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Trans. JSASS Aerospace Tech. Japan Vol. 12, No. ists29, pp. Tk_49-Tk_55, 2014

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Tanpopo: Exposure and Micrometeoroid Capture Experiments — Proposed Experiments at the Exposure Facility of ISS-JEM

1) 1) 2) 2) 3) By Akihiko YAMAGISHI , Shin-ichi YOKOBORI , Hirofumi HASHIMOTO , Hajime YANO , Masumi HIGASHIDE , 2) 4) 5) 6) 7) Makoto TABATA , Eiichi IMAI , Hikaru YABUTA , Kensei KOBAYASHI and Hideyuki KAWAI

1) Department of Molecular Biology, Tokyo University of Pharm. Science, Tokyo, Japan 2) Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Sagamihara, Japan 3) Innovative Technology Research Center, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tokyo, Japan 4) Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka, Japan 5) Department of Earth and Space Science, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan 6) Department of Chemistry, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan 7) Department of Physics, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan (Received June 22nd, 2013)

Tanpopo, a dandelion in Japanese, is a plant species whose seeds with floss are spread by wind. We propose this mission to examine possible interplanetary migration of microbes, and organic compounds at the Exposure Facility of Japan Experimental Module (JEM: KIBO) of the International (ISS). The Tanpopo mission consists of six subthemes: Capture of microbes in space (Subtheme 1), exposure of microbes in space (Subtheme 2), analysis of organic compounds in interplanetary dust (Subtheme 3), exposure of organic compounds in space (Subtheme 4), measurement of at the ISS (Subtheme 5), and evaluation of ultra low-density developed for the Tanpopo mission (Subtheme 6). “Sample Trays” for exposure of microbes and organic materials and “Sample Aerogel Panels” for aerogel will be launched. The trays and panels will be placed on the Exposed Experiment Handrail Attachment Mechanism (ExHAM) in the ISS. The ExHAM with trays and panels will be placed on the Exposure Facility of KIBO (JEM) with the Japanese robotic arms through the airlock of KIBO. The trays and panels will be exposed for more than one year and will be retrieved and returned to the ground for the analyses.

Key Words: Microbes, Organic Compounds, Micrometeoroid, Aerogel, Space Debris

1. Introduction conducted20-22). However, more direct results could be obtained by the intact capture experiments. It is There has been a hypothesis on the origin of life called also important to know the kind and degree of denaturation of “”1,2). According to this hypothesis, life has the complex organic compounds that are synthesized in an migrated between the Earth and other extra terrestrial extra-terrestrial area. To test the denaturation process, the objects3-5). The finding of life-like structure in a experimentally synthesized complex organic compounds in originated from Mars recalled the hypothesis. There is also a the laboratory will be exposed on ISS. possibility that the life on the Earth may have ejected from the The development of the extra-low density aerogel is an Earth by volcanic eruption or by meteorite impact. In this important subject for the micrometeoroid capture 23-24) study we have assessed the possibility of the sampling and experiments . Silica aerogel is amorphous SiO2 with analysis of debris including microbes and organic compounds. low-density. Aerogel have been used for the collection of The proposed experiment, “Tanpopo” will be introduced. artificial debris and interplanetary dust. For the proposed ISS We and other groups have been analyzing the presence of project, we developed extra-low density aerogel and will test microbes at high atmosphere using aircrafts and balloons6-12). the aerogel on ISS. The developed extra-low density aerogel Microbes have been captured by these experiments. The can be used for the next generation sample return mission in microbe-sampling experiments could be extended to lower the . Earth orbit: ISS. It is also important to test the possibility Our debris capture mission will collect many types of debris. whether the microbes ejected from the Earth may survive They will include debris of artificial objects, exhaust from ISS, during the voyage to other planets3-5, 13). We also propose the micrometeoroid, and micro particles from the Earth. Much survival test of microbes on ISS. important information will be obtained from the analysis of Another important subject on the origin of life is related to the many types of particles collected on ISS. the pre-biotic production and accumulation of organic compounds on the Earth. The extra-terrestrial and outer-solar 2. Capture of Microbes in Space (Subtheme 1) area can be the place for the pre-biotic synthesis14-19). To test the possible pre-biotic organic There is a long history of the microbe-collection compound synthesis, simulation experiments have been experiments at high altitude. Microbes have been collected at

Copyright© 2014 by the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences and ISTS. All rights reserved.

Tk_49 Trans. JSASS Aerospace Tech. Japan Vol. 12, No. ists29 (2014) the altitude from 3 to 78 km, using balloons, aircraft and fluorescence microscope. The fluorescent particles were meteorological rockets from 1936 to 19766-8). Spore forming detected in the aerogel, suggesting the microbial DNA fungi and Bacilli, and Micrococci have been isolated in these remaining on the aerogel. experiments. However, the experiments have been done before the development of modern molecular biology and only 3. Exposure of Microbes in Space (Subtheme 2) the taxonomic affiliation has been analyzed on the isolates. It is not clear how high do microbes go up. If the microbes To evaluate the possible migration of microbes between might have been present even at higher altitudes, the fact planets including the Earth and Mars, the survivability of would endorse the possibility of interplanetary migration of microbes in space must be tested. As a part of this project, we life. plan to test the survivability of microbes in space by exposure Previously, we have conducted microbe-sampling experiment. experiments using aircraft9). Microbes were isolated from the Since 1960’s, various space exposure experiments have particles collected at the altitudes from 0.8 to 12 km. The been conducted to determine the survivability of microbes and genes of the isolated microbes were analyzed. The analysis fungi during the migration in space, outside the Earth’s revealed that the isolates belong to spore formers magnetic field, which interfere with solar wind, () or (Streptomices, Bacillus and Paenibacillus) and Deinococcus in (LEO). These space exposure experiments related species 9-11). have been reviewed in Horneck et al.25). EXPOSE-E, is the species that is known to be EXPOSE-R, BIORISK and BIOMEX have been performed on most radio-resistant. Then, we have analyzed the UV ISS26-29). resistance of high altitude isolates. Two of the high In Tanpopo mission, microbes with different depth of atmosphere isolates showed the UV resistance similar to or layered cells will be exposed to the space environment. This higher than Deinococcus radiodurans. The flux of UV light at simulates different sizes of cell aggregates. Surface cells may high atmosphere is expected to be much higher than ground protect inner cells against UV, although the former might die. surface. Accordingly, it is reasonable that the microbes Dried vegetative cells of D. radiodurans and our deinococcal isolated at high atmosphere show high UV resistance 9-11). species isolated from high altitude are candidates for the space We have also conducted microbe-sampling experiments exposure experiment. In addition, terrestrial cyanobacteria and using balloons. The sampling device consists of vacuum pump the spore of eukaryotic fungi are also candidates for the space and filtration system. The air was incorporated by a vacuum exposure experiment. We are now testing survivals of these pump and passed through an ultra-membrane filter. The air microbes under the harsh environmental conditions (UV, intake was controlled by a valve placed in front of the filter. radiation, temperature, etc.) simulating ISS environment. About 10 m3 (corresponding mass at SPT) air was sampled at In our project, cells will be dried. In the space environment, the altitude from 20 to 35 km. Four strains were isolated from the cells are expected to be dried (dehydrated, in another term). the balloon sampling experiments. The results have been The cells will be dehydrated in a hole of a metal plate. The presented12). dehydrated cells will be tightly fixed in the holes on metal To extend the sampling altitude we propose the microbe plate. The cell will be exposed to the space at least for 1 year. collection experiment on ISS-JEM. The microbe/particle The cells in the metal holder of the exposure apparatus of collection on ISS needs totally different strategy. We are Tanpopo will be retrieved and will be returned for the going to use ultra low-density aerogel for the sampling analyses. experiments. If there are microbes at ISS altitude, most of We are going to three sets of exposure apparatus them are expected to have the earth orbit velocity, because the during Tanpopo mission with different exposure periods. By particles with higher or lower velocity are expected to have plotting the survival rates with different exposure time, we shorter life times in the orbit, escaping from or falling down to will be able to estimate the survival of microbes during Earth. The expected mutual velocity of the microbes against long-time space journey. In addition, exposure of dehydrated aerogel is up to 16 km/s depending on the direction of the cells with different thickness of layers will facilitate the microbe relative to the ISS movement. We have tested the evaluation of the minimum sizes of cell aggregates which can possibility of microbe sampling using a two-stage light-gas survive in space for long period. gun. Another point which has to be considered is the survival of 4. Analysis of Organic Compounds in Interplanetary microbes in the environment where the UV dose is high. The Dust Particles (Subtheme 3) single cell of microbe is not expected to survive under the high UV dose. However, if the microbes are present in the A wide variety of organic compounds have been found in mineral particles or in the aggregated particles of microbial primitive solar system bodies such as cells, there will be much higher possibility of survival. We (carbonaceous ) and . Chyba and Sagan have tested the possible survival of microbes using the clay (1992) 14) estimated that more than 100 kt of carbon had been particles containing microbial cells. The particles were delivered to the Earth in these small bodies. They could have accelerated to 4 km/s by a two-stage light-gas gun. The been an important source of carbon for the first biosphere on particles were targeted to aerogel. Microbes were stained with the early Earth. Carbonaceous chondrites contain 2 wt% total fluorescent pigment. The aerogel was inspected with a organic carbon, including a variety of compounds of

Tk_50 A. YAMAGISHI et al.: Tanpopo: Astrobiology Exposure and Micrometeoroid Capture Experiments at EF of ISS-JEM biochemical interests, represented by amino acids and nucleic they were incorporated into parental bodies of meteorites acid bases. L-enantiomeric excesses (up to 18.5%) of some and/or comets. They were again altered in the Solar System amino acids (e.g., isovaline) from several carbonaceous small bodies. IDPs seem to have been made from the small chondrites15, 30) may have a relation to of bodies, and organic compounds in IDPs were irradiated with bioorganic compounds in our biosphere. Nakamura- cosmic rays and strong solar ultraviolet light before falling to Messenger et al. (2006) has found proto-cell-like organic Earth. nanoglobules in Tagish Lake Meteorite16). Complex organic It is of interest to examine how organic compounds alter in compounds were also found in comets by the direct analysis actual space environments. There have been a great number of of the dust from Halley with mass spectrometer on experiments on radiochemical and photochemical alteration of spacecraft17). Ground-based chemical analyses of cometary organic compounds. In these experiments, either a light source dust particles returned by mission have revealed more or a radiation source was used on ground. It was shown that details of organic chemistry of Comet 81P/Wild 2 18, 30-34). free amino acids were easily decomposed after irradiation Interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) are thought to be with high-energy photons, and that their precursors such as derived from comets and/or meteorites. The contribution in hydantoin were more stable than free amino acids. exogenous delivery of organic carbon to the early Earth might Several bioorganic compounds including amino acids have have been more than those from meteorites and comets, been used in space exposure experiments such as AMINO because (i) they contains higher amounts of organic carbon (ca. Experiment in EXPOSE-R. In previous space experiments, 10%) than meteorites34), (ii) the flux of IDPs is more steady however, only free amino acids were used to evaluate stability and higher (40 x 104 t per year) than those of comets and of amino acids in space. meteorites35), and (iii) IDPs could have been decelerated We are planning to expose organic compounds on ISS-JEM during to deliver their organics intact while Exposure Facility. The exposure unit is set next to the aerogel the organics in comets and meteorites could have been unit. Here, samples such as free amino acids ( and vaporized or decomposed upon their impacts. However, the isovaline), precursors (hydantoins) and “simulated IDPs have been captured by aircrafts or on the surface of interstellar organic compounds” will be placed in the wells on Earth for the analyses. Accordingly, the IDPs so far analyzed a metal plate. The simulated interstellar organic compounds may have been damaged during the atmospheric-entry and the will be made from possible interstellar like carbon terrestrial contamination, interfering with obtaining the monoxide, and by proton irradiation24): They knowledge what kinds of organic molecules were delivered to are known to be complex precursors of amino acids. The the early Earth. Therefore, it is important to investigate the proposed setup could make it possible to irradiate samples intact organic compositions of IDPs. As a subtheme of with cosmic radiation and ultraviolet light, and could give Tanpopo project, we propose to collect IDPs at low Earth orbit, information how cometary/meteoritic organic compounds alter which will avoid the sample damage due to atmospheric entry in IDPs. These samples will be labeled with stable isotopes heating and the terrestrial contamination. The IDPs will be (13C) to avoid the possible contamination of bioorganic collected using low-density silica aerogel (0.01 g/cc)31). In a compounds during pre- and post-exposure handling. ground-based experiment capturing carbonaceous with aerogel, it has been demonstrated 6. Measurement of Space Debris at the ISS Orbit that organic carbon survived in the meteorite samples with (Subtheme 5) only a partial modification after the impact with the velocity of 4 km/s36). After collecting the IDPs and returning to the Meteoroid observation and collection have been conducted Earth, organic chemistry, isotope compositions, mineralogy to study their parent bodies in . Several types and impact-track morphology of the samples will be analyzed of analyses have been conducted on . Zodiacal dust by the state-of-art analytical techniques. cloud could be observed from the Earth surface. Cosmic spherules have been found in Antarctic ice core. Stratospheric 5. Exposure of Organic Compounds in Space (Subtheme 4) interstellar dust particles have been captured by aircraft. Meteoroid impacts have been noted on the surface of low Where did organic compounds in meteorites, comets and earth orbit (LEO) . Analysis of these particles has IDPs come from? Greenberg19) proposed the following provided information on their origin and the parental bodies. scenario. The Solar System is formed in a dense cloud However, intact and contamination-less collection of (molecular cloud). Since temperature in dense clouds is as low micrometeoroids is desired. as 10-20 K, most molecules are frozen onto surface of Measurement and modeling of debris flux have another interstellar dusts (ISDs). Such “ice mantle” of ISDs contains importance. It is important to know the debris flux to evaluate such molecules as water, , and the risk of LEO spacecraft. Debris with relatively lager sizes ammonia. When frozen mixtures simulating the ice mantle has been monitored by ground observation. Debris with were irradiated with high-energy particles or ultraviolet light, smaller sizes have been detected and analyzed on the surface amino acid precursors (molecules which give amino acids of retrieved parts of spacecraft. Retrieved spacecraft have after hydrolysis) were formed20-22). Organic molecules been analyzed in the following missions: LDEF (Long containing amino acid precursors formed in dense clouds Duration Exposure Facility, 84-90, NASA/ESA), EuReCa would be altered by cosmic rays and ultraviolet light before (European Retrievable Carrier, 92-93, ESA), HST (Hubble

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Space Telescope, 89-93, NASA/ESA), SFU (, collected depend on the face of the exposure relative to the 95-96, JAXA)37-45). Passive particle collection apparatus have direction of ISS movement. East face, which is the direction been also deployed and analyzed: Euro- (96-97, ESA), of ISS orbital, has the highest possibility of capturing debris of ODC (Orbital Debris Collector, 97-98, NASA), man-made origin. West face and space face are most suitable MPAC&SEED (02-05, 09-10, JAXA)46-48). However, the for collecting interplanetary dust. The JEM/MPAC&SEED number of debris is increasing and continuous monitoring is device was retrieved on 2010. Particles captured in the device needed. Debris flux in the ISS orbit is shown in Fig. 1. The are being analyzed now. flux was calculated by MASTER-2009 which is a debris One of the Tanpopo teams has already tested the possibility environment model produced by ESA. Debris with the size of collecting hypervelocity meteoroid by aerogel. CM2 less than 0.1 mm has high impact frequency. Though its size is Murchison powder was accelerated to be 6.2 km/s by a very small, the impact velocity can be up to 10 km/s. two-stage light-gas gun and targeted on aerogel51). The track Accordingly, the micro debris can cause critical damage to of the particle in the aerogel was inspected and the particle upon its impact. It is important to know the latest was found at the tip of the track. The thin section of the debris flux for the space utilization. particle was inspected by an electron microscope. The peripheral area of the particle consisted of amorphous nodules

1.E+03 that are typical to melting phenomena. However, crystal 1.E+02 structures were retained at the central part representing the 1.E+01 original mineral structures of the Murchison powder. The 1.E+00 result shows that it is possible to capture hypervelocity 1.EͲ01 /year)

2 meteoroid partially intact. 1.EͲ02 The aerogel tiles are going to be attached on several faces (1/m 1.EͲ03 of ExHAM that will be placed on ISS-JEM Exposure Facility. flux 

 1.EͲ04 1.EͲ05 No signal-connection is required during the whole exposure

Debris 1.EͲ06 period. After more than 1-year exposure in LEO, the trays will 1.EͲ07 be retrieved by robotic arms and sealed in the ISS pressurized 1.EͲ08 module for the Earth return. 1.EͲ09 1.EͲ06 1.EͲ05 1.EͲ04 1.EͲ03 1.EͲ02 1.EͲ01 1.E+00 1.E+01 Debrisdiameter(m) 7. Evaluation of Ultra Low-Density Aerogel Developed Fig. 1. Debris flux on the ISS orbit calculated with MASTER-2009. for the Tanpopo Mission (Subtheme 6)

The key technology for Tanpopo is the particle intact Silica aerogel is an amorphous solid with a void volume up to 99.5%. Aerogel has been widely used as optical radiators capture using aerogel. The aerogel is amorphous SiO2 with low bulk density (below 0.03 g/cm3), is optically transparent for PID (particle identification) devices in high energy and and thus most suitable for hypervelocity particle capture nuclear physics experiments, since it is optically transparent experiments. The aerogel is also an excellent thermal and has very low refractive index among solids. One of the insulator: thermal conductivity is about 0.017 W/mK. advantages of our aerogel is that it is possible to make aerogel Accordingly, aerogel is suitable for space utilization. The hydrophobic, which makes the handling easier. We have been aerogel tiles have been used for EuReCa, Euro-Mir, ODC, developing aerogel in cooperation with the High Energy MPAC&SEED, Stardust, etc, and thus can be said space Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) and Matsushita 52) proven. Electric Works, Ltd. in Japan . At present, we are able to For example, the aerogel has been used in Stardust produce aerogel at a wide range of densities i. e. 0.01-1.2 3 53) project49-50). In the Stardust project, cometary and interstellar g/cm . The aerogel that were made with our production dust were captured intact and the samples were returned for method were actually used in MPAC-SEED which was a analysis. The spacecraft was launched on 1999. Interstellar Japanese contributory experiment exposed at ISS Russian dust was collected on 2002. The cometary particles were Service Module. Because of the extremely low bulk densities, collected from the Comet Wild-2 coma during the fly-by on transparencies and thermal insulation properties, aerogel is the 2004. The samples were returned on January 2006. The most suitable medium for the nondestructive capture of particles with hypervelocity, 6.1 km/s, were successfully hypervelocity particles in space. captured. The initial analysis of the overwhelming success has In Tanpopo mission, it is important to reduce the thermal been reported. metamorphism of micro particles captured in Earth orbit upon Japanese aerogel has been also used in ISS-MPAC&SEED. impact. The key to the successful scientific analysis is the In the mission, sampling devices were launched on 2001 and performance of aerogel with extremely low densities. For this 2009 placed on the Russian Service Module and JEM of ISS purpose, we developed an aerogel with the lowest density 3 in LEO of about 400 km. In SM/MPAC&SEED, sampling (0.01 g/cm or less) in our current production method. Until devices were retrieved sequentially on 2002, 2004 and 2005. now, typical density of aerogel employed in space is 0.03 3 The sampling device was exposed on backward of ISS. On the g/cm . The density is suitable for easy mounting and handling. other hand, in JEM/MPAC&SEED, the device was exposed However, for micro particles with relative incident velocities on forward of ISS. It is known that the type of the particles over 6 km/s, the density would not be low enough for

Tk_52 A. YAMAGISHI et al.: Tanpopo: Astrobiology Exposure and Micrometeoroid Capture Experiments at EF of ISS-JEM nondestructive collection. We developed the way of installing the ultra low-density aerogel in a module. The layer of the extremely low-density aerogel for micro particle capture was cast on a base layer of higher density54). We have already succeeded in developing a monolithic aerogel block consisting of multiple layers with different densities. We have succeeded in capturing particles made of clay minerals mixed with microbes accelerated to 4.2 km/s and collided on the two-layered aerogel. We could detect DNA of the microbes after the collision, suggesting the capability of capturing ‘soft’ particles by the two-layered aerogel. Our primary purpose is to obtain information not only on meteoroids and space debris but also on migration of organic compounds and microbes through space. In addition, we aim to demonstrate the ability of the aerogel-based micro particle collecting apparatus in the space environment. Aerogel units with different density structures will be tested on ISS Japanese Experiment Module, which will extend a reach of the micro Fig. 3. Sample Tray. Twenty units are attached on a base plate. particle capture operation. Extra low-density aerogel used in Tanpopo will provide an innovative technique for planetary expedition in the future.

8. Exposure Instrument

Tanpopo mission will be carried out with the apparatus including Sample Aerogel Panels (SAP) and Sample Trays (ST). Figure 2 shows the appearance of SAP. A block of aerogel (pale blue) is contained in an SAP. SAP is made of aluminum and the front face is the mesh to hold the aerogel while leaving the maximal area for capturing the particles. SAP is designed to keep the position of a block of aerogel by Fig. 4. Cross-section of a unit of the Sample Tray. pressing the dens part of the aerogel. Front face of the SAP with a window shielded with an O-ring. Samples are is used to monitor the particles by counting the crater. Blue exposed to space vacuum through vent and filter, while the area with 10 mm diameter is the witness plate coated with filter prevents samples from being released to space. carbon nano-tube, and is used to count the particles collided SAPs and STs will be stored in a SAP container and ST on the surface. containers, respectively, and will be transferred to ISS. Each ST harbors 20 units on a base plate (Fig. 3). SAPs and STs will be attached to ExHAM and transferred to Samples of microbes and organic compounds are filled in the Exposure Facility of KIBO through the airlock at KIBO and wells of a Sample Plate (Fig. 4). Sample plate is covered will be attached to the Exposure Facility by robotic arms. After more than one-year exposure, the Tanpopo apparatus will be retrieved and will be returned to the ground for analysis.

9. Conclusions

The Tanpopo mission needs neither signals nor mechanism during the whole exposure period. The Tanpopo mission is selected as one of the second stage experiment of ISS-JEM EF. After more than 1-year exposure in LEO, the trays will be retrieved manually by robotic arms and sealed in ISS. The Tanpopo mission teams already have long experiences in bacterial analysis, organic compound analysis and micrometeoroid analysis. Accordingly, all the analytical techniques are ready. As the interface between Tanpopo apparatus and ISS-JEM EF, the Exposed Experiment Handrail Attachment Mechanism (ExHAM) has been designed. All of above requirements are Fig. 2. Sample Aerogel Panel. A block of aerogel (pale blue) is contained in the aluminum flame, of which front cover is mesh. feasible.

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