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Poisonous Herbal Plants
Md. Rageeb Md. Usman Mrs. Surekha D. Salgar Dr. Navneet Nagpal Dr. Mohammed Zuber Shaikh
EDUCREATION PUBLISHING (Since 2011) www.educreation.in
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Md. Rageeb Md. Usman (M. Pharm., FICPHS, FAPP, FSPER, FSRHCP, FRSH) Department of Pharmacognosy Smt. S.S. Patil College of Pharmacy Chopda, Maharashtra, India
Mrs. Surekha D. Salgar (M. Pharm.) Department of Pharmacognosy Smt. S.S. Patil College of Pharmacy Chopda, Maharashtra, India
Dr. Navneet Nagpal (M. Pharm., Ph.D.) Faculty of Medical, Paramedical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Khalsa University, Amritsar, Punjab, India
Dr. Mohammed Zuber Shaikh (M.Sc., Ph.D.) Department of Zoology, Senior Science College, Akkalkuwa, M.S., India
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Foreword
In this book, Mohammed Rageeb Mohammed Usman & Co-authors has generated an interesting volume on poisonous herbal plants that investigates their times past in a scholarly yet interesting manner. He conversed about numerouspertinent species, alludingto archaeological sources which are recurrent date back many centuries and more. He has prepared these old manuscripts accessible to modern reader by deciphering their antiquated historic context. This book comprises of significant upto date research on the toxicity, pharmaceutical and therapeutic utilization of poisonous herbs. This book presents a fascinating and significant discussion on poisonous plants from our historical literatures. Most of the poisonous herbs are still present in our environment. Even though today, their chief utilization is basically ornamental. The content of this book will be relished by anybody who is fond of knowing more aboutpoisonous herbs than just their name. Each poisonous plant is picturesquedescribed and vigilantlyargued in a comprehensible and intelligent approach. It is a pleasure to have been asked to write a foreword to such a readable and engaging book.
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Dr. Upendra Nagaich M.Pharm., Ph.D., FSPER Coordinator, Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University, Noida
Secretary, Society of Pharmaceutical Education & Research [SPER] [email protected]
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About The Authors
Mohammed Rageeb Mohammed Usman : B.Pharm, M.Pharm (Pharmacognosy); Pharmacist; b May 24, 1984 Kasoda (Maharashtra); Educ. North Maharashtra Univ, Jalgaon; Asst. Prof, Pharmacognosy Dept, Smt. Sharadchandrika Suresh Patil College of Pharmacy, Chopda; Having 8.5 Year Experience, Life Member: Asscn. of Pharmaceutical Teachers of India, Soc. of Pharmaceutical Education & Research (Joint Secretary, Central Br), Asscn. of Pharmacy Professionals (President, Maharashtra State Br.), Indian Hospital Pharmacists Asscn, Indian Pharmacy Graduates Asscn, Indian Pharmacists Asscn. (President, Jalgaon Br.), Research Scholar Hub (Maharashtra State Br.), Soc. of Researchers & Healthcare Professionals (President, Maharashtra State Br), Indian Pharmaceutical Asscn; Member: Indian Soc of Pharmacognosy, Asscn of Biotechnology & Pharmacy, International Natural Hygiene Soc; Assoc Editor/Editor of several professional journals and magazines; participated in more than 160 national and international conferences/symposia; publs.Books: Appraisal on Nephroprotective Herbal Plants (2014), Anti-Inflammatory and Antipyretic Activity (2015), Traditional System of Herbal Medicines (2015), Practical Hand Book on Systematic Organic Qualitative Analysis (2015), Practical Handbook on Pharmacognosy (2016), Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) in Pharmacology (2016), Standardization Techniques of Herbal Medicines (2016)-co-author; 1 book chapter; and more than 55 research papers/articles published in various national and international journals; Awards Fellowship Award 2013 (twice), 2014, 2015 (twice), Appreciation Award for Poster 2013, Young Performer Award 2013, Young Pharmacy Teacher Award 2014, Best Oral Presentation Award 2014, Young Innovative Researcher Award 2014, Appreciation Award for Oral Presentation 2014, Young Talent Award 2014 (twice), 2016, Young Pharmacist Award 2015, Young Excellent Academic Award 2016, Life Time Achievement Award 2016. Recently his Biography has been included in the renowned directory "Who's Who in the World 2016 and published in the 14h Volume, August 2016.
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Mrs. Surekha D. Salgar : Assistant professor, Department of Pharmacognosy at Smt. S. S. Patil College of Pharmacy Chopda, NMU University Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India. She completed B. Pharm. and M. Pharm. Degree from Mumbai University. She has taught Pharmacognosy for over 6 year. She Published 2 International book and efforts in research and review have led to the publication of 8 research and review paper in national and international journals. She has attended various global conferences. She is a life time member of ISP, APP, SRHCP, and RSH.
Dr. Navneet Nagpal : Assistant Professor in Faculty of Medical, Paramedical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Khalsa University, Amritsar. He is graduated at University of Rajasthan, Jaipur and qualified GATE with 322 score, Post Graduate from North Maharahtra University, Jalgaon and obtained Ph.D. from Bhagwant University, Ajmer in 2012. He has 9 years teaching experience and supervised M. Pharmacy and PhD. students. He is more than 20 publications to his credit in reputed journals of Pharmacy, presented more than 10 posters in national and international conferences and having life time memberships in reputed associations of Pharmacy field.
Dr. Mohammed Zuber Shaikh Usman : He has been awarded Ph.D degree from University of Mumbai, Mumbai. He started his carrier as a Senior Research Fellow in one of the best ICAR research Centre located in Mumbai on World Bank Funded project titled as „Climate Change Adaptation‟. He has worked as assistant professor in Sathaye College, Vile Parle (E), Mumbai. He has Presented/Participated and published many Research and Review articles in peer reviewer international journal and conferences, even He hold chairmanship in
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scientific sessions of many conferences. He published Four International book. He guide under graduate students on various research base project. Presently he is working as Head of Zoology Department, Senior Science College, Akkalkuwa, Maharashtra affiliated to North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon. He is selected as a Vice President of Society of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (SPER) & Association of Pharmacy Professional (APP) and Honor as a Life Membership of SPER & APP. He is also Expert for Poster Evaluation in various National and International Conference & Exhibition.
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Preface
The book titled as “Poisonous Herbal Plants” written with an intention to benefit the Diploma, UG, PG and Research Scholar students. This book acknowledged importance study of Medicinal Plants and the constantly increasing recognition of its extended practical as well as scientific applications. Since time immemorial, human beings have learned on plants/herbs/shrubs etc. for curative treatment of diseases and to secure prevention and cure against manifestations of various ailments. In this context the goal at this book is to provide the update knowledge to the students in the professional programmed at their study. The discovery of drug is tremendously increasing due to the great advancement bioassay screening isolation techniques and structure elucidation. The objective of this book is to spot a light on the brief introduction of about Poisons herbs and plants to the students and researchers. In the present global scenario, natural medicines are gaining prominence; because they are available at economical prises and relatively free from most of adverse drug effects or so called side effects. We have made every effort to avoid errors, clarify unmeaning words, and printing errors, but sometimes at then may arise in present edition, we would correct and/or omit hem in subsequent editions.
Authors
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Acknowledgement
The authors are thankful to Prof. Dr. V. R. Patil, “Dean” of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India and Principal, H‟ble LMC‟s TVES‟s. College of Pharmacy, Faizpur, Member of Management Council, NMU, Jalgaon for his valuable guidance and critical suggestions. We are thankful to the Management and Prof. Dr. G. P. Vadnere, Principle, Smt. Sharadchandrika Suresh Patil College of Pharmacy, Chopda, Maharashtra, India. The authors are grateful to Prof. Dr. Sunil P. Pawar, Chairman, Board of Studies, Pharmacognosy & Pharmacology, of N. M. U., Jalgaon, India and Principal, PSGVPM‟S College of Pharmacy, Shahada, for his excellent guidance. We are grateful to our parents for their unconditional love, support and encouragement. We are also thankful to publisher for publishing the book. We extend our thanks to supportive friends, colleagues for bringing out nicely printed book.
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Contents
S. No. Content Page No. 1. Foreword vi 2. About The Authors vii 3. Preface x 4. Acknowledgement xi 5. Chapter1: Introduction 1 6. Chapter 2: Herbs 12 7. Chapter 3: Poisonous Plants 187 8. Bibliography 193
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Introduction
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INTRODUCTION ______
General Introduction
In India use of the different parts of several medicinal plants to cure specific ailments has been in vogue from ancient times. The indigenous system of medicine, namely, Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani have been in existence for several centuries. In Siddha medicinal system use of poisonous plants helps to cure some disease. It is important to have an awareness regarding the poisonous plants which when used in the proper, prescribed dose, acts as potent therapeutics agents. According to World Health Organization, 80% of the population of developing countries depends on plant drugs for regular source of medicines. Poisonous principles are classified based on the chemistry of toxic compounds present in it: Alkaloids, Glycosides, Oxalates, and Photosensitizing compounds, Phytotoxins, Polypeptides and Resins. Plants differ by degree of toxicity and classify them as extremely, moderately or minimally toxic. It is difficult to categorize plants with regard to their toxicity, since this varies with the age of the victim, environment, and stage of plant growth. Degree of toxicity is variable. Plant toxins are substances produced as secondary metabolites that are identical to extra cellular bacterial toxins in their properties. They show both useful and harmful effects in human beings and animals. They Show a wide range of side effects from minor itching, nausea, vomiting to adverse effects like psychosis, paralysis, teratogenecity, arrhythmias. They are useful in production of cosmetics, ulcers, menstrual cramping, and cancer and in treatment of man ailments and diseases. Toxins may enter into the body either by inhalation, swallowing or by contact. The action is based on their chemical constituents who are classified into
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Introduction alkaloids, glycosides, proteins, oxalates, anti-vitamins, tannins, volatile ether layers etc. They act by altering specific mechanisms involving enzymes, receptors and even genetic material at particular cells and tissues. Poisonous plants have a seed, root, leaf, stalk, fruit or juice where even a relatively small amount, taken either internally or eternally, can lead to injury to the human body. In some species the poisonous constituents occur throughout the whole plant. In others they are concentrated in one or more parts. The degree of toxicity also depends on the location (including height above sea level), climatic factors including the local microclimate (light, warmth, and humidity), and the growing season, type of soil, fertilization, plant variety and age. The condition of the poisonous plant material is equally important (dried, chewed, cooked, as tea). The dose of course is the most important factor. There are a huge variety of plant poisons and it is difficult to organize the myriad plant toxins in an understandable manner. Plant toxins are described according to the organ system in the human body which they affect, e.g. cardiotoxins, neurotoxins etc. The difference between the terms „medicinal‟ and „poisonous‟ is sometimes smaller than one might think There are several species which are poisonous or injurious to human body and can be found in the garden or planted by the forest department as a roadside tree with or without the knowledge about their effects on human body system. Poisoning can be by contact causing skin irritation, ingestion causing internal poisoning and absorption. Some plants which are considered as harmless are actually not so. Many plants are used in some way or the other in medicines especially in homeopathic pharmacology. This review has the basic such as the botanical, Family names, common names, toxic parts of the plants, chemical constituents, signs and symptoms of toxicity and its use in Traditional Indian System of Medicine.
Classification of Poison
According to their mode of action, poisons are broadly classified in three groups, these three broad groups are sub-divided on the basis of their effect on the body, type of composition etc., 1. Corrosive a. Strong Acid b. Organic Acid c. Alkali
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Introduction 2. Irritant a. Inorganic Irritant b. Non Metallic c. Metallic Irritant 3. Systematic a. Nervous System b. Cardio Vascular System c. Respiratory System
Classification
Plant toxins are classified based on their structural and chemical properties. They are grouped into alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, proteins, oxalates, enzyme inhibitors, antivitamins, phyto estrogens, volatile etheric layers and photo sensitizing substances. . Alkaloids include indole alkaloids, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, tropane alkaloids, opium alkaloids,vicine and covicine alkaloids. . Glycosidal toxins include cardiac glycosides, goitrogenic glycosides, anthraquinone glycosides,mustard oil glycosides, saponin glycosides, cyanogenetic and glycosides. . Tannins like pyrogallol. . Proteins like lectin, abrin, ricin, cicutoxin, anisatin, gelonin, falcarinol, oenotheatoxin etc. . Antivitamins like thiaminases , Phytoestrogens like coumestrol . Volatile etheric layers such as ushuriol, Photo sensitizing substances including hypericin . . Enzyme inhibitors like Cholinesterase inhibitors, Protease inhibitors, Amylase inhibitors. Other sinclude Lathyrogens, Anti-thiamin compounds and Avidin.
Plant Toxins
. Abrin, Anisatin, Andromedotoxin, Apocyanin, Amygdalin, Aesculin, Anabasine, Anagyrine, Aspargine, Avidin . Brucine . Chaconine, Cicutoxin, Cicutiol, Cardinilides, Cycasin, Cyanarin, Confoline, Convolmine, Covicine, . Convoline, Convosine, caratotoxin,cucurbitacin
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Introduction . Delphinine, Djenkolic acid, Dhurrin, Levo-Duboisine . Epipodophyllotoxin . Falcarinol, Frascin, Fagopyrin quinines , furocoumarin . Gelonin, Gossypol, Grayanotoxin, Gallotoxin . Hymexon, Hypericin, Hymenoxon, Hyoscine . Illicin, Isoalyl thiocyanates, ipomeamarone . linamarin, lotaustralin, Lycorine, Laetrile, Lectin, Lantanene . beta–methylamino–l-alanine,Macrozamin,Mezeein,4 methoxypyridoxine . Nitrates, Naudicoline, Nerosides . Oenanthotoxin . Phytotoxin, Pseudaconitine, Pyrrolizidine Alkaloid, Persin, Prunassin, Podopyllotoxin,Phenanthridineprolamine, Phytolaccine, Phytolaccatoxin, Phytolaccigenin, Protoanemonin . Resiniferatoxin, Ricin, Ranunculin . Saponin, Scopolamine, Solamargine, Solasodamine, Solasodine, Solasonine, Solauricidine, Solauricine, Strychnine, Swainsonine, Syringomycin, Sambunigrin, Solanine, Shankhapushpin . Thionins, Tinyatoxin, Tutin , Tremetol ,Taxine . Ushuriol . Vicine Plant toxins act on all parts of the body with some common symptoms like vomiting, nausea. They show actions based on the way of exposure and concentration. They are both useful and harmful.
Characteristics of Ideal Poison
The characters of an ideal homicidal/suicidal poison should be . cheap . easily available . colourless . odourless and tasteless . capable of being administered, either in food, drink or medicine, without producing any obvious change to prevent suspicion and highly toxic . capable of painless death
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Introduction . Signs and symptoms should resemble a natural disease, or the serious ill effects should be delayed sufficiently long for the accused to escape suspicion. . Must be rapidly destroyed or made undetectable in the body. The number of factors, which are affecting the characteristics of poisoning any victim‟s as dose/quantity given to the victim, in which form (physical/chemical) the poison inject to the body, resistivity of body and condition of the victim (he/she might be drug addict/ in sleep or intoxication). Unless the poison is given in liquid form or small amount, the greater part of it may be lost by vomiting. However, there organization of poisoning during life is a matter of the first important, both from the point of view of the medical jurist and as a forensic crimescene investigator.
Human Physiological Responses to Toxic Substances
Human Physiological Responses to Toxic Substances The human body needs very small quantities of chemicals that are poisonous in large doses. This applies, for example, to some heavy metals, such as copper, magnesium and manganese. The adverse effect is strongly related to the dose. The effects may be immediate or delayed, and they may be reversible or irreversible toxic effects the worst possible effect is fatality. Local/systemic toxicity: There are two main ways in which chemicals may exert their effects. Local effect so occur at the area of the body which has been in contact with the chemical. Examples include external tissue injuries from acids or lung injuries from inhaled reactive gases. Systemic effects occur after the chemical has been absorbed and distributed from the entry point to other parts of the body. Most substances produce systemic effects, but some substances may cause both types of effects. An example is tetraethyl lead, which is a gasoline additive and produces skin effects at the contact site. It may also be absorbed and transported into the body causing adverse effects on the central nervous system and on other organs. Target organs: The degree of the toxic effect is not the same in all organs. Usually there are one or two organs which show the major toxic effect. These are referred as target organs of toxicity of the particular substance. The central nervous system is the target organ of toxicity most frequently involved in systemic effects. The blood circulation system, liver, kidneys, lungs and skin follow in frequency of systemic effects. Some substances attack muscle and bones. Both the male and female reproductive systems are susceptible to adverse and often debilitating impacts from many
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Introduction substances Skin. The largest organ in the human body (~1.5-2 m 2 in area) provides a protective cover to the body organs but can allow permeation of chemicals if the load is excessive. Many substances can infiltrate through the skin and find its way to the hematological system, for example phenol, which may even lead to fatality in the event of heavy exposure. Most common forms of skin disorders that may occur due to chemical contact are: eczemas, irritation and local inflammation. This condition can be either a non-allergic or allergic reaction to exposure to chemical substances. Examples of common contact allergens are several colorants and dyes, nickel, chromium, cobalt and their salts, organomercuric compounds, acrylate and methacrylate monomers, rubber additives and pesticides. Chemical skin injury may also be influenced by extreme levels of humidity and heat.
Lung
The lung is the major route through which toxic substances in the workplace enter the body. It is also the first organ to be affected by dusts, metal fumes, solvent vapours and corrosive gases. Allergic reactions may be caused by substances such as cotton dust, toluene diisocyanate (TDI, used in the manufacture of polyurethane plastics), and methylisocyanate (MIC, used in production of carbaryl insecticide). Allergic reactions may result from exposure to bacteria or fungi. When dust particles of size lower than 0.1μm are inhaled the lungs are unable to exhale them. They become embedded in the lung leading to a condition called pneumoconiosis .Pneumoconiosis is mainly a problem for human beings exposed to the dust of silica (quartz) and asbestos, and is the commonest non-malignant occupational lung disease throughout the world. Other substances, such as formaldehyde sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and acid mists may cause irritation and reduce the breathing capacity.
Nervous System
Several types of substances act as neurotoxins. The nervous system is sensitive to the hazardous effects of organic solvents, such as carbon disulphide. Some heavy metals also affect the nervous system; examples include lead, mercury and manganese. Several organophosphate insecticides (malathion, parathion) and other chemicals such as
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Introduction acrylamide hinder chemical neurotransmitter function in the nervous system, leading to weakness, paralysis and sometimes death. The blood circulation system may also be adversely affected by solvents. For example, benzene affects the bone marrow; the first sign is mutation in the lymphocytes. Pure as well as compounds of lead, carbonmonoxide and cyanides, may overcome enzyme activities involved in the production of hemoglobin in red blood cells. Chronic lead poisoning, for example, may result in anaemia, a condition in which the ability of the blood to distribute oxygen through the body is impaired.
Liver
The main function of liver is to break down unwanted substances in the blood. Solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, nitrosamines and vinyl chloride, as well as alcohol, are hazardous to the liver. Such substances are termed hepatotoxins.
Kidneys
Kidneys help excrete waste substances that the blood transports from various organs of the body. This helps: (i) ensure that the body fluids contain an adequate blend of various necessary salts; (ii) maintain the blood pH constant. Solvents such as carbon tetrachloride, other halogenated hydrocarbons, may irritate and can severely damage kidney function. Turpentine in large quantities is also harmful to the kidneys: `painter's kidney' is a known condition related to occupational exposure. Other well-known kidney-damaging substances (otherwise termed nephrotoxins) are lead and cadmium.
Reproductive System
Several classes of compounds are also known to produce disorders of the reproductive system and impair birth functions. Examples include thalidomide, formamide, tetracycline, etc. Allergic reactions. An allergic reaction (or sensitization) may appear after repetitive contact with a substance. Once the sensitization has been produced, even very low doses can provoke a reaction. Allergies can range from minor skin irritation to very severe or even fatal reactions. The pattern of sensitization varies according to the organism exposed to an allergen. In
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Introduction humans, the skin and the eyes are the most common areas of allergic response. Interactive effects of chemicals on human body. The effect manifested by combination of chemicals (and mixtures) is known to be varied. In some cases the effect may be additive (1+1=2). Organophosphate pesticides (for example, dialiphos, naled and parathion) exhibit such additivity of effects. In other cases the combined effect of chemicals may exceed that of the individual ones (e.g., 1+1=4). It has been found that the risk of developing lung cancer after exposure to asbestos fibres is forty times greater for a smoker than for a non-smoker. In the domain of solvents, trichloroethylene and styrene manifest similar behaviour. When two substances negate each other‟s effect (1+1=0), it may provide an indication as to an antidote (as say for a poison). In still other instances, a relatively risk-free substance may aggravate the effect of another (e.g., 0+1=3). Isopropanol and carbon tetrachloride have this kind of mutual effect. Isopropanol, at concentrations which are not harmful to the liver, increases the liver damage caused by carbon tetrachloride.
Table 1: Mechanism of Action of Different Toxins
Sr. No Chemical Mechanisms of action constituents 1 Alkaloids Glycoalkaloids Interacts with mitochondrial membranes open the potassium channels of mitochondria, increasing their membrane potential. Increase concentration of Calcium in the that triggers cell damage and apoptosis Indole alkaloids Beta carbolines act as MAO inhibitors link to benzodiazepine receptors. Increase serotonin action Pyrazzolidine Cross link with DNA. Anti-mitotic alkaloids action. Form fibrous tissue 2 Cyanogenic Release HCN. Inhibit oxidative process glycosides of cells. Saponin glycoside Interact with LC cells. T cell mediated
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Introduction contact dermatitis Goitrogenic Inhibition of both Thyroid peroxides glycosides and Lacto peroxides. Inhibits both TPO- catalyzed iodination and coupling Anthroquinones Produce myoelectectric alteration in glycosides intestinal smooth muscle and induce accumulation of fluid Mustard oil Aqueous extracts of mustard also glycoside inhibited formation of diene, and tetraene conjugate in human erythrocyte membranes 3. Oxalates Form salts with Positive ions. Forms calcium oxalate, ferric oxalate. Form stones in kidney 4 Tannins Precipitate proteins 5 Proteins Abrin Inhibit protein synthesis Anisatin Suppress GABA induced currents, show use dependency Cicutoxin Cholinergic poison GABA antagonist disrupts CNS Thionins Attacks membranes, make it permeable, decrease sugar uptake. Galonin Exert N glycoside action on r RNA of ribosome. Epi Inhibit topoisomerase II podophyllotoxin 6 Antivitamins Coumestrol--- Inhibit aromatase, hydroxy steroid dehydrogenase.Phytoestrogen exert their effects primarily through binding to estrogen receptors, alpha and beta and many phytoestrogen display somewhat higher affinity for beta as compared to alpha
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Introduction Thiaminases Aids carbohydrates metabolism for CNS muscle, heart Hypericin Nonspecific kinase inhibitor inhibits dopamine beta dehydrogenase 7 Volatile Etheric Layers Ushuroil T- cell mediated dermatitis, changes shape of integral membrane proteins 8 Enzyme inhibitors Cholinesterase Cholinesterase inhibitors ultimately inhibitors modify cholinergic signalling through disruption of acetylcholine degradation Protease inhibitors The protease inhibitors can slow virus production Amylase inhibitors Inhibiting membrane – bound alpha – glucosidases.
Treatments
General First Aid When a child eats any non-food plant material, contact a physician or a poison control center whether symptoms are present or not. If a poisonous plant has been eaten and if medical help is not readily available, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Poison Control suggests the following: vomiting should be induced (unless the victim is already vomiting, is unconscious or convulsing) by giving syrup of Ipecac with a glass of water (1 tablespoonful or 15 ml or 1/2 ounce of Ipecac for children, double for adults). To prevent the vomitus from being inhaled (aspirated) into the lungs the victim should be made to walk about, or should be held in a head down "spanking position". After vomiting has ceased, about 1ounce (child; 3 oz. adult) of activated charcoal and water should be given orally. Because activated charcoal will not dissolve in water, it should be swirled around in the glass and drunk quickly. Many pediatricians recommend that syrup of Ipecac and activated charcoal be kept in the home medicine chest. If the child must be brought to a physician or emergency room, a sample of the plant, with flowers and seeds if possible, should be brought along for positive identification.
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Introduction
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