Drug-Facilitated Rape Into Sharp Facilitating Drugs? Name for Flunitrazepam) and GHB Focus in Recent Years

Drug-FDrug-Facilitatedacilitated Rape:Rape: Looking for the Missing Pieces

by Nora Fitzgerald and K. Jack Riley c is oD t ho e: P c ur o o s t ho P about the authors ore than 430,000 sexual Nora Fitzgerald is a Social Science Analyst at the National Institute of Justice. assaults occur annually in K. Jack Riley, Ph.D., is Director of the Criminal Justice Program at RAND. Fitzgerald the United States, accord- and Riley (who at the time was Director of NIJ’s Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring program) M 1 ing to victimization surveys. Many led the Department of Justice working group that conducted the research and wrote of these assaults involve alcohol and the report upon which this article is based. drugs,2 which are often used voluntarily by both victim and offender.3,4 But in the mid- and late 1990’s, ethnographers and rape crisis cen- to recall recent events. Victims ment of Justice in response to a ters began hearing reports of drugs, may not be aware that they have request from the Attorney General often referred to as “roofies” and ingested drugs or that they have for more information about this “liquid ecstasy,” being administered been raped while under the influ- new phenomenon. (See “How This clandestinely to immobilize victims, ence of drugs.5 Reports of such Article Came to Be.”) impair their memory, and thus facil- assaults and increases in the recre- itate rape. Two drugs in particular ational consumption of the drugs were mentioned in these reports: used in these assaults have brought What Are Rape- Rohypnol (the pharmaceutical trade drug-facilitated rape into sharp Facilitating Drugs? name for flunitrazepam) and GHB focus in recent years. Sexual assault victims who believe (gamma-hydroxybutyrate). This article summarizes findings drugs were surreptitiously given to These drugs can produce loss of about drug-facilitated rape learned them typically report remembering consciousness and the inability by researchers at the U.S. Depart- sensations of drunkenness that do not correspond with the amounts of alcohol consumed, unexplained gaps in memory, altered levels of How This Article Came to Be consciousness, and unexplainable signs of physical trauma. The most In December 1997, the U.S. Attorney The investigation then turned to a number commonly implicated drugs are General directed the Department of of other data sources representing differ- Rohypnol and GHB. Justice to assess the problems posed ent perspectives: ethnographers, the print Rohypnol, or flunitrazepam, by drugs being used to facilitate rape. media, Internet-based data, law enforce- belongs to a class of drugs called A working group chaired by NIJ Director ment, victim advocates, policymakers, benzodiazepines and is approved Jeremy Travis and representatives from and the pharmaceutical industry. The for use in 80 countries, but not in several other Justice Department agencies search uncovered a considerable amount the United States or Canada. It is began meeting regularly to structure the of conflicting information amid differing available only in pill form, is taste- inquiry and review progress. viewpoints. less, odorless, and colorless, and dis- The group’s overarching objective was to The working group learned a great deal solves to some degree in liquid. assess the state of knowledge about drug- from its investigation but could draw no Benzodiazepines are used primarily facilitated rape and report back to the conclusions beyond a clear recognition to produce sedation, sleep, or mus- Attorney General within several months. that the incidence of this offense is extra- cle relaxation; to reduce seizures and ordinarily difficult to measure, that exist- The group’s first step was to determine anxiety; and to produce anterograde ing indicators are incapable of monitoring how often drug-facilitated rape occurs. amnesia, a desired effect for some the problem, and that the true magnitude There are no national statistics for this surgical procedures. Anterograde of the problem cannot be known with cer- offense (such as would be provided by amnesia is a condition in which tainty from the scientific methods that the Uniform Crime Reports, the National events that occurred during the time have been used to date. Criminal Victimization Survey, or the the drug was in effect are forgotten, National Judicial Reporting Program), To learn how to obtain a copy of the full in contrast to retrograde amnesia, in so the group conducted a thorough review report, see “For More Information” on which events prior to the interven- of other, nonnational-level research. This page 15. ing agent are forgotten. search revealed that no empirical data Rohypnol mentally and physically exist to answer the question. incapacitates an individual, particularly when used in combination

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ April 2000 9 and currently is being tested for In 1998, Texas’ statewide student Description of treatment of narcolepsy as well as survey, which uses the same meth- alcohol addiction and withdrawal odology and many of the same Data Sources (with mixed results) in Europe and items as MTF, found that 1.3 to 2.1 the United States.6 percent of Texas students in grades Monitoring the Future (MTF): This ongoing 8 to 12 reported use of Rohypnol survey of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders uses a during the school year.9 Later in national probability sample. Sponsored by How Common Is 1998, Pulse Check reported that the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Visit Drug-Facilitated Rohypnol was in use in Florida, http://www.monitoringthefuture.org. Rape? Hawaii, Minnesota, and Texas. Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN): No one really knows how common Mention of widespread recreational DAWN records instances of emergency drug-facilitated rape is because use of GHB only recently has been room visits and deaths related to particular today’s research tools do not offer reported by CEWG in December drugs. Sponsored by the Substance a means of measuring the number 1997. In winter 1998, Pulse Check Abuse and Mental Health Services Admin- of incidents. However, recent find- reported use of GHB in many urban istration. Visit http://www.samhsa.gov and ings from ethnographic research areas. http://www.health.org/pubs/dawn/index.htm. and school-based surveys can pro- The Drug Abuse Warning Network Community Epidemiology Working vide insight into the voluntary use (DAWN) also has captured informa- Group (CEWG): This ethnographic reporting of these drugs. tion about GHB because of over- system, in place in 21 metropolitan areas, Flunitrazepam first appeared in doses. The Drug Enforcement supplements findings from national early warning ethonographic sys- Administration has documented drug data systems. Sponsored by the tems in December 1993, when it approximately 650 overdoses and National Institute on Drug Abuse. Visit was reported among Miami high 20 deaths related to GHB. MTF http://www.nida.nih.gov. school students. added questions about GHB to its Pulse Check: This ethnographic reporting year 2000 survey. By 1995, the Community Epidem- system covers 20 metropolitan areas. iology Working Group (CEWG) Available law enforcement statistics Sponsored by the White House’s Office found that use of Rohypnol was on seizures and trafficking (pri- of National Drug Control Policy. Visit spreading in Florida and Texas. marily from the Drug Enforcement http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov. Pulse Check reported Rohypnol use Administration) tend to corroborate was rising, particularly among youth the ethnographic and survey data. and young adults. Ethnographers in Ethnographic measures may not Florida and Texas reported that represent the true scale of the drugs’ with alcohol, and is capable of local law enforcement agents were use, however, and more rigorous producing anterograde amnesia. seizing more Rohypnol tablets, scientific measures have not been often still in the manufacturer’s GHB, a drug first synthesized in in place long enough to give packaging. the 1920’s, occurs naturally in the researchers the ability to project human body in minute amounts. It In 1996, Monitoring the Future accurate trends. was under development as an anes- (MTF) began tracking Rohypnol. In Another factor complicating sci- thetic agent in the late 1950’s and 1999, MTF found that 0.5 percent of ence’s ability to measure the inci- early 1960’s, but no commercial 8th graders and 1.0 percent of 10th dence and prevalence of these drugs products were developed from and 12th graders had reported using is the lack of law enforcement evi- these efforts. Until the FDA banned Rohypnol in 1998, a level slightly dence. Investigations of suspected the drug in 1990, it was available below those found a year earlier.7 drug-facilitated assaults often turn through health food stores and mar- Such rates appear low in compari- out to be inconclusive because many keted as both a sleep aid and as a son to marijuana or amphetamine victims do not seek assistance until body-building supplement. Several use, but they are not trivial—10th hours or days later, in part because vendors distributed products con- and 12th graders report similar the drugs have impaired recall and taining GHB under trade names levels of heroin use.8 in part because victims may not rec- such as “Gamma Hydrate” and In 1997, Pulse Check noted that ognize the signs of sexual assault. By “Somatomax PM.” although Rohypnol continued to the time they do report a suspected GHB is marketed in some European be available in Florida and Texas, assault, conclusive forensic evidence countries as an adjunct to anesthesia distribution had slowed. may have been lost. Even when

Drug-Facilitated Rape: Looking for the Missing Pieces 10 victims do suspect a drug-facilitated policies below and in the sidebar increasingly so, because these drugs rape and seek help immediately, law “Learning From Victims.”) are cheap, easy to share, and easy to enforcement agencies may not know hide. Use appears to be concentrated To add more complexity to the puz- how to collect evidence appropriate- among populations that also are at zle, school-based surveys seem to ly or how to test urine using the the highest risk of sexual assault, suggest that Rohypnol and GHB sensitive method required. (See including middle school, high are consumed voluntarily, perhaps further discussion of investigation school, and college-age students.

Learning From Victims

by Gail Abarbanel, LCSW what was done to them, who partici- professional literature or in news pated, or how many people were coverage about rape drugs or drug- Gail Abarbanel is the director of the present while they were unconscious. facilitated sexual assaults. Victims Rape Treatment Center (RTC) at Some could remember brief, inter- were a crucial source of information. Santa Monica–UCLA Medical Center. mittent periods of awakening, during Their reports helped define this Established in 1974, the RTC has which they were aware of their sur- emerging crime pattern by identifying treated more than 20,000 sexual roundings but were unable to move the characteristics of these crimes assault victims. The RTC’s informa- or speak. They felt “paralyzed.” One that distinguished them from other tional materials on drug-facilitated victim said, “I came to and saw this sexual assaults. rape are distributed throughout the guy on top of me about to rape me, United States. In addition, the problems victims but I couldn’t move my arms or legs. encountered suggested an urgent In late 1995, the Rape Treatment Then I passed out again.” need for a comprehensive, broad- Center at Santa Monica–UCLA It was apparent to the staff at the based community response, includ- Medical Center began to see a Rape Treatment Center that some ing new protocols for hospitals, new pattern in sexual assault cases. rapists were using a powerful new police departments, and crime labs; Victims were coming in who believed weapon to overpower, disable, and updated rape evidence kits; training they had been drugged surreptitiously control their victims. for police officers, prosecutors, to incapacitate them for the purpose rape crisis centers, and other victim of sexually assaulting them. Many of When victims began to report these service providers; public policy and these cases followed a similar pat- crimes to the authorities, their cases legislative reforms; research; and tern. Victims were in what seemed often were dismissed. One victim was public education and prevention like a comfortable social environ- told, “He has his memory, you don’t programs. ment, such as a restaurant, party, or have yours. There’s no evidence. club. Unbeknownst to them, someone The case is closed.” What Victims Have slipped a drug into their drink. As In many instances, crucial physical Taught Us they consumed the drink, they began evidence was never gathered from to feel disoriented or sick. The next How Rape Drugs Facilitate Sexual victims or crime scenes. For exam- thing they remembered was waking Assaults. Rape drugs make it ple, even when sexual assault up hours later, sometimes in a relatively easy for rapists to gain evidentiary examinations were different location. control of their victims. Perpetrators conducted, urine specimens needed do not have to overcome any form of When they regained consciousness, to detect traces of the drugs were resistance. They do not have to use some victims were unsure if they had omitted because, in most jurisdic- physical force. They do not have to been sexually assaulted. Others found tions, urine samples were not threaten to harm the victim to get signs that they had been: They were routinely included in standardized compliance. Nor do they have to be undressed; they had semen stains on rape kits. As a result of these concerned about a victim’s screams their bodies and/or clothing; they had deficiencies, many victims felt attracting attention. The drugs they vaginal or anal trauma, such as sore- revictimized by the agencies that administer immobilize and silence ness and/or lacerations. All of these were supposed to help them. the victim. victims reported significant memory When these cases initially appeared, impairment. Most could not recall there was little information in the (continued on page 12)

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ April 2000 11 Learning From Victims (continued from page 11)

How Victims are Prevented From transporting a vulnerable person to a they suffered. One victim was told, Detecting Threats to Their Safety. safe place. “You’re lucky you can’t remember, Victims of these crimes do not sense you won’t suffer as much as other How Rape Drugs Affect Reporting any threat to their safety when the victims.” For all rape victims, the Patterns. Victimization surveys assailant is incapacitating them. loss of control experienced during consistently indicate very low report- The “weapon” used to overpower an assault is profoundly traumatic. In ing rates among rape victims. Delayed and disable them is invisible. It is drug-facilitated rapes, the additional reports also are common, particularly hidden in a drink. deprivation of cognition during the in acquaintance rapes. The reasons assault, combined with anterograde How Victims are Inhibited From are well documented in the literature. amnesia afterwards, subjects the Exercising Self-Defense. The ability In drug-facilitated rapes, additional victim to an extreme form of power- to sense danger is critical to a per- factors may account for low and lessness. son’s ability to implement self-defense delayed reporting, including the strategies. When faced with the threat immediate and residual effects of the How Drugging Is a Unique Form of being raped, most people employ drugs (the victim may be unconscious of Trauma. Many of the difficulties one or more protective measures, for several hours after the assault and victims face in the aftermath of these such as verbally negotiating with the may have hangover effects after assaults are due to the effects of the assailant, cognitively assessing their regaining consciousness); feelings drugs given by offenders. The surrepti- options, screaming, stalling, attempt- of guilt or self-blame because of prior tious drugging of a victim is, in and of ing to escape, and/or physically resist- voluntary ingestion of alcohol and/or itself, a cruel and criminal violation of ing. If these efforts fail to prevent the drugs; confusion and uncertainty about the person. Some victims describe rape, victims may “fight back” in other what happened; and reluctance to this aspect of the trauma as “mind ways. They may use their sensory and make an accusation without personal rape.” The drugging should be recog- cognitive abilities to memorize details knowledge or memory of the assault nized as a separate and distinct act of about the assailant’s physical charac- circumstances. victimization in addition to any other teristics, the location of the crime, and acts of abuse and degradation to How Victims’ Inability to Recall other factors that can later be used to which the victim was subjected. What Happened Affects the aid authorities in apprehending and System’s Response. Many aspects How Being Unable to Forget prosecuting the offender. of a rape investigation are facilitated Compares With Being Unable to The incapacitating effects of rape by a victim’s ability to describe what Remember. In the aftermath of rape, drugs rob victims of their ability to happened. The victim’s narrative helps most victims suffer acute stress disor- use these coping strategies. One guide the medical/evidentiary exami- der and post-traumatic stress disorder victim said, “Rape is never a fair nation and the police investigation. symptoms. One of the most disturbing fight, but I didn’t even have a In addition, it may be an important symptoms is their inability to forget chance to defend myself.” consideration in prosecutor filing deci- what happened. The trauma is reexpe- sions and judgments about credibility. rienced repeatedly. Victims commonly How Rapists Can Appear to Be When victims of drug-facilitated rapes have recurrent, intrusive recollections Rescuers. When victims are drugged cannot give a complete narrative, they of the rape, including thoughts, flash- in places where other people are pre- often encounter suspicion, disbelief, backs, and nightmares. For victims of sent, such as restaurants, clubs, bars, and/or frustration. Their inability to drug-facilitated rapes, this aspect of and parties, the rapist may appear to supply information that could assist the aftermath may be experienced bystanders and witnesses to be a res- the investigation and/or prosecution differently. Because they cannot recall cuer. The behavioral effects of rape compounds their sense of helpless- what happened during a significant drugs look very much like the effects ness. time period, they have to cope with a of voluntary alcohol consumption. To gap in their memory. They experience onlookers, the victim may seem drunk. How People Misjudge and Minimize the horror, powerlessness, and humili- When the rapist carries or leads the Victims’ Trauma. Because most vic- ation of not knowing what was done to victim to another location where the tims of drug-facilitated rapes have no them. They can only imagine what sexual assault will be committed, memory of the sexual assault, people happened. One victim said, “I would he may be viewed as “helping” or may mistakenly minimize the trauma rather have the nightmare.”

Drug-Facilitated Rape: Looking for the Missing Pieces 12 members included the Rape Treat- ment Center at Santa Monica– Drug-facilitated rape may be initiated UCLA Medical Center, the Los Angeles County District Attorney’s Office, the Los Angeles Police in social settings, like parties and clubs, Department, and the County of Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department not traditionally considered high-risk crime labs.

environments. Prevention strategies must What Are the Implications for consider reaching new audiences, such as Decisionmakers? Practices and strategies to reduce bartenders, party hosts, cab drivers, and sexual assault may help reduce drug-facilitated sexual assault, but others who might frequent places where there are unique aspects to drug- facilitated rape that demand tailored drug-facilitated rapes are initiated or strategies. Environment Within Which the who might see the victim immediately Crime Occurs. Drug-facilitated rape may be initiated in social set- prior to the assault. tings, like parties and clubs, not traditionally considered high-risk environments. Prevention strategies must consider reaching new audiences, such as bartenders, party The good news is that public aware- President signed similar legislation hosts, cab drivers, and others who ness about the drugs and their related to GHB. might frequent places where drug- effects appears to be increasing. The Office for Victims of Crime facilitated rapes are initiated or who (OVC) within the Department of might see the victim immediately What Is Being Done Justice currently is providing train- prior to the assault. to Reduce Drug- ing and technical assistance for a Education of Targeted Facilitated Rape? model program designed to pro- Audiences. Educational programs mote promising practices in sexual need to be targeted to high-risk Although current measuring assault medical evidentiary exams. populations—high school and methods do not reveal exactly how The program, which promotes college-age people and people who widespread drug-facilitated rape is, the use of specially trained sexual frequent nightclubs and resorts— research does make it clear that the assault nurse examiners, has rather than to more general risk is real. developed a guide that addresses audiences. the issues of drug-facilitated rape, Since reports of drug-facilitated with specific information and Investigation Policies. The most rape first started appearing, policy- guidance regarding comprehensive numerous implications relate to makers at the Federal level have drug testing and an exam protocol. forensic and investigation practices. moved to address the situation. One step was to improve enforcement at National and local victim service ■ Interviewing Techniques. the U.S.-Mexican border of the ban organizations have responded to the Drug-facilitated rape cases on importation of flunitrazepam. situation by developing campaigns require interview techniques Then in October 1996, President to raise awareness. A Los Angeles that can help identify a sexual Clinton signed the Drug-Induced County task force developed a rape assault case when the victim Rape Prevention and Punishment kit and procedures designed to has memory gaps around the Act, which provides harsh penalties improve the way evidence is gath- incident or isn’t aware of being for distribution or possession of flu- ered in suspected cases of drug- raped. When an interviewer sus- nitrazepam. In February 2000, the facilitated rape. The task force pects the victim has ingested a

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ April 2000 13 rape drug, the victim should be substances were produced or Where Do We Go asked to provide both urine and stored, and any vehicle used to From Here? blood samples using established transport the victim. timeframes and guidelines for Only four substantial studies of the Investigators should be trained collection and preservation of prevalence and incidence of drug- to look for specific types of forensic evidence. facilitated rape were under way in evidence that have been present late 1999 when this article was pre- In addition, even though the in other cases. Drug-related pared, but none will provide an victim’s memory of the assault evidence may be found in the accurate measure of the situation. may be extremely limited, con- glasses from which the victim Three do not interview victims sent should be obtained to con- drank, containers used to mix and therefore cannot factor in duct a thorough and complete drinks, and trash cans where recreational use of Rohypnol or medical/evidentiary examina- these items were discarded. In GHB. The fourth, a study by the tion. Oral, anal, and vaginal one case, traces of GHB were University of Cincinnati and funded samples should be taken even found in the box of salt that was by NIJ, asks victims specifically if when there is no visible trauma. used to make margaritas. GHB someone has ever placed Rohypnol is often carried in small bottles, ■ Importance of a Urine Speci- in a beverage but does not link the such as eye drop bottles. It is men. Rape drugs are more likely responses to sexual assault victim- often administered in sweet to be detected in urine than in izations or recreational use. drinks, such as fruit nectars and blood, and the urine specimen liqueurs, to mask its salty taste. To understand more about drug- should be collected as soon as facilitated rape, a research agenda possible. This can be done prior Recipes for making GHB may be should include the following: to commencement of the law found on an offender’s comput- enforcement interview and the er. In several cases, rapists who ■ Expansion of existing Federal forensic medical examination. used drugs to incapacitate their data systems to provide infor- Appropriate measures should victims also photographed or mation on drug-facilitated rape. be implemented to ensure that videotaped them. These pictures The National Crime Victimiza- other potential evidence, such led to the identification of addition Survey may be an appro- as sperm or semen, is protected tional victims of the same priate means for collecting when urine specimens are offenders. population-based information collected. on the incidence of this offense. ■ Rape Evidence Kits. Standard- Law enforcement personnel, ized rape kits should be updated ■ Collection of new data in the who are often the “first respon- to include instructions and fields of pharmacology and ders,” should be aware of the containers for the collection offender profiling. importance of urine specimens of urine specimens as well as ■ Ethnographic studies to develop in these cases. Victims should be blood in all cases in which drug- transported immediately for a better understanding of the facilitated rape is suspected. In nature of this offense, including medical care. If the victim must jurisdictions that do not have a urinate before arriving at a med- the most likely victims and the standardized rape kit, a multi- risk factors for victimization. ical care facility, the urine speci- agency task force composed of men should be saved in a clean police officers, prosecutors, hos- ■ A major multiyear, multimethod container and brought to the pital personnel, crime lab tech- research initiative structured as medical facility. The chain of nicians, and rape crisis coun- four separate studies designed to custody should be documented. selors should develop one and measure the incidence of drug- ■ Crime Scene Evidence. The monitor compliance. A forensic facilitated rape among suspected crime scene also should be laboratory with the capability cases, within the general popula- secured and examined immedi- of conducting toxicology tests tion, among high-risk popula- ately or critical evidence may should be identified because not tions, and in the context of be irretrievably lost. Drug- all crime labs have the special- acquaintance rape. facilitated rape cases may involve ized equipment needed to test ■ Funding for development of multiple crime scenes, for exam- for rape drugs. Procedures new drug detection technolo- ple, the location of the drugging, should be implemented to gies, such as hair analysis the location of the sexual preserve the chain of custody methods. assault, locations where illegal of the evidence.

Drug-Facilitated Rape: Looking for the Missing Pieces 14 Some of the ethnographic and newspaper reporting on Rohypnol For More Information and GHB, which the Department of Justice working group tracked, has ■ Fitzgerald, N., K.J. Riley, T. Alston, C. Mamalian, M. Mendez, A. Resnick, B. Taylor, and been driven in part by sporadic J. Wiseman, Report to the Attorney General From the Drug-Facilitated Rape Working signs of increased recreational use Group, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1998 and overdoses. But the more impor- (NCJ 181396). To obtain a copy, contact the National Criminal Justice Reference Service tant impetus for further study at P.O. Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849–6000, 1–800–851–3420. appears to be reports from people ■ Nora Fitzgerald, Social Science Analyst, National Institute of Justice, 810 Seventh Street who turn to rape counseling centers NW., Washington, D.C. 20531, 202–305–1547, [email protected]. and clinics with complaints and suspicions that they have been ■ The National Institute on Drug Abuse’s party drugs Web site: http://www.clubdrugs.org. victimized. ■ Anglin, D., K.L. Spears, and H. Range Hutson, “Flunitrazepam and Its Involvement in NCJ 181731 Date or Acquaintance Rape,” Journal of Academic Emergency Medicine 4(4) (1997).

■ Notes Calhoun, S.R., D.R. Wesson, G.P. Galloway, and D.E. Smith, “Abuse of Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) and Other Benzodiazepines in Austin and South Texas,” Journal of 1. Perkins, Craig, and Patsy Klaus, Psychoactive Drugs 28(2) (April–June 1996). Criminal Victimization 1994, ■ Inciardi, J.A., and C.A. Saum, “Rohypnol Misuse in the United States,” Journal of National Crime Victimization Substance Use and Misuse 32(6):723 (1997). Survey Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of ■ Woods, J.H., and Gail Winger, “Abuse Liability of Flunitrazepam,” Journal of Clinical Justice, Bureau of Justice Psychopharmacology 17,(3) (June 1997), Supp. 2. Statistics, April 1996 (NCJ 158022). The number of rapes reported on victimization sur- 74 percent of male student Patients,” Journal of Substance veys, however, differs widely perpetrators self-reported using Abuse Treatment, 14(2):149–154 from the number reported to alcohol immediately before the (March 1997). the police. In 1996, 95,770 assault. See Koss, Mary, “Hidden 7. Conversation with Lloyd John- forcible rapes were reported to Rape: Sexual Aggression and ston, Principal Investigator the police, representing approxi- Victimization in a National of Monitoring the Future, mately 28 percent of the number Sample of Students in Higher University of Michigan, Institute of rape victims reported in the Education,” in Ann W. Burgess for Social Research, January 1, National Crime Victimization (ed.) Rape and Sexual Assault, 2000. Survey. vol. II, NY: Garland Publishing, 2. Levine, E.M., and E.J. Kanin, 1988. 8. Among 10th graders, 1.4 percent reported heroin use in 1998; “Sexual Violence Among Dates 5. Calhoun, S.R., D.R. Wesson, 1.1 percent of 12th graders and Acquaintances: Trends and G.P. Galloway, and D.E. Smith, reported heroin use in that Their Implications for Marriage “Abuse of Flunitrazepam same year. and Family,” Journal of Family (Rohypnol) and Other Violence 2(1):55–65 (1987). Benzodiazepines in Austin 9. Among Hispanic students, the 3. Richardson, D.R., and G.S. and South Texas,” Journal of rates increase from 1.9 to 3.5 Hammock, “Alcohol and Psychoactive Drugs, 28(2) percent. In one school district Acquaintance Rape,” in (April–June 1996). on the Texas-Mexico border, 14 percent of the students reported A. Parrot and L. Bechhofer 6. “Gamma Hydroxy Butyrate ever having used Rohypnol, and (eds.), Acquaintance Rape: The Use—New York and Texas, 5.3 percent reported using it in Hidden Crime, New York: John 1995–1996,” Morbidity and the past month. See Maxwell, Wiley and Sons, 1991, 83–95. Mortality Weekly Report, J.C., and L.Y. Liu, 1998 Texas 46(13):281–283 (April 4, 1997). 4. A national survey based on a School Survey of Substance Use Rosen, M.I., H.R. Pearsall, S.W. sample of students in higher Among Students: Grades 7–12, Woods, and T.R. Costen, “Effects education showed that 55 per- Texas Commission on Alcohol of Gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid cent of female student victims and Drug Abuse, 1999. of acquaintance rape and (GHB) in Opioid-Dependent

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ April 2000 15