AIR UNIVERSITY SPACE PRIMER Air University Maxwell AFB, AL August 2003 TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD Chapter 1 - SPACE HISTORY ................................................................................................1-1 Chapter 2 - U.S. MILITARY SPACE ORGANIZATIONS....................................2-1 Chapter 3 - SPACE OPERATIONS & TACTICAL APPLICATION -U.S. NAVY...........................................................................................................................................................3-1 Chapter 4 - SPACE OPERATIONS & TACTICAL APPLICATION -U.S. ARMY..........................................................................................................................................................4-1 Chapter 5 - SPACE LAW, POLICY AND DOCTRINE.........................................5-1 APPENDIX D - DOD Space Policy Chapter 6 - SPACE ENVIRONMENT................................................................................6-1 Chapter 7 - TERRESTRIAL-SOLAR ENVIRONMENT AND EFFECTS ON MANNED SPACEFLIGHT.........................................................................................................7-1 Chapter 8 - ORBITAL MECHANICS.................................................................................8-1 APPENDIX C - Distance Conversion Factors Table C-1 LEO Altitude vs Period Table C-2 MEO Altitude vs Period Table C-3 HEO Altitude vs Period Table C-4 Distance Conversion Factor Table C-5 Distance Conversion Factor Table C-6 Distance Conversion Factor Chapter 9 - U.S. SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEMS ............................................................9-1 Chapter 10 - SPACECRAFT DESIGN, STRUCTURE AND OPERATIONS ...........................................................................................................................................................................10-1 Chapter 11 - U.S. SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS..............11-1 Chapter 12 - MULTISPECTRAL IMAGERY ..............................................................12-1 Chapter 13 - WEATHER/ENVIRONMENTAL SATELLITES.......................13-1 Chapter 14 - U.S. SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS................................13-1 AU Space Primer 23/07/2003 i Chapter 15 - MISSILE WARNING SYSTEMS............................................................15-1 Chapter 16 - SPACE EVENT PROCESSING ...............................................................16-1 Chapter 17 - U.S. MISSILE SYSTEMS..............................................................................17-1 Chapter 18 - REST-OF-WORLD SATELLITE SYSTEMS................................18-1 Chapter 19 - REST-OF-WORLD MISSILE SYSTEMS ........................................19-1 Chapter 20 - REST-OF-WORLD SPACE LAUNCH SYSTEMS .....................20-1 Chapter 21 - SPACE SURVEILLANCE THEORY and NETWORK .........21-1 Chapter 22 - SPACE SYSTEMS SURVIVABILITY................................................22-1 APPENDIX A - Annex N - Space APPENDIX B - Space Glossary & Acronyms AU Space Primer 23/07/2003 ii Foreword Over the last 50 years our military space activities have rested on an information-centric spacepower theory. The distinct advantages the medium of space provides for the collection and dissemination of information are reflected in our space policy, capabilities, and warfighting operational concepts. The importance of space, however, is no longer limited to the military domain. Weather and imagery satellite information, satellite communications, space launch, and even turn- key space systems are all commodities available in the commercial market to those willing to pay. The Global Positioning System could be considered the first true global utility; a GPS hand-held receiver can provide free unlimited world-wide access to precision navigation and timing information. As our national security and that of our allies becomes increasingly reliant on space systems as a means to generate wealth, power, and influence; their significance as critical capabilities continues to increase. History shows us that military operations become necessary to protect vital national interests. The global availability of space capabilities makes it incumbent upon civilian and military leaders to have a broader knowledge of the capabilities, limitations, and vulnerabilities of space systems and the medium in which they operate. The Air University Space Primer is intended to be a reference source to help with that task. As with any published work, the material immediately dates itself, thus at times becoming less relevant. This primer was prepared with the intent of imparting an educational framework to build upon rather than current and specific facts that often change quickly. We hope the reader will learn principles and be stimulated in thought, rather than struggle with errata induced by rapid changes. For further information on this publication, call Mr Allen Sexton at DSN 493-2177 (commercial: (334) 953-2177) or Mr Brent Marley at DSN 493-6041 (commercial: (334) 953-6041). JAMES G. (Sam) LEE Colonel, USAF Air University Space Chair Maxwell AFB, AL August 2003 Chapter 1 SPACE HISTORY Few events in our history have been more significant than the dawn of the space age. This chapter will discuss early space pioneers, the space race, the manned space programs, the formation of NASA and some of the first satellites ever launched into orbit above the earth. EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN ROCKETRY Dr. Robert Goddard, commonly referred to as “The Father of Modern No one really knows when the first Rocketry,” is responsible for the advent rocket was created; however, most of space exploration in the United States. historians agree that the Chinese were the He achieved most of the American first to produce a rocket around 1212 AD. accomplishments in rocket science in a This first rocket was essentially a solid somewhat autonomous effort. In 1909, fuel arrow powered by gunpowder, which he began his study of liquid propellant was also invented by the Chinese rockets and in 1912, he proved that sometime around 800 AD. These very rockets would work in a vacuum such as early rockets contained black powder, or exists in space. The year 1919 brought something similar, as the propellant the end of World War I as well as the (fuel). According to legend, a man publication of Dr. Goddard’s book, A named Wan Hu made the first attempt to Method of Attaining Extreme Altitude. build a rocket powered vehicle in the This document laid the theoretical early 1500s. He attached 47 rockets to a foundation for future American rocket cart and at a given signal, 47 workers developments. simultaneously lit all of the rockets. In On 16 March 1926 in Auburn, the ensuing explosion, the entire vehicle Massachusetts, Dr. Goddard made history disappeared in a cloud of smoke and Wan as the first person to launch a liquid- Hu was never seen in this world again. fueled rocket. The strange looking vehicle covered a ground distance of 184 The principles by which rockets feet in 2.5 seconds and rose to an altitude operated were not understood until the of 41 feet while achieving a speed of 60 late 1800s when man began thinking mph. In 1929, Goddard launched an about using rockets for the transportation improved version that was the first rocket of people. Up to this point, rockets had to contain weather instruments. This been used in warfare in a limited vehicle rose to a maximum altitude of 90 capacity. For example, rockets were used feet and provided some of the earliest by the British during the War of 1812 weather readings from “on-board” shelling of Fort McHenry (i.e., “the sensors. rockets’ red glare”). Yet even in warfare, the rockets’ potential was not fully Dr. Goddard and Rocket Technology realized. Major advances in rocket in New Mexico technology did not occur until the early 1900s. In 1930, with financial backing from Charles Lindbergh and the Guggenheim Foundation, Dr. Goddard moved his op- eration to New Mexico where he contin- Events in America: 1909-1929 ued his work until his death in 1945. His AU Space Primer 08/22/2003 1 - 1 work centered on a number of improve- for the most significant breakthroughs in ments to his rockets, which resulted in a space technology. Members of the or- number of “firsts” in rocket science and ganization would later include rocket technology. For example, Dr. Goddard pioneers such as Dr. Von Braun. was the first to develop a gyro-control In 1925, Walter Hohmann published guidance system, gimbaled nozzles, small his book “The Attainability of Celestial high speed centrifugal pumps and vari- Bodies,” in which he defined the princi- able thrust rocket engines. All of these ples of rocket travel in space (to include technologies are used on modern rockets how to get into geosynchronous orbit). today. In recognition of Hohmann and his work Dr. Goddard’s rocket project was a in rocketry, the orbital transfer technique privately funded effort with absolutely no used to place payloads into geosynchro- government funding, aid of any sort or nous orbit is called the “Hohmann Trans- interest in his work. Notwithstanding, fer.” his accomplishments in rocketry were Johannes Winkler invented the first truly extraordinary. Meanwhile, a team of liquid propellant rocket, the HW-1. The German scientists were also interested in first launch attempt was a failure but the rocket development and their advances second launch was successful in 1931, would prove to have a devastating effect achieving an altitude of 295 feet. upon the world. Phase II Events in Germany In 1932, the National