some of the N-20 weapon system was declared SS-N-18s will be withdrawn from service. operational by Western sources in 1984. There remain questions regarding the The SS-N-20 is a three stage, solid- future size of the Russian SSBN force. A propellant missile capable of carrying revised Russian plan suggests that the between 8 to 10 RVs, with a maximum entire Delta III class may be retired in the range of approximately 4,300 nm. This next decade. range gives it the capability to operate within Russian waters and still strike Delta IV/SS-N-23 (SKIFF) targets on the North American continent. The Typhoon is the largest operational A three-stage liquid-propellant SLBM SSBN in the world. This submarine is was tested in 1983 from a submarine approximately one third larger than the designated the Delta IV. This SLBM was U.S. Ohio Class SSBN. It is estimated to designated as the SS-N-23 and is more have been designed to conduct missile accurate than the SS-N-18. The SS-N-23 patrols under the Arctic Ocean ice cap. is about 47 feet long, carries up to 10 Six Typhoons are estimated to be MIRVs and has a range of 4,500 nm. operational, each with 20 launch tubes All seven Delta IV submarines (Fig. and a total weapon capacity of 120 SS-N- 20 missiles carrying 960 warheads. A unique feature of the Typhoon is that its missile bays are located forward of the submarine’s sail. All other

Fig. 19-5. Delta IV with missile hatch open 19-5) are based on the Kola Peninsula, with protected bastion patrol areas in the nearby Barents Sea and easy access to the Fig. 19-6. Typhoon-class SSBN Arctic. Even though the SS-N-23 has the Russian and U.S. SSBNs have their capability to carry 10 MIRVs, it is missile bay behind the sub’s sail (Fig. 19- counted as carrying four MIRVs under 6). the START agreements. Four is the number of warheads per missile postulated Borei/SS-NX-28 and Bulava-30 for future deployment. Reports in the early 1990's indicated Typhoon/SS-N-20 (STURGEON) that a follow-on to the SS-N-20 was being developed, the SS-NX-28. Little is The SS-N-20 SLBM was first known about this system, however there identified in the early 1980s. The missile have been reports of numerous test program was unsuccessful during its difficulties with the system. There have early stages. However, following the been four test launches of the SS-NX-28, first Typhoon submarine launch in the latest in November 1997. None of September 1980, subsequent successful the launches have been successful. Like missile tests from the submarine moved the ICBM's, much of the former Soviet SLBM systems were build in the

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 4 Ukraine, so Russia has had difficulties in The AS-15 is thought to be equipped building such missile systems. A new class of SSBN was envisioned for this new missile system, the Borei. The first of these fourth generation submarines was started in 1996 but lack of funding and the SS-NX-28 problems has significantly delayed construction. Both the SS-NX-28 and Borei programs have been cancelled due to technological Fig. 19-7. TU-95 Bear and economic roadblocks. Russia has with a guidance system similar to our announced a replacement system called Terrain Contour Matching (TERCOM) the Bulava-30. A new SSBN, called the “Dolgoruky” will carry the new missile, which has a range of 8,000+ km.

Cruise Missile Systems

Russia recognizes the advantages of having a cruise missile force as part of their strategic offensive capability. Equally important, they recognize the defensive challenges inherent with these systems. With this in mind, Russian military designers and planners have pursued their own cruise missile Fig. 19-8. TU-160 Blackjack program. system. TERCOM guidance allows the Platforms have been developed for system to correct any guidance errors that deployment in air and on sea. Two such may occur during flight. The AS-15 is systems have been named by the U.S. and carried by the TU-95 Bear H (Fig. 19-7) the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the TU-160 Blackjack bombers (NATO) as the AS-15 (KENT) and the (Fig. 19-8). SS-N-21 (SAMPSON). These systems have common characteristics, such as a SS-N-21 (SAMPSON) small airframe, low flight profile, subsonic speed and a possible nuclear The SS-N-21 Submarine Launched warhead. Such characteristics provide Cruise Missile (SLCM) is believed to these systems with an excellent have about the same characteristics as probability of penetrating defenses and that of the AS-15. However, this system successfully accomplishing their mission. presents a unique detection problem. With These weapons systems and their related the AS-15, we know what Russian carriers cannot be detected from space aircraft are configured to support Air under normal operating conditions. Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) employment. However, the SS-N-21 was AS-15 (KENT) developed to fit in a standard Russian 53cm torpedo tube. From a detection The AS-15 is a small, subsonic cruise standpoint, it will be difficult to missile capable of delivering a nuclear determine when a Russian submarine is warhead to a maximum distance of carrying SLCMs or standard torpedoes, approximately 1850 nm. This weapon since no externally apparent system resembles the U.S. Tomahawk modifications are required. The SS-N-21 cruise missile.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 5 may be carried on the Akula fast attack range of 200 to 220 miles and carried a submarine (Fig. 19-9), which is one of 730 kilogram high explosive warhead. In the quietest submarines in the world. all, more than 3,000 V-2s were launched in the final months of World War II. After the defeat of Germany, V-2 rockets, technology and specialists were taken to both the U.S. and Russia. Using this German technology and knowledge, both the U.S. and Russia began to develop their respective missile and Fig. 19-9. Akula-class submarine space programs. In Russia, work on the SS-1 series The Russian SLCM force could began in 1945, when Russia decided to represent a significant threat against U.S./ build two versions of the V-2. Two European targets. Because of their groups worked on creating derivatives of unique flight profiles, SLCMs have the the V-2: one group consisted of Germans potential of being used as a surprise/first captured after the war, the other was strike option against U.S. and allied made up of Russians. Both team’s airfields. missiles were successfully tested in 1948. The Russian built version was selected for Theater Ballistic Missile Systems development. From this first SS-1A missile, further development led to the SS-2 on through the SS-5. Versions of the SS-4/5 became the space boosters SLV-7/8, referred to as “Kosmos”. Technology developed in these programs led to the development of the SS-6. As a space booster, versions of the SS-6 are still used today as the SLV-4 “Soyuz” and SLV-6 “Molniya”.

SS-1 Series (SCUD)

Further development of tactical missiles led to the SS-1C, more commonly known as the SCUD-B. This weapon entered service in 1962 and in 1965 a wheeled MAZ transporter-erector- launcher (TEL) was introduced (Fig. 19- 11). Used by the Russian Army, the SCUD-B was also exported to various other nations. From this exportation, the Fig. 19-10. German V-2 test launch current proliferation of theater ballistic missiles began, as countries resold, Also referred to as Tactical Missile reverse engineered and developed the systems, these missiles have ranges of up technology to initiate their own missile to 1,000 km. This type of missile was the programs. first type of missile developed. During One of the newest developments to the World War II, the Germans developed SCUD missile has been the Aerofon the first ballistic missile, the V-2 (Fig. version. This system improvement has 19-10). These primitive missiles had a centered on warhead improvements.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 6

Strategic Missile Systems

China’s missile program started in the mid-1950s with help from the Soviet Union. A number of SS-2 missiles, improved adaptations of the V-2, were supplied to China. Additionally, some SS-2’s were locally produced under license and designated DF-1 (Dong Feng - East Wind) by the Chinese. The first test flight of a DF-1 took place in November 1960. It appears the Chinese also had access to the Russian SS-3. After the break with Moscow in the

Fig. 19-11. SS-1C, SCUD-B Unlike the earlier models, the SCUD Aerofon is reported to have its warhead separate from the engine and fuel tank assembly after engine burnout. This is done to increase the stability and accuracy of the warhead. In addition, an optical correlation device was added for digital scene matching in order to refine the aim point as the missile approaches the target area. The goal of this appears to be to increase missile accuracy to around 50 meters.

PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA (PRC) MISSILES SYSTEMS Fi g. 19-12. CSS-2/DF-3 The Peoples Republic of China is the only other non-western nation with a early 1960s, China used its existing known strategic nuclear and missile industrial base to build its first capability. China’s missile capabilities indigenous missile, which appeared to span all ranges and payloads, from combine aspects of the SS-2 and SS-3. tactical to intercontinental. Since their This system was called the CSS-1 by the entry into the export market in the 1980s, West and the DF-2 by China. One of the they have actively aided several countries main shortcoming of the CSS-1 was the in missile development programs use of liquid oxygen for fuel. The missile could not be stored fully fueled for long periods nor launched on short notice. Recognizing this, the Chinese

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 7 started the development of a series of missiles using only storable propellants. CSS-3/DF-4

CSS-2/DF-3 The two stage CSS-3 (Fig. 19-14) was designed essentially in parallel with the The CSS-2 (Fig. 19-12) was the first CSS-2. It was considered a stop-gap truly indigenous Chinese ballistic missile. measure until the longer range DF-5 Deployed in 1971 the CSS-2 is a single (CSS-4), a true ICBM, could be stage, liquid-fueled system with a developed. The CSS-3 incorporated payload of 2,200 kilograms carrying one essential components, including the nuclear warhead in the megaton class. entire 1st stage of the subsequent CSS-4. With a range of 2,500 km, the CSS-2 had A civil version of the CSS-3 was also sufficient range to attack the former U.S. developed, the Long March I, China’s bases in the Philippines. first space launch vehicle. An improved version, DF-3A, entered Originally designed to reach the U.S. service in 1986 with an increased range bases in Guam, the CSS-3’s range of 3,800 km. capability was increased after the Despite its age, the CSS-2 may be the deterioration in relations between Russia largest element of the PRC’s nuclear and China. The enhanced missile was force. At least 50 missiles are thought to designed to strike Russian cities, in be currently deployed. The system is particular, Moscow. believed to be transportable, with basing The system is believed to have at permanent sites in northwest China become operational in 1980 and received from which targets in central and eastern upgrades to improve accuracy in 1985. Asia could be reached. (Fig. 19-13). Main deployment for this system is in western China, an area from which targets in Russia are accessible. Between 20 and 30 missiles are thought to be deployed, primarily in caves. The missiles are prepared for launch while Fig. 19-13. CSS-2 Missile Convoy inside the caves then moved outside just prior to launch.

CSS-4/DF-5

The CSS-4 is currently China’s only true ICBM. The missile was designed to have a Fig. 19-14. CSS-3 on parade range of 12,000 km In 1988, China sold conventionally in order to attack the armed CSS-2s to Saudi Arabia as part of U.S., Russia and a multi-billion dollar deal, heightening other parts of Asia. Fig. 19-15. proliferation concerns in the Middle East. Research started in LM-2C, CSS-4 SLV

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 8 1965 with the first test flights in 1979 and cold launch technique where the missile 1980. is ejected from a container and the The civilian version, Long March 2C engines ignite while airborne. The (Fig. 19-15), is used for space launches. Chinese Army uses a six-vehicle convoy This launcher has been operational since to deploy the CSS-5 system. 1975, some five years before the ICBM Reportedly, there is a DF-21A variant. version was completed. Reported improvements include range In 1983, improve-ments to the missile increase from 2,150 km to 2,500 km, lead to the DF-5A with an increased improved accuracy through satellite range to 13,000 km and improved payload navigation (GPS or the Russian capacity to 3,200 kilograms. Currently, GLONASS), a radar-based terminal this is the only Chinese missile that can guidance system and warhead be silo launched. improvements. Only a small number of CSS-4 The CSS-5 is designated as a missiles have been deployed, possibly to replacement tactical nuclear missile for demonstrate that China could deploy a the liquid-fueled CSS-1. superpower-type silo-based ICBM if needed. The limited deployment might DF-31 also have been planned so as not to cause major fears and reactions among the The DF-31 is China’s first solid-fuel other nuclear powers and adhere to ICBM. First tested in August, 1991, this China’s declared “minimum deterrence three stage missile has a range of doctrine”. 8,000km. It is launched from a mobile TEL and carries a single nuclear CSS-5/DF-21 warhead.

The CSS-5 is a road mobile, two-stage Chinese SLBMs solid propellant intermediate-range missile. It was derived from the sea- China currently has only one SLBM based CSS-N-3/JL-1 SLBM. class vessel, the “Xia”. The development The development of the JL-1 began in of SLBMs and submarines to carry them the mid-1960s. The first test launch of the has been a long process for China. The JL-1 was in 1982, while the CSS-5 was first flown in 1985. These two versions are China’s first solid propellant ballistic missiles. In 1987, the CSS-5 became the first truly mobile Chinese missile system. The system is mounted on a tractor-trailer type Transporter-Erector-Launcher, or TEL (Fig. 19-16). The missile uses a

Fig. 19-17. CSS-N-3 (JL-1) SLBM first operational Chinese ballistic missile submarine was a conventional-powered Golf II assembled from Soviet parts in 1964. The Golf tested the first Chinese SLBM and has since been used for training and a test vessel for missile crews. The Golf II can carry two missiles in the sail. Given time, the Golf

AU Space PrimerFi g. 19-16. CSS-5 TEL 7/23/2003 19 - 9 could be outfitted in a crisis and deployed The development of the Xia class with operational weapons. SSBN (Fig. 19-18) has also been a long process. Its production was greatly Xia (CSS-N-3/JL-1) delayed by difficulties in producing a safe and reliable nuclear reactor. As a The CSS-N-3 (Fig. 19-17) was result, the vessel was in development for developed throughout the late 1970’s, twenty years. Its operational debut was with the first test firing in 1982. Initial in 1987. The JL-1 is known to have launches were from a submerged firing been launched twice from the Xia, once pontoon, and then from China’s diesel in 1988 and again in 1990. powered Golf II submarine. The submarine carries 12 CSS-N-3 The missile took about 15 years to SLBMs. Operational deployment is develop, primarily due to difficulties in unknown but it is believed that only two using solid propellant (this was China’s Xia have been built, however only one appears to be currently in service. China is currently working on a replacement missile system. Following the success of the JL-1/CSS-5 joint development, the follow-on JL-2/DF-31 ICBM program appears to be following a similar development strategy. In addition to a new missile system, China is designing and building a new class of SSBN for the JL-2 series missile.

Chinese Theater Ballistic Missiles

The Chinese M-series tactical short range ballistic missiles began development in the early 1980’s. There are three versions: the M-7, M-9, and M- 11. M designations are used for the export versions while the Chinese versions have DF or other Chinese designations. These systems also carry a western CSS identification. Fig. 19-18. Xia class SSBN M-7/CSS-8 first missile not to use liquid fuel), problems with smaller warheads, problems with underwater launching and The M-7, Chinese project 8610, difficulties with the Xia class nuclear converted the HQ-2 surface to air missile powered submarine itself. (SAM) (itself a Chinese copy of the The CSS-N-3 has such a short range, Russian SA-2 Guideline), into a surface- 1,700 km, that it is limited operationally. to-surface ballistic missile. The original Chinese vessels would likely deploy in booster and sustainer motors act as the home waters where they can be protected first and second stages. by Chinese land and naval forces, similar The missile has a range of 150 km to the Russian concept of SSBN bastion with a 190 kilogram high explosive deployments. warhead. It is reported that the M-7 can

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 10 be launched from a tracked TEL adapted from the HQ-2 SAM launcher.

Fig. 19-21. M-9 lifting out of its TEL Initially assessed as a single stage system, recent reports suggest that there may be a separating warhead with its own miniature propulsion system. This may indicate some type of terminal guidance. The missile currently carries an inertial guidance package, although reports indicate the Chinese are working on Fig. 19-19. M-9 missile upgrading in the future with GPS inputs. The M-9 is deployed on an 8x8 wheeled TEL, with the missile raised to vertical before launch (Fig. 19-21). The system’s solid fuel gives it a launch preparation time as short as 30 minutes. The system has been advertised for sale,

Fig. 19-20. M-9 TEL Estimated to have entered service in 1992, this system was exported to Iran that same year.

M-9/CSS-6 DF-15 Fig. 19-22. M-11 model on TEL with major selling points being its 30 The M-9 (Fig. 19-19) was first flight minute reaction time and accuracy of tested in 1988 and in 1991 was under 600 meters. operationally deployed. The M-9 is a solid fueled, single stage, road-mobile M-11/CSS-7/DF-11 system (Fig. 19-20). It has a range of 600 km with a 500 kilogram high The M-11 (Fig. 19-22) was developed explosive warhead. Some reports as a solid propellant, short range, road- indicate the mobile missile. Designed with external Chinese have a nuclear warhead option, dimensions and electrical interfaces believed to be around 90 kilotons. similar to the Russian SS-1C “SCUD-B”

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 11 missile, it is considerably shorter and SCUD-B lighter. As an interchangeable version of the SCUD-B, the M-11 is capable of North Korean improvements to the being launched from a SCUD TEL with a Russian SCUD-B included slightly minimum of modification. lighter structural materials and The missile is stated to have a range of marginally more powerful engines, 300 km with a 500 kilogram warhead. increasing the range from 300 to 320 km. First test flights occurred in 1990 and the Like the Russian missile, it possesses missile is believed to have reached poor accuracy, with a circular error operational status in the late 1990s. probability (CEP) of 500-1000 meters at maximum range. With the SCUD-B, North Korea also NORTH KOREAN MISSILE began exports of ballistic missile systems SYSTEMS to a number of nations. They established a relationship with Iran that has North Korea (the Democratic Peoples continued and financial aid obtained from Republic of Korea) has been actively Iran enabled full-scale SCUD production pursuing a ballistic missile development to begin in late 1986. Iranian financial program since the mid-1970’s. Initially assistance has been one of the most they worked with the Chinese on a 600 important factors in the success of North km-range missile. Following the demise Korea’s missile program. In return, Iran of this program due to internal problems has received missile systems and limited in China, North Korea sought to obtain production capabilities. SCUD missile technology in order to provide the basis for an indigenous SCUD-C missile production capability. Purchase of foreign missile systems followed by Development of an extended-range reverse engineering and development of SCUD missile began in 1987. This indigenous capabilities has created an system, the SCUD-C, achieves a range of active missile program. 550 km through the reduction in warhead Despite a severe shortage of resources, weight to 500 kilogram and a slight North Korea continues to press forward increase in size and thus, propellant. The with its ballistic missile programs. North SCUD-C was first tested in June 1990. Korea is among the leading nations in the Like its predecessor, this system has also proliferation of missile systems, been exported to Iran, Egypt, and Syria. technology and manufacturing. In addition to the Russian MAZ TEL, North Korea has developed several TEL SCUD System vehicles including German MAN and Japanese Nissan tractor trailer units. Around 1980, North Korea obtained a small number of Russian SCUD-B’s from NO-DONG System Egypt. The Koreans reverse-engineered the system and flight tested their copy, North Korea pursued a twin-track the SCUD Mod A, in 1984. While never approach in its efforts to develop longer intended to become a production model, range missiles. The first method led to it provided the basis for the North Korean the SCUD-C. However, there comes a SCUD Mod B; usually referred to as a point where neither increases in fuel nor SCUD-B, since it is nearly identical to lighter airframes will increase range the Russian version. This North Korean without greater initial thrust and system incorporated several production substantial redesign. In order to carry a engineering improvements. larger warhead over a greater distance, a full redesign of the 1960’s vintage SCUD

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 12 technology was needed. Thus, the TAEPO-DONG Series development of the NO-DONG series was initiated by North Korea at roughly The TAEPO-DONG series consists of the same time as the SCUD-C program, two systems, both with two stages. Such but proceeded at a slower pace. multi-staging represents a considerable advance for North Korea, requiring new NODONG-1 materials and construction technologies.

An increase in thrust appears to have TAEPO-DONG-1 been achieved by using a cluster of four SCUD-B engines, much like the Russians The TAEPO-DONG-1 appears to use did in their early SLBMs in the 1950’s a NODONG-1 first stage and SCUD- and the Chinese with the CSS-2. This derived second stage. This combination increase in thrust is estimated to give the could give the missile a range of NO-DONG-1 a range of 1,000 km with a approximately 2,000 km with a 1,000 payload of 1,000 kilograms. The first kilogram warhead. test firing occurred in May 1993. Unlike On 31 August 1998, North Korea test the SCUD series, the NO-DONG launched the TAPEO-DONG-1 (Fig. 19- warhead is believed to separate from the 23). During this launch several new missile shortly before re-entry into the developments were revealed. The launch atmosphere. The NO-DONG-1 is a road-mobile system. The TEL is a modified version of the Russian SCUD TEL vehicle. Series production and deployment may have begun as early as 1996. When deployed operationally, the NO-DONGs 1,000 km range will place most of western Japan at risk. As with the SCUD-B and C, North Korea appears to have sold the NO- DONG or its technology to various nations for their own missile programs. Pakistan and Iran appear to be the first nations to have developed missile systems based on NO-DONG-1 technology. Fig. 19-23 TAPEO-DONG-1 was claimed by North Korea to be a NODONG-2 satellite launch and not a missile test. The system was launched in an easterly North Korea may also be developing a direction with the first stage landing in 1,500 km version, the NO-DONG-2. the Sea of Japan and, after overflying the Carrying the same 1,000 kilogram Japanese islands, the second stage payload, the range increase may be impacted in the Pacific Ocean 480 km achieved by making the main booster east of the Japanese island of Honshu, structure from an aluminum-magnesium some 1,500 km from its launch point. alloy rather than steel. This could reduce One of the key surprise developments the weight of the missile by at least one was the third stage. North Korea stated ton. that this third stage was a solid fuel stage intended to place a satellite into orbit. This stage failed and the third stage along

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 13 with its satellite payload landed in the NHK Series Pacific Ocean south of Alaska after a flight of about 6,000 km. NHK-1 and NHK-2 (Nike-Hercules- This test of a staging missile system Korea) are in service with South Korean put North Korea on a par with India as forces. The systems are reportedly capable the only developing nation to master of delivering a payload of about 450 "staging". kilograms to a range of roughly 260 km. South Korea depends on the U. S. for TAEPO-DONG-2 most of its advanced weapons. An agreement between the U.S. and South The TAEPO-DONG-2 appears to have Korea bans South Korea from developing a new first stage and a modified NO- medium/long-range missiles. However, DONG-1 second stage. Initial estimates in order to counter North Korea’s theater put the TAEPO-DONG-2 range at 4,000 ballistic missile development programs, km with a 1,000 kilogram payload. No South Korea has just completed flight tests of this variant have been negotiations with the US to allow for 300 noted. km missiles. While the TAEOPO-DONG systems appear to represent a considerable advance over the SCUD-based NO-DONG INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEMS series, it is clear from looking back at China’s missile development program, India’s security environment is that these advances dominated by the mutual distrust between represent the next themselves and Pakistan, with whom it logical steps. has fought three wars since 1947 (47-48, Nonetheless, North 65, 71) and have near continuous border Korea must overcome disputes. Another factor is its numerous additional technical obstacles if competition for regional influence with the TAEPO-DONG China, with whom it also fought a border series is to become a war in 1962. A combination of high viable operational defense spending and considerable system. Fig. 19-24. technical expertise has made India’s military-industrial base one of the best in Nike-Hercules SAM SOUTH KOREAN the third world. MISSILE SYSTEMS Like many countries, India’s missile developments have been closely related North Korean missile developments to their space program. Their efforts were likely the impetus for the initiation show what a determined, developing of South Korean missile programs. By country can do with a long-term, reverse engineering U.S. supplied measured approach to the concurrent missiles, South Korea produced a two- development and production of space stage, solid-fuel surface to surface missile launch vehicles and missiles. based on the Nike-Hercules surface to air After failing to reverse-engineer a missile (Fig. 19-24). This development Russian SA-2 SAM as a viable Short took place in the late 1970’s. Range Ballistic Missile (SRBM) in the 1970’s, India started its Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) with the aim of achieving self-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 14 sufficiency in missile production and volatile liquid fuel and therefore, are development. fueled immediately prior to launch. The IGMDP is comprised of five core Reports suggest that a solid propellant systems. The first two are an SRBM and motor is being researched. a Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile A naval version of the Prithvi-II called the “Dhannsh” was test launched from an Indian naval vessel in 2000. The test was not successful but the Indian Navy will likely continue testing and eventually deploy the system.

Agni IRBM System

The Agni (“fire”) missile represents a much more ambitious project than the Prithvi. First conceived in 1979, the Fig. 19-25. Prithvi SRBM Agni (Fig. 19-26) is a full-fledged IRBM. This two stage system uses a solid fuel (IRBM) to be developed in close first stage, copied from the SLV-3 space association with the space program. The booster, while the second stage is a other programs are a short and medium shortened version of the liquid fueled range SAM and an anti-tank guided Prithvi. Its first flight was in 1989. The missile. system has been tested to 2,500 km with a 1,000 kilogram warhead. Prithvi SRBM System India has called the Agni a technology demonstrator and not a developed The Prithvi (“earth”) SRBM missile weapon system. In December 1996, design began in 1983 and was first test India announced that the Agni “technology fired in 1988. This road-mobile, liquid demonstrator” program was over. fueled missile uses basic propulsion In April 1999, India tested an technology from the SA-2 SAM. Two upgraded Agni ballistic missile. versions of the Prithvi have been Variously called the Agni-2 Agni-II, developed, the Prithvi-I and Prithvi-II, Agni Plus, and the Agni ER (Extended both believed to have Range) the missile reportedly will carry a entered service in 1994 warhead of 1,000 kilograms to a range of or 1995. 2,000 km. A CEP of 40 meters was The system is carried reported but is not confirmed. The on a truck based eight- missile has an advanced inertial wheeled TEL (Fig. 19- navigation system and may have mid- 25) and is raised to course updates using GPS. vertical for launch. This version is expected to be India's The Prithvi-I is an operational IRBM. The solid fuel missile army version, having a is intended to be fired from mobile range of 150 km launchers (Fig. 19-27). This is a major carrying a 1,000 upgrade from the basic Agni which had a kilogram warhead, while solid first stage but a liquid fuel second the Air Force Prithvi-II stage. has a range of 250 km with a 500 kilogram warhead. The Prithvi class systems use a highly Fig. 19-26. Agni IRBM

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 15 Fig. 19-27. Agni-2 in Parade With the increased range of the new appears to be a two-stage solid fuel Agni-II, targets in Pakistan can be missile. Performance is believed to be in reached from almost anywhere in India as the range of 300 km with a 500 kilogram well as the major cities of China, both of warhead. whom India has fought wars with in The Hatf-2 is reported to be a mobile recent times. system; however, when displayed, they The possibility has been raised that were transported on converted World India may be developing an Agni-III with War II-era anti-aircraft gun trailers a range of 3,500 km. instead of a more modern transporter- erector-launcher vehicle.

PAKISTANI MISSILE SYSTEMS Hatf-3/4

The Prithvi threat from India spurred There have been numerous reports of Pakistani efforts to acquire ballistic other Pakistani missile systems under missiles. Pakistan started to develop the development. Little is know about these Hatf (“Deadly”) series in the early systems. Possible missile systems have 1980’s. They claim to have done this been speculated with a variety of without assistance; however, Chinese or different names. some other aid is suspected. There is One report mentions a Hatf-3 follow also evidence that China delivered on with a range of 600 km. There has unassembled M-11 missiles to Pakistan. been some speculation that the Hatf-3 Rumors of Chinese M-9 missile or program may be related to the Chinese technology have also been associated M-9 or M-11 missiles. with Pakistan's missile program. M-11 (Chinese) Hatf Series Since 1993, there have been The Hatf-1 and 2 were both revealed indications that Pakistan has received during test firings in early1989. They are unassembled M-11’s from China. In short to intermediate-range, road-mobile, August 1996, U.S. intelligence officials solid fuel systems. Little is known about reported a partially completed factory the missiles or their role. that could be ready in a year or two to produce “precise duplicates” of the M-11. Hatf-1 An engine test stand was also located nearby. In 2000 the US Government The Hatf-1 is a single-stage SRBM publicly stated that China had with a range of 80 km carrying a 500 proliferated the M-11 missile to Pakistan. kilogram warhead. The system is a road- The M-11 is a mobile system with a mobile, single stage, solid propellant range of 300 km with a 500 kilogram missile. It is believed to have entered warhead. service in 1992. An improved version, the Hatf-1A was Ghauri (Hatf-5) Series reported to have entered service in 1992. This missile is reported to have an increased Development of a longer range missile range to 100 km. system appears to have started between 1993 and 1996. The first public Hatf-2 reference to the missile was in 1997. After the first flight test in 1998, North The Hatf-2 appears to have been Korean involvement in this missile developed in tandem with the Hatf-1 during the early 1980’s. This system

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 16 development program appeared highly On April 15, 1999, one day after likely. supposedly testing the Ghauri-2, Pakistan flight tested a new series of ballistic missile. The Shaheen (Eagle) (Fig. 19- 29) is a solid fuel, mobile SRBM. While the system has an advertised range of 750 km with a payload of 1,000 kilograms, the four minute flight was to a distance of 600 km. A CEP of 10 meters has been cited in Pakistani reports.

Fig. 19-28. Ghauri

Ghauri

In April 1998, Pakistan launched a missile 1,100 km with a 700 kilogram warhead. Flight time was just under 10 minutes. First identified as the Hatf-V, Fig. 19-29. Shaheen TEL the missile was renamed the Ghauri (Fig. 19-28), after a historical Muslim who Numerous other missile names have defeated the Hindu's in the 1100's. appeared in connection with the Pakistani The Ghauri missile is stated to have a missile programs. These include; range of 1500 km with a CEP of 250 Ghaznave (2,000 km), Shaheen-2 (2,300 meters and is assessed to be liquid fueled. km), Tipu (4,000 km), Babar, and Abdali. The Ghauri appears to be a North Korean No Dong type missile. ISRAELI MISSILE SYSTEMS

Ghauri-2 Israel has the most highly developed defense industry as well as the most In April 1999, one year after the advanced missile production in the Ghauri launch, Pakistan claimed to have Middle East. Israel has developed both a launched an improved missile. The short range and a medium range ballistic Ghauri-2 has a reported range of 2,000 missile. Both of these missiles are km with a 1,000 kilogram warhead but produced indigenously. was only tested to a range of 1,150 km. Flight time for this test was supposedly Jericho-1 around 12 minutes. If there is a Ghauri- 2, foreign, probably North Korean, help The Jericho-1 is a short range missile is suspected. However, there is no based on the French MD-600 design. It evidence other than the Pakistani press can carry a 500 kilogram warhead a release that a Ghauri-2 missile was distance of 500 km. This solid propellant, actually tested. mobile system was developed in the 1960’s. First test fired in 1968, it was Shaheen Series deployed around 1973. The missile can be launched from a railroad flatbed car or Shaheen from a wheeled TEL vehicle.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 17 have over 200 of these missiles. North Jericho-2 Korea has also aided Iran in converting a missile maintenance facility into a It is believed that the Jericho-2 was SCUD-C assembly plant. develop-ed in tandem with Israel’s Shavit space launch vehicle (Fig. 19-30). M-7 (CSS-8) Missile System (China)

The Jericho-2 improved upon the In 1992, Iran purchased the Chinese performance of its predecessor, the M-7 short-range missile. Iran has also Jericho-1. Developed in the mid-1970s to expressed an interest in obtaining the the early 1980s, its first fight was in M-9 and/or the M-11 missiles. 1986. It entered service in 1990. A recent agreement between the U.S. The Jericho-2 is a two-stage, solid and China, where China agreed to propellant system capable of delivering a terminate its missile support to Iran, 1,000 kilogram war-head a distance of should preclude Iran from building a around 1,500 km. This places most of near-term offensive missile capability the capitals of the Middle East in range against U.S. allies or other countries in as well as southwestern Russia. the gulf region. China has more or less As with the Jericho-1, the system is honored this pledge. However, the launched from either a wheeled TEL or a Iranians are still getting missile railroad flatcar. technology assistance from North Korea and Russia.

IRANIAN MISSILE SYSTEMS Shahab-3

Iran acquired its first SCUD launcher Iran's newest missile is the Shahab-3 and missiles in 1985-1986. It is believed (Meteor) which is currently being that these were acquired from Libya and deployed. This MRBM is a mobile Syria. At this time, Iran had been at war system based on the North Korean No with Iraq since September 1980. Dong. The system was tested in Iran in The 300 km range of the SCUD-B July 1998 and has been assessed to have permitted Iran to launch strikes against a 1,300 km range (Fig. 19-31). Baghdad, some 130 km from the Iranian border. In 1985, Iran fired an estimated 14 SCUD-B’s at Iraqi cities. In 1987 and 1988, more SCUD missiles were then obtained; this time from North Korea. Reportedly between 90 and 100 missiles were purchased. In 1988, during the “War of the Cities” Iran fired 231 SCUD- B missiles at Iraq. Since the end of the Iran/Iraq War in 1988, Iran has continued Fig. 19-31 Shahab Articulated TEL to expand its missile program.

SCUD Missile Systems (North Korea) IRAQI MISSILE SYSTEMS Iran’s current inventory of over 250 SCUD-B missiles was obtained from Iraq received its first ballistic missiles, North Korea. The extended range North SUCD-B’s, from the FSU in 1974. In Korean SCUD-C (500 km) was 1985, during the Iran/Iraq War, SCUD-B subsequently purchased and Iran may missiles were launched against Iraqi cities, particularly Baghdad. Most Iranian cities

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 18 were beyond the range of the Iraqi reduction in payload weight and extra SCUD-B missiles. Tehran, the capital of fuel provides for the extended range. Iran, is about 500 km from the Iraqi During the Gulf War of 1991, about 40 border. To overcome this deficiency, Iraq Al Hussein missiles were fired at Israel started an extensive missile program and around 46 were launched against which centered on upgrading the Saudi Arabia. performance of the SCUD-B. Al Abbas SCUD and SCUD Modifications A second modification, designated Al While Iraq originally obtained its Abbas, was tested in April 1988. This SCUD missiles from the FSU, Iraq has missile had an enhanced range of 900 been able to develop an autonomous km. However, it does not appear to have production capability. Using oil reached operational status. Only one revenues to fund a huge missile flight test appears to have been conducted. technology procurement network, Iraq The extended range was obtained by was able to obtain more advanced missile reducing the warhead to around 150 technology. During the late 1980s, the kilograms and again, extending the Iraqis made strides in their indigenous missile body; this time by more that six rocket program, apparently relying on feet over the original SCUD-B. foreign technical assistance and Since the Gulf War, Iraq has been equipment. prohibited from having or developing ballistic missiles with ranges over 150 Al Hussein km. However, they continue to test short range missiles within this limit. The first upgrade to the SCUD -B was the Al Hussein, (Fig. 19-32) with a range of 600 km, allowing SAUDI ARABIAN MISSILE strikes on Tehran, SYSTEMS Iran. In 1988, during the Iraqi “War of the Saudi Arabia obtained its first ballistic Cities” strikes, some missile during the late 1980s. Although 189 modified SCUDs the missiles were purchased from China were fired at Tehran. around 1986, it was not disclosed to the This resulted in a halt world until 1988. Currently, no other to Iran’s small-scale ballistic missiles are reported to be missile attacks on operational or under development in Baghdad. Saudi Arabia. Additionally, it hastened Iran’s CSS-2 Missile System acceptance of a cease- fire in a war which Saudi Arabia is believed to have a was started by Iraq total of approximately 12 launchers and and had become 50 CSS-2 missiles deployed at two sites, bogged down in a Fig. 19-32 located 100 and 500 km south of Riyadh, World War I-style Al Hussein Saudi Arabia. stalemate. The CSS-2 can carry a 2,000 kilogram Al Hussein variants are approximately conventional warhead to a distance of three feet longer than the standard 2,500 km. This range brings countries SCUD-B and have reduced warheads, throughout the Middle East within from 1,000 kilograms to 500. This striking range; yet, none of the Saudi CSS-2s were fired during the Gulf War.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 19 The missile is far too inaccurate to be used against a point target with a conventional warhead. The Saudis stated LIBYIAN MISSILE SYSTEMS that the war was against the leadership of Iraq, not its people, thereby acknowledging the missile’s inaccuracy and its consequent potential for civilian causalities. Saudi

Fig. 19-33. Countries in black have, produce or are developing theater ballistic missiles Arabia has further stated that they would Libya obtained SCUD-Bs from the not obtain or use chemical or nuclear FSU during the 1970s. Since then, it has warheads on their CSS-2 missiles. In attempted to purchase other new systems. April 1988, they signed the Nuclear Additionally, reports of an indigenous Nonproliferation Treaty. missile production program are persistent. This missile development program, Al Fatah, has been in progress since at least SYRIAN MISSILE SYSTEMS 1981. Despite the apparent slow progress, Libya’s relative wealth allows the Syria was one of the FSU’s staunchest country to continue seeking an allies in the Middle East. Beginning in indigenously produced ballistic missile. the early 1970s, Syria began receiving the SCUD-B and other battlefield missiles. It is believed that Syria has 200 MISSILE PROLIFERATION SCUD-B missiles and 18 launchers. Theater ballistic missile proliferation They also have more modern SS-21 solid is becoming an ever increasing problem fueled short range missiles. in the world. Many nations possess theater ballistic missiles and some have made these systems/technology available for purchase (see Fig. 19-33). Today, proliferation poses a significant threat to U.S. commanders in overseas locations and this threat will continue to grow in the future. In 1986, Libya fired two ballistic missiles at a U.S. communications installation on the Italian island of

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 20 Lampedusa. Although they missed, have used it. Although that may have equally ominous was Qaddafi’s boast that been an empty threat at the time, if Libya had possessed a missile that Americans cannot be overly optimistic could reach New York City at the time of about the prospect of missiles under the the U.S. air raid on Tripoli, he would control of a volatile political leader.

REFERENCES

Ballistic Missile Threats. Centre for Defence & International Security Studies, Lancaster University, United Kingdom, http://www.cdiss.org.

CATO Institute, Washington D.C., http://cato.org. “Publications - Foreign Policy Briefing, No. 10”, July 14, 1991.

DOD, Soviet Military Power; 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989 and 1990 Editions.

"Foreign Missile Developments and the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States Through 2015," September 1999, National Intelligence Council, CIA's Office of Public Affairs, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/nie/nie99msl.html.

History - Rocket History. Kennedy Space Center, Florida, http://www.ksc.nasa.gov.

Intelligence Resources Program. Federation of American Scientists, http://www.fas.org.

Issues - Defense and Foreign Policy. Center for Defense Information, Washington D.C. , http://www.cdi.org.

Jane’s Strategic Weapons Systems, Sep. 1995, Jane’s Information Group Inc.

"North Korea's Ballistic Missile Program." "A History of Ballistic Missile Development in the DPRK." Joseph S. Bermudez Jr. http://www.cns.miis.edu/

"PROLIFERATION: THREAT AND RESPONSE." http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/prolif97/

Public Affairs Office - History. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, http://www.hq.nasa.gov.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 21

Soviet Military Capabilities, 1986, HQ SAC.

“Theater Ballistic Missile Warning.” United States Space Command, Peterson AFB Colorado, http://spacecom.af.mil.

"The Threat from Ballistic Missiles." http://internationaldefense.com/pi-threat_of_tbm.html

“Ballistic and Cruise Missile Threat”, NAIC-1031-0985-00, National Air Intelligence Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, Sep 2000

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 19 - 22 Chapter 20

REST-OF-WORLD (ROW) SPACE LAUNCH

Missiles and space have a long and related history. All the early space boosters, both U.S. and Russian, were developed from ballistic missile programs. Today, many other nations are using their missile and rocket technology to develop a space launch capability.

COMMONWEALTH AND INDEPENDENT STATES (CIS) Tyuratam (TT)/Baikonur Cosmodrome RUSSIAN / UKRAINE / KAZAKH In the 1950s, the Soviet Union an- SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEMS nounced that space launch operations were being conducted from the Baikonur Space Launch Facilities Cosmodrome. Some concluded that this facility was near the city of Baikonur, The breakup of the former Soviet Un- Kazakhstan. In truth, the launch facilities ion (FSU) into independent states has are 400 Km to the southwest, near the fragmented and divided the Russian railhead at Tyuratam (45.9ºN, 63.3ºE). space support infrastructure. This has re- The Soviets built the city of Leninsk sulted in planning and scheduling diffi- near the facility to provide apartments, culties for Russia, the main inheritor of schools and administrative support to the the remains of the former Soviet space tens of thousands of workers at the program. Ukraine has the most extensive launch facility. Sputnik, the first man- space capability after Russia but with no made satellite, was launched from TT in space launch facility, followed by Ka- October 1957. This site has been the lo- zakhstan with a major space launch facil- cation of all manned and geostationary ity but little industrial base. Other newly orbit Soviet and CIS launches as well as independent countries have some limited most lunar, planetary launches. Addi- manufacturing capability related to the tionally, it is the only facility that space industry. Russia’s spaceports are supports launches of the Proton (SL-12 now located in two different countries. and SL-13), the Zenit (SL-16) and the The program’s oldest and biggest space- Energia (SL-17). The climate is hot in port, and the only site currently able to do the summer and suffers violent snow- manned launches is Baikonur Cos- storms and -40ºC temperatures in the modrome or Tyuratam in Kazakhstan. winter. A unique feature of the Rus- Within Russia, there are three spaceports. sian/CIS space program is its ability There are two from the former Soviet to launch in extremely harsh climates. space program: Plesetsk Cosmodrome Since the demise of the Soviet Union, and Kapustin Yar Space and Missile Test Kazakhstan has claimed ownership of Facility, and the new Russian spaceport the facility. However, most of the in Siberia, Svobodny Cosmodrome. The skilled workers and the military forces Russian's have also developed and mar- protecting the site are Rus- keted a space booster based on a Subma- sian. To use the facilities at Tyruatam, rine Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) Russia must pay rent to Kazakhstan. which has launched a satellite into orbit from the Barents Sea. Counting this un- Kapustin Yar (KY) dersea space launch platform, Russia can use five different launch locations.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 1 Kapustin Yar Space and Missile Test for coordination with other countries is Center (48.4ºN, 45.8ºE) is located on the minimal. There are launch pads for the banks of the Volga River, about 120 Km SL-4, SL-6, SL-8, SL-14 and the SL-19 east of Volgograd and less than 48 Km space launch vehicles. Additionally, west of Kazakhstan. In 1947, this site launches of the SL-3 and SL-11 could was selected as the location for the de- also be conducted, if necessary. The ex- velopment of the Soviet rocket and space treme northern latitude of PK has pro- program. Numerous German V-2 rocket vided the Russians with valuable experi- launches were made from here during ence in cold weather launch operations. testing and development. The first So- viet-built rocket systems, the R-1 and R- Svobodny Cosmodrome 2, were launched from here in 1948 and 1949. In the past, this facility was the When the breakup of the Soviet Union site of numerous sounding rockets and left Russia’s largest spaceport of Tyuratum small orbital payload launches using the in Kazakhstan, experts concluded that SL-8/Kosmos. There were no space Russia needed another spaceport. launches from Kapustin Yar from 1987 Svobodny Cosmodrome (51.2oN, until April 1999 when a commercial 128.0oE) was selected in 1993 to fill this launch was performed for a German sat- role. It is the site of a former ICBM base ellite. Kapustin Yar’s proximity to Ka- along the Trans-Siberian railway. Plans zakhstan now precludes eastward call for Svobodny to incrementally come launches without prior approval of that on line as a spaceport. At first, the exist- government. ing facilities of the former ICBM base will be used to launch Rokot and Plesetsk (PK) Cosmodrome START-series vehicles. In later stages, launch facilities will be built to support Plesetsk Cosmodrome (63.8ºN, 40.7ºE) the heavy Angara launch vehicle. is about 640 Km northeast of St. Peters- Svobodny became Russia’s fourth space- burg. PK is situated in a heavily wooded port with the launch of a START-1 on 4 area close to the Arctic Circle. It is near March 1997. A second START-1 was the town of Plesetsk on the railway line launched in December 1997 and a third from Moscow to Archangelsk. Although in late 2000. used for civilian communications, meteorological and international launches; most Barents Sea Launch Area launches from PK have military roles. The site may be considered as the Rus- With the development of a space sian equivalent of Vandenberg AFB. Or- booster from an SLBM, the Russian's bital inclinations attained from PK range have demonstrated the potential ability to from 63º to 83º. Historically, it is the launch a small satellite from almost any- port of debarkation for over 1,300 where in the world. All Russian tests and launches, or more than one third of all its first commercial satellite from a sub- orbital or planetary missions from all marine have all taken place from near launch sites world-wide. It typically is Russian home waters in the Barents Sea used to deliver most (if not all) Russian located north of the Kola Peninsula, the polar orbiting sensor payloads and many homeport of Russia's ballistic missile Molniya orbit payloads. The high inclina- submarine fleet. This first underwater tion of the Molniya communications satel- launch of a satellite placed a German lites is a natural result of an eastward university built scientific satellite into a launch from PK. Because the launch site polar, low earth orbit. is on Russian soil and the flight profile Russian Space Launch Vehicles does not pass over any other countries during the boost phase, the requirement

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 2 The FSU developed an impressive ar- The original version, the A vehicle (or ray of SLVs, mostly derived from Inter- SL-1/2) is classified as a one and one- continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). half stage vehicle. It consists of a central On more than one occasion, Russia has core with four strap-on boosters. The demonstrated the ability to conduct mul- Russians classified this as a two-stage tiple launches within a short period of assembly, but since the engines of the time. The SLV names such as Proton strap-ons and the central sustainer ignite used in this chapter are Russian. The simultaneously at lift off, this parallel "SL-#" designation is assigned by DOD. staging arrangement is generally regarded The letter-number designation, such as as a one and one-half-stage vehicle. This “A-1”, was developed by Dr. Charles vehicle launched the first three Sputnik Sheldon, U.S. Congressional Research satellites in 1957 and 1958. The third Service, to differentiate between launch and largest Sputnik had a mass of 1327 vehicle families and their variants. This Kg and was delivered to a 122 by 1016 system is no longer used but is still found nm orbit. All three A launches were con- in some publications. Since the break-up ducted from TT. of the Soviet Union, many FSU countries To satisfy the need to launch bigger and companies have been marketing for- payloads, the Vostok (A-1/SL-3) (Fig. mer Soviet booster for international and 20-2) was introduced in 1959. commercial space lift. This trend has With an SS-6 first stage, the Vostok lead to the increased use of the Russian has a second stage attached by a trellis- names for these boosters in press releases like structure. The initial version of the and news reports. Table 20-1 at the end A-1 vehicle was used to launch the Luna of this SLV section is a matrix providing moon payload. The payload fairing was a list of all three types of names.

Soyuz Series (A-Class, Soyuz, Molniya)

The Soyuz class of launch vehicles is based on the original Soviet ICBM, the SS-6 Sapwood (Fig. 20-1), which was first tested as a missile on 2 August 1957. Its first use as a space vehicle was only two months later, suggesting concurrent development as an ICBM and SLV. This ICBM has provided, in various forms, the initial stages of a whole family of SLVs Fig. 20-2. SL-3 Vostok including the operational Vostok, Soyuz and Molniya SLVs. then enlarged to launch the manned Vostok as well as the first-generation recoverable Kosmos satellites. With a larger and more sophisticated payload fairing used on the Vostok, the overall length of the booster increased to 38m from about 34m. Initially the Vostok was launched from TT and later from PK. PK no longer launches the Vostok, although the capability still exists. There have been about 150 successful Vostok launches.

Fig. 20-1. SS-6

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 3 The Soyuz (A-2/SL-4) premiered in The most recent versions of the Soyuz 1963, with the development of a more family are the SL-22, Soyuz/Ikar (Fig. powerful core second stage. This SLV 20-4) and the SL-26, Soyuz/Fregat. has been the workhorse of the Soviet These boosters were modified from the rocket program (Fig. 20-3). Since 1964, original Soyuz by the addition of a new all Soviet manned missions have relied upper stage, either the Ikar or the Fregat. on the SL-4. However, the largest pro- Both boosters are a commercial venture gram it supports is military and civilian between France and Russia to perform photographic reconnaissance flights. It is commercial launches with versions of the used today to launch the Soyuz, Progress SL-4 Soyuz. Depending on the satellite payload requirements, different upper stages may be used or special purpose built.

Fig. 20-4. SL-22 - Soyuz-Ikar Fig. 20-3. SL-4 Soyuz and Biosats, as well as Kosmos observa- Launch Processing. Three or four weeks tion satellites. It also launched the Vosk- before the launch, the components of the hod manned vehicles. Over 900 Soyuz A-class SLV are delivered to the Space have been flown successfully from TT Vehicle Assembly Building (MIK) as- and PK. Normally launched 40-50 times sembly complex in up to seven parts (4 a year, the Soyuz is by far the most strap-on boosters, first, second and third launched SLV in the world. stages). In a few days, the separate parts During the 1960s, the Molniya SLV are horizontally mated. After a successful (A-2-e/SL-6) supported all Soviet plane- integration test, the entire SLV, with its tary missions and most lunar flights, such payload, is carried on a rail transporter- as Luna, Zond and Venera payloads. It erector car to the launch pad, then tilted differs from Soyuz mainly with the addi- up to sit on a stand over a huge flame de- tion of a core third stage. Today, this flector pit. SLV supports Molniya communications The payload or satellite is also deliv- satellite and Kosmos early warning satel- ered to the launch facility by rail. The lite programs, which require highly ellip- prospective satellite first goes to the MIK tical, semi-synchronous orbits. The Mol- for initial pre-launch check-out. It is then niya rocket was initially flown out of TT carried by a special transport to the fuel- but is now flown from PK. ing facilities several kilometers from the The Soyuz SLVs have dominated the launch site. Once fully fueled, the space- Russian space program, having performed craft is transported back to the MIK for about 60% of the all launches. Since horizontal mating with the SLV and final 1957, A-class boosters have placed more pre-pad checkout. than 1,300 payloads into earth orbit. The launch structure for the vehicle employs four releasable support beams

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 4 which accept the weight of the SLV. The SLV is suspended over the gas deflecting trough with its tail portion 7m below the level of the platform. After ignition, the four support beams are initially held in place by the weight of the booster. Counterweights cause these four beams to fall back and allow the climbing SLV to clear the structure. The A-class SLVs are normally brought to the pad less than 48 hours before liftoff. They are capable of launching in severe weather conditions including dense fog, wind, rain and snow.

Flight Sequence. The following table shows the sequence of a Soyuz Manned LEO Mission Launch:

MIN:SEC 0:00 Lift Off 1:58 Strap-on boosters separate 2:40 Escape system jettison command 5:00 1st stage separation 2nd stage ignition 9:00 2nd stage shutdown 9:43 Spacecraft orbital injection

Kosmos Series (C-Class SLVs, Kosmos)

The Kosmos (C-1/SL-8) (Fig. 20-5) was first launched in 1964. It is a two-stage, Fig. 20-5. SL-8 Kosmos storable propellant SLV with the capability to place 1350 Kg into low-earth orbit In 1983 and 1984, Kosmos launched (LEO). This bridged the payload gap be- four BOR-4 lifting bodies under the tween the older SL-7 (B-1) booster, names Kosmos 1374, 1445, 1517 and which was capable of placing 600 Kg 1614. These sub-scale space plane mis- into LEO and the A-class boosters capa- sions were conducted for the Buran space ble of placing 4730 Kg to LEO. As with shuttle program to test heat resistant reen- earlier SLVs, a missile, in this case the try materials and gather additional tran- SS-5 Skean, was used as the first stage. sonic aerodynamic data. The four space Kosmos' first use launched the triple missions were successful, culminating in payload of Kosmos 38, 39 and 40 out of recoveries in the Indian Ocean or the Black TT. Launching multiple small payloads Sea. with a single Kosmos has remained a Today, Kosmos has replaced the B-1 common mission. Initially launched SLV. Its annual flight rate has dropped from TT, PK has been the launch site to pre-1970 levels and many of its payloads since 1966. Today, nearly all Kosmos have been transferred to the more capable launches are conducted at PK, although a and more modern Tsyklon booster. Pri- few were conducted from KY. Kosmos mary payloads are low-altitude naviga- is the first and only SLV to date that has tion satellites and store/ dump communi- been launched from three operational cations satellites. launch sites.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 5 Launch Processing. Launch process- stations from Salyut 1 in 1971 to the Mir ing is the same as A-class SLVs, with in 1986. payload check-out and fueling done prior The D-1-e consists of the D-1’s three to mating horizontally with the SLV and stages plus a fourth stage for orbit trans- being moved to the pad for launch. fer or escape. This SLV, first flown in However, different launch sites and pad 1967, has flown geosynchronous commu- structures are used. nication satellites like the Ekran, Raduga and Gorizont, and interplanetary satellites Proton Series (D-Class, Proton) like the Zond and Luna missions to the Moon, Venera to Venus, Vega to Haley's Until the 1987 launch of the Energia, comet and Mars and Phobos to Mars. for over 20 years, the Proton was the Nearly 90% of Proton launches used the largest operational booster. However, D-1-e variant. not until the launch of the two Vega probes to Halley's comet in December 1984 did the world receive its first complete view of the Proton SLV. Additional data has since been made available as a result of Glasnost and the Russian/CIS effort to compete in the commercial world market. There are three variants of the Proton; a two, three or four stage SLV. The first three stages of the Proton were designed in the early 1960's by the design bureau headed by V.H. Chelomey. It was the first Soviet SLV design not based on an existing ballistic missile. The original version of the Proton is known in the west as the D or SL-9 SLV (Fig. 20-6). It consists of two stages; the first with a cluster of six engines and the second with a cluster Fig. 20-7. SL-12 Proton of four. No longer in use, the original D In December 1968, before the Apollo SLV was only used 8 mission, the Soviets scheduled a Zond four times in 1965 and mission on a Proton to carry Aleksei 1966 to launch Proton Leonov and Oleg Makarov around the 1 through 4 satellites, moon and back to earth. That mission thus naming the was scrubbed when an unmanned Zond 6 booster. The payloads suffered cabin decompression the month were 12,000 Kg; well before. There are no current plans to below what the SLV man-rate the Proton for cosmonauts. All was capable of plac- Proton launches are conducted from TT. ing into orbit. Flight rate of the Proton (Fig. 20-7) Fig. 20-6. The next two ver- steadily grew from an initial six launches SL-9 Proton sions of the Proton, in 1970 to a peak of 14 in 2000. The Pro- still in operation today, are the D-1 (SL- ton SLV was considered operational in 13) and the D-1-e (SL-12) (Fig. 20-7). 1970 despite failing on seven out of nine The D-1 consists of the D’s first two missions in 1969. Between 1983 and stages plus a new third stage. This SLV, 1986, the Proton had its longest string of first flown in 1968, has flown LEO pay- consecutive launch successes, totaling loads including all of the Soviet space

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 6 43. Recently, about 10% of all CIS As soon as the central core and strap- launches are Proton launches. ons are assembled into a single unit, they The Proton SLV can deliver 20,000 are removed from the jig by a bridge Kg to LEO, 5,700 Kg to lunar transfer crane to the assembly integration erector trajectories, 5500 Kg to geo-transfer orbit trolley. Here the various units are mated and 2,800 Kg to sun-synchronous polar to the next stage, after which the integra- orbits. tion test of the assembled launch vehicle The newest version of the Proton is is carried out. Up to three Proton SLVs the SL-25. This booster has a new upper can be assembled in this facility in about stage, the Breeze. This new stage allows 21 days and the assembly building can for improved performance placing satel- accommodate as many as six boosters at lite in orbit. one time. Once the spacecraft and the fourth Launch Processing. The special, tech- stage are assembled and encapsulated in nical and launching complexes for the the satellite preparation building, (Fig. Proton SLV are at the Baikonur 20-9) they are transported to the Proton Cosmodrome or TT. The technical com- SLV horizontal assembly building lo- plex is equipped with railroad spurs and cated 6.5 Km from the Sputnik/Soyuz engineering service lines that are used to satellite technical zone. transport the SLV and its payload through-out the complex. The main building of the technical complex is the integration and testing facility. Assembly and integration of the Proton booster stages (Fig. 20-8) are carried out in the horizontal position. Special jigs and assembly mating trolleys are used to accomplish these Fig. 20-9. Satellite encapsulation functions. The jig, used for the SLVs There the satellite is installed on the first stage assembly, launch vehicle under the nose fairing and is the most rolled out horizontally to be erected on important. the pad into a vertical position. Satellite Fig. 20-8 Proton thermal control is provided by an air conditioning system feeding air under the The central block of the launch vehi- nose fairing. cle is fixed horizontally on the jig and There are two Proton launch com- can be rotated around the x-axis. One of plexes. Each complex consists of two the first stage lateral strap-on blocks is launch pads located 600 meters apart. brought under the bottom of the central The SLV is not suspended on the block by the assembly-integration trolley launcher system like the Soyuz SLV. It and is attached to the core vehicle. Next is erected directly on the supporting fix- the trolley is removed, and the central tures on the launch pad (Fig. 20-10). It core is rotated to the desired angle and takes four hours to erect and install the the next of six lateral strap-ons is at- Proton on the pad. Normally the launch tached. happens three to four days after installation on the pad. If a scrub were to occur,

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 7 it would require 12 hours to de-fuel the the entire payload into a reentry trajec- booster and lower it to a horizontal posi- tory. Similarly, the ASAT and the tion for the roll back to the assembly EORSAT/ RORSAT SLV is referred to building. as the F-1-m. The m stands for “maneuverable” stage, which is part of the payload. The F-2 (SL-14) introduced in 1977, is an F-1 with an added small third stage. It performs a number of missions previously flown on the Kosmos and Vostok. These include launching communications, meteorology, remote sensing, science, geodesy, electronic intelligence and mi- nor military payloads. The Fig. 20-10. SL-12 Lift to launch pad F-2 is launched from PK at a highly automated launch Launch is controlled from a special complex, placing payloads complex located 1.6 Km from the launch into orbits with inclinations complex. At the moment of liftoff, the between 73.5º and 82.5º. service mechanism rises with the SLV Fig. 20-11. The name "Tsyklon" SL-11 and tracks for the first few fractions of a (Cyclone), identified as part second. The SLVs azimuth guidance is of the F-class of medium boosters, ap- provided by its control system which can peared first in 1987. Named by correct the rocket at the initial phase of Glavkosmos, the Russian organization flight to the calculated angle. This that markets space hardware on a com- mechanism is then separated and with- mercial basis, the F-2 was offered as a drawn by a pneumatic accelerator and is commercial launch vehicle capable of secured behind an armored steel firewall delivering 4,000 Kg payloads into a cir- cover. This steel cover helps to form part cular orbit with a 200 Km altitude. The of the launch pad flame deflector. Tsyklon is comprised of three tandem- arranged stages and a shroud. It is fueled Tsyklon Series (F-Class, Tsyklon) by nitrogen tetroxide and asymmetric di- methylhydrazine. The third stage and the As a SLV, Tsyklon was initially intro- payload are enclosed within the shroud. duced as the F-1 booster. The SLV F-1-r The first stage has six thrust chambers (SL-10) was introduced in 1966 and fol- and four verniers for thrust. The second lowed a year later by the F-1-m (SL-11) stage has two thrust chambers and four (Fig. 20-11). Tsyklon is a derivative of verniers for thrust. The F-2 can boost the SS-9 SCARP ICBM. several spacecraft into orbit simultaneously. The F-1 has been used mainly for mili- It also can subsequently inject them into tary purposes; first for offensive weapons their individual orbits by using up to such as the Fractional Orbital Bombard- three low-thrust engines firing from the ment System (FOBS), then as an anti- third stage. The third stage sustainer en- satellite (ASAT) interceptor. Further, it gine can be restarted twice under weight- has launched electronic/radar ocean re- less conditions, permitting spacecraft connaissance satellites (EORSAT/ placement in various orbits required for RORSAT). The FOBS version is often specific space missions. Typically, a sin- referred to as F-1-r, with the r standing gle starting of the third stage sustainer is for “retro-rocket” stage. This portion is used for payload injection into orbits actually part of the payload used to place ranging from 200-250 Km in altitude;

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 8 double starting of the engine is used for in 20 years. In May 1989, it was offi- injection into orbits higher than 250 Km. cially acknowledged as “Zenit” by vehi- Russian documents indicate that out of cle designer Yuri A. Smetanin of the So- the first 75 F-2s launched, 73 were suc- viet space agency Glavkosmos. cessful. The Tsyklon (Fig. 20-12) was one The SLV is a two stage, liquid oxy- of the boosters that was built in the Ukraine gen/kerosene booster. The first stage is during the Soviet era and now be being built virtually identical to the Energia strap-on booster described below. The second stage has one sustainer engine and one four-chamber vernier powered by the same propellant. The two stage SLV can place a payload into a 1,500 Km orbit. A three stage version (Zenit-3) is also available. The third stage is similar to a Pro- ton fourth stage (Block D). All launches of the Zenit occur from Baikonur Cos- modrome. Currently, the Zenit supports a small military Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) program as well as remote sensing, scientific satellites and possible photo reconnaissance platforms.

Fig. 20-12. SL-14 Tsyklon and marketed by Ukraine.

Launch Processing. The Tsyklon is assembled, mated with the spacecraft and transported to the pad in the horizontal position. Once the rocket is placed vertically on the launch pad, manual access to the SLV is lost. The ground servicing system of the Tsyklon provides for a high degree of automation of prelaunch and launch operations. This ground automation reduces the need for personnel at the Fig. 20-13. launch pad and contributes to pad safety. SL-16 Zenit A modified three stage Zenit has been Zenit Series (J-Class, Zenit) developed for use by an international commercial launch corporation. This Zenit (J-1/SL-16) (Fig. 20-13) is an- new booster, the SL-23 or Zenit-3SL is other booster that the Ukraine built dur- for use by the SeaLaunch International ing the period of the Soviet Union. This Corporation. A new upper, third stage system first appeared in 1985 launching was developed as well as improved elec- two sub-orbital and two orbital tests, was tronics for the first and second stage. the first totally new Soviet launch vehicle

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 9 The first launch of this booster (Fig. 20- the world's largest aircraft to bring in the 14) was in May 1999. Energia parts. The first parts of the Bu- ran were delivered to Baikonur in 1982.

Fig. 10.14 SL-23 Zenit-3SL

Energia Series (K-Class, Energia)

The history of the Energia (Energy) SLV (K-1/SL-17) and the Buran (Snow- storm) space shuttle dates back to the unsuccessful Soviet moon program planned to be flown on the N-1 (SL-15/G-1-e) heavy lift vehicle. Fig. 20-15. SL-17 Energia Begun in the 1970s, the Energia/Buran program design of this SLV was placed In 1985, the Zenit was successfully under the direction of NPO Energia. NPO launched on its maiden launch. This was Energia’s direct predecessor was an en- significant since the Zenit first stage is terprise headed by Sergei Korolev, who used as one of the four strap-ons of the designed the first Sputniks and Vostok as Energia. Numerous successful launches well as the N-1. The Energia (Fig. 20- of the Zenit and a successful ground test 15) is designed with four strap-on liquid program enabled the decision to be made oxygen and kerosene boosters attached to for the first Energia launch. a large diameter core that is capable of In 1987, the Energia was ready for delivering 88,000 Kg to LEO with a kick launch. General Secretary Gorbachev stage. The core uses four liquid oxygen visited Leninsk and the Baikonur Cos- and liquid hydrogen propellant engines, modrome from 11 to 13 May. The report the first cryogenic engines of their kind from his visit stated the Baikonur Cos- in the CIS fleet. Payloads are side modrome was preparing to launch of a mounted and are either an unmanned new all-purpose carrier rocket. News of cargo carrier or the Buran orbiter. The the actual launch did not appear until the Energia is only launched out of Baikonur following day providing a launch time of Cosmodrome from pads associated with 1730 GMT on May 15. The launch was the N-1 moon launcher. At liftoff, the conducted from a static test stand that 60m tall Energia generates 7.8 million was pressed into service for this first test pounds of thrust. launch. The announcement said the first The introduction of the Energia and stage landed in Soviet territory as Buran at Baikonur Cosmodrome required planned. The second stage followed the the construction of a very large infra- flight plan precisely delivering the pay- structure. The work began in 1978 with load, a full size and weight mock-up of a the construction of a landing strip for the satellite, to the calculated position. At shuttle. The landing strip is also used by the time of separation from the payload,

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 10 the second stage fell into the pre-planned bility during the final atmospheric flight area in the Pacific Ocean. portion was obtained in an experimental orbiter. This orbiter was equipped with jet engines which allowed it to take off from a normal airfield. Overall, 18 of the 24 flights performed by this experimental orbiter were fully automatic. The only space flight of the Buran was on 15 November 1988. This flight was fully automated with no cosmonauts on board. After two orbits the unmanned spacecraft landed at Tyuratam’s 4.5 Km long runway. Ironically, at this moment of triumph, the entire Soviet space effort was on the verge of huge cutbacks and cancellations due to the collapse of the Communist system.

New Systems

Fig. 20-16. SL-17 with Buran Despite current problems in the their Space Shuttle space program, the Russians are continu- Apparently, the payload should have ing to design and develop new space injected itself into orbit by means of its boosters. Currently, new SLVs have own engine. However, because of a mal- been developed by converting ballistic function of its onboard systems, it failed missiles into launch systems. to do so and also fell into the Pacific Ocean. Although the mission was something less than a success, the launch announcement claimed that “the aims and objectives of the first launching have been fully met.” Although the Buran program was publicly denied and decried as economically unjustified, it was no longer a secret in the spring of 1983. At the Paris Air Show that year, Cosmonaut Igor Volk announced that the Soviets were building Fig. 20-17 Start-1 SLV a space shuttle, the dimensions of which were approximately the same as those of Start Series the U.S. Space Shuttle (Fig. 20-16). The most complicated problems in developing Start (SL-18) the Buran were associated with its thermal protection system for the aluminum The Start-1 SLV (Fig. 20-17) is based structure and landing system for a wide on the three stage SS-25 road-mobile range of weather conditions. ICBM. Start-1 consists of the SS-25’s As stated earlier, valuable data on heat three solid motor stages plus an addi- resistant reentry materials and transonic tional fourth solid motor stage. The sys- aerodynamics was gathered during four tem also employs a small liquid- flights of the BOR-4 sub-scale space propellant postboost stage to increase the plane between 1982 and 1984, which accuracy of the final orbit injection. The were launched by the Kosmos SLV. Ex- first commercial launch of the Start-1 perience with the Buran's handling capa- was in March 1997 and was also the ini-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 11 tial launch from the Svobodny Cos- Rokot Series (SL-19) modrome (Fig. 20-18) The Rokot SLV (Fig. 20-19) is based on the SS-19 ICBM. Due to the deactivation of numerous SS-19's because of arms reduction treaties, Russia decided to convert many of these highly reliable missiles into SLVs. Using SS-19 first and second stages with a newly designed third stage the SL-19 can place 1,900 kilogram satellites into low- earth orbit. The Breeze third stage is re- ignitable and has small thrusters for fine tuning of the final orbit maneuvers. An enlarged payload fairing containing a double launch system, “DOLASY,” allows two satellites to be launched on one Rokot.

Fig. 20-18 SL-18 launch Fig. 20-19 SL-19 Rokot

Start (SL-20) There were three successful test flights of the Rokot system, two sub-orbital and Like the Start-1 booster, the SL-20 one orbital, between 1990 and 1994. The Start SLV is also based on the three stage first launch of the Rokot was in May SS-25 road-mobile ICBM. By essentially 2000 with a test satellite from the Ple- inserting a duplicate second stage be- setsk Cosmodrome. This commercial tween the Start-1 second and third stage, launch is contracted by a joint German- the SL-20 Start is transformed into a five Russian venture, EUROCKET. Several stage configuration. The first attempted launches from at least three different launch of the Start was made March sources have been contracted by 1995, but was unsuccessful. To date, no EUROCKET. additional launches of this booster have taken place.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 12 Shtil (SL-21)

The SL-21 is a converted SS-N-23 liquid-fuel sea-launched ballistic missile. It was proposed for satellite launches by its builder, Makeyev of Russia. Since 1991, Makeyev has marketed and tested several SLBM's as satellite launchers.

The Shtil ("Calm Sea") is the first to have Fig. 20-21. Delta-IV been successfully marketed. This SLV is capable of launching small satellites in place of its normal warhead. While advertised as being able Dnepr Series (SL-24) to lift around 400 kilograms to LEO, the Shtil's first satellite payload was only ten The Dnepr SLV's boosters are based kilograms. Makeyev plans to demon- on the SS-18 ICBM (Fig. 20-22). As strate the capability of its converted sea- with the SL-19, Russia is required to launched ballistic missiles in order to at- eliminate its SS-18 by 2007 and has tract potential customers. The first launch elected to convert them into space boost- of the Shtil was in July 1998 (Fig. 20- ers. This requires the help of Ukraine, 20). which designed and built the SS-18 in the former Soviet Union. The booster is essentially identical to the SS-18, with the missile’s postboost vehicle serving as a small orbital insertion stage. The small size of this third stage limits the basic version to delivering satellites to relatively low-earth orbits. An improved Dnepr may employ the same third stage of the Tsyklon (SL-14) in place of the SS-18 third stage, Fig. 20-22. SS-18 ICBM providing in- Fig. 20-20 SL-21 launch creased performance to higher circular and One of the unique features of this sys- elliptical orbits. tem is that the launch platform is an ac- This booster is marketed by a joint tive duty Russian Delta-VI ballistic mis- Ukrainian/Russian company. The first sile submarine (Fig. 20-21). Payment for commercial, in fact the first launch, of this launch was reported to be directly to the Dnepr was in April 1999 with a Brit- the Russian Navy. The launch of a Ger- ish built satellite. man university satellite was the first ever launch of a satellite from a submerged RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT submarine at sea. SYSTEMS

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 13 Russia is currently working several place the Ukrain- new boosters to replace many of their ian built Zenit older Soviet era systems. One of the and possibly the goals of this program is to have these Russian built Pro- new boosters built totally in Russia. Dur- ton. ing the Soviet era some of the design and The system is building of booster or their components designed around a was done in other former republics. common core center stage. Soyuz-2 (Rus) Changes to the upper stage give The Soyuz-2 is the conversion of an different capabili- upgraded A-class vehicle to replace the ties to the basic current Soyuz (SL-4) and Molniya (SL-6) version, produc- boosters. The Soyuz-2 will preserve the ing the 1.1 and basic A-class configuration. The strap- 1.2 boosters. ons and core first stage will remain ex- Heavier payloads ternally unchanged, although the engines can be lifted by will reportedly be modified. The core add additional second stage is to be upgraded with a common core Fig. 20-23. modern guidance system for improved stages to the first Angara model accuracy. The Molniya core third stage stage. This sys- will be replaced by a slightly larger stage. tem allows for the 3.0 version with two The term “Rus,” commonly reported additional stages and the 5.0 version with as the name of the upgraded A-class four additional cores (Fig. 20-23). All the launch vehicle, actually refers to the up- components are sized for rail transport to grade program, not the vehicle itself. the cosmodromes at Plesetsk and Svo- It appears that much of the develop- bodny ment of this new version of the Soyuz Lift goals for the Angara booster are family is being sponsored by Starsem. stated as 26,000 kilograms to LEO and This joint French-Russian company mar- 4,500 kilograms to geosynchronous kets the Soyuz booster for international transfer. launches. New, improved booster would There are several other existing or improve the marketability of the com- planned launcher projects such as follow- pany and its boosters. ons of the SL-21 "Shtil", new upper stages for older boosters and other totally Angara Series new projects like the “Arkc” spaceplane and “Burlak” air-launched booster, about The Angara is a space booster family which little is known . designed for injecting satellites into low, middle, high circular and elliptical orbits, including both geo-stationary as well as interplanetary trajectories. This all-new Russian built booster is expected to re-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 14 Table 20-1. Russian/CIS Space Launch Systems Russian/CIS Name DOD Designation Sheldon Designation Vostok SL-3 A-1 Soyuz SL-4 A-2 Molniya SL-6 A-2-e Kosmos (Interkosmos) SL-7 B-1 Kosmos SL-8 C-1 Tsyklon SL-11 F-1 Proton (Gorizont) SL-12 D-1-e Proton SL-13 D-1 Tsyklon (Meteor) SL-14 F-2 Zenit SL-16 J-1 Energia SL-17 K-1 Start-1 SL-18 N/A Rokot SL-19 N/A Start SL-20 N/A Shtil SL-21 N/A Soyuz-Ikar SL-22 N/A Zenit-3SL SL-23 N/A Dnepr-1 SL-24 N/A Proton (Breeze) SL-25 N/A Soyuz-Fregat SL-26 N/A

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 15 EUROPEAN SPACE PROGRAM ESA Space Launch Facility

The idea of creating an independent ESA has one operational spaceport located near Kourou, French Guiana in space power in Europe goes back to the o o early 1960s. In 1962, Belgium, France, South America (5.2 N, 52.8 W). The site Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the at Kourou (see Fig. 20-24) was chosen by United Kingdom and Australia formed the French space agency (CNES) in the European Launcher Development Or- 1964. ganization (ELDO) to develop and build a launcher system. This was to replace its former launch site in Algeria, which was closed in 1967 In the same year, these countries plus as part of the Algerian independence Denmark, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland agreement. The geographical location of formed the European Space Organization the site is exceptionally good. Because (ESRO) to develop satellite programs. of its proximity to the equator, the site Ten years later these partners merged the enables launchers to take full advantage activities of the two separate bodies into of the Earth’s rotation and also avoids the a single organization and laid down the need for costly maneuvers after launch to foundation for the European Space achieve the equatorial orbit required for Agency (ESA). geostationary positions. In 1975, Ireland applied to join these The Guiana Space Center (CGS) be- ten countries and become a member of came operational in 1968 and the first ESA. On 30 October 1980, the final sig- orbital launch was in 1970. Since then, nature ratifying the Convention gave le- there have been more that 100 launches gal existence to ESA. Since then, the from Kourou using a variety of launch founding members have also been joined vehicles. Due to lack of obstacles both to by Austria, Norway and Finland. the East and North, orbital inclinations Each country has their own space attained from Kourou, range from 5 de- program and organization, but the mem- grees to 100 degrees. This permits bers cooperate on various launcher, satel- launches into equatorial, polar and sun- lite, control and subsystems that are of synchronous orbits. There are two active interest or benefit to their own country. launchpads at the site. They are the second Ariane facility, ELA-2, used for the

Fig. 20-24. ESA Locations/Facilities

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 16 Ariane-4 series SLV and the newest, prime commercial satellite launcher used ELA-3, (Fig. 20-25) used for the Ariane- by many countries. 5 SLV. Earlier pads for the Europa and Diamant as well as the first Ariane Ariane-1/2/3 launch facility, ELA-1, are no longer used. The Ariane-1 was flown 11 times between 1979 and 1986. The three-stage launcher was capable of placing a 1,850 Kg payload into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). Derived from the Ariane-1, both the Ariane-2 and 3 had an improved third stage, while the Ariane-3 also mounted two strap-on boosters. Payload lifting ability to GTO was improved to 2,175 Kg and 2,700 Kg, respectively. There were a Fig. 20-25. ELA-2/ELA-3 total of 17 launches of the Ariane-2/3 series between 1984 and 1989. To increase the utility of the Ariane booster, a system ESA Space Launch Vehicles was developed to launch two satellites on the same booster. The Ariane Dual Launch System or Systeme de Lancement The first ESA launcher was the Double Ariane (SYLDA) had one satel- Diamant. Initially part of an earlier lite sitting on top while it served as a French program, it was used between shroud for the second satellite. 1965 and 1975. Launches between 1965 and 1967 were from the French launch Ariane-4 site in Hammaguir, Algeria. The first Diamant launch from Kourou was in In 1982, ESA embarked on the de- March 1970. The Diamant had six suc- velopment of the Ariane-4 program. cessful launches out of a total of eight Having become a leading commercial attempts. The Europa launcher was a launching company, ESA needed to be joint British, French and German booster able to adapt to a variety of payloads in tested between 1964 and 1971. Five of the commercial market. The Ariane-4 the 11 launch attempts made with the Eu- program gave rise to a true family of ropa booster were successful. Only the launchers. The core stage of the Ariane-4 last launch of this series was made from is longer than Ariane-3, with an increased Kourou, all the rest being launched from capacity for propellant. Various combina- Woomera, Australia. tions of solid or liquid propellant boost- In 1973, the nations who subsequently ers are strapped to this core section, pro- formed the European Space Agency, viding a total of six possible versions. chose the Ariane program as their launch The satellite payload fairings are also vehicle. This program was based on developed in different sizes. Short, long proven know-how and technologies or extra-long versions are available and gained in various national programs. may be combined with the SYLDA or a One of the defining concepts of the Ari- new dual satellite launch structure ane launcher was it had to be able to sub- (SPELDA) which also comes in three sequently evolve. Ideas about how it different lengths. should evolve took shape early in the All Ariane-4 boosters are launched program. from the ELA-2 launch pad. Nine to The first Ariane booster flew on twelve Ariane-4’s in many combinations/ 24 December 1979. Since then, the Ari- configurations can be launched per year. ane family of boosters has become a

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 17

Ariane-40

This is the basic core vehicle for the entire Ariane-4 family of Space Launch Vehicles. The launcher consists of three stages with no strap-on boosters. It is capable of lifting 4,600 Kg to LEO, 2,705 Kg to sun-synchronous orbit or 1,900 Kg to GTO. While the first launch of an Ariane-4 series launcher was in 1988, the Ariane-40 version did not have its first flight until January 1990.

Ariane-42L

The Ariane-42L (Fig. 20-26) consists of the core vehicle with two liquid fuel strap-on boosters. It can lift 7,270 Kg to

LEO or 3,200 Kg to GTO. The first Fig. 20-27. Ariane-42P launch of this version was May 1993. capability of the Ariane-42P is 6,000 Kg Ariane-42P to LEO and 3,000 Kg to GTO. The first flight of the Ariane-42P was in Novem- This version of the Ariane-4 family ber 1990. (Fig. 20-27) adds two solid fuel strap-on boosters to the core vehicle. The "P" is for Powder to indicate solid fuel. The lift

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 Fig. 20-26. Ariane-42L20 - 18 L iftoff from ELA-2

Fig. 20-28. Ariane-44L Ariane-44L

The Ariane-44L version (Fig. 20-28) has four liquid strap-on boosters around the core vehicle. Lift capacity is 9,590 Kg to LEO (the most for any of the Ari- ane family) and 4,200 Kg to GTO. The initial launch for this version was in June Fig. 20-29. Ariane-44LP 1989. Ariane-5 Ariane-44P ESA adopted the Ariane-5 program in Four solid fuel strap-on boosters are 1987 and development began in 1988. added to the core vehicle to produce the The program is more than just a follow- Ariane-44P variant. This configuration on from the Ariane-1 through Ariane-4 can lift 6,500 Kg to LEO or 3,400 Kg to launchers; its goal is to establish the pre- GTO. The first flight of this version was mier space transport system by develop- in November 1990. ing a launcher that is even more powerful, more reliable, more economical and Ariane-44LP better matched to the 21st century payloads. The Ariane-44LP (Fig. 20-29) was With an architecture that is radically the first of the Ariane-4 family to fly. Its different from earlier Ariane launchers, configuration is two solid fuel and two the Ariane-5 (Fig. 20-30) is a new- liquid fuel strap-on boosters to the core generation family of boosters geared for vehicle. Payload lift capability for this launching satellites in the early 2000s. versions is 8,300 Kg to LEO or 4,200 Kg For reliability and flexibility, the Ariane- to GTO (the most GTO lift for the Ari- 5 comes in two sections; a “lower com- ane-4 family). The first flight of this ver- posite” which will be the same for all sion and the inaugural flight of the Ari- missions and an “upper composite” ane-4 series were June 1988. The first matched to the mission and payload. seven launches of the Ariane-4 series The initial design of the Ariane-5 was were Ariane-44LP versions. to lift 18,000 Kg. to LEO, 12,000 Kg to Polar LEO, 6,800 Kg to GTO (single payload) or 5,900 Kg to GTO (duel payload). Like the Ariane-4, the ability to lift two major satellites into orbit with

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 19 Launch Processing. Assembly of the Ariane series boosters takes place at Kourou. Satellite and booster sections are either flown in or brought in by ship.

Fig. 20-30. Ariane-5 on ELA-3 one launch was a prime consideration in the overall design. Due to the increasing weight of communication satellites, improvements are already being worked on to increase the lift capability of the Ari- ane-5. Fig. 20-31. First attempted launch The initial launch attempt of the Ari- of the Ariane-5 ane-5 was in June 1996 (Fig. 20-31). The Araine-4 and Ariane-5 systems have Flight 501 failed when the booster ex- separate assembly areas and each is con- ploded 32 seconds into the launch. In- nected to its respective launch pad. vestigations revealed that some Ariane-4 The payload preparation complex, software commands were loaded into the also called the spacecraft preparation on-board computer. The differences be- room, is designed to house both launch tween the Ariane-4 and Ariane-5 launch customers and their satellites. This pro- profiles were such that the computer was vides customers the ability to make final unable to identify and handle the launch satellite preparations before the satellite when it tried to correct the Ariane-5 is mated to the launcher during the final launch profile based on Araine-4 data. assembly phase. Simultaneous process- Software corrections and other improve- ing of up to five satellites is possible. A ments were incorporated into the next satellite “campaign” takes three to six Ariane-5. Flight 502 was successfully weeks, and the satellites “appointment” launched on 30 October 1997 and in- with its launcher is set for only eight days jected two separate payloads into orbit. prior to launch. The third launch of the Ariane-5 was in The Ariane-4 complex (Fig. 20-32) October of 1998. This mission launched physically separates the assembly and a mock-up satellite demonstrator and the launch zones. This arrangement allows European Atmospheric Reentry Demon- for considerable flexibility in launch strator, (ARD). The knowledge gained campaigns, reducing the time between from the ARD will assist ESA in work on launches to as little as three weeks. the Crew Rescue Vehicle for the Interna- The Ariane-5 launch complex (Fig. tional Space Station, (ISS). 20-33) is also divided into two zones, Following this flight the Ariane-5 launcher preparation and launch pad. was declared commercially ready. The Facilities at the launch site also include first commercial launch, Flight 504, oc- manufacturing plants for both solid curred in 1999. boosters and cryogenic propellants (liq-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 20 uid hydrogen and oxygen plant). The mutually advantageous cooperation be- Araine-5 complex is designed to support tween NASA and ESA. a launch rate of eight launches per year. Italy - San Marco Project San Marco Equatorial Range (SMER)

The SMER is located near the town of Malindi on Kenya’s Indian Ocean coast at 3o South latitude. The launch area consists of three “off-shore-type” platforms standing on steel legs above the ocean floor (Fig. 20-34) and include the San Marco platform for booster assembly, test and launch; the Santa Rita platform for communications, telemetry and commanding; and the Santa Rita II platform for radar. The platforms have been certi- fied up to year 2014. The main support area is located on land and contains te- Fig. 20-32. Ariane-4 ELA-2 Complex lemetry stations, support facilities, housing, administration offices and machine In 1962, the University of Rome and shops. NASA created the San Marco Project as a joint space research project. The project was approved by the U.S. and Italian governments. Italy’s portion of funding provided the University of Rome the ability to promote and initiate space research. The project activities concerning satellite

Fig. 20-34. SMER Launch Platform

Between 1967 and 1988, nine launches were made using U.S.-supplied Scout boosters to place small satellites into LEO. Launches included Italian, NASA and U.K. scientific payloads. The Scout has a lift capability of 560 lbs to LEO. The last Scout rocket was launched in 1994.

Fig. 20-33. Ariane-5 ELA-3 Complex design, building and testing were performed in Rome. Space launches and satellite telemetry support was performed in Kenya from San Marco Equatorial Range (SMER). The project has developed and maintained active, fruitful and

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 21 CHINESE SPACE PROGRAM complexes currently have six active launch pads. In 1956, the People’s Republic of Shuang Cheng-tzu (also called Jiuquan) China laid the foundations for its astro- Shuang Cheng-tze, China’s first nautics industry. As a developing nation, o o the country recognized the need to de- launch site (40.6 N/99.9 E), is located in velop space technology for its own pur- the Gobi desert, 1,000 miles west of Bei- poses. Research and development on jing in northwest China. There are two launch vehicles began in the early primary launch pads located about 300 1960’s. meters apart. Long March 1 and 2 SLV’s As a result of this effort, the first ver- have been launched from this facility. sion of the Long March family of SLVs The first space launch attempt on 1 No- was developed. The Long March (LM) vember 1969 was a failure. It was fol- family is also known as Chang Zheng lowed by a successful sub-orbital flight (CZ). In 1969, China launched its first on 10 January 1970. The first successful vehicle, marking the country’s entry into orbital launch was on 24 April 1970. the space age. On 24 April 1970, China’s Historically, orbital missions are first satellite, Dong Fang Hong 1, was launched to the Southeast to avoid over- placed into a low-earth orbit using the flying Mongolia and Russia. In 1999, first CZ-1. This event highlighted China test launched its first man-rated China’s capability to develop its own system from a new launch facility. launch technology using Chinese materials.

Fig. 20-36. Xichang Launch Complex Fig. 20-35. Chinese Launch Sites Xichang Launch Sites Xichang, (Fig. 20-36) China’s second China’s growing indigenous space in- launch site, is located in a mountainous area 40 miles northwest of Xichang City dustry has built three major launch com- o o plexes (Fig. 20-35). By Western stan- in south China (28 N/102 E). It became dards, the facilities are austere and make operational in 1984 and is used for limited use of advanced technologies; launching CZ-2 and CZ-3 SLV’s. however, they are functional and ade- Xichang is China’s primary site for geo- quate to support current Chinese space stationary launches. There are three programs. Each site generally launches launch pads; the original pad, now inac- satellites into specific orbits based on tive, built for the CZ-3 series; and two safety, geographic or political con- newer pads, built between 1989 and straints. Between them, the three launch 1990, capable of handling a CZ-2E or

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 22 CZ-3A. China’s first commercial launch Several improvements had been proposed mission, the Hong Kong AsiaSat 1, was or developed for the SLV incorporating launched from Xichang in April 1990. improve-ments to the third stage. The CZ-1C was to have a liquid-propelled Taiyuan third stage while the CZ-1M was to have an Italian solid propellant third stage. Taiyuan is China’s newest launch fa- Neither of these are now expected to cility. This site is located 270 miles reach operational status. southwest of Beijing (38oN/112oE) in The only improved version of the CZ-1 eastern China. The facility is used to considered operational and being offered launch CZ-4 SLVs in a southward direc- as a launcher is the CZ-1D (Fig. 20-37). tion in order to place satellites into polar Although data is limited, it is estimated orbits. Its first use was to place a Chi- that the booster has improved capabilities nese weather satellite into orbit on 6 over the original CZ-1. The Chinese did September 1988. launch a single CZ-1D on a sub-orbital test flight. The Chinese appear to be waiting for a civilian contract before they launch Launch vehicles another CZ-1D. The CZ-1D is designed to place small payloads (around 750 kilo- The China Academy of Launch Vehi- grams) into LEO. cle Technology (CALT), under the Min- istry of Aerospace Industry of China, is Long March 2 (CZ-2) Series responsible for the development, production and testing of launch vehicles. The Development of a successor for the Shanghai Bureau of Astronautics (SBA), CZ-1 began in 1970 with the parallel de- also known as the Shanghai Academy of velopment of the two stage CSS-4 ICBM. Spaceflight Technology (SAST), is also The first launch of the CZ-2 in 1974 involved in the develop- ended in failure after a few seconds. ment and building of Based on lessons learned, the control sys- space boosters. Certain tem design was modified. Quality con- versions of the Long trol during production and functional March family have been checkout was also improved. In addition, designed by either CALT or SBA, while other versions have been produced jointly. Successive improvements since the first CZ- 1 include stage upgrading, new motors, addition of third stages (solid, storable liquid and cryogenic fuels) and strap-on boosters.

Long March 1 (CZ-1) Series

The CZ-1 was derived from the CSS-3 IRBM. Fig. 20-38. CZ-2C Development began in Long March 1965 with the only two Fig. 20-37. payload capability was increased and the known launches occur- CZ-1D ring in 1970 and 1971.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 23 modified launch vehicle was designated gines, propellant feeding systems, guid- as the CZ-2C (Fig. 20-38). ance system and main CZ-2A was the original designation structures. In addi- for what became the CZ-4 class of boost- tion, four liquid pro- ers. CZ-2B was the original designation pellant strap-on for what became the CZ-3 series of boosters are added to boosters. the first stage. First The first launch of the CZ-2C was on launched on 16 July 26 November 1975. The flight was a 1990, commercial complete success, with China’s first re- flight operations be- coverable satellite being placed into organ in August 1992 bit. Since then, the CZ-2C has become with an Australian the most utilized Chinese launcher. The payload launch. CZ-2C has been commercially available The CZ-2E can lift for launch services since 1976. about 8,800 kilo- The CZ-2C is offered principally for grams into LEO or low-earth orbit and/or sun-synchronous over 3,400 kilograms launches. The booster is capable of lift- into GTO, depending ing over 2,000 kilograms to low-earth on the perigee kick orbit or in conjunction with the Chinese motor (PKM) used. FSU recoverable microgravity platform, returning 150 kilogram payloads to earth. CZ-2F A version with an extended 2nd stage is being developed for GTO. The CZ-2F is a One of the most active versions of the follow-on to the -2E CZ-2C is the CZ-2C/SD or Smart Dis- and is upgraded and penser version. This newly designed up- Fig. 20-39. CZ-2E man-rated. One test per stage is indented for the duel launch flight was conducted requirements of Iridium satellites. in November 1999 and one in January 2000. Few details are CZ-2D available on the booster.

The CZ-2D is an improved CZ-2C and Long March 3 (CZ-3) series serves as the basis for the CZ-4 class of boosters. The CZ-2D was designed as a Beginning in 1975, studies were made three stage booster with stages one and for the development of a cryogenic (very two being a Chinese liquid-propelled cold, liquefied gases) propellant. A pro- booster and the third stage a McDonnell gram for upgrading the third stage of the Douglas PAM-D (Payload Assist Module). CZ-2 into a GEO-class launcher using Only two launches have been per- this propellant began in 1977. The formed, both launching the FSW-2 re- booster was initially referred to as the coverable platform. These launches were CZ-2B, but later renamed the CZ-3. in 1992 and 1994. Chinese statements in The CZ-3 first and second stage boost- 1989 indicated that the CZ-2D was only a ers were developed on the basis of the design study. CZ-2C. The third stage was a newly developed liquid oxygen and liquid hy- CZ-2E drogen engine with a restart capability. In January 1984, the CZ-3’s debut es- The CZ-2E is the most powerful of the tablished China as only the third user of CZ-2 family (Fig. 20-39). Its subsystems cryogenic propulsion, after the U.S. and are essentially the same as the subsys- ESA. The second launch on 8 April 1984 tems of the CZ-2C using the first and produced China’s first GEO satellite. second stages of the CZ-3, including en-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 24 The CZ-3 has a pay- The design lift of the CZ-3B is 4,800 load capability of plac- Kg to GTO. The booster is also designed ing around 1,400 kilo- to launch planetary missions. grams into GEO. Of- fered for commercial CZ-3C launches in 1986, the first commercial launch China is currently working on another was on 4 April 1990. version of the CZ-3 booster. The CZ-3C CZ-3A will have only two strap-on boosters vice the CZ-3B's four. The design lift is 3,800 The CZ-3A incorpo- Kg to GTO. rates a stretched, upgraded first stage and an Long March 4 (CZ-4) Series improved cryogenic third stage that almost doubles the basic CZ- The CZ-4 is an outgrowth of the de- 3’s GTO lifting capabil- velopment of the CZ-2C and CZ-3A pro- ity. Originally sched- grams. The first and second stages have uled to be commercially enlarged CZ-3A fuel tanks for additional fuel. The third stage uses a new storable Fig. 20-40. avail-able in 1992, Chi- CZ-3A nese officials stated in propellant optimized for sun-synchronous 1990 that its introduc- payloads. tion had been delayed until 1994. On 8 February 1994, the first CZ-3A was CZ-4A launched (Fig. 20-40). This improved version can lift 2,300 kilograms to GEO. The first launch of the CZ-4A booster (Fig. 20-42) was 6 Septem- ber 1988 and the second was CZ-3B 3 September 1990. Cur- rently the CZ-4A has only The CZ-3B was cre- been launched two times. ated by adding the strap- Both launches placed satel- on boosters of the CZ- lites into sun-synchronous 2E to the CZ-3A orbits. launcher (Fig. 20-41). Advertised lift capability is Although initial designs 2,500 kilograms to sun- included an improved synchronous orbit and 4,000 CZ-2E, the CZ-2E/HO, kilograms to low-earth orbit. that would use the cryogenic third stage of CZ-4B the CZ-3A, this version was never developed. In May 1999, China The configuration of launched an improved CZ-4 the CZ-3B created the Series, the CZ-4B for the Fig. 20-42. most powerful launch Fig. 20-41. first time. The CZ-4B has CZ-4A vehicle in the Chinese CZ-3B an enhanced third stage and inventory. The first fairing. This first launch placed two Chi- launch attempt took nese built satellites into sun-synchronous place on 14 February 1996 but ended in orbits. Payload capacity is stated at failure, destroying the IntelSat 708 pay- 1,500 kilograms. load. Since then, China has successfully launched four CZ-3B boosters, two each Launch processing in 1997 and 1998.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 25 Most of the knowledge concerning There is a payload preparation build- Chinese payload and launch processing ing for nonhazardous assembly, integra- has been gained from observation at the tion and testing operations of spacecraft Xichang launch site, their main commer- and upper stages, if required by the mis- cial facility. Processing at the other sites sion. Another building is for processing is believed to be very similar. hazardous assembly operations, spacecraft Long March stages are shipped to the propellant fueling and pressurization, launch facility generally via rail or by a solid motor integration and other hazard- river/rail combination (Fig. 20-43). ous testing. The satellite is taken to the launch pad inside an environmentally controlled payload container or inside the launch fairing. At the launch area, the tasks of mating, testing and checkout, direction orientation, propellant filling, and launching are done. The China Great Wall Industry Corpo- ration (CGWIC) is the company responsible for marketing and negotiating launch services and contract execution. CGWIC is the primary interface with Fig. 20-43. CZ-2E en route to launch site customers, undertaking all coordination A booster will spend several weeks at between the customer and the other ele- the launch vehicle checkout hanger in a ments of the launch services organization. horizontally mated position for checkout (Fig. 20-44). After checkout, the booster is disassembled and transported in stages to the launch pad. Boosters are reassem- bled vertically on the launch pad (see Fig. 20-45). Integrated checkout of the vehicle and payload is also done on the pad.

Fig. 20-44. CZ-4B undergoing checkout Fig. 20-45. CZ-3 being stacked China’s man-rated booster, the CZ-2F appears to use a more western method. A A comparison of the China’s Long vertical assembly building has been built March boosters is in Figure 20-46. This at Jiuquan. After vertical assembly in the chart includes active, retired and devel- facility, the booster is transported erect to opmental launchers. the launch pad.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 26

Fig. 20-46. PRC Long March Launch Vehicles (to scale)

JAPANESE SPACE PROGRAM Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) The Space Activities Commission (SAC) is Japan’s most senior space advi- Directly under the auspices of the sory group. Established in 1968, its pur- Ministry of Education, Science, Sports pose is to unify the space activities of and Culture is ISAS, a central institute various government agencies and actively for space and astronautical science in Ja- promote them. SAC formulates plans, pan. ISAS conducts scientific research deliberates, makes decisions on space using space vehicles. For this purpose, it matters and submits its opinions to the develops and operates sounding rockets, Prime Minister for adjudication. satellite launchers, scientific satellites, The Science and Technology Agency planetary probes and scientific balloons. (STA) plans and promotes basic space- related policy, conducts the overall coordi- In late 1999, NASDA suffered several nation of space activities among govern- partial and total failures of their primary ment agencies and performs research and launch vehicle, followed in early 2000 by development activities through the Na- ISAS having a major in flight failure of tional Aerospace Laboratory and the Na- their primary booster. These events have tional Space Development Agency lead to an on-going study over the future (NASDA). and direction of the space program.

National Space Development Agency Launch Centers (NASDA) Japan maintains two launch centers. NASDA was established in October Each agency maintains and operates their 1969 as the central body responsible for own complex. Both sites are located in the development of space technology in the southern islands of Japan. Japan and the promotion of space activi- Launch windows are a major concern ties solely for peaceful purposes. The as launches from both sites are normally main tasks of NASDA are to develop sat- restricted to two 45-day windows; Janu- ellites and launchers; to launch and track ary/February and August/September. satellites; to promote the utilization of This restriction is because of range safety space technology; and to devise methods, and an influential fishing lobby. Japa- facilities organizations in accordance nese space officials want to extend the with the Space Development Program. launch window to minimum of 140 days a year and a maximum of 200 days a year in the near future.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 27 Tanegashima Space Center (NASDA) Kagoshima Space Center (ISAS)

The Tanegashima Space Center is The Kagoshima Space Center (Fig. NASDA’s largest facility (Fig. 20-47). It 20-48) is run by ISAS. It is primarily a is located on the southeast tip of Tanega- sounding rocket site, but handles some shima Island (30.4oN/130.9oE), some scientific satellites. The center is 50 Km 1,000 Km southwest of Tokyo. There are north of Tanegashima on the southern tip three launch areas at the center; Yoshi- of Kyushu Island, the southern most ma- nobu complex, Osaki range and Takesaki jor island of Japan (31.2oN/131.1oE). Ka- range. goshima is restricted by government di- The Yoshinobu complex is dedicated rective to all-solid propellant launch ve- to the servicing and launching of the H-2 hicles. booster. It contains launcher and payload Launch facilities at Kagoshima consist processing facilities, a Vehicle Assembly of numerous sites built on leveled hill- Building (VAB) with its mobile platform, tops. The first sounding rockets and sub- first stage engine test facility, a non- orbital flights of the Japanese space pro- destructive test facility for the solid gram were launched from here. In 1970, rocket boosters and the launch pad. Cur- Japan’s first orbital launch was con- rently, the facility can support two annual ducted from this center on the M3-SII launches; increasing this rate would re- booster. quire an additional mobile platform, as a The M3-SII was retired in 1995 and minimum. The Osaki range includes the facility has been upgraded to support pads for the J-1 and H-1 booster and was the next generation solid booster, the M- used to launch the H-2 prior to construc- 5. A satellite processing facility is linked tion of the Yoshinobu complex. The with the “M” pad and assembly area. Takesaki range handles sounding rockets, provides facilities for the H-2 solid booster static firing and contains the H-2 Range Control Center.

Fig. 20-47. Osaki J-1/H-1 launch pad (Front) Yoshinobu H-2 VAB and launch pad (Back)

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 28

Fig. 20-48. Kagoshima SC “M” launch pad (right) Launch Vehicles on solid boosters, first stage tank extended, second stage engine improve- NASDA and ISAS continue the opera- ments and an inertial guid- tion of two distinct launcher types; ISAS ance system. This version is constrained to science missions and had a payload capacity of solid propellant boosters, while NASDA 2,000 kilograms to LEO or provides the national capability for 350 kilograms to GEO. All launching applications satellites aboard seven N-1 launches and liquid boosters of increasing capabilities. eight N-2 launches have NASDA’s goal is an indigenous vehicle been successful. for two-ton GTO and LEO applications, with a view to commercialization. “H” Series. The H-series of launchers were designed for NASDA launchers Japan to enter the commercial market with their own “N” Series. Development of orbital booster. The H-1 (Fig. 20- launchers began with the “N” series of 49) was very similar to the launchers. The N-1 and N-2 launchers N-2 launcher. It employed a provided the initial expertise, but they new cryogenic second stage, were based on the McDonnell Douglas improved inertial guidance Fig. 20-49. Delta booster built under license. This system and solid upper H-1 Rocket license prohibited orbiting of third-party stages; all Japanese built. payloads without U.S. approval. The N-1 The N-2’s first stage and was a version of the Thor-Delta launcher. solid strap-ons were retained for the H-1. It was a two-stage launcher with three Eight launches of the H-1 were per- solid motor strap-on boosters. Its lift ca- formed and all were successful. The lift pability was 1,200 kilograms to LEO or capability of the H-1 booster was 3,200 130 kilograms to GEO. The N-2 was Kg to LEO or 550 Kg to GEO. The H- very similar to the N-1, with nine strap-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 29 series significantly enhanced Japan’s ca- cost and risk were obtained pability in design and SLV use. by adapting existing hardware. The J-1 booster uses H-2 a H-2 solid strap-on booster for the first stage and ISAS Based on experience gained through developed M3-SII rocket the H-1, NASDA developed the H-2 stages for the second and launch vehicle entirely with Japanese third. Lift capability was technology. The H-2 is designed to serve 870 Kg to LEO. The first as NASDA’s workhouse in the 1990’s. flight was on 12 February Freed from U.S. licensing restrictions 1996. For numerous reasons, experienced under the “N” series, the H-2 including cost and suitable is offered for commercial launch. payloads, the future of the The launcher consists of a cryogenic J-1 is in doubt. Plans to first and second stage and a pair of solid scrap the J-1 in favor of a strap-on boosters. The H-2 (Fig. 20-48) remodeled version have can also mount twin solid sub-boosters been made by NASDA. Fig. 20-49. when mandated by mission requirements. The new version’s goal is to J-1 develop a highly reliable, advanced J-1 rocket capable of launching a one ton payload at commercially competitive prices. This advanced version is currently referred to as the J-1A.

ISAS launchers

“L” Series. Launchers produced by ISAS are all solid-fuel rockets; the first developed was the L-4S, a modified sounding rocket. The first successful Fig 20-48 H-2 at Tanegashima launch of the L-4S was in February 1970. This launch gave the Japanese the confi- The first launch of the H-2 was on dence to continue in SLV development. To 4 February 1994. Lift capability for the orbit larger payloads, a new vehicle de- H-2 is 10,500 kilograms to LEO or 2,200 sign was needed. kilograms to GEO. The H-2 has not been a commercial “M” Series. The first of the “M” series success for the Japanese. The cost of H-2 (sometimes referred to as “Mu”) was the launches for commercial customers has M-4S. This booster was a four stage, been almost twice the price of equivalent solid-fuel vehicle capable of lifting 180 U.S. or ESA launches. NASDA is devel- kilograms to LEO. oping the H-2A, an improved launcher, to To expand launch capabilities, the be its commercial launcher after the year M-3C was designed. This booster re- 2000. To aid in reducing the cost of H-2 tained the M-4S first stage, but improved launches and orders for H-2A launches, a the second and third stages. It could lift consortium of Japanese companies 195 kilograms to LEO. formed the Rocket Systems Corporation The next improved version was desig- (RSA). nated the M-3H. This booster increased the size of the first stage core motor by “J” Series. NASDA began developing one third. The capability of the M-3H the J-1 solid propellant launcher to lift was twice that of the M-3C, lifting 290 payloads too small for the H-2 launcher kilograms to LEO. (Fig. 20-49). Minimum development The next improvement in the M-series was the M-3S. Similar to the M-3H, the

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 30 M-3S incorporated a first stage guidance Launch Preparation and control capability. In 1981, research and development The facilities used for the M-series began on the M-3SII (Fig. 20-50), built launch preparation include the Satellite primarily for the Haley’s Comet mission. Preparation Building (SPB), the Mu As- This was the first Japanese interplanetary sembly Building (MAB) and the Mu flight. Unlike the Launch Complex (MLC) at Kagoshina previous M-series Space Center. step-by-step im- The various booster elements, such as provement approach, signifi-cant enhancement to the launch capa-bility was required. Only the first stage was inherited for the M- 3S. The size and thrust of the second and third stages were increased. The eight small strap-on motors of the M-3S were replaced by Fig. 20-50. M-3SII two much larger strap-ons. These modifications enabled the launch of 780 kilogram payloads to LEO, which is 2.7 times the performance of the M-3S. The first two M-3SII launches, with an added optional fourth stage, injected the initial Japanese interplanetary probes on 7 January 1985. Since then, it has become the main launch vehicle for scientific satellites from Japan. To keep up with the increasing de- Fig. 20-51. M-V mand on payload capability and en-able anticipated inter-planetary missions, ISAS the stage motors, fins, nose fairings and initiated the M-V launcher pro-gram in payload are transported to the launch fa- 1989. cility by road. Inspection of the stages The M-V (Fig. 20-51) is a three-stage and payload fairing take place within the solid-propel-lant system, with an optional MAB. Most assembly takes place at the kick stage for high-energy missions. It is MLC. After satellite checkout in the the largest solid propellant rocket ever SPB, the satellite, payload fairing and the built in Japan. The design calls for a lift third stage are assembled in the MAB capability of 1,800 kilograms to LEO or prior to transport to the MLC. 300-400 kilograms for planetary mis- Vehicle integration is carried out in- sions. To achieve this payload, all the side the assembly tower of the MLC. stages of the M-V had to be newly devel- The launcher is built vertically starting oped with no direct heritage from the M- with the first stage, then the solid strap- 3SII series. The first launch of the M-V on, the second stage followed by the third was on 12 February 1997. stage with the satellite in place.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 31

INDIAN SPACE PROGRAM Launch Vehicles

India’s space program is an outgrowth Although launcher and propulsion de- of a concerted effort to develop an in- velopment represent ISRO’s largest sin- digenous scientific and technological gle area of expenditure, the relatively base in the country. This effort was es- modest sums have dictated a gradual evo- tablished to ensure that India would be lution of space launch vehicles. Early able to find solutions within the country emphasis was on sounding rockets, which and not have to rely on outside assistance led to the first Indian Space Launch Ve- to satisfy its needs. India has one of the hicle (SLV). most accomplished and capable space programs among developing nations. SLV-3 India’s space program began in 1963; the Indian Space Research Organization The SLV-3 was an all solid booster (ISRO) was established in 1969; and a developed in the late 1970s. This national framework created in 1972 with launcher was capable of lifting 42 kilo- the Space Commission and Department grams to LEO. The first attempted of Space. ISRO is the primary developer launch on 10 August 1979 was unsuc- of launchers and satellite hardware, com- cessful due to a second stage thrust fail- plemented by separate communications ure. The next three flights were all suc- and remote sensing agencies. cessful, placing test payloads and imag- In July 1980, India was the seventh ing systems into orbit. nation to achieve orbit capability. It has concentrated its space activities on de- ASLV veloping various applications satellites, communications and remote sensing, and The Augmented SLV (ASLV) was de- launcher technology. India wishes to be veloped largely by adding strap-on boost- self sufficient in both satellite manufac- ers derived from the SLV-3 first stage. turing and domestic space launchers This raised the lift ability to 150 kilo- around the year 2000. grams to LEO. The first attempted launch of the ASLV on 24 March 1987 Launch Center failed when the second stage failed to ignite. The second launch was also a SHAR Center (Sriharikota Range) failure due to insufficient control gain in the first stage. The first successful SHAR Center, (13.7oN/080.2oE.) lo- launch was 20 May 1992; however, in- cated on Sriharikota Island off the eastern sufficient spin stabilization for the satel- coast of India, is ISRO’s only satellite lite caused a low perigee and short life launching facility. Currently there are span. The last launch of the ASLV was a two launch facilities; however, a third is total success on 4 May 1994. under construction. The complex also includes a solid propellant booster plant, PSLV static test and evaluation complex (STEX), vehicle integration building The Polar SLV (PSLV) represents In- (VIB), and is tied into ISRO's Telemetry, dia’s first attempt in acquiring launcher Tracking & Command Network autonomy for applications satellites. De- (ISTRAC). signed for placing one ton earth resources ISRO’s Range Complex (IREX), satellites into 900 kilometer sun- headquartered at SHAR, is responsible synchronous orbits from SHAR, the for space launch operations as well as PSLV also offers growth potential as the sounding rocket operations at SHAR, follow-on Geo-synchronous SLV (GSLV) Thumba and Balasore. to handle 2.5 tons to GTO.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 32 The PSLV (Fig. 20-52) employs an graphical and range safety issues limit unusual combination of liquid and solid launches. Without these limitations, ca- stages. An Indian liquid fuel system is pacity would raise to 1,600 kilograms for used for the second and fourth stages as a sun-synchronous orbit. well as the clustering of six ASLV strap- ons around the solid fuel first stage. The Geosynchronous SLV (GSLV) third stage is also a solid fuel booster. The initial attempted PSLV launch on The latest Indian SLV under develop- 20 September 1993, failed due to a soft- ment is a geosynchronous launcher capa- ware error that prevented orbit from be- ble of handling 2.5 ton satellites. The ing obtained. The next two develop- GSLV uses proven technology from the mental launches in 1994 and 1996 re- PSLV as well as new technology. The spectively, were both successful. GSLV booster replaces the six solid In October 1994, the government of strap-ons of the PSLV with four liquid India approved the procurement of six boosters around the solid first stage and additional PSLVs. India eventually plans substitutes cryogenic boosters for the to offer the PSLV for commercial second and third stages. The first cryo- launches. genic motors will be Russian until India can perfect its own cryogenic technology. Projected payload lift is 5,000 kilograms to LEO and 2,500 kilograms to GTO.

Launch Preparation

The ASLV launcher is integrated in the Vehicle Preparation Building (VIB) and completed by the addition of the strap-on boosters on the launch pad within a Mobile Service Structure. The Vehicle Assembly, Static Test and Evaluation Complex (VAST) and the Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant (SPROB), used for casting and testing PSLV solid motors, are located at SHAR. PSLV booster assembly is done vertically on the launch pad using a Mobile Service Tower (MST). All solid motors are processed in the Solid Motor Prepara- tions Facility (SMPF) prior to transfer to the MST. Liquid stage fueling is re- motely controlled on the pad from the Launch Control Center (LCC). Satellite Preparation (SP) and integration is done in three SP cleanroom facilities. SP-1 at the LCC provides satellite inspection, subsystem tests, Reaction Control System leak tests and solar panel Fig. 20-52. Indian PSLV deployment testing. SP-2 is used for sat- Current lift capability of the PSLV is ellite fueling and PSLV adapter compati- 3,000 kilograms to LEO, 1,000 kilograms bility. SP-3 is located within the MST to sun-synchronous orbit and 450 kilo- for integrating payloads with the grams to GTO. The PSLV booster is ca- launcher. pable of lifting larger payloads, but geo-

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 33 ISRAELI SPACE PROGRAM kilograms to LEO and if launched The Israeli space program began with from Vandenberg university-based research in the early AFB, it would lift 1960’s. The Israel Academy of Sciences up to 450 kilo- and Humanities formally established the grams to polar National Committee for Space Research orbits. There in 1963. In the early 1980s, Israel set its have been three sights on developing an industrial and successful scientific infrastructure required for full- launches of the fledged membership in the “Space Com- Shavit; one each munity.” The Israel Space Agency (ISA) in 1988, 1990 and was established in 1983 and charged with 1995. Although the coordination of the nation’s space never acknowl- program. On September 19, 1988, Israel edged by the Is- became the eighth nation to fully enter raeli space pro- the space age. With the advent of the gram, a possible Ofeq satellite program, Israel has devel- fourth launch was oped, produced, and launched from their attempted in own country, a satellite of their own with 1994, but it was a locally developed launcher. believed to have been a failure. A Launch Site confirmed launch Fig. 20-53. failure occurred Israeli Shavit Palmachim Air Force Base in January 1998.

Israel has one launch facility located Beginning around 1997, IAI began ne- near Palmachim Air Force Base (31.0O N gotiations with the U.S. firm Coleman /035.0O E) south of Tel Aviv near the Research and France's Matra Marconi town of Yavne. Facilities are classified, Space on adapting the Shavit for launches although they are reportedly visible from from the U.S. or Europe's Kourou launch the coast road. The site is restricted to site. This joint venture is being marketed retrograde (westward) launches for range under the name "LeoLink" and the up- safety and to avoid overflying Arab coun- graded boosters are referred to as LK-1 tries. Due to the need to launch into a and LK-2. retrograde orbit, the payload weight is LK-1 advertised payload is 340 Kg to reduced because of the increased fuel re- LEO. First launch is planned for late quired. 2001. LK-2, using a U.S. built Castor 120 motor as the first stage, will be capa- Launch Vehicle ble of placing 1,000 Kg into a LEO polar orbit. This booster will be offered for launch from the end of the year 2000. Shavit Launch Preparation Israel currently has only one launch vehicle, the solid-fuel, three-stage Shavit Little information is available regarding (Fig. 20-53) developed by Israel Aircraft Shavit launch procedures. If Israel ob- Industries (IAI). This vehicle is believed tains commercial launch contracts, more to be derived from or duel-developed information on launch procedures should with the Jericho II ballistic missile. The be available. Shavit is able to lift 155 kilograms into a Advertising for "LeoLink" states that retrograde low-earth orbit. Calculations the LK series uses a mobile stage assem- indicate that if launched from Cape Ken- bly/transporter/erector facility and a nedy, the Shavit would lift up to 600

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 34 launch preparation van that makes site Brazil is developing its own space operations flexible and short. launch vehicle, based on the Sonda series BRAZILIAN SPACE PROGRAM

Brazil is poised to become the ninth nation to achieve an indigenous space program. They have the ability to build and command their own satellites, have a space launch complex under development, and are developing their own booster. As a developing country, Brazil recognizes the need to emphasize and develop space technologies in order to address its unique problems. These include its large land mass, under-populated land borders, a huge coastline and the extensive natural resources still to be surveyed in its territory. Another goal of the space program is to progress toward an independent space launch capability. Fig. 20-54 Alcantara (CLA) The National Institute for Space Re- search (INPE, Instituto Nacional de Pes- quisas Espaciais) was formed in 1971 and of sounding rockets. The VLS (Veiculo is responsible for the development of Lancador de Satelites) is a three stage ground/space segments of applications booster with strap-ons, propelled by solid satellite programs. fuel. It is designed to place a 200 kilo- In 1994, the Brazilian Space Agency gram payload into LEO or a sun- (AEB, Agencia Espacial Brasilera) was synchronous orbit. The first and second established to coordinate and plan Bra- stages as well as the strap on boosters are zil’s space program. derived from the Sonda-4 series. The third stage is newly developed. Launch site A 1/3 scale VLS was launched in 1989 to demonstrate strap-on separation. In Alcantara 1993, the VS-40 version made a 24 min-

Brazil is upgrading its sounding rocket facility at Alcantara into a space launch facility. The Alcantara Launch Center (Fig.20-54) (CLA, Centro Lancamentos de Alcantara) is on Brazils northern coast (2.2oS /044.2oW). The formal opening of Alcantara, as a sounding rocket facility, was in February 1990. Due to its location, Alcantara can launch from near geostationary to polar or retrograde orbits (from 2 to 100 degrees). The first space launch attempt was in November 1997 Fig. 20-55. First VLS launch attempt and their second in December 1999. ute flight test of the VLS’s second and third stages. Launch Vehicle The first orbital launch from Alcantara was attempted on 2 November 1997 us- VLS ing the VLS. Controllers were forced to destroy the booster 65 seconds after liftoff when one of the four strap-on engines

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 35 failed to ignite (Fig. 20-55). A second launch was attempted December 1999. This VLS had a second stage failure.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 36 AUSTRALIAN SPACE PROGRAM rockets; the U.S.-built Redstone launched the first Australian satellite, the In 1946, a joint United Kingdom and WRESAT, on 29 November 1967; and a Australian test range was established in British Black Arrow launched the British southern Australia for ballistic missiles weather technology satellite Prospero on and sounding rockets. Australia hoped 28 October 1971. In 1997, the Japanese that this test range would lead to a future space agency, NASDA, used the facilities satellite launch center. During the 1960s, at Woomera for drop and test flights of development was done at this range on its ALFLEX (Automatic Landing Flight the British Blue Streak as the first stage Experiment). These tests suggest of the European “Europa” rocket. How- substantial progress in the revitalization ever, a number of factors led to the de- of Woomera as a center for space-related mise of the range. First, a number of Eu- activity ropa launch failures occurred. Addition- Studies are being conducted to address ally, France preferred to develop its own the feasibility of upgrading Woomera to center at Kourou as the European launch an active space launch facility. In addi- facility. In addition, it was decided that tion, other studies have been under taken the Australian site was not suitable for to look at other locations in Australia for equatorial launches. Finally, Britain an- launch sites. Currently studies have been nounced that there would be no more done for the Australian territory or work after 1976. Only two satellites Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean. were launched into orbit from Australia. In 1987 the range was reopened for a NORTH KOREA scientific sounding rocket launch. An Australian National Space Program On 31 August 1998, North Korea an- was established in 1985 to provide a base nounced that it had launched a satellite. for participation in the world space in- The expected first launch of the Taepo- dustry, followed by the formation of the Dong 1 ballistic missile was instead an Australian Space Office in 1987 as the apparent attempt to orbit a satellite. No focus for space-related activities. In independent confirmation of the event 1993 the Australian Space Council has been obtained, so it appears that the (ACS) was established to support an In- attempt was not successful. tegrated National Space program with programmed funding. A major task was to Launch Site formulate a five-year plan to set new directions for the National Space Plan and Little is known of the North Korean determine priorities. The ACS recom- launch site reported in Musudan-ri near mended the development and demonstra- the northeastern coast (Fig 20-56). Re- tion of a light launch capability. These cent imagery of this site was obtained by would be the vehicles for carrying Aus- a commercial satellite imaging company. tralian-built demonstrations satellites, Their pictures show an austere site with a leading to the development of Earth ob- single launch pad and limited infrastruc- servation and communications payloads. A goal of this program is for Australia to secure a share of the Asian space business in launches, small satellites and space-based services.

Launch Sites

Australia’s only current space launch facility is at Woomera in South Australia (31.1OS/136.8OE). Both orbital launches from this site were on modified sounding Fig. 20-56 Musudan-ri launch site

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 37 ture. Launch Vehicle International Launch Services (ILS)

The booster International Launch used for this launch Services was established attempt appears to in 1995 to market the be a version of the American-built Atlas and Taepo-Dong 1 the Russian-built Proton. ballistic missile ILS was formed by a (Fig. 20-57). The joint venture between missile is assessed Lockheed Martin’s Commercial to be a two stage Launches Services Company (LMCLS), system. The SLV Khrunichev Enterprise, and RSC Energia version seen in of Russia forming Lockheed- August appears to Khrunichev-Energia International have three stages or (LKEI). two stages and an As of June 1999, ILS had launched 63 orbital insertion payloads, 11 on Proton and 52 on Atlas motor. The first boosters. The Company has future com- stage booster mitments for an additional 30 Atlas and landed in the Sea of 16 Proton launches. These numbers are Japan while the Fig. 20-57. Taepo- close to the launch commitment totals for second landed in Dong-1 ESA’s Ariane booster. the Pacific Ocean offeast the coast east of coast Japan. of Reports indicate that Starsem the third stage or the failed satellite impacted in the Pacific Ocean south of Starsem is a Alaska, some 6,000 Km from North Ko- joint venture rea. announced in July 1996, be- INTERNATIONAL SPACE tween Aero- PROGRAMS spatiale and Arianespace of France, the Russian Space Agency and Samara Space The International Space University is Center (makers of the Soyuz booster) to an interdisciplinary, intercultural and in- market the Soyuz launch system around ternational institution which prepares indi- the world. viduals to respond to the current needs Starsem is a contraction of “Space and the increasing and evolving demands Technology Alliance, based on the R-7 of the space sector in a rapidly changing SEMyorka” launch vehicles. Semyorka world. The University announced during is the Russian name for SL-4 system. its 1997 international symposium that: Starsem's SL-22 an SL-26 boosters are developments of the SL-4 with new up- “Space is no longer the special, proper stages and satellite dispensers. The tected domain that it was in the past, but partnership stems from Arianespace’s is becoming integrated with the main- need to respond to the launch demand for stream of economic activity.” small satellites for which its Ariane-5 is not ideally suited. Indeed, many new international com- In October 1996, Starsem announced mercial enterprises are being established its first launch order for three launches of to support the growing space market for the Globalstar system. A total of six expanding communications, earth re- launches for Globalstar were done in sources and imaging systems. This in- 1999. In addition, ESA has contracted cludes a number of launch ventures. for three launches, two launches for the

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 38 Cluster-II series in 2000 and one launch of ESA's Mars Express interplanetary probe.

Eurocket

In 1995, the joint Eurocket Launch Services company was formed between Germany’s Daimler-Benz Aerospace Corporation and Russia’s Khunichev Space Center to market the Russian Rocket, SL-19, booster. Formed to meet Fig. 20-58. SeaLaunch Lift-off the need for small satellite launch ser- and is a self-propelled, semi-submersible vices. Eurocket’s first test launch was of launch complex which houses the inte- two dummy satellites in May 2000. Euro- grated launch vehicle in an environmen- rocket contracts include two launches for tally controlled hanger during transit to six E-SAT data satellites. The German the launch site. Space Agency and NASA have also con- Chosen to capitalize on the Earth’s ro- tracted for a launch in 2001. tation, the launch location maximizes Sea Launch’s performance. The primary Sea Launch launch site will be along the Equator in international waters of the Pacific Ocean The Sea about 1,000 miles south of Hawaii. Launch venture The selected booster for Sea Launch is was formed in the Ukrainian/Russian Zenit-35L, the SL- April 1995 in 23. Modified to a three stage configura- response to a tion, the Zenit was selected due to its growing market for a more affordable, highly automated launch procedures. reliable, capable and convenient commercial Hughes Space and Communications satellite launch service. Engineering and Company has ordered 13 launches from market studies determined that a sea- Sea Launch. The first launch from this based launch system could competent platform was an instrumented satellite favorably with incumbent service provid- simulator in March 1999. SeaLaunch's ers. A partnership was formed between first commercial launch occurred in Oc- Boeing Commercial Space Company, tober 1999. In March 2000 the SL-23 RSA Energia of Russia, NPO Yuzhnove booster suffered an in flight failure. of the Ukraine and Kvaerner of Norway Launch operations resumed in July 2000. to build and market a sea launch facility. Currently there are a total of 19 launch Long Beach, California was selected as commitments through 2003. the home port and ground breaking for facilities began in August 1996. Cosmos International Two unique ships form the marine part of Sea Launch. The Assembly and A joint German-Russian venture, Cosmos Command Ship is an all-new, specially International markets the SL-8 Kosmos designed vessel that will serve as a float- booster, for ing rocket assembly factory as well as commercial provide crew and customer accommoda- launches. tions and mission-control facilities at sea. The Launch Platform is a modified The first ocean oil drilling platform (Fig. 20-58) launch of this new provider was in April

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 39 1999, with a German and an Italian satel- launched any of it LK boosters, they were lite. A second launch was performed in one of two companies to win NASA's June 2000. light launcher competition.

LeoLink Other International Launch Providers

LeoLink is a joint venture between Is- Other international launch providers raeli Aircraft Industries, Coleman Re- are attempting to market Russian launch- search of the U.S. and Matra Marconi ers. Numerous companies are studying Space-France. The venture is marketing many other possibilities. These and other improved versions of the Israeli Shavit launch projects have no confirmed launch booster. While the company has not yet orders to date.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 40 REFERENCES

Jane’s Space Directory 1995-96, 1998-99, 1999-2000, Jane’s Information Group Inc.

Federation of American Scientists, http://www.fas.org, “Space Policy Project.”

“Russian Space Forces”, http://www.rssi.ru/SFCSIC/rsf.html, WWW home page.

Lockheed Martin, http://www.lmco.com/ILS, “International Launch Services.”

Pratt & Whitney, http://www.pweh.com, “Government Engines and Space Propulsion.”

Smithsonian Institute, http://www.airspacemag.com, “Air & Space Magazine.”

“Mark Wade’s Encyclopedia of Space Flight”, http://solar.rtd.utk/~mwade/spaceflt.hmtl.

“Russian Aerospace Guide”, http://www.mcs.net/~rusaerog/, WWW home page.

Air Fleet Herald, http:/www.online.ru/sp/afherald, “Russian air and space information.”

“Gunter’s Space Page”, http://www.rz.uni-frankfort.de/~gkrebs/space/space/html.

Office of the Assistant Under Secretary of the Air Force for Acquisition, http://www.safaq.hq.af.mil/ags, Directorate of Space Programs, Space Launch Division.

Daimler-Benze Aerospace, http://www.dasa.com/desa, WWW home page.

Boeing Aerospace, http://www.boeing.com, “Sea Launch, commercial space launch.”

Arianespace, http://www.arianespace.com, Arianespace Homepage.

Brazilian Embassy, Washington D.C., http://www.brasil.emb.nw.dc.us, Science and Technology Section, “Brazilian Space Program.”

National Institute for Space Research, Brazil, http://www.impe.br, Brazilian Space Agency.

Akjuit Aerospace Inc., http://www.spaceport.ca/spaceport, Canadian commercial spaceport.

European Space Agency, http://www.esrin.esa.it, ESA home page.

University of Vienna, http://www.ifs.univie.ac.at/~jstb.home.html, “ESA Launcher Pro- gramme.”

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 41 Israel Space Agency, http://www.iami.org.il, Israel Space Agency home page.

University of Rome “La Sapienza”, http://www.uniroma1.it/english/centres.html, Centro di per il Progetto “San Marco”, http:// crpsm.psm.uniroma1.it/, “Italian San Marco space project.”

Australian Space Home Page, http://banzai.apana.org.au, non-government site.

Space Transportation Systems - Australia, Asia Pacific Space Launch Centre, http://www.powerup.com.au/~draymond/space.

National Space Development Agency of Japan, http://www.nasda.go.jp/index_e.html, NASDA home page, “Japanese Government Space Program.”

The Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences, http://www.isas.ac.jp/index_e.html, ISAS home page, “Japanese University Space Program.”

China Great Wall Industry Corporation, http://www.cgwic.com, “Chinese Space Pro- gram.”

International Reference Guide to Space Launch Systems, Steven J. Isakowitz, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Washington D.C., Second Edition 1995, Third Edition, 1999.

U.S. Army Space Reference Text, July 1993, U.S. Army Space Institute, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.

Starsem, http://www.starsem.com, Commercial Space Launch services

Eurocket, http://www.eurocket.com, Commercial Space Launch services

“Go Taikonauts”, http://www.goecities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/1921, Unofficial Chinese Space Website.

AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 20 - 42 Chapter 21

SPACE SURVEILLANCE THEORY AND NETWORK

The Space Surveillance Network (SSN) is a combination of optical and radar sensors used to support the Space Control Center (SCC) and its mission, which is to detect, track, identify and catalog all man-made objects in earth orbit. This chapter looks at the various components of the SSN, its sites and how they combine to support the space surveillance mission. This chapter also contains a description of the radar and optical sensors, which are the two primary technologies used by the SSN.

SPACE SURVEILLANCE THEORY manner, due to the relative motion of the body and the observer. Although referred to as a network, the Simply stated, the Doppler effect SSN was not originally envisioned as applies to all types of waves and can such. As various sensors became avail- further be described by the following able, their particular capabilities were sequence. When a source of sound used to support the space surveillance approaches the listener, the waves in front mission. of the source are crowded together so the The current sensors use numerous listener receives a larger number of waves technologies. Each sensor in the SSN in the same time than would have been and the methods by which the SCC uses received from a stationary source. This (tasks) the SSN to sustain the space sur- process raises the pitch the listener hears. veillance mission are also described in Similarly, when the source moves away this chapter. from the listener, the waves spread farther A description of the space surveil- apart and the observer receives fewer lance principles includes their associated waves per unit of time, resulting in a technologies. A review of the Space Ob- lower pitch. ject Identification (SOI), a specific ap- The Doppler effect is significant in op- plication of optical and radar sensors, tics. Due to the velocity of light, pro- will also be provided. nounced effects can only be observed for astronomical or atomic bodies possessing Doppler Effect velocities exceeding normal values. The effect is seen in the perceived shift in the When a source of sound moves to- wavelengths of light emitted by moving ward or away from a listener, the pitch astronomical bodies. The perceived shift (frequency) of the sound is higher or to longer wavelengths of light emitted lower than when the source is at rest from distant galaxies indicates they are with reference to the listener. A com- receding and hence, supports the concept mon example is the rise and fall of the of an expanding universe. Radiation from pitch of a locomotive’s whistle as it ap- hot gases shows a spread of wavelengths proaches and recedes from the listener. (Doppler broadening), because the emit- Similar results are obtained when the ting atoms or molecules move at varying listener approaches or withdraws from a speeds in different directions as measured stationary source of sound. This phe- by the observing instrument. nomenon is referred to as the Doppler The Doppler effect has many uses in effect, named after the Australian scien- science as well as a variety of practical tist, Christopher Johann Doppler, who applications. For example, measurements predicted in 1842 that the color of a lu- of shifts of radio waves from orbiting minous body would change in a similar satellites were used in maritime

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 1 navigation; the effect is also utilized in rate of a few hundred per second so that radar surveillance. the operator sees a steady signal. Modern radar also provides excellent Radar moving-target indication by use of the Doppler shift in a frequency similar to a Radar is actually an acronym for Ra- radio wave when it is reflected from a dio Detection and Ranging, a name moving target. Target detection is hin- given to an electronic system utilized dered by “clutter” echoes rising from during World War II, whereby radio backscatter from the ground or raindrops. waves were reflected off an aircraft to Today’s radars have higher transmitter detect its presence and location. Numer- powers and more sensitive receivers, ous researchers have aided in the devel- which cause pronounced clutter so that opment of devices and techniques of even flocks of birds may show up on the radar. The earliest practical radar system screen. Antenna design can reduce these is usually credited to Sir Robert Watson- effects and the use of circularly polarized Watt. waves reduces rain echoes. The WWII wartime radar operator in- Operation terpreted the mass of data displayed. Si- multaneously tracing the histories of A radio transmitter generates radio many targets, which is essential to mod- waves which radiate from an antenna that ern systems, requires the incoming radar “illuminates” the air or space with radio data to be electronically processed to waves. A target, such as an aircraft, make information more accessible to the which enters this space scatters a small operator/controller. Progress towards sat- portion of this radio energy back to a re- isfying this need had to await the arrival ceiving antenna. This weak signal is am- of large-scale integrated circuits, charge- plified by an electronic amplifier and coupled devices and the development of displayed on a Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT), the technology for processing digital sig- where it is examined by a radar operator. nals. Another important advance has Once detected, the object’s position, dis- been the development of computerized tance (range) and bearing can be meas- handling of video data, as in automatic ured. As radio waves travel at a known plot extraction and track formation. constant velocity -- the speed of light (300,000 km/sec or 186,000 mi/sec) -- the SSN Radar Sensor Systems range may be found by measuring the time it takes for a radio wave to travel Radar sensors used by the SSN are from transmitter to the object and back to divided into three categories: tracking, the receiver. For example, if the range detection and phased array. was 186 miles, the time for the round trip would be (2 x 186)/186,000 = two- Tracking Radars (TR) (Fig. 21-1), or thousandths of a second, or 2,000 micro- mechanical trackers, are the oldest type seconds. In pulse radar, the radiation is used by the SSN and are employed to not continuous, but is emitted as a succes- follow or track a target throughout the sion of short bursts, each lasting a few radar’s coverage. Basic radar technol- microseconds. This radio-frequency ogy is used to transmit a single beam of pulse is emitted on receipt of a firing sig- radar energy out toward the target. The nal from a trigger unit that simultaneously energy is then reflected off the target and initiates the time-base sweep on the CRT. returned to the radar receiver for meas- The electronic clock is started and when urement. The transmitter sends out an- the echo signal is seen on the tube, the other beam of radar energy and the cycle time delay can be measured to calculate repeats itself as the radar follows the tar- the range. The pulses are emitted at the get throughout its coverage. The TR is a good system for tracking near earth ob-

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 2 jects because it can acquire a large num- To detect objects that do not lie ber of data points on a target. It is very directly in front of the array face, time precise in predicting the trajectory of delay units, or phase shifters, are used. that target. The main limitation of the This phase-lag steering is a computer TR is its inability to track more than one procedure where the radiating elements object at a time. It cannot “search” for are delayed sequentially across the array, targets very efficiently because it sends causing the wave front to be at an angle out only a single beam of radar at a time. to the perpendicular. This controls the direction of the beam. Since these radars have several thousand T/R antenna elements, multiple beams can be formed at the same time. A PAR is capable of simultaneously tracking several hundred targets, since a computer calculates the proper time delays of these beams. There are several advantages of this type of radar: it can track many different objects at the same time and it can put up search patterns, by volume, or detection fans similar to DRs. However, there are

Fig. 21-1. Kwajalein Tracking Radar two disadvantages of a PAR: the high cost of building it and complex Detection Radars (DR) send out radar maintenance. energy to form a fan out in space. This fan literally “blankets” an area with ra- Optical Sensor Systems dar energy. The radar simply waits for a target to break this fan. Unlike the TR, a Optical sensors are very basic. They DR gives only a single data point at the simply gather light waves reflected off an location where the object breaks the ra- object to form an image. This image can dar’s fan. The DRs used to support the then be measured, reproduced and ana- SSN usually transmit two separate fans lyzed. However, these sensors are limited of energy. This allows for two data due to their reliance on light; they cannot points to be collected on an object, track during the day or under overcast sky which limits the accuracy. DRs are al- conditions. The objects tracked must also ways collocated with at least one TR. be in sunlight and have some reflective When an object is detected by the DR, qualities. Electro-optical sensors are the the TR is then used to lock onto the ob- only optical sensors used operationally ject, giving more accurate positional today to support the space surveillance data. mission. Electro-optical refers to the way the Phased Array Radar (PAR) is the newest sensor records the optical image. Instead radar technology used within the Space of being imprinted on film, the image is Surveillance Network. Rather than changed into electrical impulses and remove the antenna mechanically, the ra- corded onto magnetic tape. This is simi- dar energy is steered electronically. In a lar to the process used by video recorders. PAR there are many thousands of small The image can also be analyzed in real- Transmit/Receive (T/R) antennas placed time. on the side or face of a large wedge- The primary electro-optical sensors shaped structure. If the signals from the used in the SSN are part of the Ground- separate T/R are released at the same based Electro-Optical Deep Space Sur- time and in phase, they form a radar veillance (GEODSS) System. These tele- beam whose direction of travel is per- scopes are extremely powerful. pendicular to the array face.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 3 Space Object Identification (SOI) GEODSS

SOI analyzes signature data, both opti- GEODSS has the mission to detect, cal and radar, to determine satellite char- track and collect SOI on deep space sat- acteristics. More specifically, the size, ellites in support of the SCC. Each shape, motion and orientation of the satel- GEODSS site (Fig. 21-2) is controlled lite. With optical sensors, the SOI infor- and operated by the 21st Space Wing mation depends on the clarity of the and the 18th Space Surveillance Squad- satellite pictures. There are two types of ron (SPSS). There are currently three radar SOI: wideband and narrowband. detachments operating GEODSS sen- Two sensors (Haystack and the Advanced sors: Det. 1, Socorro, New Mexico, Det. Research Projects Agency (ARPA) Lin- 2, Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean coln C-Band Observable Radar Territories, and Det. 3, Maui, Hawaii. (ALCOR)) have the capability of provid- The GEODSS sites provide near real- ing wideband SOI. Wideband SOI pro- time deep space surveillance capability. vides a detailed radar picture of the satellite. Most other radar sensors can provide narrowband SOI, which is a depiction of the radar energy charted as an amplitude versus time. SOI information is used to determine the operational status of various payloads and may forecast maneuvers or deorbits. The process of using SOI data, in conjunction with other intelligence resources to determine the nature of unidentified payloads, is called mission payload assessment. Fig. 21-2. GEODSS Site THE SPACE SURVEILLANCE NETWORK (SSN) To perform its mission, GEODSS brings together three proven technologies: All sensors in the SSN are responsible the telescope, low-light television, and for providing space surveillance and SOI computers. Each site has three tele- to the SCC located at Cheyenne Mountain scopes: two main and one auxiliary (with AS (CMAS), Colorado. The sensors in the exception of Diego Garcia, which has the network are categorized primarily by three main telescopes). The main tele- their availability for support to the SCC. scopes have a 40-inch aperture and a two- There are three active sensor categories degree field of view. The system only (dedicated, collateral and contributing) operates at night, when the telescopes are plus the passive sensors which able to detect objects 10,000 times dim- collectively comprise the SSN. mer than the human eye can detect. Since it is an optical system, cloud cover and Dedicated Sensors local weather conditions influence its effectiveness. A dedicated sensor is a U.S. Space The telescopes move across the sky at Command (USSPACECOM) operation- the same rate as the stars appear to ally controlled sensor with a primary mis- move. This keeps the distant stars in the sion of space surveillance support. same positions in the field of view. As Dedicated sensors include: GEODSS, the telescopes slowly move, the Naval Space Surveillance GEODSS cameras take very rapid elec- (NAVSPASUR), and the AN/FPS 85 tronic snapshots of the field of view. Phased Array Radar (PAR). Four computers then take these snapshots and overlay them on each other.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 4 Star images, which remain fixed, are charge-coupled device (CCD) focal electronically erased. However, man- plane array. The telescope is housed in made space objects do not remain fixed a dome structure and is positioned by and their movements show up as tiny an Uninterruptible Power Supply streaks which can be viewed on a con- (UPS) and backed up by a diesel sole screen. Computers measure these generator. streaks and use the data to calculate the positions of objects, such as satellites in orbits from 3,000 to 22,000 miles. This NAVSPASUR information is used to update the list of orbiting objects and is sent nearly instan- Naval Space Command (NAVSPACE) taneously from the sites to CMAS. The has the oldest sensor system in the SSN: GEODSS system can track objects as NAVSPASUR, whose mission is to main- small as a basketball more than 20,000 tain a constant surveillance of space and to miles in space. provide satellite data as directed by the Chief of Naval Operations and higher au- MOSS thorities to fulfill Navy, USSPACECOM and national requirements. NAVSPASUR The Moron Optical Space Surveillance uses three transmit antennas and six re- (MOSS) system was fielded at Moron ceive antennas, all geographically located AB, Spain during the first quarter of along the 33rd parallel of the U.S. The Fiscal Year (FY) 1998. MOSS will transmitters send out a continuous wave of operate in conjunction with the existing energy into space, forming a “detection GEODSS network. The GEODSS fence” which covers 10 percent of the network called for an additional site in Earth’s circumference and extends 15,000 the Mediterranean to provide miles into space. contiguous geosynchronous coverage. When a satellite passes through the Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) is fence, the energy from the transmitter fielding MOSS to provide this critical sites “illuminates” it and a portion of the geosynchronous belt metric and Space energy is reflected back to a receive Object Identification (SOI) coverage. station. When the reflected energy is MOSS consists of one high acquired by at least two receive sites, an resolution electro-optical telescope and accurate position of the satellite can be the MOSS Space Operations Center determined through triangulation. (MOSC) van. The telescope has a NAVSPACE has the additional mis- nominal aperture of 22 inches and a sion of being the Alternate Space Defense Operations Center (ASPADOC) and the Alternate Space Control Center (ASCC).

AN/FPS 85 PAR

Located at Eglin AFB, Florida, the AN/FPS-85 PAR is operated by Air Force Space Command (AFSPC), 21st Space Wing, 20th Space Surveillance Squadron (SPSS). The 20 SPSS operates and maintains the only phased array space Fig. 21-3. AN/FPS-85 PAR at Eglin AFB surveillance system dedicated to tracking space objects. It is one of the earliest focal length of 51 inches (f 2.3). The PARs, built in the mid-1960s, and became camera houses a 1024 x 1024 MIT/LL operational in December 1968.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 5 The radar is housed in a wedge-shaped very similar to the GEODSS sites, in ad- building (Fig. 21-3), 318 feet long and dition to its LWIR capability. 192 feet high (receiver side), and 126 feet MOTIF consists of a dual telescope high (transmitter side). Unlike other system on a single mount (Fig. 21-4). PARs, Eglin has separate transmitter and One telescope is used primarily for infra- receiver arrays (antennas). The red and photometric (light intensity) transmitter array has about 5,200 measurements. The other is used for low- transmitter elements, while the receiver light-level tracking and imagery. Both array has roughly 4,600 receiver use video cameras to record data. elements. The transmitter and receivers MOTIF has identified objects as small as are set in their respective antenna faces on 8 cm in geosynchronous orbit. the south side of the building, which is inclined at a 45 degree angle. It has the capability to track both near-earth and deep-space objects simultaneously. The previous primary mission at Eglin was Submarine- Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) warning. Once the southeast radar at Robins AFB, GA, known as PAVE PAWS (Phased Array Warning System) became operational, the SLBM warning coverage was redundant and Eglin’s mission changed in 1988 to dedicated space surveillance. The PAR at Eglin tracks over 95 percent of all earth satellites daily.

Collateral Sensors

A collateral sensor is a USSPACECOM operationally controlled sensor with a primary mission other than space surveillance (usually, the site’s secondary mission is to provide surveillance support). Collateral sensors include the Maui Opti- cal Tracking and Identification Facility Fig. 21-4. MOTIF (MOTIF), Maui Space Surveillance Sys- tem (MSSS), Ballistic Missile Early BMEWS Warning System (BMEWS), PAVE PAWS, the Perimeter Acquisition Radar BMEWS is a key radar system devel- Attack Characterization System oped to provide warning and attack as- (PARCS), Antigua, Ascension and Kaena sessment of an Intercontinental Ballistic Point. MSSS was once part of 18th SPSS Missile (ICBM) attack on the CONUS Det 3 but AFSPC transitioned it to and southern Canada from the Sino- AFRL on 1 Oct 00. Soviet land mass. BMEWS III also provides warning and attack assessment of a MOTIF SLBM/ICBM attack against the United Kingdom and Europe. BMEWS’ tertiary MOTIF performs near-earth/deep mission is to conduct satellite tracking as space surveillance and SOI. It uses collateral sensors in the space surveil- photometric, visual imaging, and also a lance network. BMEWS consists of three Long Wave Infra-red (LWIR) data gen- sites: Site I is located at Thule AFB, eration system. It is an optical sensor Greenland; Site II is at Clear AFB,

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 6 Alaska; and Site III is at Royal Air Force Station Fylingdales, United Kingdom. Site I, Thule (Fig. 21-5), is operated by the 12th Space Warning Squadron (SWS), a unit of AFSPACECOM’s 21st Space Wing. Site I’s initial operations began in October 1960. Its original equipment consisted of four Detection Radars (DRs) and a single Tracking Radar (TR). After more than 26 years of continuous operation, the DRs and TR were replaced with a phased array radar. The upgraded radar became operational in June 1988. ( Fig. 21-6. Clear AFB, AK Prior to Phased Array Radar Upgrade PAVE PAWS

Increasing technology provided the former Soviet Union the capability to launch ballistic missiles from submarines.

Studies indicated the need for early warning facilities to detect such an attack. The PAVE PAWS mission is to provide warning and attack assessment of a SLBM attack against the CONUS and Fig. 21-5. PAR at Thule AB southern Canada. PAVE PAWS also provides warning and attack assessment of an ICBM attack against North America The 13 SWS at Clear AFB, Alaska be- from the Sino-Soviet land mass. The gan operations in 1961 with three DRs final tertiary mission, like BMEWS, is to (AN/FPS-50s), each 400 ft long and 165 provide satellite tracking data as ft high, and a TR (AN/FPS-92) that is 84 collateral sensors in the space ft in diameter and weighs 100 tons. (Fig. surveillance network. 21-6) The DRs provide most of the data The first two sensors came on line in by surveying a fixed volume of space and 1980, while the other two (located at providing the basic measurements to es- Robins AFB, Georgia and Eldorado AFS, timate the trajectory of any missile or satellite detected. Clear has been upgraded with a dual faced phased array radar similar to Thule and the PAVE PAWS sites. The Royal Air Force at Fylingdales operates a three-faced phased array radar. Fylingdales’ original configuration consisted of three tracking radars that have since been dismantled. It searches the sky for possible missile threats with a full 3600 coverage.

Fig. 21-7. PAVE PAWS Site Texas) followed seven years later. The latter two sites were closed in mid-1995.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 7 PAVE PAWS currently consists of the border at Cavalier AS, North Dakota (Fig. initial two sites: Site I (Fig. 21-7) is 21-8). The PARCS sensor was originally located at Cape Cod AFS, Massachusetts built as part of the Army’s Safeguard and run by the 6 SWS; Site II is at Beale Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) system. It AFB, California and operated by the 7 was operational for one day (1 October SWS. Both sites operate a dual-faced, 1975). The ABM system was shut down phased array radar (AN/FPS-115). The in 1975 by Congress. It later was modi- computer hardware and software was fied by the Air Force in 1977 for use as a upgraded in the mid-1980s, when the missile warning/space surveillance sen- other two sites were built. sor, a role it continues to do extremely The PAVE PAWS phased array an- well. tenna, as with any other directional an- PARCS’ mission is to provide warning tenna, will receive signals from space and attack characterization of an SLBM only in the direction in which the beam is and ICBM attack against the CONUS and aimed. The maximum practical deflec- southern Canada. It is one of the work- tion on either side of antenna center of the horses, along with Eglin, providing sur- phased array beam is 60 degrees. This veillance, tracking, reporting and SOI limits the coverage from a single antenna data. PARCS uses a single-faced phased face to 120 degrees. To provide surveil- array radar (AN/FPQ-16). The radar, lance across the horizon, the building computer, communications equipment housing the entire system and supporting and operations room are housed in a rein- antenna arrays is constructed in the shape forced concrete building, originally de- of a triangle. The two building faces sup- signed to ride out a missile attack as part porting the arrays, each 120 degrees, will of the Safeguard ABM system. The sin- monitor 240 degrees of azimuth. The ar- gle-faced radar looks due North and ray faces are also tilted back 20 degrees to slopes from the side of the building at a allow for an elevation deflection from 250 angle. This site is considered a three to 85 degrees above the horizon. “CONUS remote.” The lower limit provides receiver isolation from signals returned from ground clutter and for environmental microwave radiation hazard protection of the local area. The PAVE PAWS system is capable of detecting and monitoring a great number of targets that would be consistent with a massive SLBM attack. The system must rapidly discriminate between vehicle types, calculating their launch and impact points in addition to the scheduling, data processing and communications requirements. The operation is entirely auto- Fig. 21-8. PARCS, Cavalier AS, ND matic, requiring people for system monitoring, maintenance, and as a final check on the validity of warnings. Three Antigua and Ascension different computers communicating with each other form the heart of the system The radars located on Antigua and which relays the information to CMAS. Ascension Islands in the Atlantic Ocean are tracking radars. They are part of the PARCS Sensor Eastern Range, playing a secondary role in supporting the SCC. PARCS is operated by the 10 SWS, located just 15 miles south of the Canadian

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 8 Contributing Sensors equator, ALTAIR alone can track one- third of the geosynchronous belt. The contributing sensors are those ALCOR is a near-earth tracking radar, owned and operated by other agencies, and is the only other radar besides Hay- but provide space surveillance upon re- stack that can provide wideband SOI. quest from the SCC. They are: Mill- stone/Haystack, the ARPA Long-Range Kaena Point Tracking and Identification Radar (ALTAIR), ALCOR and AMOS. Kaena Point is a tracking radar (Fig. 21-10) located on Oahu, Hawaii. It is Millstone/Haystack part of the Western Range and supports the SCC with satellite tracking data. The Millstone/Haystack Complex is owned and operated by Lincoln Laboratories of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology (MIT). Millstone Hill Radar (Fig. 21-9) and Haystack Long Range Imaging Radar are both located in Tyngsboro, Massachusetts.

Fig. 21-10. Kaena Point Tracking Radar AMOS

The last contributing sensor is AMOS, Fig. 21-9. Haystack Radar which is a GEODSS-type optical sensor collocated with the GEODSS and MOTIF Millstone is a deep space radar that sensors on Maui. The research and devel- contributes 80 hours per week to the opment facility uses a 1.6-meter telescope SCC. Haystack is a deep space imaging owned by Air Force Materiel Command. radar that provides wideband SOI tracks Both the AMOS and MOTIF systems to the SCC. Haystack provides this data at the MSSS will be upgraded in the near one week of every six of Millstone future. operations. USSPACECOM may recall Haystack off schedule twice in a fiscal Passive Space Surveillance System year. The U.S. passive space surveillance ALTAIR and ALCOR system locates and tracks man-made objects in space via a new generation of ra- ALTAIR and ALCOR are located in dio frequency technology. Passive space the Kwajalein Atoll in the western Pacific surveillance units include the Deep Space Ocean. Operated by the Army, they are Tracking System (DSTS). primarily used for ABM testing in support Deep space tracking involves tracking of the Western Range and support the objects with orbits that take more than space surveillance mission when possible. 225 minutes to rotate the earth (geosyn- ALTAIR is a near-earth and deep-space chronous). DSTS antennas are at the 3rd tracking radar. Due to its proximity to the

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 9 Space Surveillance Squadron (3 SPSS), This cycle repeats 24 hours a day, seven Misawa AB, Japan, and the 5 SPSS, RAF days a week. Feltwell, U.K. Another tool used by SCC to effi- The 4 SPSS, Holloman AFB, New ciently distribute the limited tracking ca- Mexico (Fig. 21-11) performs mobile pabilities of the SSN, is prioritized sensor space surveillance communications and tracking. A NORAD/USPACECOM space data relay. regulation defines categories of priority This passive system supports and specific data collection instructions USSPACECOM and theater warfighters’ (categories and suffixes); assigned ac- requirements through continuous all- cording to each satellite’s type and orbit. weather, day-night surveillance of on- Generally, satellites with high interest orbit satellites. missions or unstable orbits (objects about to decay) will have higher priority and data collection requirements than other satellites.

SUMMARY

We have covered the different sensor technologies used to track satellites and identify them, and then looked at the Space Surveillance Network (SSN) and all the sensors that make up the SSN. Fi- nally, we looked at how the SCC proc- Fig. 21-11. Holloman Mobile esses sensor information to maintain its Communications Antennas database for over 9,000 objects.

A listing of acronyms used in this SPACE SURVEILLANCE chapter is included on the next page. SENSOR TASKING A listing of space surveillance sites is Because of the limits of the SSN which detailed on the two pages following the include number of sensors, geographic acronym listing (Table 21-1). distribution (Fig. 21-12), capability and availability, every satellite cannot be continuously tracked. To maintain a data base of where all man-made objects in earth orbit are, the SCC uses a tracking cycle which starts with a prediction. The SCC makes an assumption as to where a newly launched object will be, then sends out this postulation in the form of an element set (ELSET) to the sensors. Subse- quently, the sensor uses this ELSET to search for the object. If the assumption is close, the sensor will detect-and-track the object. The sensor then collects observations from the track, which are sent back for processing and analysis. The SCC uses this information to compute a new ELSET, or prediction, which is then sent to the next sensor to track it.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 10

THULE CLEAR FYLINGDALES CAVALIER FELTWELL MILLSTONE MISAWA BEALE HAYSTACK MOSS KAENA PT CAPE COD SOCORRO NAVSPASUR MOTIF MAUI EGLIN AMOS ANTIGUA

KWAJALEIN

DIEGO GARCIA ASCENSION

DEDICATED SENSORS

COLLATERAL SENSORS

CONTRIBUTING SENSORS

Fig. 21-12. Space Surveillance Network

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 11 SSN ACRONYMS

ABM – Anti-Ballistic Missile

ALCOR – ARPA Lincoln C-band Observable Radar (Wideband)

ALTAIR – ARPA Long-range Tracking and Identification Radar

AMOS – ARPA Maui Optical Station (Imaging)

ARPA – Advanced Research Projects Agency

ASPADOC – Alternate Space Defense Operations Center (at NAVSPACE)

ASCC – Alternate Space Control Center (Dahlgren, VA)

BMEWS – Ballistic Missile Early Warning System

CRT – Cathode Ray Tube

DSTS – Deep Space Tracking System

ELSET – Element Set (SOI positioning tool format)

GEODSS – Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance

Haystack – Wideband (X-band) deep space tracking radar at Tyngsboro, MA

LWIR – Long Wave Infra-red (data generation system)

Millstone – Lincoln Lab L-band deep space tracking radar at Tyngsboro, MA

MOSS - Moron Optical Space Surveillance

MOTIF – Maui Optical Tracking and Identification Facility

NAVSPASUR – Naval Space Surveillance (system)

PAR – Phased Array Radar (also known as the AN/FPS-85)

PARCS – Perimeter Acquisition Radar Attack Characterization System (AN/FPQ-16)

PAVE – Major command nickname for project acquisition

PAWS – Phased Array Warning System (AN/FPS-115)

SOI – Space Object Identification

SSN – Space Surveillance Network

SCC – Space Control Center in Cheyenne Mountain Air Station, Colorado

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 21 - 12

Table 21-1. Space Surveillance Sites SITE NAME TYPE TRACK INTEL LOCATION FREQ CATEGORY REMARKS ALCOR TR NE WB/C Kwajalein Atoll, C-band Contributing WB imaging Pacific

ALTAIR TR NE/DS NB/C Kwajalein Atoll, UHF/VHF Contributing Pacific

AMOS PHOTO NE/DS PHOTO Mt. Haleakala, HI LWIR Contributing AF Maui Optical Site-Imaging

Antigua TR NE NB/NC British West Indies C-band Collateral

Ascension TR(2) NE NC/NC Ascension Island, X-band Collateral South Atlantic

Beale AFB PHASED NE NB/NC California UHF Collateral PAVE PAWS ARRAY

Cape Cod AS PHASED NE NB/NC Massachusetts UHF Collateral PAVE PAWS ARRAY

Cavalier AS PHASED NE NB/NC North Dakota UHF Collateral PARCS ARRAY

Clear AS PHASED NE NB/NC Alaska UHF Collateral BMEWS II ARRAY

Diego Garcia GEODSS DS PHOTO- British Indian Ocean Optical Dedicated METRIC Territory

Eglin AFB PHASED NE/DS NB/NC Florida UHF Dedicated ARRAY C – Coherent DS – Deep Space NB – Narrow Band NC – Non-Coherent NE – Near Earth RF – Radio Frequency TR – Tracking Radar WB – Wideband

AU Space Primer September 2002 21 - 13

SITE NAME TYPE TRACK INTEL LOCATION FREQ CATEGORY REMARKS Feltwell PASSIVE DS RF Feltwell, England 0.5 - 18 Dedicated Primary - Space GHz Intel

RAF Fylingdales PHASED NE NB/NC United Kingdom UHF Collateral BMEWS III ARRAY SSPAR

Haystack Auxiliary TR NE/DS - - - Tyngsboro, MA X-band Contributing Haystack TR DS WB/C Tyngsboro, MA X-band Contributing

Kaena Point TR NE NB/NC Oahu, HI C-band Collateral

Maui GEODSS DS PHOTO Mt. Haleakala, HI Optical Dedicated

Millstone TR DS NB/C Tyngsboro, MA L-band Contributing

Misawa AB PASSIVE DS RF Misawa, Japan 0.5 - 18 Dedicated Primary - Space GHz Intel MOTIF PHOTO/ NE/DS PHOTO Mt. Haleakala, HI LWIR Collateral LWIR NAVSPASUR CW FENCE NE - - - Dahlgren, VA (HQ) UHF Dedicated 3 Transmitters 6 Receivers Socorro GEODSS DS PHOTO New Mexico Optical Dedicated

Thule, AB PHASED NE NB/NC Greenland UHF Collateral BMEWS I - ARRAY SSPAR

C – Coherent DS – Deep Space NB – Narrow Band NC – Non-Coherent NE – Near Earth RF – Radio Frequency TR – Tracking Radar WB – Wideband

AU Space Primer September 2002 21 - 14

REFERENCES

General references on space surveillance:

Air Force Space Command. Office of Public Affairs, Headquarters Air Force Space Command, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado, May 1992.

“Air Force Uses Optics to Track Space Objects,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, Au- gust 16, 1993, p. 66.

Information on the Doppler effect is taken from the Grolier Encyclopedia.

Fact Sheets on systems:

Ground-Based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance, fact sheet, Mar 99, http://www.peterson.af.mil/hqafspc/library/facts/geodss.html

PAVE PAWS Radar System, fact sheet, Mar 99, http://www.peterson.af.mil/hqafspc/library/facts/pavepaws.html

Fact Sheets on organizations:

Air Force Space Command. Office of Public Affairs, Headquarters Air Force Space Command, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado, May 1992.

Naval Space Command, 6 Apr 00, http://www.navspace.navy.mil and http://www.spacecom.af.mil/usspace/fbnavspa.htm Mission Overview, http://www.navspace.navy.mil/pao/cmdfact.htm

Cheyenne Mountain, http://www.peterson.af.mil/usspace/cmocfb.htm

21st Space Wing, Peterson AFB, CO, http://www.spacecom.af.mil/21sw

1st Command and Control Squadron, Cheyenne Mountain, CO, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/1cacs.htm 2nd Command and Control Squadron, Schriever AFB, CO, August 1996.

Dedicated, Collateral and Contributing surveillance sensor organizations:

21st Operations Group, Peterson AFB, CO, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/21og.htm

3rd Space Surveillance Sq, Misawa AB, Japan, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/3spss.htm

4th Space Surveillance Sq, Holloman AFB, NM, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/4spss.htm

AU Space Primer September 2002 21 - 15

5th Space Surveillance Sq, RAF Feltwell, UK, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/5spss.htm

18th Space Surveillance Sq, Edwards AFB, CA, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/18spss.htm

Det 3, 18th Space Surveillance Sq, Maui, HI, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/dt3spss.htm

Det 4, 18th Space Surveillance Sq, Moron AB, Spain, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/bios/dt4spssbio.htm

20th Space Surveillance Sq, Eglin AFB, FL, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/20spss.htm

6th Space Warning Sq, Cape Cod, MA, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/6sws.htm

7th Space Warning Sq, Beale AFB, CA, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/7sws.htm

10th Space Warning Sq, Cavalier AFS, ND, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/10sws.htm

12th Space Warning Sq, Thule AB, Greenland, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/12sws.htm

13th Space Warning Sq, Clear AFB, AK, nd, http://www.peterson.af.mil/21sw/library/fact_sheets/13sws.htm

AU Space Primer September 2002 21 - 16 Chapter 22

SPACE SYSTEMS SURVIVABILITY

"You know, if we really wanted to hurt you, we would set off an atomic weapon at high altitude above your country and produce an EMP that would destroy your entire electrical power grid, computer, and telecommunications infrastructure." Member of the Russian Duma

Throughout this orientation of satellite operations, you have been exposed to the modern world's dependence on space systems. This dependence varies from simple commercial long distance calls to the implementation of a nation's strategic offensive and defensive forces. Furthermore, the United States Government and military forces require space systems support, such as early warning, navigation, intelligence, and communications, to maintain and formulate policies during and after a nuclear conflict.

The threat to space systems from nuclear weapons and Electro Magnetic Pulse (EMP) weapons exploded at high altitudes is real, yet largely ignored. Concerns about the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the possession of such weapons by rogue nations, make the discussion of problems associated with EMP and the magnitude of those problems a most timely topic.

target. The altitude of a nuclear burst (Fig. 22-1) will depend on the mission of the weapon system. For example, if the objective is to produce maximum physical damage, a surface burst would be used.

Surface Burst

A surface burst is defined as a burst taking place between the surface and two Fig. 22-1. Nuclear Burst kilometers (km) in altitude. This burst will produce the largest amount of debris, as the fireball will touch the surface and NUCLEAR THREAT vaporize rocks, soil and other material.

The environmental effects of a nuclear In addition, ground shock waves, over explosion have been divided into three pressure (air blast) and EMP are present. categories: Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP), transient nuclear radiation and thermal Low Altitude Burst radiation. As for the success of a nuclear strike, it depends on three basic factors: A low altitude burst is defined as a burst the type of warhead (e.g., thermal between two and 30 km in altitude. This nuclear, enhanced radiation and yield); burst will produce EMP, air blast and the altitude of the detonation and the disruption in communications, such as distance of the burst from its intended scintillation (the distortion of radio waves)

AU Space Primer 22 - 1 7/24/2003/00 and absorption/ blackout (the denial of any electromagnetic signals within line of communications within the affected area). sight of the nuclear detonation (NUDET). The energy generated by the nuclear High Altitude Burst burst and its propagation towards the earth is characterized as an EMP A high altitude burst takes place at waveform. The waveform has been broken altitudes greater than 30 km. The high- down into three segments: altitude burst will produce EMP, scintillation and absorption and direct- • The first is called early-time EMP radiation exposure to satellite systems. and is the most devastating segment However, one effect that is common with of the waveform. During early-time an air and surface burst, the fireball, is EMP, maximum levels of energy are not present in a high-altitude detonation. produced in a very short time. This is due to the lack of oxygen (the Because of the intensity of the atmosphere is less dense at higher energy and the speed of the altitudes), which is needed to produce the waveform, unprotected circuitry will fireball. The generation of EMP effects be damaged or destroyed. is present in any nuclear detonation, • The succeeding segment is called the regardless of the altitude. intermediate-time portion of the waveform. This section is superseded Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) in systems effects by the early-time and late-time EMP, as early-time The EMP threat is unique in two EMP effects will overwhelm respects. First, its peak field amplitude equipment and late-time EMP will and rise rate are high. These features of expose long communications lines EMP will induce potentially damaging with continued low-level EMP. voltages and currents in unprotected • The final segment is called late-time electronic circuits and components. EMP (also known as magneto- Second, the area covered by an EMP hydrodynamic EMP). Late-time signal can be immense. As a EMP will occur at about one second consequence, large portions of extended after generation and can last up to power and communications networks, for 1000 seconds. During late-time example, can be simultaneously put at EMP, low levels of energy are risk. Such far-reaching effects are induced into the varying magnetic peculiar to EMP. Neither natural fields in the earth, which results in phenomena nor any other nuclear weapon electrical fields being determined by effects are so widespread. the earth's surface resistance. This Within nanoseconds (billionths of a energy can pose a threat to long land second) of a nuclear detonation, any lines such as telephone, power and electrical system is threatened by EMP. submarine cables. Because of the potential damage by EMP, let's briefly look at how it is One significant factor in EMP effects produced. is the amount of coverage desired. The EMP is caused by the rapid release of area of exposure will depend on the size gamma radiation from a nuclear of the yield and the altitude of the burst. detonation. The release of these particles Based on the line of sight factor, the at the speed of light (300,000,000 meters higher the burst altitude, the greater its per second) will produce regions of coverage. Because of this factor, High- negative/positive charges as atmospheric altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP) molecules are stripped of their electrons. is the highest concern, as the entire These charges will propagate (travel) electronic spectrum could be affected. through the air at the speed of light and can have significant effects on all

AU Space Primer 22 - 2 7/24/2003/00

From a technology standpoint, shielding High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse a ground-control facility is required for (HEMP) EMP survivability. The ideal shielding would be made of steel and completely The gamma rays produced from a enclose the facility. However, this is an high-altitude nuclear burst will travel unrealistic method, as operations would rapidly outward from the burst. The not be possible. To create an EMP gamma rays traveling toward the earth survivability facility, it should be shielded will collide with the atmosphere at as much as possible. Furthermore, all altitudes between 20 and 40 km. This openings to the facility need to be filtered collision will produce a gamma deposition and protected. The facility also needs to layer, or EMP source region, where be isolated from any external electric EM gamma energy is converted to a downward propagation in the earth. moving electromagnetic wave. A high- The effects of a nuclear detonation on altitude burst can produce large- a satellite system will also interfere with amplitude EMP fields over thousands of communication transmissions that are kilometers. Peak energy fields can reach required for the maintenance of the levels of 50 kilovolts per meter. The peak satellite constellation. Effects, which levels can be reached very quickly and will would interfere with communications, are have a large broad-band frequency coverage scintillation and absorption/blackout. extending from Direct Current (DC) to 100 Both have the effect of preventing or MHz frequencies. It is assessed that a interrupting any communications nuclear burst at an altitude of approximately between a ground station and the 500 kilometers can affect electromagnetic spacecraft. transmissions within the continental United States (CONUS). Other Nuclear Effects While HEMP field strengths can be significant out to the tangent radium, the The effects of scintillation on a radio exact field strengths, as a function of frequency are the disruption or breakup ground position, can vary. Burst of the signal. For example, when the observer geometry is significant because signal is transmitted through the HEMP is produced by an electron motion contaminated area, characters in the transverse to the earth's magnetic field. transmission will be lost and only part of Other factors involved are the height of the message will be received. As for burst, weapon yield (particularly gamma absorption/blackout, the layers of yield) and geomagnetic field. The Earth's charged electrons trapped will prevent magnetic field strength is weaker and the the transmission of the signal through the orientation will vary near the equator. layer. However, these effects are frequency Therefore, peak EMP fields will be dependent. Disruption can last from just smaller and the field strength will be seconds to days. The lower end of the different. radio frequency spectrum will be affected by absorption and the higher level will EMP Protection Program encounter scintillation effects. HF communications can be affected the EMP is a critical issue in the most, as potential outages may last for survivability of all weapon systems and hours to days (depending upon reflection all three services have established off the ionosphere). Mitigation regulations and organizations to examine techniques being currently used are and develop procedures to neutralize this avoidance, crosslink and signal threat. Such programs examine technology manipulation. requirements, procedures and training Avoidance, as the word implies, means programs for implementation. not using the satellite and ground control station within the affected area. This

AU Space Primer 22 - 3 7/24/2003/00 technique can be used with large the satellite attempting to equalize the constellations and worldwide ground- energy fields within itself. These charges control networks. Crosslink capability collect on the cables, and high voltages allows the constellation to communicate are sent to various components, causing with a satellite that is within the effects ranging from simple logic contaminated area via another satellite. changes or circuitry disruptions to total Signal manipulation is designed to component burnout. compensate for the loss of signal characters during the transmission. This is Ground Segment Attack accomplished by inserting extra characters in the transmission. Physical attacks and/or sabotage can be used against the critical ground Effects on Space Assets facilities associated with US space systems in an effort to disrupt, deny, Perhaps a more threatening challenge degrade, or destroy the utility of the to our commercial satellite constellations space system. Satellite communications, is that from enhanced trapped radiation data reception, command and control, that results from delayed nuclear effects. launch, and assembly facilities, and their These enhanced effects depend on a supporting infrastructures, are all number of factors: the yield and number potential targets. In cases where the of bursts and, to a certain extent, the neutralization of a single site effectively details of the bomb design; the latitude negates an entire space service, this (and to a lesser extent the longitude); and method is more appealing; however, height of the burst(s) and, of course, the where there are many targets, this "kind" of orbit the satellite is in-low earth technique is less appealing. Many fixed orbit (Landsat, Teledesic, and Iridium, US satellite communications, data for example), medium earth orbit (Global reception, and control facilities are Positioning Satellite (GPS) and Odyssey, described in open source materials. for example) or geosynchronous earth Once located, facilities deployed in a orbit (Anik, Galaxy, and GOES, for military theater can be attacked using example). conventional military assets, including Direct radiation or thermal radiation aviation, cruise and ballistic missiles, effects are greater at altitudes above 40 special operations forces, and km. Because of the lack of atmosphere, conventional ground forces. Facilities energy that would be converted to blast inside the United States or in a large, and shock (normally about 50% of the friendly country can be attacked by long- energy) is converted to thermal radiation range bombers, submarine-launched (about 85% of the energy). The effects ballistic missiles, intercontinental of this energy on a satellite are dependent ballistic missiles, special operations on the distance of the spacecraft from the forces and agents, and terrorists and NUDET. Damage could range from paramilitary groups. Space launch simple computer logic changes to total facilities are also susceptible to attack or destruction. sabotage. A single incident or a small Prompt radiation can be described just number of incidents could impact our like early-time EMP; it hits the satellite space systems for years. Sabotage of very quickly with maximum levels of satellite subsystem hardware or software energy. This charge of energy can be could also be employed at the assembly devastating to the satellite's health. Skin- plant or the location of a subcontractor. charge effects are like intermediate EMP; they destabilize the energy fields and Electronic Attack lead to the generation of internal EMP, which is similar to late-time EMP. The US space systems could be generation of internal EMP is the result of functionally neutralized by jamming or

AU Space Primer 22 - 4 7/24/2003/00 spoofing the electronic equipment on the itself. Chemical weapons (surface coating satellites or at their ground facilities. or reacting) can damage thermal control Jammers usually emit noise-like signals materials, surfaces, optical sensors, solar in an effort to mask or prevent the panels, and antennas. Laser fluence can reception of desired signals, while damage exposed surfaces through heating spoofers emit false but plausible signals, or mechanical (pulsed laser only) effects. for deception purposes, that are received Lasers can also damage electro-optical and processed along with desired signals. sensors. Intense radio-frequency energy All military and commercial satellite can couple to and disable sensitive communication systems are susceptible satellite electronic components. What to uplink and downlink jamming or makes this all the more threatening is that spoofing. However, the jammer must technologies applicable to the operate in the same radio band as the development of some ASAT weapons are system being jammed. Downlink proliferating. An adversary only needs jammers have a significant range intent to use this capability. advantage over the space-based emitter, Another area in the ASAT arena is so they can often be much less powerful interceptors, which can be divided into and still be effective. two currently basic categories-ground or The targets of downlink jammers are air. Low-altitude direct-ascent ASAT ground-based satellite data receivers, interceptors are launched on a booster ranging from large, fixed ground sites to from the ground or from an aircraft into a handheld GPS user sets. Downlink suborbital trajectory that is designed to jamming is generally easier than uplink intersect that of a low Earth orbit (LEO) jamming since very low power jammers satellite. Low-altitude co-orbital ASAT are often suitable, though their effects are interceptors are launched from the local (from tens to hundreds of miles, ground into an orbit from which they depending on the power of both the maneuver to intercept a low Earth orbit. jammer and downlink signal). High-altitude, short-duration ASAT On the other hand, the targets of interceptors are launched from a large uplink jammers are the satellites’ radio space launch vehicle into a temporary receivers, including their sensors and parking orbit, from which an interceptor command receivers. Uplink jamming is maneuvers to engage a high-altitude more difficult, since considerable jammer (MEO, GEO, or HEO) satellite, typically transmitter power is required. However, within 1-12 hours. Finally, long-duration its effects may be global, since the orbital ASAT interceptors are launched satellite or space system would be into a storage orbit, where they await the impaired for all users. Furthermore, if command to engage a target satellite. false commands can be inserted into a Directed energy ASAT weapons tend satellite’s command receiver (spoofing), to be more sophisticated than ASAT they could cause the spacecraft to destroy interceptors. The directed-energy itself. weapon’s greatest advantage is that it can engage multiple targets, whereas Space Segment Attack interceptors tend to be single-shot systems. Ground-based high-power lasers There are attacks other than nuclear could damage the thermal control, that can target the space segment. structural, and power generation Antisatellite (ASAT) systems can exploit components of the satellite. Additionally, a number of susceptibilities to disrupt, they may also affect electro-optical deny, degrade, or destroy satellites. For sensors. Low-power antisensor lasers example, kinetic impact weapons cause could blind or damage specific satellite- structural damage by impacting the target borne electro-optical sensors. Airborne with one or more high-speed masses- high-power lasers could also damage either warhead fragments or the ASAT components on LEO satellites. What

AU Space Primer 22 - 5 7/24/2003/00 gives the airborne laser an advantage as a mechanism for coordinating and over the ground-based laser is the integrating DOD-wide S&T programs, airborne platform allows the ASAT to reducing redundant capabilities, and operate above inclement weather, which eliminating unwarranted duplication. can shut down a ground-based laser. Although Nuclear Technology investments are addressed in the Defense CONCLUSION S&T Reliance processes, the nuclear technology programs are unique in the In this chapter we have reviewed the level of integration built into the effects of a nuclear burst on a satellite program. Currently all DOD Nuclear system, and how these effects can Technology S&T programs are threaten all three segments of satellite accomplished under a single DOD systems. Equally important, we know component, the Defense Threat that the technology to assure survivability Reduction Agency (DTRA), which began exists; however, DOD personnel need to operations on October 1, 1998. DTRA’s be more aware of the importance of establishment was one of the primary maintaining facility-hardened levels for actions directed by the Defense Reform EMP. Since modern warfare and Initiative in November 1997. governmental duties are dependent on the The nuclear threat against our space availability of these systems for day-to- systems has always been a primary day operations, it is imperative that all concern because of the massive amount possible means are employed to ensure of damage that it would cause. However, survivability. We have also looked at our ground segment is more vulnerable other threats against our space systems. because of the easier availability. Ground These have been broken down into the systems are much easier to attack than ground segment, link segment, and space space systems. Moreover, the electronic segment. attack against the link segment is a much The United States has three ongoing more technologically achievable target efforts to address the EMP threat that are than a nuclear explosion in space for underway as part of the DOD’s Reliance many of our potential adversaries. In program. The Science and Technology conclusion, our space systems must be (S&T) directorate of the Office of the regarded as a system made up of multiple Under Secretary of Defense for parts-ground segment, link segment, and Acquisition and Technology (OUSD space segment, which are all integral to (A&T)) established the Reliance program the accomplishment of the space mission.

AU Space Primer 22 - 6 7/24/2003/00

REFERENCES

DNA EMP-1, SCG.

EMP Protection - Executive Short Course, Revision 1.

House, Field Hearing House Small Business Committee Subcommittee on Government Programs and Oversight "Electro-Magnetic Pulse (EMP) -- Should this be a Problem of National Concern to Businesses Small and Large as well as Government?" June 1, 1999 Prepared Testimony of Col. Richard Skinner Principal Director Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance and Space Department of Defense

House, Field Hearing House Small Business Committee Subcommittee on Government Programs and Oversight "Electro-Magnetic Pulse (EMP) -- Should this be a Problem of National Concern to Businesses Small and Large as well as Government?" June 1, 1999 Prepared Testimony of Mr. Ron Wiltsie, Program Manager Strategic Systems, Applied Physics Laboratory The Johns Hopkins University

USAF Electrical Engineering Department - 1986.

"The Years of Atmospheric Testing: 1945-1963." http://www.enviroweb.org/issues/nuketesting/atmosphr/index.html

Prepared Testimony of Mr. Gordon K. Soper (Group Vice President Defense Group, Inc.). http://www.house.gov/smbiz/hearings/106th/1999/990601/soper.htm

Statement of Dr. George W. Ullrich Deputy Director Defense Special Weapons Agency http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/congress/1997_h/h970716u.htm

"Nuclear Weapon EMP Effects." Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/emp.htm

“Threats to US Military Access to Space,” National Air Intelligence Center, NAIC-1422- 0984-98.

AU Space Primer 9/6/2003 22 - 7 Appendix A

Annex N – Space

INTRODUCTION

Operations Plans (OPLANs) are the theater Combatant Commander key planning component for his Area of Responsibility (AOR). The OPLAN defines tasks and responsibilities of the AOR COMBATTANT COMMANDER and each supporting COMBATTANT COMMANDER, administration and logistics requirements and command and control of forces. The OPLANs are used both for long-term planning and for responding to crises within the AOR.

A theater Combatant Commander OPLAN is a key component of the deliberate planning process. OPLANs contain plans for responding to potential crises within the AOR. Development and execution of the OPLAN is in several phases.

- Phase I - Pre-hostilities - Phase II - Lodgment - Phase III - Military operations and stability - Phase IV - Follow-through - Phase V - Post-hostilities

Part of the OPLAN is the Annex N or the Space Annex that covers what contributions space assets will bring to the fight. OPLAN Annex N’s cover space operations contributions to the Combatant Commander mission (friendly space systems) and enemy space capabilities which may threaten mission accomplishment.

Annex N resulted from a review of DESERT STORM operations which revealed that space systems were not integrated into OPLANs because operators were not aware of space system capabilities nor how to access or request space system support. This also led to the generation of Space Support Teams (SSTs) and STRATCOM support plans and the resultant direction from the CJCS to incorporate space system education into all professional and technical military education curriculums.

Annex N is tied into the interservice operation planning and execution system, which is the principal system within DOD for translating NCA policy decisions into the interservice combatant commander’s air, land and sea operations. It does this by precisely defining DOD war planning and execution policies, designating specific procedures and format, and providing ADP support to convert NCA decisions into interservice operation plans. Campaign planning is the responsibility of the combatant commander and is not a structured, formal process but facilitates a transition from deliberate planning to crisis action planning.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 Appendix A - 1

JOINT OPERATION PLANNING AND EXECUTION SYSTEM (JOPES)

JOPES is a system which includes a set of publications and documents which guide the development of OPLANs and OPORDs, an operation planning process which develops deliberate plans (OPLANs) and operations orders (OPORDs), and an ADP support system for data processing support.

These can all be used to support Crisis Action Planning and the Campaign Plan. However, in today’s world, we often face adversaries that we have never faced before or thought of as “enemies”. Thus we may not have an OPLAN or even Contingency Plans (CONPLANs) for a particular crisis or area and may have to develop one quickly.

The primary space support plan for all theaters and contingencies comes from STRATCOM. It is a capabilities-based plan vice a requirements-based plan. That means that the plan discusses capabilities within Space Command’s means to control and operate assets in space.

The plan provides tasks and responsibilities for both the supported commander and STRATCOM.

The supported commander may request space support team assistance, reconfiguring or repositioning of on-orbit satellites to provide him with better and longer coverage and reconfiguring of ground stations for improved C2 and data relay or processing. Additionally, the supported commander may specify known or anticipated shortfalls in COMSAT availability (including bandwidth and frequency limitations).

Responsibilities for STRATCOM (through AFSPACE/14AF) include: providing voice and data missile warning information to combatant commanders, adjusting GPS unencrypted signals for selective availability when desirable, providing communications support, identifying space threats to both satellites and ground systems, providing information on status of protection of space assets and furnishing space support teams when requested to assist the supported commander in defining his space support requirements.

STRATCOM is also responsible for negating hostile space assets through the Satellite Reconnaissance Advance Notice (SATRAN) program which informs theater commanders of when enemy or other country’s reconnaissance satellites are capable of seeing ground activity in their area. The satellite vulnerability (SATVUL) program provides notices on threats to US Satellites.

STRATCOM reviews satellite posture and if replenishment is needed, recommends a prioritized, accelerated launch schedule to JCS. On-orbit assets can be repositioned to improve or increase support to battlefield commanders.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 Appendix A - 2

ANNEX N

- Outlines how to obtain and coordinate space support; - Describes nature of space support; - Lists operational constraints and shortfalls; and - Describes command relationships.

The Annex N provides planning guidance concerning space-related support for the deployment and employment of the Combatant Commander forces. Space assets support several crucial areas that enable the Combatant Commander forces to conduct military operations.

Annex N is the Space Annex that is included in the OPLANs of theater Combatant Commander. Annex N provides guidance to U.S. forces in theater for obtaining, coordinating, and using space support to enhance “navigation, communications, warning (of missile attack), environmental monitoring, surveillance and reconnaissance, NUDET reporting and space control”.

Space assets provide the following six capabilities: - Theater Warning - Provides attack warning detection and notifications capabilities - Navigation - Provides terrestrial navigation capabilities from the Global Positioning System (GPS) and other navigation satellites. - Communications - Provides satellite communications support - Environmental Sensing - Provides environmental and weather satellite support - Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) - Military and civilian satellites which can support surveillance and intelligence gathering - Space Control - Assures continued operation of space systems for advantage in information warfare and battlefield awareness

Annex N addresses planning in these areas: - Each of the six space capabilities for potential enemies in the AOR. - Each of the six space capabilities for friendly/Allied forces in the AOR. - Planning assumptions under which these capabilities would be used include: - shortfalls; - limiting factors; - world situation; and - ability to replace on-orbit assets.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 Appendix A - 3

DEVELOPING A THEATER ANNEX N

Attached is an notional Annex N developed for instructional purposes only. Before developing an Annex N, it is necessary to determine your and the enemy’s space assets. To do that, you first need to ask some basic questions.

Q: What kinds of space support are required to support a warfighting COMBATTANT COMMANDER?

A: Communications, navigational/positional support, intelligence, surveillance, imagery, attack warning, weather and multi-spectral imagery (MSI). Navigation/positional support should include search and rescue (SAR).

A: Environmental monitoring information should include weather and multispectral imagery (MSI) for terrain/water depth analysis, map updates and ground cover classification.

As the campaign evolves and deployment to a theater nears, more specific questions need to be discussed and resolved.

For example: - What are in-theater system capabilities? Can theater units receive downlinked information from satellites properly and in a timely manner? Is additional equipment needed? - What are area and target coverage requirements? Pin-point target imagery or wide area coverage? - What is response time of various satellite systems? How do we get data in real-time or near real-time to the theater? - What is the resolution and accuracy of satellite information? - What is availability and survivability of space systems?

Next we’ll need to know specific, unique theater requirements.

These include:

- Do they have the proper terminal or receiver equipment to obtain the needed support data and information; (Example: weather terminals and tactical data processors) - Has connectivity and interoperability among the service components (and allies) been determined and resolved; (Example: SHF vs UHF communications; imagery dissemination) - Has maintenance support, especially of dissimilar equipment, been addressed and resolved; and,

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 Appendix A - 4 - Has training and exercise space support to the theater been practiced so that deployments do not present personnel with new situations or unknown systems. Allies also need to be knowledgeable in what US systems there are and how they can be used to maximum advantage.

INTEGRATING SPACE INTO OPLANS

Annex N is only one part of the overall effort but it is a critical part. In order to be fully effective, space support and thinking must be integrated throughout as many of the JOPES annexes as possible. Of prime importance are the intelligence, operations, and communications annexes. The execution checklists must also contain information showing what space support to expect at various times.

Most planners consider space as a separate entity, much like operations or communications. This thinking has to be turned around and space incorporated as an integral part of all we do. And the hardest part will be integrating space into joint operations.

As theater COMBATTANT COMMANDER staffs are populated with increasing numbers of Space Weapons school graduates, they will assume greater responsibility for authoring their theater’s Space Operations annex.

Attached is a notional Annex N which shows, paragraph by paragraph, what kinds of data are included in an Annex N. Because of the change in the types of enemies and areas of the world the US fights in today and in the future, many of the Theater Annex N’s are becoming more ‘generic’, focusing on threats within the region rather than on specific countries.

AU Space Primer 7/24/2003 Appendix A - 5 FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY UNCLASSIFIED

Copy no___ of ___copies Issuing Headquarters Place of Issue Date/Time Group when signed

ANNEX N (SPACE OPERATIONS) to OPLAN or OPORD nnn-yy - Issuing Headquarters

(X) References: List ANNEX N of the next higher commands OPLAN or OPORD and other documents, maps, overlays and SOPs that provide guidance and information for use with this annex.

(X) Time Zone Used Throughout the Order:

1. (X) SITUATION

a. (X) General. Describe planned and available space support to the OPLAN. Explain how to obtain and coordinate space support. List operational constraints and shortfalls. Describe relationships between supporting and supported organizations. Refer to other annexes or provide enough information about the overall situation to give subordinate and supporting units a clear understanding of the operations contemplated which require space operations support.

b. (X) Enemy.

(1) (X) Describe enemy space capabilities, how they will be used and their value to the enemy. (a) (X) Estimate the impact of enemy space capabilities on friendly operations. Describe notification or warning reports to friendly units of enemy space activities to include enemy reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition of friendly forces by manned and unarmed space systems. Discuss the enemy’s ability to use friendly space systems to support operations. Refer to Annex B, Intelligence, for amplifying information. (b) (X) Identify enemy space weaknesses and vulnerabilities such as inadequate coverage, poor resolution, inability to launch new or replacement systems and inability to counter the capabilities of friendly space systems.

(2) (X) Describe what the enemy is capable of doing and probably will do with space, air, surface or subsurface assets to interfere with friendly space systems and space operations that support the missions and tasks envisioned in this plan. Notice of hostile space activities that deny unrestricted friendly access to space , deny the full capabilities of friendly space assets, or restrict friendly surface resources required by these space assets. Refer to Annex B, Intelligence, for amplifying information.

c. (X) Friendly. In numbered sub-paragraphs, state the capabilities of external commands, units, forces or agencies to provide space support for the operation such as USSPACECOM, ARSPACECOM, DISA, DIA, NOAA, NASA, etc. Include non-U.S. agencies and systems such as INTELSAT, INMARSAT, ESA, EUMETSAT, etc. Identify systems available for communications, environmental, navigation, surveillance, tactical warning, space control, nuclear detonation detection or other application categories. Identify friendly space weaknesses and vulnerabilities. Describe changes or modifications to established procedures, MOAs or MOUs that may be in effect. Use appendix for detailed information. Refer to the ANNEX N of the next higher command and adjacent commands.

d. (X) Assumptions. State any assumptions, not included in the basic plan, relating to friendly, enemy or third party capabilities and operations that may affect, negate or compromise space capabilities. If any assumptions are critical to the success of the plan, indicate alternative courses of action.

Annex N - 6 UNCLASSIFIED FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY UNCLASSIFIED

2. (X) MISSION

State in concise terms the space tasks to be accomplished in support of the operations in the basic plan and describe desired results in support of this OPLAN

3. (X) EXECUTION

Space activities may range from satellite communication and intelligence support to space control operations. The functions required may vary greatly within the area of operations or between phases of the operation. This paragraph may, therefore, require considerable detail and possibly alternative courses of action to accomplish the mission. Appendixes should be used as necessary to provide detailed guidance.

a. (X) Concept of Operations.

(1) (X) General. State the general concept of space operations required to support the forces in the task organization of the OPLAN and briefly describe how space operations fit into the entire operation or refer to the basic plan. Emphasize the aspects of the basic plan that will require space support and that may affect space capabilities. State OPSEC planning guidance for tasks assigned in this annex, and cross-reference other OPSEC planning guidance for functional areas addressed in other annexes.

(2) (X) Employment. If the operation is phased, discuss the employment of space assets during each phase. Include discussion of priorities of access, usage and capabilities in each phase. Discuss ability to launch new or replacement space systems.

b. (X) Space Support. Identify space support and procedures that will support the OPLAN. Include the following areas or add additional areas, as applicable: Use Appendixes for detailed discussion and information.

(1) (X) Communications. Describe space systems that will support communications plans as described in Annex K. List military and commercial satellites and ground systems that will provide support. If any satellites are not in geostationary orbit, provide orbital data sufficient to determine the time and duration of their availability. Include procedures for obtaining additional SATCOM space and ground assets and allocations. Refer to Annex K, Command, Control and Communications Systems, for amplifying information.

(2) (X) Environmental. Describe meteorologic, oceanographic, geodetic and other environmental support information provided by space assets. List receivers and processors that are available to receive DNEP and civil weather satellite data. Describe availability of data from the various weather satellites based on transmission schedules, orbital parameters, etc. Describe capabilities, products and availability of multi-spectral satellite data. Describe provisions to acquire, receive or gain access to data from weather, multi-spectral and other satellites that cannot be received by systems in the theater of operations. Describe provisions to deny the enemy access to data from civil weather satellites. Refer to Annex K Environmental Services for amplifying information

(3) (X) Navigation. Describe the capabilities of space based navigation systems that will aid the position location and navigation of ships, vehicles, personnel or spacecraft. Describe types of GPS receivers available to subordinate units. Identify which receivers are not able to compensate for selective availability. Quantify the error caused by selective availability. Discuss requirements to increase, decrease or turn off GPS selective availability. If continuous 3-D coverage is not available, describe outage periods or times of reduced coverage. Describe requirements to jam or spoof GPS receivers that may be in use by the enemy. Describe requirements for differential GPS.

(4) (X) Reconnaissance, Intelligence, Surveillance and Target Acquisition (RISTA). Describe capabilities available to friendly forces to include IMINT, SIGINT, MASINT, NUDET, multispectral and others. Describe inter-theater and intra-theater dissemination architecture and procedures. Annex N - 7 UNCLASSIFIED FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY UNCLASSIFIED

Describe which systems can be used and the type of information they provide. Describe availability of multispectral data, its processing and products. Discuss availability and requirements for TENCAP systems. Refer to Annex B, Intelligence, for amplifying information.

(5) (X) Tactical Warning. Describe the capabilities of space systems to detect enemy ballistic missile, attack by space-based weapons or other enemy activities. Describe the capabilities of systems such as Tactical Event Reporting System (TERS). Describe coordination and channels needed to disseminate warnings quickly. Identify additional resources needed. Describe linkage and coordination with ground and air based radar systems. Identify whether tactical warning data will be passed to allied military forces and civil agencies and the channels to do so. Refer to Annex B, Intelligence, for amplifying information.

(6) (X) Space Control. Describe actions performed by space, air or surface assets to ensure friendly forces access to space or deny enemy forces unrestricted use of space and space assets. Include planned or anticipated actions in response to the enemy’s use of space or denial of friendly access to space and space systems.

c. (X) Tasks and Responsibilities. In numbered paragraphs, assign individual tasks and responsibilities to each applicable subordinate unit, supporting command or agency that provides support to the plan. For each of these tasks, provide a concise statement of the mission to be performed in further planning or execution of the overall plan, providing sufficient detail to ensure that all elements essential to the operational concept are described properly.

d. (X) Coordinating Instructions. Provide necessary guidance common to two or more components, subdivisions or agencies. Describe liaison requirements, if any.

4. (X) ADMINISTRATION AND LOGISTICS

Provide broad guidance concerning administrative and logistic support for space operations. Address support of mobile or fixed space system assets within the area of operations or refer to another annex where this information is available. Describe support needed and who will provide it for any space related ground stations supporting the command. Describe resupply procedures for cryptological supplies. Refer to Annex D, Logistics, or pertinent command directives for amplifying information.

5. (X) COMMAND AND CONTROL

a. (X) Command and Control. Indicate the difference, if any, between the command channels for the conduct of space activities and the command relationships established in Annex J. If applicable, state requirements for augmentation of appropriate headquarters with space operations personnel. Refer to the appropriate section of Annex J, Annex K or the basic plan for general C2 support of space activities.

b. (X) Command, Control, and Communications Systems. Summarize requirements for general C2 systems support of space activities. Refer to appropriate sections of Annex K. /t

General/COMBATTANT COMMANDER

Appendices: 1 - Communications 2 - Environmental 3 - Navigation 4 - Reconnaissance, Surveillance and Target Acquisition 5 - Tactical Warning 6 - Space Control Annex N - 8 UNCLASSIFIED FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY UNCLASSIFIED

7 - Space Support

(Complete Appendixes only as required for amplifying details)

Hints on preparation of Annex N and supporting Appendixes:

1. Focus on unique space capabilities and their application to the operation. 2. Refer to the ANNEX N of the next higher command’s OPLAN/OPORD. 3. Cross-reference to other Annexes. Avoid unnecessarily repeating information contained in other Annexes.

Annex N - 9 UNCLASSIFIED FOR INSTRUCTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY Appendix B

SPACE GLOSSARY AND ACRONYMS

ω Argument of Perigee Ω Ascending Node ∆v delta-v

A a Semi-Major Axis A/MWC Alternate Missile Warning Center AA Attack Assessment ABM Anti-Ballistic Missile ACC Air Combat Command ACMS Alternate Master Control Station ACS Attitude Control Subsystem ADRG Arch Digitized Raster Graphics ADSI Air Defense Systems Integrator AEPDS Advanced Electronic Processing and Dissemination System AFCC Air Force Communications Command AFM Air Force Manual AFSATCOM AF Satellite Communications AFSCN Air Force Satellite Control Network AFSPACE Air Force Space Command AFSPC Air Force Space Command AFSPC/CC Commander, Air Force Space Command AFSST AF Space Support Team AIRS Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere Al Aluminum ALCM Air-Launched Cruise Missile ALCOR ARPA Lincoln C-Band Observable Radar ALERT Attack and Launch Early Reporting to Theater ALTAIR ARPA Long-Range Tracking and Identification Radar AMCSS AFSAT Modulation Compatibility Sub System AMOS ARPA Maui Optical Site AOC Aerospace Operations Center AOC Auxiliary Output Chip APT Automatic Picture Transmission ARC Advanced Research Center ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency ARSPACE Army Space Command ARSPACE FWD Army Space Command Forward ARSST Army Space Support Team ARTS Automated Remote Tracking Station A-S Anti-Spoofing

AU Space Primer- B-1 - 7/24/2003 ASARS-2 Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar System-2 ASAT Anti-Satellite ASCC Alternate Space Control Center ASDP Army Space Demonstration Program ASEDP Army Space Exploitation Demonstration Program ASIS Army Space Initiatives Study ASPADOC Alternate Space Defense Operations Center ASPO Army Space Program Office ATACMS Army Tactical Missile System ATO Air Tasking Order ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle AU Distance of Earth from the sun AUTONAV Autonomous Navigation AVHRR Advanced High Resolution Radiometer AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System AWACS Airborne Warning and Control System AWN Automated Weather Network AZA Auroral Zone Absorption

BIOT British Indian Ocean Territory BMD Ballistic Missile Defense BMEWS Ballistic Missile Early Warning System BOA Battlefield Ordnance Awareness

C c Linear Eccentricity C/A Course Acquisition C2 Command and Control CACS Command and Control Squadron CACS Command and Control Squadron CALCM Conventional Air Launched Cruise Missile CANR Canadian NORAD Region CCD Camouflage, Concealment and Deception CCIS Civil/Commercial Imagery System CCS Constellation Control Station CCS Constellation Control Station CDF Commercial Demonstration Flight CEP Circular Error Probability CGS CONUS Ground Station CIC Combat Intelligence Correlator CIC Combined Intelligence Center CINC Commander-in-Chief CINC Commander in Chief

AU Space Primer- B-2 - 7/24/2003 CINC-NORAD Commander-in-Chief CINC of NORAD CIO Central Imagery Office CIR Color Infrared CIRA Cospar International Reference Atmosphere CM Cruise Missile CMAS Cheyenne Mountain Air Station CME Coronal Mass Ejection CMOC Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center CMR Communication by Moon Relay CNA Computer Network Attack CND Computer Network Defense CNO Chief of Naval Operations CO2 Carbon Dioxide COF Columbus Orbital Facility CONOPS Concept of Operations CONUS Continental United States COTS Commercial-off-the-Shelf CRT Cathode-Ray Tube CSEL Combat Survivor/Evader Locator CSIL Commercial Satellite Imagery Library CSPE Communications Systems Planning Element

D Distance DAGR Defense Advanced GPS Receiver DAMA Demand Assigned Multiple Access DARO Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency dB Decibels DC Direct Current DCSOPS Deputy Chief of Staff for Operations DDC Data Distribution Center DEM Digital Elevation Model DEW Distant Early Warning DGPS Differential GPS DIA Defense Intelligence Agency DISA Defense Information Systems Agency DISN Defense Information Systems Network DMA Defense Mapping Agency DMS Defense Message System DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program DOD Department of Defense DR Detection Radar DRC Data Reduction Center DSCS Defense Satellite Communication System

AU Space Primer- B-3 - 7/24/2003 DSCSOC DSCS Operations Center DSN Defense Switched Network DSP Defense Support Program DSTS Deep Space Tracking System DTED Digital Terrain Elevation Data DTRA Defense Threat Reduction Agency DTS Diplomatic Telecommunications Service DWSW Deployable Weather Satellite Workstation

E e Eccentricity EAC Echelon Above Corps EAM Emergency Action Message EC Earth Coverage EDGE Exploitation of DGPS for Guidance Enhancement EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle EGS European Ground Station EHF Extremely High Frequency EIRP Effective Isotropic Radiated Power ELSET Element Set EM Electromagnetic EMD Engineering and Manufacturing Development EMP Electromagnetic Pulse ENEC Extendable Nozzle Exit Cone EOSAT Earth Observation Satellite EPDS Electronic Processing and Dissemination System ERS-1 European Remote Sensing Satellite ERTS-A Earth Resources Technology Satellite-A ESA European Space Agency ESSA Environmental Science Service Administration ET External Tank ET Extra-Terrestrial ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus ETRAC Enhanced Tactical Radar Correlator ETUT Enhanced Tactical User Terminal EUV Extreme Ultraviolet EVA Extravehicular Activity

FAST Forward Area Support Terminal FAST Forward Space Support in Theater FBM Fleet Ballistic Missile FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access FEP FLTSAT EHF Package

AU Space Primer- B-4 - 7/24/2003 FLTSAT Fleet Satellite FLTSATCOM Fleet Satellite Communications FNMOC Fleet Numerical Meteorological and Oceanographic Center FOSIC Fleet Ocean Surveillance Information Center FOV Field-Of-View FSSC Fleet Surveillance Support Command FSU Former Soviet Union

GATS B GPS-Aided Targeting System GBS Global Broadcast Service GCCS Global Command and Control System GCN Ground Communications Network GCNU Ground Communications Network Upgrade GCSS Global Combat Support System GDA Gimbaled Dish Antenna GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit GEODSS Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance GMF Ground Mobile Forces GMS Geostationary Meteorological Satellite GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite GOTS Government-off-the Shelf GPS Global Positioning System GPS MCS GPS Master Control Station GSD Ground Sampling Distance GSSC Global SATCOM Support Center GSUs Geographically Separated Unit GTO Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit

H2O Hydrogen Dioxide (Water) HEMP High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit HELSTF High Energy Laser System Test Facility HF High Frequency HRPT High Resolution Picture Transmission HRV High Resolution Visible HSD High Speed Data HSI Hyperspectral Imagery HSMP High Speed Message Processor HSS High Speed Stream HST Hubble Space Telescope

AU Space Primer- B-5 - 7/24/2003

ICBM Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile ISR Intelligence, Reconnaissance and Surveillance ITW Integrated Tactical Warning ITW/AA Integrated Tactical Warning and Attack Assessment IUS Inertial Upper Stage i Inclination ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile ICDB Integrated Communications Database IDSCP Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program IFOV Instantaneous Field of View IG Intelligence Group IGMDP Integrated Guided Missile Development Program IGY International Geophysical Year IMF Interplanetary Magnetic Field INMARSAT International Maritime Satellite INS Inertial Navigation System INSAT Indian National Satellite Intelsat International Telecommunications Satellite IOC Initial Operating Capability IPL Integrated Priority List IPO Integrated Program Office IR Infrared IRBM Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile IRS Indian Remote Sensing Satellite Isp Specific Impulse ISS International Space Station ITAC Intelligence and Threat Analysis Center ITOS Improved TIROS Operational Satellite IUS Inertial Upper Stage

JASSM Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile JBS Joint Broadcast Service JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff JDAM Joint Direct Attack Munition JEM Japanese Experiment Module JIOC Joint Information Operations Center JITI Joint In-Theater Injection JNTF Joint National Test Facility JRSC Jam Resistant Secure Communications JSCP Joint Strategic Capabilities Plan JSIPS Joint Services Imagery Processing System JSOW Joint Stand Off Weapon

AU Space Primer- B-6 - 7/24/2003 JSTARS/GSM Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System/Ground Support Module JTAGS Joint Tactical Ground Station JTF-CND Joint Task Force - Computer Network Defense JTFST Joint Task Force Satellite Terminal

K Kelvin KE Kinetic Energy km Kilometer kW Kilowatt kW/s Kilowatts per Steradian

LAAS Local Area Augmentation System LASS Low-Altitude Space Surveillance System LCC Launch Control Center LDR Low Data Rate LEGG Launch Ejection Gas Generator LEO Low Earth Orbit LF Launch Facility LF Low Frequency LH Liquid Hydrogen LITVC Liquid Injection Thrust Vector Control LLV Lockheed Launch Vehicle LMLV Lockheed-Martin Launch Vehicle LOC Line of Communication LOX Liquid Oxygen LPD Low Probability of Detection LPI Low Probability of Intercept LPS Large Processing Station LPSU Large Processing Station Upgrade LS Light Smooth LSD Low Speed Data LSMP Low Speed Message Processor LSTT Light-Weight STT LUF Lowest Useable Frequency LWIR Long Wave Infra-red

M m Mass MAGR Miniaturized Aircraft GPS Receiver MAJCOM Major Command MBA Multiple Beam Antenna

AU Space Primer- B-7 - 7/24/2003 MC&G Mapping, Charting and Geodesy MCC Mission Control Center MCS Master Control Station MCS Mission Control Station MDM Mission Data Message MDR Medium Data Rate MECA Missile Electronics and Computer Assembly MGS Missile Guidance Set MGS Mobile Ground System MI Military Intelligence MIES Modernized Imagery Exploitation System MILSATCOM Military Satellite Communications MIRV Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology MITT Mobile Integrated Tactical Terminal MLRS Multiple Launch Rocket System MOC Milstar Operations Center MOL Manned Orbiting Laboratory MOS/PIM Multiple Orbit Satellite/Program Improvement Module MOTIF Maui Optical Tracking and Identification Facility MPSOC Multi-Purpose Satellite Operations Center MR Mass Ratio MRBM Medium Range Ballistic Missile MSF Milstar Support Facility MSI Multispectral Imagery MSIP MSI Processor MSS Mobile Service System MSS Multispectral Scanner MSTS Multi-Source Tactical System MT Megaton MUF Maximum Useable Frequency MWIR Medium Wave Infrared

NAVSPACECOM Naval Space Command NAVSPASUR Naval Space Surveillance Center NCA National Command Authority NIPC National Infrastructure Protection Center NOAA National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration NORAD North American Aerospace Defense NRO National Reconnaissance Office NSWCDD Naval Surface Warfare Center, Dahlgren Division NWS North Warning System NACA National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics

AU Space Primer- B-8 - 7/24/2003 NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NAVASTROGRU Navy Astronautics Group NAVSOC Naval Satellite Operations Center NAVSPACE Naval Space Command NAVSPACECOM Naval Space Command NAVSPASUR Naval Space Surveillance NAVSPOC Naval Space Operations Center NAVSTAR GPS Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging Global Positioning System NAVWAR Navigation Warfare NCA National Command Authority NDI Non-Developmental Item Ni-Cad Nickel-Cadmium Ni-H2 Nickel-Hydrogen NIMA National Imagery and Mapping Agency NIR Near Infrared NITF National Imagery Transmission Format NM Nautical Mile NMCC National Military Command Center NNSS Navy Navigation Satellite NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NORAD North American Aerospace Defense Command NPIC National Photographic Interpretation Center NPOESS National Polar Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System NRL Naval Research Laboratory NRO National Reconnaissance Office NSD National Security Directive NSDD National Security Decision Directive NSPC National Space Council NSPD National Space Policy Directive NSST Naval Space Support Team NSTC National Science and Technology Council NTR Nuclear Thermal Rocket NUDET Nuclear Detection

O Oxygen molecule O&M Operations and Maintenance O2 Oxygen (gas) OC Operations Center OCC Operations Control Center OGS Overseas Ground Station OLS Operational Linescan System

AU Space Primer- B-9 - 7/24/2003 OMS Orbital Maneuvering System OPCON Operational Control OPSEC Operations Security OSC Orbital Sciences Corporation OTH-B Over-the-Horizon Backscatter OUSDA&T Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology

PAR Phased Array Radar PARCS Perimeter Acquisition Radar Attack Characterization System PBCS Post Boost Control System PBV Post Boost Vehicle PCA Polar Cap Absorption PCM Phase-Change Material P-code precision code PD Presidential Directive PDD Presidential Decision Directive PE Potential Energy PEC Photoelectric Cell PLGR Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver PMT Photo Multiplier Tube POES Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellite PPS Precise Positioning Service PPSE PAVE PAWS South East PPSW PAVE PAWS South West PR Production Requirement PRC Peoples Republic of China PRD Presidential Review Directive psi per square inch PSRE Propulsion System Rocket Engine PUP Peripheral Upgrade Program

QDR Quadrennial Defense Review QPSK Quadra Phase Shift-Keyed

R&D Research and Development RAF Royal Air Force RAOC Region Air Operations Center RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police RDS Real-time Data Smooth REACT Rapid Execution and Combat Targeting

AU Space Primer- B-10 - 7/24/2003 RFI Radio Frequency Interference RGS Relay Ground Stations RISTA Reconnaissance, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Target Acquisition RMS Remote Manipulator System ROCC Region Operations Control Center ROTHR Relocatable Over-the-Horizon Radar ROW Rest-of-World RSC Reaction Control System RSSC Regional SATCOM Support Center RTC Real-Time Command RTD Real-time Data Fine RTG Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator

S&T Science and Technology SA Selective Availability SAA Satellite Access Authorization SAASM Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module SAGE Semi-Automatic Ground Environment SAM Surface-to-Air Missile SAMT state-of-the-art Medium Terminal SAOC Sector Air Operation Center SAR Satellite Access Request SAR Search and Rescue SAR Support Assistance Request SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar SATCOM Satellite Communications SATCON Satellite Control SATRAN Satellite Reconnaissance Advance Notice SBIRS Space Based Infrared System SCC Space Control Center SCG Security Classification Guide SCI Sensitive Compartmented Information SCIS Survivable Communications Integration System SCT Single Channel Transponder SDIO Strategic Defense Initiative Organization SDS Satellite Data System SED Sensor Evolutionary Development SEON Solar Electro-Optical Network SEP Spherical Error Probable SEU Single Event Upset SG Space Group SHF Super High Frequency SID Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance SIDEARM Secondary Imagery Dissemination Environment and Resource Manager

AU Space Primer- B-11 - 7/24/2003 SIGINT Signals Intelligence SINCGARS Single Channel Ground and Air Radio System SIOP Single Integrated Operations Plan SLBM Sea-Launched Ballistic Missile SLCM Sea-Launched Cruise Missile SLCM Submarine-Launched Cruise Missile SLEP Service Life Enhancement Program SLGR Small Lightweight GPS Receiver SLS Space Launch Squadron SMABC Space and Missile Applications Basic Course SMDBL SMDC Battle Lab SMDC Space and Missile Defense Command SOC Satellite Operations Center SOC Space Operations Center SOCC Satellite Operations Control Center SOH State of Health SOI Space Object Identification SOM Satellite Operations Manager SOPS Satellite Operations Squadron SOPS Space Operations Squadron SPAWAR Space and Naval Warfare SPC Stored Programs Command SPIN SATCOM Planning Information Network SPO Special Projects Office SPOT Satellite Pour L’Observation de la Terre SPS Simplified Processing Station SPS Standard Positioning Service SPSS Space Surveillance Squadron SRBM Short Range Ballistic Missile SRM Solid-Rocket Motor SRMU Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade SRS Satellite Readout Station SRSU SRS Upgrade SSB Solar Sector Boundary SSBN Nuclear Capable Submarine SSC Space Surveillance Center SSDC Space and Strategic Defense Command SSE SATCOM System Expert SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave Imager SSMA Spread Spectrum Multiple Access SSN Space Surveillance Network START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty STO Space Tasking Order STS Space Transport System STS Space Transportation System STT Small Tactical Terminal

AU Space Primer- B-12 - 7/24/2003 SWC Space Warfare Center SWF Short Wave Fade SWIR Shortwave Infrared SWO Space Weather Officer SWS Space Warning Squadron SWS Strategic Weapon System

T Thrust T/R Transmit/Receive TACDAR Tactical Detection and Reporting TACSAT Tactical Satellite TACSATCOM Tactical Satellite Communications TACTERM Tactical Terminal TAOS Technology for Autonomous Operational Survivability TASR Tactical Automated Situational Receiver TAT-1 Transatlantic Telephone (first cable) TBM Tactical Ballistic Missile TCF Technical Control Facility TDDS Tactical Data Dissemination System TEC Topographic Engineering Center TEC Total Electron Content TEL Transporter-Erector-Launcher TENCAP Tactical Exploitation of National Capabilities TERCAT Terrain Categorization TERCOM Terrain Contour Matching TES Theater Event System TIBS Tactical Information Broadcast Service TIROS Television and Infrared Operational Satellite TLAM Tomahawk Land Attack Missile TM Thematic Mapper TMD Theater Missile Defense TOMS-EP Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer-Earth Probe TOS TIROS Operational System TR Tracking Radar TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command TS Thermal Smooth TSS Tri-band SATCOM Sub-system TT&C Telemetry, Tracking and Commanding TVC Thrust Vector Control

U UCP Unified Command Plan UDMH Unsymmetrical Dimethyldrazine UE User Equipment

AU Space Primer- B-13 - 7/24/2003 UHF F/O UHF Follow-On UHF Ultra-High Frequency UN United Nations USA US Army USAF US Air Force USCENTCOM US Central Command USCINCSPACE CINC, United States Space Command USMC US Marine Corps USSPACECOM US Space Command USSTRATCOM US Strategic Command UTC Coordinated Universal Time UV Ultraviolet

VHF Very High Frequency VLF Very-Low Frequency

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System WAGE Wide Area GPS Enhancement WEFAX Weather Facsimile WSMR White Sands Missile Range

TOC

AU Space Primer- B-14 - 7/24/2003

ALTITUDE IN KILOMETERS A U

S p a c e

P r i m e r

- 1 7 / 2 4 / 2 0 0 3

ALTITUDE IN KILOMETERS A u S p a c e P r i m e r C - 3

7 / 2 4 / 2 0 0 3

D I S T A N C E

C O N V C E

- R

4 S I O N

F A C T O R S

D I S T A N C E

C O N V C

E - 5 R S I O N

F A C T O R S

D I S T A N C E

C O N V C

E - 6 R S I O N

F A C T O R S 1 2 3 4 Department of Defense DIRECTIVE