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AU-18 Space Primer

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AU-18 Space Primer AU-18 Space Primer Prepared by AIR COMMAND AND STAFF COLLEGE SPACE RESEARCH ELECTIVES SEMINARS Air University Press Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama September 2009 ISBN 978-1-58566-194-7 Disclaimer Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of Air University, the United States Air Force, the Department of Defense, or any other US government agency. Cleared for public release: distribution unlimited. Air University Press 131 West Shumacher Avenue Maxwell AFB AL 36112-5962 http://aupress.au.af.mil ii Contents Chapter Page DISCLAIMER . ii FOREWORD . ix PREFACE . xi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS . xiii ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS . xv 1 SPACE HISTORY. 1 Early Developments in Rocketry . 1 Rocket Development after World War II . 4 Satellite Programs . 10 Manned Space Exploration by the United States and USSR since 1960 . 14 Current Space Initiatives . 21 Where We Have Been and Where We Are Going . 23 Notes . 24 2 SPACE POWER THEORY. 29 Air and Sea Precedents in Developing Space Law . 29 Limitations of Air and Sea Power Models . 31 Characteristics and Definition of Space Power . 32 Conclusion . 39 Notes . 40 3 CURRENT SPACE LAW AND POLICY. 43 International Space Law . 43 Domestic Space Law . 45 National Space Policy . 46 Department of Defense Space Policy . 54 Summary . 56 Notes . 59 4 SPACE DOCTRINE. 61 Joint Doctrine for Space Operations . 61 Air Force Doctrine for Space Operations . 68 Army Doctrine for Space Operations . 72 Differences in Service Doctrine . 75 Notes . 76 iii CONTENTS Chapter Page 5 US MILITARY SPACE PLANNING. 79 The Operation Plan . 79 Joint Operation Planning and Execution System . 80 Integrating Space into Operation Plans . 81 Annex N: Space Operations . 82 Developing a Theater Annex N . 83 Excerpt of a Sample Annex N . 84 Notes . 88 6 ORBITAL MECHANICS. 89 Orbit Types . 89 A History of the Laws of Motions . 93 Orbital Motion . 96 Notes . 112 7 SPACE ENVIRONMENT . 115 An Introduction to the Space Environment . 115 The Space Environment and System Impacts . 119 Space Environmental Support . 134 Notes . 135 8 JOINT SPACE MISSION AREAS . 137 Space Control. 137 Space Force Enhancement . 139 Space Support . 141 Space Force Application . 142 Notes . 142 9 US GOVERNMENT SPACE ORGANIZATIONS AND MISSIONS . 143 National Reconnaissance Office . 143 National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. 144 National Aeronautics and Space Administration . 144 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . 145 National Security Space Office . 145 Notes . 146 10 US MILITARY SPACE ORGANIZATIONS . 147 Air Force Space Command . 147 Naval Network Warfare Command . 150 US Army Space and Missile Defense Command/ Army Strategic Command . 151 Notes . 152 iv CONTENTS Chapter Page 11 COMMAND AND CONTROL OF SPACE FORCES . 153 Global and Theater Considerations . 154 US Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) Joint Functional Component Commands . 155 Command and Control of Global Space Forces . 155 Command and Control of Theater Space Forces. 155 Combined Force Air Component Commander’s (CFACC) Authority and Role in Theater Space Operations . 158 Notes . 162 12 SPACE EVENT PROCESSING . 163 Space Events . 163 Responding to Space Events . 164 Conclusion . 165 Notes . 165 13 US SPACE-BASED INTELLIGENCE, SURVEILLANCE, AND RECONNAISSANCE (ISR) . 167 ISR and Space Systems . 167 Imagery Intelligence . 168 Signals Intelligence . 174 Measurement and Signature Intelligence . 179 Notes . 180 14 SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS . 183 Satellite Communications Basics . 184 Current Military Satellite Communications Enterprise . 186 Commercial SATCOM Systems . 192 Future Military SATCOM Systems . 193 Notes . 197 15 WEATHER/ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES . 201 Why Do We Need Weather/Environmental Satellites? . 201 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program . 202 NOAA Polar Operational Environmental Satellites. 209 NASA Earth Observing System . 210 Civil/Foreign Geostationary Weather Satellites . 211 National Polar-Orbiting Environmental Satellite System . 212 Notes . 213 v CONTENTS Chapter Page 16 NAVSTAR GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM . 217 Missions . 217 GPS Segments . 218 Limitations and Vulnerabilities . 220 Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures . 223 Modernization . 224 Notes . 226 17 MISSILE WARNING SYSTEMS . 227 Space-Based Warning Sensors . 227 Theater Missile Warning . 229 Ground-Based Warning Sensors . 232 Summary . 232 Notes . 232 18 INTERCONTINENTAL BALLISTIC MISSILES (ICBM) . 235 Origins of ICBMs . 235 ICBM Characteristics . 235 Reentry Vehicles . 236 Nuclear Weapons Effects . 237 ICBM Development in the United States . 240 US Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles . 245 Notes . 248 19 SPACE SURVEILLANCE NETWORK (SSN) . 249 SSN Radar Sensor Systems . 249 Optical Sensor Systems. 250 Space Object Identification . 250 Space Surveillance Network Sensor Missions . 251 Space Surveillance . 256 Summary . 257 Notes . 258 20 SPACE-LIFT SYSTEMS. 259 Unmanned Boosters . 259 Manned Boosters—The Space Transportation System . 266 Future Space Lift . 269 Notes . 271 21 SPACE SYSTEM THREATS. 273 Ground Segment Threats . 273 Communications (Link) Segment Threats . 274 Space Segment Threats . 276 Nuclear Threat . 279 Conclusion . 280 Notes . 281 vi CONTENTS Chapter Page 22 SPACECRAFT DESIGN, STRUCTURE, AND OPERATIONS . 283 Structures Subsystem . 283 Thermal Control Subsystem . 285 Electrical Power Subsystem. 288 Attitude Control Subsystem . 293 Notes . 297 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . 299 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 319 vii Foreword The US National Space Policy released by the president in 2006 states that the US government should “develop space professionals.” As an integral part of that endeavor, AU-18, Space Primer, provides to the joint war fighter an unclassified resource for understanding the capabilities, organizations, and operations of space forces. Historically, the United States has been a world leader in space exploration and use. In 2001, the Commission to Assess United States National Security Space Management and Organization unanimously concluded “that the security and well being of the United States, its allies, and friends depend on the nation’s ability to operate in space.”1 Recent conflicts and world events continuously demonstrate the importance of space assets and capabilities to our security functions. Our navigation satellites provide instant pin- point positional and targeting information to aircraft, ground forces, ships, and com- mand centers. These same satellites provide a precise timing source around the world that is critical to maintaining infrastructures, including financial institutions, power grids, cell phones, and even our cable and satellite TV. Communications satellites pro- vide global connectivity between all levels of our national security infrastructure. Weather satellites report meteorological data, better than ever before, in near real time directly to forces in theater. Early warning satellites detect and report missile launches and serve as both strategic and tactical theater warning. These same early warning satellites serve to cue the integrated missile defense system. Finally, the US government conducts satellite photo reconnaissance that includes near-real-time capability, over- head signals intelligence collection, and overhead measurement and signature intelli- gence collection, which contribute directly to the success of our war fighters. This primer is a useful tool both for individuals who are not “space aware”—unac- quainted with space capabilities, organizations, and operations—and for those who are “space aware,” especially individuals associated with the space community, but not fa- miliar with space capabilities, organizations, and operations outside.
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