Attachak Sattayanurak

The Intellectual Aspects of Strong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century

he development of strong kingship in to reform the government. This analysis rests T Thailand has received considerable atten­ on two bases. The first is the confidence in the tion from researchers. Some studies have institution of the which resulted in no examined it as a whole while others have one asking the simple question of whether it examined just some of its aspects. 1 A number of was the alone who was clever enough to scholars, for example, have examined the change recognize the danger posed by the West that in legal structure or the formation of the then led to the establishment of strong kingship Thesaphiban provincial administration system. when there are wise people born in all societies Surprisingly, though, little attention has been in every era. But despite the fact that some of paid to the intellectual background to the those wise persons were , they may not formation of the . Recently, have been able to single-handedly make a study examined the intellectual history of the decisions affecting everyone. Thus, this 1932 Revolution2 which examined the attitudes explanation is incomplete. What is needed is an of different groups before and after 1932. The understanding of the intellectual forces that led study, which also described the intellectual to the king making these decisions. The second climate and how the royalty adjusted to the basis exaggerates the external dangers to the change in government, provided a better Thai state, resulting in overlooking intellectual understanding of the attitudes of those holding factors motivating the king to establish strong power in the absolute monarchy. Nevertheless, kingship. Such an analysis places too much stress the study of the origin of attitudes to kingship, on environmental conditions. how these related to cultural factors and to The present study examines the important actions taken by the ruling class cannot be intellectual forces that motivated the king of avoided in coming to an understanding of the Siam's actions resulting in far reaching changes intellectual roots of the absolute monarchy in in Thai society. This includes understanding a Siam. new historical consciousness by the king which Past studies have described threats from the saw him as the protagonist in history shaping its West as the main factor motivating the monarchy course and leading the country in a progressive

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) pp. 72-95 The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 73 way. The intellectual forces stressed in this study intelligence (pannya) to achieve release from motivated the king. This does not mean, this life or whether they will dedicate their life however, that other factors did not affect these to help the state progress. The conception of changes. Although this study does not examine time is the same as other human conceptions in the relationship between these other factors, it that it changes according to new conditions in does examine the intellectual forces within the life. Because human beings pass through endless context of the socio-economic and political cycles of birth and death in different worlds changes occurring at this time. The new before achieving nirvana, there are two levels at historical consciousness, thus, is not seen as which time is meaningful today (or when a emerging spontaneously but rather as evolving human experiences a rebirth in the human in a gradual interaction with the socio-cultural world), human time and social time. Human changes occurring at that time. time, not more than 100 years, is uncertain, characterized by impermanence, temporality and Origins of the New Historical Consciousness suffering. This is because of the condition of non-self characterizing all existence. Therefore, The origins of the new historical consciousness humans should engage in behavior consistent that began to appear in the reign of King Rama with the dharma until they can achieve nirvana IV and which became fully developed in the in the future. Social time, although expressed in Fifth Reign of the Chakri in Siam arose longer terms, is characterized by impermanence out of many overlapping intellectual forces. as well. Social life meaningful to human beings Understanding these forces requires that they is seen through the four Buddhas, each with an must be dealt with individually even though era of 5,000 years. During each of these eras, this may in some ways distort reality. society gradually deteriorates until the world Before discussing the new historical ends with the falling apart of society. consciousness, it is necessary to explain that Human life under these conditions was one during the Fourth and Fifth Reigns, a new type of suffering. There was no hope of being able to of historical writing emerged that differed from change one's destiny to any great extent because the traditional religious chronicles (tamnan). time was an unchangeable natural factor. Many historians have agreed that this new Another important factor was that during a life writing reflected influences from the West. of fewer thanlOO years, human beings were However, such an explanation encounters unable to change the course one's life took difficulties when it cannot answer clearly how because of its being predestined by the karma it was that this intellectual borrowing from the earned in earlier existences. The meaning of West made such an impact on society.3 life was to follow one's destiny until at a far The important intellectual changes were one distant point in the future, one would achieve basis for the new histories being written. They release from worldly attachments with the were written with a new historical consciousness attainment of nirvana. that was based on changes in the conception of That time flowed from the past and then time.4 The conception of time is closely tied to carried on into the future was seen as the human life and society. As a result, changes in unavoidable immutable law of nature (dharma). human life and society must. be examined so Human beings can neither set nor change time. that an understanding of how the conception of Stated differently, human beings do not time changed. determine time. Instead, time determines life Thoughts about time are an important force and society. The kaliyuga (end of the world), in determining human and social behavior. They thus, is when everyone (whose karma has affect how humans decide what to do with their predestined to have an earthly existence at that lives, such as whether to make merit for gaining time) must die a horrible death. If someone a better future life or whether to try energetically earns good karma then that person will be born to achieve a better present life or whether to to a long life. If someone earns bad karma, then observe Buddhist morality (sila), that is, that person will be born in a bad era, such as the practising concentration (samadhi), and using kaliyuga.

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 74 ATIACHAK SATIAYANURAK

Persons living in traditional societies know reputation live on in the Kingdom for a long time as expressed in the Traiphum wherein time time".8 as experienced on earth is given little importance. The giving of royal explanations in which Time is not seen as it is in everyday social life. creativity is praised and the existence of certain Instead time is seen as changing slowly other practices that are handed down to later according to the traditional Buddhist notions generations clearly show the change to a new described above. Thus even though someone kind of society. In traditional society there was might not be alive when society is deteriorating, no desire for novelty, creativity was meaningless that person will believe society is indeed and the desire to pass things on to later deteriorating such as at the banchantarakhan. generations non-existent. This was because Then that person will quickly perform good everything, both the persons and society were works to earn merit and barami in order to be seen as impermanent. Furthermore, in a born at an auspicious time such as when the traditional society, there is no place for anything next Buddha, Maitriya, will appear. new.9 But the author of Nang Nophamat lived The new conception of the time, which in a world that was beginning to change. began being accepted by the elite in tlie early Creating new goods was then becoming to Bangkok period, was a response to changing be important to society. The fact that Nang socio-economic conditions. One major change N ophamat used new strategies to create was the exchange of goods with other countries something new by which the Kingdom became that became increasingly commercial as time famous should be a powerful inducement to passed. Investment, financial planning, and people living in such a society to have the same recruiting skilled workers for improving ambition as Nang Nophamat. It can be seen production5 gave many commoners and clearly too that in Nang Nophamat time flowed members of royalty an increased acceptance of almost endlessly with no sign of the world the cause and effect principle. Such activities deteriorating. This represents quite a difference gave more attention to experience and from traditional society when the world was confidence in human potential than before. 6 indeed seen as deteriorating. The belief in a All of these factors resulted in the lower royalty time that flows continuously represents a bridge and to have more contactswith others. between the traditional conception of time and They saw for example that there was a greater the new conception of time which is seen as chance to change one's future based only on progressive in nature and which shall be one's own attributes. These attitudes appear described below: clearly the book Nang Nophamat1• The main character plays her role as a person who Any monk who openly disrupts the sangha shall achieves considerable worldly success and suffer until the end of this ka/pa [world eon]. If demonstrates that the present life has more the kalpa should end tomorrow, that person would significance than before under the traditional only suffer in hell for one day.IO cosmology where all was seen as non-self, suffering, and impermanent. People capable of There was yet another question regarding and dependent on creating good which will be time: "at what time will Ariya Maitriya achieve passed on the new generation. But the author, enlightenment in this world?" 11 Such doubts who lived in the reign of King Rama III, had regarding the traditional conception of time as Nang Nophamat create something new, namely in the Traiphum arose because of the changing the festively decorated hot air balloons used in socio-economic conditions that caused the a Buddhist merit-making ceremony at the Siamese elite to doubt, on the basis of the new Temple of the Buddha's Footprint at Saraburi. experience-grounded conception of time that This resulted in her becoming one of "the they were accepting. By the traditional famous of the kingdom" and it was told of her conceptions underpinning the Traiphum, human that these practices were handed down for many beings were unable to know or estimate time. generations. The author used a slogan to As was thus understood traditionally, ordinary identify Nang Nophamat, namely, "may your humans were unable to know at what point the

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 75 kalpa would end, 12 or when Ariya Maitriya generations. As a result, the monkhood's would achieve enlightenment. Only those who attitudes were highly conservative and changed had achieved supreme knowledge through more slowly than the political elite. enlightenment, such as the Buddha, would be In any case, almost everyone at that time able to know such things. Everybody else would recognized that the teachings of Buddhism were have to rely on the teachings of the Buddha. noble truths. The political elite wanted to Thus this time could not be estimated or known experience these truths directly for themselves. through the experience of ordinary people. In that the changing of the traditional Under the traditional 'Traiphum' conception conception of time based on Buddhism and on of time, the roughly 100 years of individual the belief in hierarchical worlds did not dare human life were of little significance when confront orthodox Buddhism, the result was a compared to the endless cycle of births and true change in how time was conceived. Religious rebirths to which all living beings were subject. organizations propagated (reinterpreted) Human life itself, in fact, had little significance Buddhist teachings based on this new conception in the Traiphum. A single day was of even less of time starting with Mongkut. When importance. This differed from the new Mongkut, a member of the quasi-feudalistic conception under which a single day could have social hierarchy himself, entered this conservative considerable significance during the time which religious order, owing to the fact that he was the hands of a clock made a single revolution. grounded in the standards of truth and goodness, At this time, new expressions regarding the he found this traditional monkhood unacceptable. new conception of time arose in the palace of He observed, "the religious order has been lost Prince Sakdiphonsep, namely that it was possible since the old capital [Ayutthaya] fell to the to estimate time based on personal experience. Burmese". 14 He thus denied the teachings of the Eventually, he posed the above question to the Sangha itselfas well asserting that these teachings Sangha. The answer given indicates that the were not the original word of the Buddha. monkhood still accepted the traditional Additionally, Prince Mongkut, and later, Prince conception oftime as given in the Traiphum: Vajiranana, refuted the teaching ofthe Sangha at this time, both finding many errors in the Anyone who disrupts the Sangha in the middle of traditional monkhood's teachings. Prince a kalpa will escape from the hell into which that Mongkut believed as such because he was aiming person has fallen at the completion of the kalpa. to spread his new teaching and to inspire a new The only limit given is that if a person's life is understanding ofBuddhism as widely as possible 100,000 years, it might be reduced to just ten in Thai society. He observed that "people in this years which will then be the end of that person's time wanted very much to know what exactly rebirth, the end of the kalpa. This would then be was the teaching of the Buddha, what was the penalty for disrupting the sangha.l3 erroneous or revisionist."15 As a part of his refutation of the traditional The difference in the conceptions of time monkhood, Prince Mongkut established a new held by the political elite and by the religious Buddhist sect, known as the Tharnmayut. This elite arose out of the two groups experiencing was to cause considerable change in Thai different socio-economic conditions. The society, and since it gave the opportunity for political elite lived in a world in which goods new ways of thought to enter Thai society, these were increasingly produced for export and changes were most pronounced in terms of the overseas trade. These individuals were in a way people thought. Even though the founder society that was becoming increasingly equal. of the new order sought approval by stating that Even though the religious elite lived in the same the new sect was based on the Tripitika, the Siamese society, their way of life differed Prince in fact introduced new teachings through considerably because they were not involved in his new order that essentially had never been producing goods for export. It was also their found in prior Buddhist scripture. 16 duty to act according to the traditional precepts Evidence of the new way of thinking is and to pass on such traditions to personified by the Tharnma:Yut sect and involves

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 76 ATTACHAK SATTAYANURAK

the potential of mankind related to the new moralities strictly should "follow the lower five conception of time. Vajiranana shows this clearly moralities". Once they have become accustomed in the following passage: to doing so, they can start following the other five moralities strictly". 18 This suggestion is "Human beings" because they are of a high grounded on the idea that human beings are rebirth. They are finely created and intelligent, capable of developing themselves by first able to conceptualize events far away in time. obeying the easier moralities and graduating to The intelligence of these beings ... is enduring adhering to the more difficult ones. This reflects and they are capable of self-improvement in their the new conception of time. This is the belief different activities of which sagacity ranks high. that people in this life can progress, that they They are able to desire the pleasurable, fear future can learn from their experiences in the world. suffering and death. For these reasons, these People can thus improve themselves by acting creatures are called thusly to distinguish them independently in this life. Life is not controlled from those that are derachan [oflower rebirth ].17 by the effects of past karma as was previously believed. Because of this conviction that human beings This change in how time is conceived can are "intelligent" creatures, able to conceptualize, be seen clearly in the matter of"karma", a basic and of prominence, Vajiranana was able to teaching of Buddhism. Previously, karma was return to stressing the Tripitika. He was understood in the way of the Traiphum whereby confident that human beings had the ability to the actions of previous lives determined events understand the dharma correctly and fully. This in the present life. When the conception of time belief did not accept the pessimistic view that changed, so did the conception of karma so that the world was deteriorating and that human its understanding was based on the new beings were understanding the dharma pro­ conception of time. This new conception placed gressively less and less, the conceptualization much emphasis on time in this life of reflective of the cyclical understanding of time experienced events, while the events of past characteristic of the Traiphum. The reason that lives are accorded much less importance. This the Thammayut sect supported the Sangha is shown clearly in explanations of karma and adhering strictly to the Vinaya was also based the results of karma which avoid referring to on the belief in the new conception of time. "former times" or "former lives" while Previously, the Sangha and the laity who lived emphasizing instead only "this life" and not the together in the world had to adhere to the sila "next life" either. Similarly, the results of karma (moralities), practice concentration and exhibit discussed are those occurring in "this life" and wisdom, with the highest goal in life that of not in the "next life". For example, suppose if in achieving nirvana. However, following the a past life, someone has an experience yielding establishment of the Thammayut sect, the world the meritorious result of a person "being the began to separate into two different streams, beloved of someone strongly desired". 19• If in a the "way of the world" and the "way of dharma. previous life that person had done something The Sangha, which was expected to limit itself unmeritorious, "that person would be made to to the way of dharma, did nonetheless enter the ·do something resulting in that person becoming way of the world. Yet at this time, the way of angry.20 The Supreme Patriarch (Sa) wrote that the world and the way of dharma in fact set out "all human actions are aimed more at achieving in a new direction, namely in a non-cyclical results in this world than at results in the next way. Thus, when the Sangha followed the way life, which is a lesser objective".21 of the dharma the monks were required to obey Karma in a past life thus has less importance. the vinaya strictly in order to be properly The present life's actions are more important. religious. "The teachings of the Prince Birth and life are not illusions according to the [Vajirayana] will endure until the end of time." trailakkhana (the three attributes). If they had Regarding adherence to the moralities for those importance to King Mongkut, it was only when following the way of the world, Vajiranana he started the practice of making merit on his proposed that people unable to follow the birthday. This was because he "had the opinion

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 77 after one survived to an advanced age, the I would like to remove the belief and marking of the anniversary of that person's birth understanding that deterioration will occur in the was a great boon and most welcome". 22 A good future; any who believe this are culpably wrong and well-practiced life was not one devoted to because to do so will result in a lack of effort to performing sila (moralities), samadhi (concen­ improve any effort on grounds that it is futile tration), and pannya (wisdom) or to following because things are going to deteriorate anyway. the dharma in order to achieve nivarna. The Such beliefs lead to retrogression, leading only purpose of a life which one should strive for is to decline. As a result, in any lifetime where this to meet with real success in this world, such as is believed, there will be a lack of initiative. The having good health, wealth, and honor. 23 country will make less rapid progress than if the In addition, King Mongkut stressed the belief in future deterioration were not held. As a importance of the present life. The King said result, all of us should forget about this belief of that the progress people made in their present the future deteriorating. We should face forward, lives was linked with the advancement of the seek knowledge, and provide support to the state.24 Nonetheless, even though King Mongkut religion and to the country for which we can did discuss the possibility ofthe state developing expect results to be as favorable as in the past, or over time despite the belief by many that more certainly, even better ...25 Buddhism would disappear after 5,000 years, there is no proof that the King ever directly This direct refutation of the belief that repudiated this belief. Perhaps this was because Buddhism would come to an end in 5,000 years the King did not want to enter into a direct clearly indicates the desire to inspire people to confrontation that do so would entail. His work hard for their own personal improvement repudiation of this belief that Buddhism would and that of the country as well. It also shows end after 5,000 years, however, had to await clearly that King Chulalongkom wants the King Chulalongkom. people to abandon the old conception of time while accepting the new conception. By doing Regarding the prediction by the Tathagatha that so, the King wants the people to become more Buddhism would decline step by step until there industrious and to work for the good of the was nothing left, that mindful insight [satipannya] banmuang (country) or state, not only for just will become less, that insightful teaching will not one's self. To the elite, the idea of banmuang, be heard and that even if people heard it, they or state, was incomparably more important than would not understand. Such thoughts have arisen that of the self. One reason for this is that the because of having observed newly born children. state exists over a long "time". Persons should When they have grown up and are as old as the thus dedicate themselves to work for the benefit observers, those observers will believe that those of the state so that the banmuang will have a former children are less clever than they long and prosperous existence". In this regard, themselves. Then, when the observers die, they King Chulalongkom wrote: are not sure if the younger persons are as clever as they had been. But in fact, for as long as the But we can be sure about one thing. Countries in life of the earth, knowledge has been increasing general are patriotic, safeguarding their nation steadily so that after some time, more is known and nationality. Because they believe in the long about a subject and the knowledge is acquired run of 30-40 years so they will gain by learning more quickly. This can be compared with people that safeguarding their country is profitable. They of later generations who learn from the work of will see that this is more important that seeking their elders so that they are quicker to learn a only personal gain. As a result, in general this subject from their teachers. As a result, those means that individuals will lose. Selfless persons born afterwards are able to learn a subject faster are those who work for the good of the country. than those born before them who had to discover Dishonest individuals are those who penalize the information themselves. As a result, the belief country and who can be suppressed. At this time that in the future conditions will deteriorate is in it is desired that the country progress enduringly, error.... remain strong while enjoying domestic tranquility

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 78 ATIACHAK SATIAYANURAK

for its citizens. With such ties binding the country in what place, at what time and for what reasons. together, it can be seen that for these people This is because there are no oral accounts or old amicability is a reality.26 books giving this information definitely. Their accounts are all hypothetical. From this confidence in human potential The reasons the King felt this way was ''that came the belief that people are capable of"... when people relate ancient accounts, and when conceptualizing matters far into the distant future they refer to cities and kingdoms . . . or to ..."and "that after starting to discuss subjects important Buddha image, they are content to say night and day, persons born afterwards can know that they were miraculously built by Indra or these subjects better than those who started the VesUk:arma".29 The King believed that such discussions".27 This led to changes in the accounts were ''unreaso11:able and exaggerated"30 conceptualization of time. These new thoughts well as ''unnatural and abnormal".31 regarding time and the possibility of progress caused the elite, particularly King Mongkut to As a result, when the King related an account, perceive the difference between the conception he made sure to begin by asking "who built it, of time previous to him and in his time. at what location, at what time, and for what This new conception of time became an reason".32 And with regards to time, the King important basis for understanding a new type of wanted to know the following clearly: historical writing and a new historical con­ sciousness. This was to be an important The third problem regarding Karma that was intellectual force in setting up the absolute asked when something was built, was whether it monarchy. This new historical consciousness was built during the lifetime of the Buddha or can be divided into two fields. The first is social after he achieved Nirvana; and in what year of time, referring to changes, that is the continual the Buddha's religion, or in what year of the progress made through human activity. The Lesser Cycle Era [Chulasakarat]; or in what year, second is human time, that is the temporal month, day, or at the occurrence of which activities of an individual human being. Human auspicious event, and how many years, months time is of course much shorter than social time. days did was taken until it was completed.33 As a result, significant or good individuals are those who cause society to progress.28 Here I By the clearness with which the movement shall explain how the conception of time is the of time was stressed showed that King Mongkut basis of society accepting this new historical wanted others to see the importance of this new consciousness. conception of counting time. 34 The progressive historical consciousness of One result of this new conception of time, society explains how the state of society at a in which progress in this life is emphasized, is particular time has advanced over past times. It that the writing of prawat, or historical should be stated here that this consciousness accounts, became more common. These prawat stresses continuities and differences at various were written to account for the origin of various times. It was this new conception of time that manmade things. Because of the new con­ caused the Thai elite, starting in the reign of ception of time, people were not so inclined as King Rama V, to become dissatisfied with before to accept the old explanations while at virtually everything that this generation had the same time coming to accept that things inherited from its predecessors. This dissatis­ change over time. Thus, accounts were written faction by the elite arose over the lack of of certain things built by in a certain place by importance accorded the conception of time by certain individuals at a certain time. Thus they previous generations. In this regard, King believed that as time passed, certain changes Mongkut expressed his dissatisfaction about the were made so that the features of that thing Buddha images of preceding generations: changed:

Those authors show their lack of ability by writing Thus, as King Mongkut came to accept that the that such and such an image was made by whom, notion of time had changed and he came to place

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 79

new stress on changes of things in "time" that led Besides the historical accounts resulting from to continual progress, he found it impossible to the changes in the conception of time by the accept conventional Thai historical accounts. For elite, there was yet another important result. this reason, because the King wanted to account This was the effort by the elite to explain the for the actual background of certain places and origin of the state of which there is considerable objects, particularly those of a religious nature, evidence in correspondence sent from King he came to write many prawat (historical Mongkut to John Bowring. For example: accounts). These included accounts of Buddhist images, especially those ofparticular importance, I and my , Krom Luang Wongsathirat ... such as the Phraphutthamahratanapatimakon, the are trying to write an accurate historical account Phraphutthachinarat, the Phraphutthachinasi, the of Siam from the time of Ayutthaya which was Phrasai, the Phraphutthabusayarat, and the founded in 1350. First of all, we shall select only Phrasisatsada. 35 He wrote accounts of such places events which are well-substantiated in fact.45 as Wat Khemaphitaram and Wat Thong Ratana­ ram36, as well as writing a history ofLopburi and The change in how time was understood Nakhon Pathom, including the Phra Pathom which then proved to be the starting point for Chedi.37 He also described various royal traditions the above writings also caused King Mongkut and rites.38 to try to determine the origins of his , namely that of the Tai prior to the Kingdom of His pioneering efforts were followed up by Ayutthaya. The writings of the King on this his and successor, King Chulalongkom, who subject followed two lines of inquiry. In the unified power under his increasingly absolutist first, the King examined the Tais under Khmer monarchical rule. Many prawat written during rule from whom they eventually broke free to the reign of King Chulalongkom followed King establish Sukhothai.46 In the second, the King Mongkut's efforts in explaining aspects of sought out the ancestors of King U Thong, watanatham (culture) that were changing or in whom Mongkut believed had come from danger of disappearing. Thus in the King's Chiang Rai to establish the city ofThepnakhon description of the phraratchaphithi (royal which was close to of Chaliang. Here there rituals), he wrote "in looking for someone who were five kings, the last being U ThongY The could explain the rational for all the royal rituals, historical writing showing most clearly the I was unable to locate anybody who could give power of the new conception of time is the such an explanation."39 The King thereupon Phraratchaphongsawadan Krung Si Ayutthaya wrote the Phraratchakaranayanuson40 and the Chabap Ratchahatlekha (The Royal Autograph Phratchaphithi Sipsong Duan41 (The Royal Recension of the Royal Ayutthayan Chronicles) Rituals of the Twelve Months). Besides the King, edited by Krom Luang W ongsathirat Sanit other members of royalty wrote various prawat. together with King Mongkut. This provides a One of the foremost of these was Prince continuous historical account from the Damrong who wrote about many aspects of beginnings of Thai society in this region until culture, some still being practiced and some the Ratanakosin era. having already lapsed. His writings included Despite all this, it was not only the changing the Tamnan Ho Phrasamut Ho Phramonthian­ conception of time that resulted in the acceptance tham, Ho Wachirayan, Ho Phutthasatsana of this new type of historical account. Other Sangha Lae Ho Samut Samrap Phra Nakhon important changes included new attitudes about (An Account of Libraries: the Palace Library, the state and the monarchy. Changes in the the Vajiranana library, the Sangha's library, and conception of time rested on the belief that the library for Bangkok)42 and the Tamnan Loek people were capable of causing society to Huai Lae Thua Pai (The Ending of the Old progress continuously. This does not mean, Lottery and Other Accounts).43 The results of however, that each person is equally able to his interest in history can be found in the journal, 'change' history. In this regard, the state and Vajiranana, that was quite popular among the the monarchy came to play a particularly elite at that time.44 important role.

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 80 ATTACHAK SATTAYANURAK

The elite's thinking about the state and began to lose popularity among the elite. This monarchy began to change as early as the reign was because such a desire, based on traditional of King Rama III. They can be seen clearly, · Wheel-Rolling beliefs would, if not however, in the reign of King Rama IV, after actually requiring Bangkok to wage war on its which time attitudes changed continually and neighbors, create a state of tension that would were intertwined with other changes occurring impede economic growth.48 In particular, the in society at that time. Still, changes in attitudes holding of such power over dependent states about the state and monarchy were one important was only nominal, bringing nothing more than intellectual force empowering the elite to create honor or glory. No actual economic advantages the absolute monarchy. were accorded the state with the result that Formerly, Thai attitudes about the state and investment was considered a poor risk. Instead the monarchy had been linked with beliefs on it was peace that would encourage investment empire found in the Traiphum in which the in production and in international trade. realm had no clear boundaries. The ruler of the These changing conceptualizations of the Ratanakosin was aRatchathirat (King of Kings), state and the monarchy among the elite during that is a Chakraphat (Wheel-Rolling or Universal the reign of King Rama III reflect are clearly Monarch) or a Thammikaratchathirat (Dharmic reflected in the book, Nang Nophamat ( King of Kings). The ruler was also aRamathibodi Nophamat). The changing conceptualizations (a Rama-type ruler, namely a manifestation shown in this book are based on the observable [Avatar] of Vishnu on earth). In this regard, the fact that in the world there is no one premier 'power' or 'Dharmic authority' of the king was state. And there is no single Mount Meru that is not based on his being an ordinary mortal. Instead the center of any such state, or of the world. In it came from his having been a Bodhisattva who fact, the world is comprised of many states, had earned uncountable stores of merit in prior large and small which border one another. There lives. Power also came from the royal rituals, is no one state controlling the rest.49 There is no such as the Abhisekha ceremony of coronation absolute royal power extending throughout the which deified the prince. It was believed that the world. Royal power in fact is restricted to the royal authority of the king spread in every boundaries of individual kingdoms. In Nang direction without limit (and in theory, above Nophamat is the passage: "The King is the most and, although nominally, beyond the power of powerful, having autonomy with his awe­ other monarchs or states). As such, the succession inspiring authority extending beyond and above placed less stress on bloodlines in determining all the people in the realm".50 The statement the new king as became the case later (although that the King inspired awe among the people of in fact it was conventional for a high-ranking his realm, showed the change in the conception prince to succeed his as king). This was of the King. The King, under this new because being a Bodhisattva or a Ramathibodi conception, was considered more powerful than was a property that was not inherited from one's everyone else. This was different from the relatives. previous belief that there were other members The expansion of trade was another of royalty, such as the rulers of dependent states, important factor causing changes in the who were also 'rajas'. This can be considered conception of state and monarchy. Starting with the first sign of movement to an absolute the reign of King Rama III, when commercial monarchy in Thailand, in which the king actually trade began to expand rapidly, more emphasis was more powerful than everyone else. was placed on basing assumptions on actual During the reign of King Rama IV, signs of observations. This resulted in an increasingly this new conceptualization of the monarchy and frank reassessment of the Thai state and the state became more evident. The fact that the monarchy. Conceptualizing the state as the state came to be seen as having a clearly center of the religion under the rule of a King of delineated boundary was the result of many Kings began thus to lose popularity. Addi­ factors. These include the King being one of the tionally, the desire for the state's power to be world's elite whose understanding of the greater than that of its dependent states also monarchy and the state changed as discussed

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 81 above. Among the factors allowing for this problems of demarcating a borderline with change was the acceptance of the idea from the Burma where there had never been an exact West that the world was round.s' demarcation before. His explanation of Burma The King revealed this in remarks to the and Thailand, whom he described as former American missionary, Jesse Caswell. 52 With the enemies, showed well his acceptance of the new acceptance of the belief in a round world, the conception of state and monarchy. Because of King gave up his belief in the cosmology of the the continual warfare between the two states, Traiphum, and thus, his belief in a state and subjects of both kingdoms did not dare to live monarchical system based on this cosmology. close to the border resulting in a "no man's land, Through awareness gained by his understanding a neutral zone". 58 This border zone was marked the English language, the king came to see that by natural features that had served as markers to there were many countries in this vast world, separate the two kingdoms. The king wrote that "some of which are subordinate but not others". 53 if these mountain ranges were to be the border, This subordination, he learned, was one of they should be marked "as clearly as is possible"59 empire and colonies, not one of dependent states. to estimate the distance and expanse of the This made it necessary for clear boundaries to Kingdom of Siam, which is located to the south be delineated, Thailand included. On his trips of the Ao Klang and to the northeast of the as a monk and in his visits to different cities, he Machimprathet (the central country, namely had first-hand experience of much of his ).60 He was also able to describe the exact Kingdom. The coming of capitalism to Thailand location of Siam by using modern survey only made the King more certain that clear methods from the West, "13-16 degrees north boundaries had to be drawn up. This was because Latitude and 101-103 degrees east Longitude. "61 the natural resources of the country, such as These thoughts on a state having a clear timber, minerals, and also the land itself, had boundary are related to thoughts by King come to have economic value. The King believed Mongkut that it was only his kingdom that was surveys were needed to determine the actual under his royal power. This was different from value of these important resources. In addition, the belief that his power, even though stated in the Bangkok government had come to control nominal terms, extended indefinitely. In stating an increasing amount of territory for more than that his power "extended only to Songkhla, 80 years since the beginning of the reign of Thalang, Phangnga, and Sirikhet"62 reflected Rama I. 54 This was noted in the Royal Autograph this. The new attitude about the monarchy can recension of the Royal Chronicles, which stated be seen clearly in the book, Nang Nophamat that the "Kingdom had grown increasingly large which was written during the reign of King and unified."55 Rama Ill. In this book, although the king is still There is much evidence in the king's writings portrayed as possessing considerable merit and that he had decided that Thailand needed awe-inspiring respect, there is also a statement delineated boundaries even before the boundary saying "do not fear the meritorious more than a mapping surveys had begun in conjunction with prince"63 which reflects changes in the perceived teams from the Western colonies surrounding source of royal authority. This shows that merit, his kingdom and using new surveying equip­ which had previously been seen as the source of ment. 56 One example is as follows: supreme power was now described as being less powerful than being descended from royal The Kingdom of Siam comprises Siam Nua, Siam blood. The importance of royal blood rather Tai, and other lands in the vicinity, which is the than being a Bodhisattva was stressed con­ area in which peoples speaking different tinually in Nang Nophamat through many languages reside such as the Lao Chiang, Lao references to "dynasty". This was not, however, Kao, Cambodians, Malays, and Karens in almost restricted to just the royal dynasty, as shown, all the different directions. 57 for example, in this passage: "people of all classes from all places and dependent states as In 1854, the King discussed the drawing up of a well as in the capital consider themselves as boundary with British Burma. He told of the belonging to a dynasty."64 Of special interest

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 82 ATTACHAK SATTAYANURAK was envisioning as being patrilineal. however that the King was a Bodhisattva imbued This was important to King Rama III, whose with much merit or a deity. As King Mongkut was only the of the ruler of wrote, "the King is man". He believed that he Nonthaburi, as noted as follows: came to royal power because of the actual events of this world. As he wrote: As for the royal dynasty, it is the most powerful dynasty of all. The people will not disapprove But as for being the King at this time, to say that when are undertaken with any dynasty. it was because of a heavenly being's intervention They will revere all the nine royal dynasties. But takes the merit away from that important person royalty is passed on to children only through the who came to be called king. Becoming King was male line. 65 because that important person could learn by using his ears to hear, his eyes to see for the most The giving of importance to royal bloodlines part, not because of a deity's power.68 reflects the new conception of time and to what is learned through experience because, unlike In any case, and despite the King writing that the obtaining of merit in previous lifetimes, royal authority did not derive from any external bloodlines are a matter that can be observed. source of power, but from his own human The elite at this time also observed that royal capabilities, this refers back to the importance of power had been passed from father to son for royal bloodlines. Thus, as the King says, a King three generations and that the "royal dynasty" is of "good birth based on good former lives was descended from the ruling at the end from both of his ancestrallines".69 This resulted of the Ayutthayan period. The Kingdom's in the title, Chaofa (Prince) Mongkut coming to royalty thus had a ancient heritage. As Professor mean "Prince With Merit as High as a Crown", Nidhi Aeusrivongse observed: or the "Crown Prince".70 His knowledge was acquired from a broad-based education that Some members of royalty got there start in enabled him to carry out very well his royal government because of their royal blood. They responsibilities.?! Even though he was said to were also able to pass on their power to the next have received royal power from "an important generation just had their ancestors in the Ban high-ranking person", he sought to explain this Phlu Luang Dynasty.66 by saying that he had obtained the kingship from King Rama III. This merely stresses the fact that This passing on of power, when it reached the royal authority came from the King and can be time when the concept of time changed, itself used by the King only. Other persons can only changed so that 'dynasty' and 'royal lineage' acquire it by the King conferring it. came to be stressed for the first time in Thai history. His Majesty the King determined that he would The nature of the king as shown in Nang not live any longer. He then delivered a speech Nophamat was that he increasingly appeared as conferring royal power, with his own royal an ordinary person and less like a Bodhisattva. blessing as such, "I confer royal power on you There was added emphasis on the "happiness all. When I pass on, the chief councilor determines and sadness of the people throughout the who has merit and ability. Then give this royal kingdom". Similarly, the king appointed high authority to that individual and make him King. 72 officials more and more based on their "ability and thoughts". Therefore mentioned stress on the actual changes Although in the writings of King Mongkut in the economic structure were important factors there are still traces of the old conception of the in changing conceptions of the state and source of royal power, there is also evidence of monarchy. Of particular importance during the the new way of thinking. King Mongkut wrote reign of King Rama IV were changes related to that "all the people select one individual of high taxation and the source of the king's income. intelligence and great industry ... with a love of In the early Ratanakosin period, most of the justice to come and serve ...". 67 He denied royalty's income was derived from overseas

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 83 trade, over which the King exercised a investments by the King to earn money from monopoly. Research by Nidhi Aeusrivongse has overseas trade did not yield profits even though shown that this overseas trade underwent a initially King Mongkut tried to earn profits in strong recovery in the early Ratanakosin period. the way of his forebearers. As the King said, "I His work also showed that the goods desired took 200 silver catties to invest by buying goods overseas increased in number and complexity. to be shipped for sale".75 As a result of the This resulted in many new economic oppor­ ending of the royal monopoly and the increase tunities in overseas trade. of goods the king exported for sale, the royal Among these economic opportunities was junk trade eventually came to an end. Because the production of goods for the expanding of the loss of profits, the King decided to sell his Chinese market. The number of private traders junks, saying "We have decided to sell the junks increased as did the volume of goods produced due to a lack of profits resulting from foreigners for the export with other countries. This income bringing many junks here to engage in trade."76 came to be the backbone of the Thai economy He added that it was inappropriate for the King in the early Ratanakosin period. During the reign to continue trading because it was the royalty of King Rama III, the increased number of tax only of small, not large countries, who did so. farmers was witness to the growing amount of "As for," he said "Kings who engage in trading goods produced for sale. This allowed the to maintain their kingdom, this is unnecessary government to derive a considerable income as is the case in all the other big countries [who from taxing trade. From having taxed foreign do not]; it is only rulers of the small Malay trade, the government thereupon came to tax states who do so."77 Thus, the King realized that the production of domestic goods that were to his government had to raise money by taxing his be sold overseas.73 Stated differently, during the subjects instead of from trade. This is clearly reign of King Rama III, the government came seen when the King wrote, in response to the to tax its citizens much more than before. In any desire offoreigners to set up a tax-free newspaper case, King Rama III still sent out his royal trade business, that if he granted their request he did junks from which he derived a far from not know from where the government's income insignificant income. By being able to earn would be derived. The King believed that the income from domestic production as well as state should earn income from domestic taxation from foreign trade, the government of King as well as on import and export duties as agreed Rama III was able to avoid problems of not in international treaties. 78 When the King realized having enough income when he signed the that some of his subjects were dissatisfied, he Burney Treaty that called for an increase in port announced: fees for overseas trading vessels entering the Chao Phraya River. Different taxes are to be announced at different The change in the source of government rates of 10, 12, or 15 percent. Entrepreneurs have revenues was shown clearly when King Mongkut learned of what we intend. You are not pleased. signed the Bowring and other foreign treaties. But if we do not enact these taxes, you will not This treaty ended the government's monopoly be able to receive the gifts of the kingdom at all. on trade, stopped it competing in commercial It is not like we have royal magical ability to affairs and allowed trade to be carried out freely. summon seven kinds of jewels to rain from the A treaty signed with the French allowed that sky and cover the country as happened in the country's merchants to import goods into the Vessantra Jataka.79 Kingdom and to buy goods directly from Thai producers and sell imported items freely and In any case, the process of finding new directly to anyone interested. One result of this sources of government revenue continued. It was a rapid increase in the cost of rice. It was was not separate from the collection of new noted that during the reign of King Rama IV, revenues in the reign of King Rarna III who had "the price of rice became expensive because begun taxing 38 items, an increase over the foreigners bringing foreign specie for purchases previous total of l 0. But the changes occurring scattered it about in Thailand. "74 As a result, under King Mongkut were motivated by the

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 84 ATTACHAK SATTAYANURAK

need to give up the income from the royaljunk grounded in dharma, that is in natural law. trade and the ending of the royal monopoly. Nobody was seen as having the ability to King Mongkut followed this method by adding "determine the course of history". After the new items to the list of items to be taxed. 80 Buddha achieved Nirvana, there were kings who Changes in the source of government sought to be "patrons of the dharma". But even revenues as discussed above led to new though they hoped that by supporting Buddhism, justifications for the new types of taxations. people would be able to achieve "emancipation" These explanations, such as the following by by bringing an end to the future decline of King Rama III, sometimes were justified in society, no king was actually able to do so. religious terms: Even kings with large stores of merit and charisma were unable to slow this decline more I heard a Buddhist sermon in which it was stated than temporarily. Thus, as society continued to that taxes have been paid kings from the vecy decline, people were increasingly less able to beginnings ofkingdoms. Evecy king has followed learn enough about the dharma to achieve in this tradition of imposing taxes from the time emancipation. of King Mahasammutiwong, the vecy first king. 81 Members of Thai society when the old conception of time was still accepted, that is up King Mongkut gave a different rationale: to the reign of King Rama III, accorded little importance to the concept of time as experience­ Every king who has held royal power and based. They did see the changes in society that governed kingdoms from the past until the present were occurring before them as significant. This has imposed various taxes to raise money for the is reflected in the account of John Bowring treasucy. If there was no taxation, it might be about Thai history: impossible to maintain a tranquil kingdom. As a result, there has been this tradition of taxation The Siamese group their early ancestors around from the past until the present. 82 the first disciples of Buddha (Gaudama), and begin their annals about five centuries before the Thus it can be seen that the economic Christian era. . .. Buddhistical miracles and the changes following the signing of free trade intervention ofsuper-human agency are constantly treaties that led to changes in the source of exhibited .... 83 government revenues then had a big impact on the conceptualization of the monarchy. These When the changes in the conception of time changes in the way of thinking discussed above, caused the elite to view changing events in when seen together with the changes in the society as either progressing continually, or conception of time, show the intellectual power discontinually as was discussed above in terms that inspired the monarchs to "act" in accord of"culture," some members of the elite tried to with those things seen as the royal duties. determine the source of the continuing On the basis of the new conception of time progressive of the society or state. The elite had and the new way of viewing the king and the come to accept the potential for humans to state, the Thai elite came to understand the "new progress and to accept the possibility that society history". In order to envision this new history was not deteriorating as was believed by the properly, it is necessary to examine trends in traditional Buddhist outlook. Instead they who it is that sets the course of history and the believed that it was human action that caused origin of the conception of ratchawong (royal progress to occur. This was to bring about an lineage) among the elite. increasing number of people who sought ways to initiate progressive change in society. Trends of Thought on those who Determine Those accepting the new conception of time Historical Methodology were in the elite and wielded royal power. Since they were beginning to become conscious of The method used for writing history based on the concept of ratchawong, as shall be explained the traditional cosmology of the Traiphum was below, they encountered no difficulty when they

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 85 judged society historically. As shall be seen, the meant that, rather than thinking of Ayutthaya as writing of history during the reigns of Kings the center of the universe, they believed that the Rama IV and V was in agreement that it was the beginning of "Thai history" did not commence monarch who set the course of history. This is with the founding of Ayutthaya. They began because the king was seen as the most important trying to link the prawatisat (history) of person in the state who could make the biggest neighboring kingdoms existing beforeAyutthaya impact on it. But the attitudes of the king, whose with the prawatisat of Ayutthaya and the impact on the actions of the state was great, Ratanakosin kingdoms. The writings of King when he believed that history did not follow the Rama IV show his effort to transform such old law of dharma only served to give him more capital cities as Nakhon Pathom and Sukhothai importance in setting the course of history. into being pre-Ayutthayan Thai capital cities.86 The belief of the elite, especially King King Mongkut, who founded an historical Mongkut, was shown in his comments that the society wrote the following: king was the "heart of the kingdom". 84 They believed that he was of vital importance to the Later came the sense that we did not want to affairs of state. Thus it is not surprising that the accept the chronicles of Krung Kao [the Old elite were able to accept royal chronicles, the Kingdom, i.e. Ayutthaya] as the true account of writing of which were based in a time frame Siam ... they give the mistaken impression that different than in the period of the earlier our race and country started only with King conception of time. This was also because the Ramathibodi when he founded Ayutthaya.87 elite held some beliefs that had not changed from the time of the previous conception of He encouraged researchers to study more time, namely that other groups in society lacked earnestly so they could learn the beginning of the potential and the abilities of the elite. They Thai history. also lacked the conviction that they would be able to change other groups in society despite We want to invite you all ... to study the amounts their believing that they were becoming more of the kingdom of Siam ... starting from I ,000 accepting of the human potential of these people. years ago ... which was the beginning of the old But in the end, the most of the population was Thai race. 88 only one component of the state. As a result, when the elite decided to write a new and more In the investigation ofprawatisat thai before correct history, it was as King Mongkut stated, the time of Ayutthaya and trying to link it with "I and my younger brother ... have consulted later prawatisat thai, the elite did identify those with you in the capital and are trying to prepare persons who changed the course of history. an accurate historical account of Siam."85 The This was shown in the king's writings about "accurate historical account of Siam" that Krom how the old Thai kings maintained the ancient Luang Wongsathirat Sanit was writing with King capitals, Buddhist chedi, and Buddha images. Mongkut still followed the style of a royal In any case, since the elite from the time of chronicle, particularly in its stressing royal King Rama IV gave much importance to business even though there were some signifi­ experience as the basis for the truth of cant changes from chronicles in previous times, prawatisat, they believed that the events they a topic which shall be discussed below. described had to be well documented. As a Chronicles and other historical writings result, they were unable to describe the role of starting with the reign of King Rama IV were the king in the pre-Sukhothai kingdoms very written without the constraints of the traditional substantially. They were only able to sub­ religious world view. Even though older stantiate the role of the king from the time of chronicles were used as sources for the new Sukhothai on, and in doing so had to rely on writing, the members of the elite who were the evidence of stone inscriptions, chronicles, writing the new histories had new conceptions and foreign accounts. The results are shown in regarding human beings and the emperor, the the King's Prawatisat Thai, a historical account state and the monarchy, as well as time. This starting with King Ramkhamhaeng of Sukho-

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 86 ATIACHAK SATIAYANURAK thai. King Mongkut then traced the history of about the "spread of progress". This is shown in the Thai through King U Thong, (Ramathibodi) the following writing: the founder of Ayutthaya. From here King Mongkut told the story of the Thai by A kingdom must have an absolute monarch ... a describing the events of the different kings large population living in peace. If there is no down to King Taksin ofThonburi and the kings keeper of the peace, meaning a person with the of the . The continuity of Thai authority to govern the kingdom ... there will be history is also shown in King Mongkut's quarrels until all are dead. Anyone who establishes Prawatisat Thai Doi Sangkhep (History of the divisions of the Fields, Treasury, Palace, and Thai, by Phases) which he wrote for Sir John State as well as other departments . . . must do Bowring. The continuity is also shown in the this at the very beginning. Once this has been Royal Autograph Version of the Ayutthaya done, when there has been much progress in Chronicles. These writings show prawatisat different directions, the constraints will not come thai as a prawatisat with continuity. Emphasis undone. It is just like counting I, 2, 3, 4, 5, and is placed on the actions of the kings starting on to 100 or 1,000.90 with those in the time of Sukhothai whose statements and actions gave the Thai state its In the other historical writings of King basis and accounted for its changes and the Mongkut, kings are described as doers in ways progress it underwent until the time of the different from the previous historical style. That Chakri Dynasty. is, the previous way was to describe Kings as It should be noted here that there have been avatars of Vishnu, Rama as the god-king, accounts describing the ratchawong (royal "Ramathibodi" or as a Bodhisattva. The actions lineage) during the Ayutthayan period such as of the King thus came from the power of the in a work written in 1789 by Phra Phimontham deities or from the Bodhisattva. It was not entitled Sangkhitayawong. However in such necessary for the king to be given any credit for works, the monarchy is described according to having thought or deliberated prior to taking the traditional Buddhist notion of time. The any actions. The historical accounts written purpose for its being written was for the reader during this time included royal orders and other or listener to know how far the "way of history" activities of the kings but without any of the had come, as well as how much the kings had statements or thought process undertaken by supported Buddhism and how much time was them. But the history that was written when the left before the end of the 5,000 years Buddhism king was seen as a human being who shaped was supposed to endure. The way ofhistory was Thai history stressed the "royal. statements" that also meant to show how, in the time remaining, led to "actions" taken by the king. The above which things should be done so that they could differences can be shown when comparing the achieve the purpose of life, which was to attain chronicles written in the Ayutthayan period or nirvana. 89Thus, when the kings of the Mangrai during the reign of King Rama I, such as the and other dynasties in the Ayutthayan period Phan Chanthanumat recension, with those were described, including the "Two Kings of written in the reign of King Rama IV, such as Kings", that is King Rama I and Kromphra­ the two volume Phra Sisunthonwohan (Phak) ratchawang Bowon Mahasurasingharat, the recension published by Dr. Bradley in 1863 91 or purpose was to determine to what degree each with the Royal Autograph recension. An had been a good king according to the traditional example is when Phan Chanthanumat describes Buddhist worldview. These early writings did the digging of the Khok Kham Canal during the not want to show continuity in prawatisat thai reign of King Thai Sra: as did King Mongkut and later authors. It can be stated that King Mongkut wrote In the year of the ox in the third cycle, in the prawatisat thai under the new conceptions of second month of year 1083 of the Sakaraja era, history. His purpose was to describe the kings His Majesty the King ordered that since the Khok as "doers" who gave rise to the state, who Kham Canal had many curves, a straight-line maintained "peace and tranquility", and brought canal along the same route be dug instead. 92

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 87

In the Phra Phonarat recension of the chronicle, It is true that Krung Thep was lost to the Burmese. to which the account of Phan Thai Norasing We think that to have all the people in the eastern was added, the account is as follows: provinces return and restore the old capital as the capital of yore, and then to rebuild the monkhood Then His Majesty the King made the statement would not bring peace and happiness. We will that the Khok Kham Canal had many curves found our capital at a place of which the people making it difficult for ships to enter and exit ... are in awe. from here we shall restore the kingdom so the canal should be straightened out.93 easily. All of you, both soldiers and phrai will see these things and see them in a favorable light.97 The Royal Autograph Chronicle told the story as follows: As these excerpts show, it was during the reign of King Rama IV that historical reasoning In the year of the ox, Sakaraja Era year 1083, His begins to occur. At this time, the writings show Majesty the King travelled to the mouth of the the thought-process of the kings. These are Thai Chin River. When he reached the Mahachai important characteristics of historical writings Canal he observed that the canal had not been in the reigns of Kings Rama V and VI such as completely dredged. Then when he reached the those written by Prince Damrong Rachanubhap. capital again, he made the statement that Since the king was seen as a human being, and Phraratcha Songkhram be given the position "Nai since the "royal statements" could be mistaken, Kon~•94 King Mongkut felt it necessary to explain that in the past, Thai kings could do both good and In this account of King Narai, the King sent evil. If there was more good than evil, "the man an embassy to France. This account does not who was king would rule the kingdom with appear in the Phan Chanthanumat Recension. power and kindness and even though occasional This recension does provide an explanation in a serious errors might be made, they could not do way that corresponds to that of the Royal away with the good altogether."98 Autograph recension. The reason given for the Thus, the statements made by King Mongkut embassy was as follows: show that he thought it necessary for the historical kings to be shown as having received His Majesty the King listened to Phraya accolades by their subjects for "their power and Wichaiyen who said that in France there were kindness". This differs from the descriptions of many unbelievable wonders. The King then made King Taksin made at the beginning of the the statement that to learn the truth, he was Ratanakosin era: ordering Chaophraya Kosathibodi to have a Thai ship travel to France.95 King Taksin brought together people from all over the kingdom to fight the Burmese in order The Royal Autograph version gives import­ to regain Thai independence. But it must be the ance to the decision-making that lead to the fault of those people who did not come and set King's order which would then benefit the their hearts against it. But it was because his people. In other words, the King was described actions saved many people that he was acclaimed as having the desire or feeling the duty to act as the leader, with his finally becoming the ruler on behalf of his subjects. This is shown in the of Siam and his being seen as the same as the description of King Taksin's determined state previous kings.99 of mind before he came to power. The chronicle gave emphasis to the fact that the king "made That King Mongkut was willing to recognize a statement that he would bring peace to this Taksin as one of the historical Thai kings was era of chaos and that he would make Krung because King Taksin brought peace after a Thep to be the royal capital".96 Another clear chaotic episode in Thai life. "Had he not done example is in the attempt to stress that soldiers so,"100 there would be a gap in Thai history. and phrai accepted the intentions of King Thus it was not difficult to give King Taksin Taksin: a place as a king in Thai history. The fact that

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 88 ATTACHAK SATTAYANURAK he "wrested Thai independence back from the measure of historical units or eras. This had far­ Burmese" was proof that the king had been of reaching influence as can be seen in the Royal help to the people, which was unlike King Autograph Chronicle where the term "kingdom Ekathat under whose rule, the kingdom was lost ofhis majesty" is used frequently. 104 Other places to Burma. However, King Mongkut wrote the where the impact can be seen is in inscriptions, history of this era without discrediting King stating "Siamese Reign No. No. 37"105 written Ekathat, seeing that when kings aimed to serve on Buddha images given by King Mongkut to the people, they could make mistakes too. the previous Thai kings. This shows that King Mongkut wrote that "if we think that it was the Mongkut envisioned the previous kings as badness of King Ekathat, it was not really that having shaped history during their dynasty. bad because it was his indifference to the During that period, King Mongkut saw them as government and his promoting bad people that having been the "shapers" of history. resulted in the kingdom falling into disorder for These historiographical changes, which led 8-9 years."101 The badness of King Ekathat thus to the king being seen as the "shaper of history" became indifference to the government and the by which progress took place and because of promoting ofbad people. Similarly, in the Royal the conception that the king was a human being, Autograph Chronicle, a passage telling that King indicate that King Mongkut saw the level of Ekathat's military tactics were stupid and lacking ability and power of the Thai kings as not being in intelligence was removed. His bad qualities equal. This led to certain kings being given were lessened so that he was seen as not being a extra accolades for the extraordinary amount of "protagonist". Had he only not been indifferent, progress that occurred in their reigns. Or they thus, social order would not have collapsed. might be recognized for their special ability in King Mongkut added that in the kingdom of performing the royal duties well. Thus some Ekathat, "nobody rebelled or committed treason. kings became known as "maharaf' (great king, As subjects, they endured until the kingdom fell or "the great"). Although the term maharat was to Burma. This was because all the people were not used during the reign of King Rama IV, the loyal to the king who was descended from a history recorded by Sir John Bowring reflected long line of royalty that still maintained royal the new concept of "great" kings. Here, three power and goodness."102 The basis of this Ayutthayan kings were singled out as being argument shall be discussed below. Nonetheless, excellent, namely Kings U Thong, Naresuan, all of these passages show that a king was seen and Narai: as setting the course of history in his era. And all the kings were seen as receiving the loyalty U T'one Rama-Thi-Bodi was a mightier Prince of the people. than any of His predecessors .... On the demise This new historical style which became of Maha-Thamma raja, prince Naret succeeded popular in the reign of King Rama IV and which to the throne, and became one of the mightiest described the king as society's protagonist also and most renowned rulers Siam ever had. . . . described King Taksin in this way. Prince King Narai, the most distinguished of all Siamese Damrong wrote: rulers ... )06

As for the nobleman Taksin, Chaophraya The singling out of these three kings gives Thiphakorn once made joking references to him importance to three events. First was the as having lost it, while Somdet Phraphutthachao­ founding of Ayutthaya by U Thong. Second luang wrote that he was . . . fierce nobleman was the restoration of the kingdom by King Taksin. No one should try to detract from his Naresuan. Third was the promotion of the store of merit.I03 kingdom by the overseas contacts made by King Narai. By placing emphasis on the kings as In addition to contradicting the religious­ "protagonists" or as "shaping the course of based belief, King Mongkut had become aware history", the writing of history came to be of a new type of historical consciousness. By changed so that individual reigns came to be the this, as has been shown, the king was seen as

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 89 the "protagonist" of history, a king who "acts" The second reason was the taking the throne to build a new society. after an armed struggle. The acceptance of the king as society's protagonist led to a change in the traditional The fifteenth king of Siam, reigning from 1529 understanding of ratchawong, to seeing it in a untill555; the Buddha image is shown in a seated light that gave more importance to the pose, raising his left hand. It is dedicated successor's ancestry. This new interpretation respectfully to Phra Mahachakrapadirachathirat, saw being the son of a previous king as a sign of who seized power in the great capital, Krung "dharmic" favor bestowed on the crown prince. Thep thawarawadi Si Ayutthaya.lll The new understanding of ratchawong implied the "right" to succeed to the throne. This is seen Following armed seizures ofthe throne, those in the explanation King Mongkut gave regarding who later succeeded to the throne were seen as kings in Thai history. Concerning King U Thong, justified heirs. This was the case with the King Mongkut said the following: sixteenth king of Siam". The writings regarding these inscriptions showed well the thinking of This king, it is said, was son-in-law of his King Mongkut. They show clearly his thoughts predecessor, who was named Smchai Chiang Sen, regarding the "succession" which then became who was without male , and therefore the the guiding principle in future successions. throne descended to the son-in-law by right of Changes in the conception of succession the royal daughter. 107 which reached their culmination in the Fourth Reign were related to the historical under­ Based on what was explained before, this standing by the elite of that time. King Rama IV passage tells clearly enough that had the was also affected by this process. Beside the of Sirichai Chiang Sen been male, this child elite's accepting the king as the "protagonist" would have been the successor. Since this was of history and the creator ofhistorical continuity, not so, royal descent passed through the another result was the differentiating between to the son-in-law, and then continued for another different ratchawong. 15 reigns. 108 By his clearly distinguishing between Because these interpretations of ratchawong ratchawong, the King, through acceptance of implied the "right" to succeed, King Mongkut the new historical understanding, took a step sought to show how new kings were descended with important political implications. The idea from royal ancestors. Thus, as he explained of ratchawong, by conferring the "right" to the regarding Maha Thammaracha, "The ruler of throne also brought with it other implications in Northern Siam was Mahathamma rajarelated to this new historical consciousness regarding kings the fourteenth king as son-in-law, and to the last who did not act properly. That is if, as King as brother-in-law."109 Mongkut explained, "no one rose up in rebellion When King Mongkut inscribed the names or committed treason against the king but of 37 kings from the Ayutthayan and Thonburi continued living as if they were happy" .112 It periods on the bases of Buddha images, he was because the ancestors of the king had ruled described them as occuring due to two different kindly over the grandmothers and grandfathers reasons in the inscriptions. The first was peaceful of the present-day citizens. 113 succession to the throne: This new historical consciousness spread to many people by means of King Mongkut's The tenth king of Siam, reigning from 1470 to announcements. Many of his announcements 1509; the Buddha image is shown in a seated showed his new historical consciousness. 114 At pose, raising his right hand to suppress Mara the same time, he transmitted this new way of . . . it is dedicated respectfully to Somdet Phra understanding history to many close to him . Ramathibodi II, who ascended to royal power Some of these were members of the next in the great capital, Krung Thep Thawarawadi generation who played an important role in Si Ayutthaya in the year 832 of the Lesser implementing the absolute monarchy. Among Cycle.IIO these was Prince Darnrong Racnahubhap, who

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 90 ATTACHAK SATTAYANURAK described how King Mongkut taught his son, progressive course. He often stated that the king Prince Chulalongkom about the subject ofbeing "nam pai soeng phaendin" (leading for the a king. 115 King Chulalongkom himself described kingdom) as seen in the following passage: how his Royal father taught him much about history. 116 The king, as ruler of all, is busy with many This change in historical consciousness and activities, living for bringing happiness, being a the acceptance of a new way of understanding safeguard for the people, leading the kingdom, as history was transmitted to others. The way in is the way of the dharma.119 which the Thai elite acted from the Fourth until the Seventh reigns shows well how these The stating of these intentions occurred in many individuals facilitated the spread of this new of the King's writings, such as in the Royal historical consciousness. Gazette. An example of this is "the King spoke about how he was going to improve the kingdom and to make life better than before."120 The New Historical Consciousness as the Because of the thinking that the king was Basis of the Absolute Monarchy the protagonist of history, historical writings often used the phrase, ''phaendin phramaha­ The intellectual force that inspired the elite, in kasat" {the kingdom's king) to refer to the particular the king, to see the monarch as the current ruler. This phrase was used to emphasize "protagonist" of history by which social change that the present king who was shaping the (progress) takes place led to the coming to be of kingdom's history at that time. This led to King a new kind of state. The intellectual force of the Mongkut using the phrase "working for the new conception of history that led to changes in kingdom". He believed that it was the king's how history was perceived was the basis for a duty to shape history. new understanding of politics. Therefore, Based on the belief that the king shaped understanding this new conception of history history, it is possible to state that everything will result in a better understanding of the politics occurred because of the king's shaping history. at that time. In this regard, King Mongkut stated: As stated above, the king was the only person who was seen as capable of changing history The king, as the supreme ruler in Siam ... acts for and satisfying the needs of society. The king his relatives, for his royal relations in the did this, thus creating continuity from the past ratchawong; for the government officials working until the present reign. When taken together at a depressed condition and for those in an elevated with the new belief in the possibility of progress, condition. The king acts appropriately for the attitudes were changed so that kings were seen different levels of government officials in various as obliged to "act" in order to satisfy the needs conditions; for those at the lower conditions up to of society. This conception then led to the belief the highest including councilors and ministers. in the "duties" of the king. He speaks to bring happiness and to support all King Mongkut explained the origin of the people of every class in the Kingdom"l21 belief in a Royal mission by saying "the Siamese have been good and half bad for many In short it is clear that the king sees he is the generations. There are many who are really source of everything in the kingdom. This was stupid."117 As a result, there had to be a king to so regardless of wealth, land holdings, or social serve as the leader so that progress would occur. status that came as a result of economic factors. The King explained that "when one became an Thus the understanding that the king was the adult in the Kingdom, that person would see protagonist of history led to the strengthening good things; would read and learn about of the belief that the king had to do everything everything according to the new traditions that for the Kingdom. Besides this, the understanding were occurring in neighboring countries". 118 of history was the image of different reigns. King Mongkut noted often that the king was The succession of kings according to bloodlines the protagonist of history leading it on a led to kings believing that the bloodlines that

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 91 ensured the continuation of the dynasty were There are two important announcements the bloodlines of the Chakri dynasty. related to the founding of the dynasty and the It is necessary to point out here that at the capital. Besides being the king who has the duty early stages of this change in historical to "act" for the benefit of the kingdom, as a consciousness, phrases such as Ratchawong member of a dynasty, the king must also "act" Chakri (Chakri dynasty) or Borommaha Chakri to enhance the dynasty's prestige and honor. As Wong (The Great Chakri dynasty) were not used. King Mongkut told Phra Boromawongsanu­ These terms only came to be used in the reign of wong: King Rama V after the institution of decorations like the "Order of the Chakri Dynasty" or the Work for the honor and prestige of King Rama II building of the Chakri Palace. In any case, and King Rama III who carried on the dynasty although these words did not change people's and the line of King Rama I, the founder of the conception, they did indicate those changes. In dynasty. Do not relax or stop working earnestly this paper, the term Ratchawong Chakri shall be ... go ... help and conceive of new ways which used rather than terminology previously will serve to ornament all of the royal kings of employed because ofits convenience and clarity. the dynasty.l26 The recognition ofa Chakri Dynasty includes the belief of an origin with King Rama I. King When writing to Kromluang Wongsa Rama IV spoke of himself as a member of this Thitatsanit, King Mongkut indicated his clear ratchawong as follows: "King Mongkut, of the awareness of this point. He wrote, "we are the Kingdom of Siam is the Fourth Monarch of the kingdom. If we remain inert, thinking of nothing, Dynasty which founded Krung Ratanakosin­ we will lose our honor."127 mahintharayuthaya".122 The king also used this This continued stress on the dynastic links terminology in his Chronicle of Krung from the founding king and the builder of the Ratanakosin. 123 capital city down to the present had another The belief in the dynasty's descent from important impact on the elite, and King Mongkut King Rama I had a great impact on both King in particular. This was that all things in the Mongkut and the elite of his time. This was kingdom were royal possessions. because descent from King Rama I was a descent There were two aspects to this belief. The from a great king who had built many wondrous first appeared clearly in a writing by the king things. King Mongkut referred to this descent regarding accession to the throne. In discussing as follows: the coming to power of King Raman;, Mongkut observed: My royal grandfather and father, both Kings [Rama I and Rama II], were illustrious founders The supreme ruler on becoming aged turned over of this ratchawong just as was Phrachao U Thong his power to the Crown Prince, his Royal son. was the founder of the great city, Ayutthaya, the The Crown Prince received Royal power from old royal capital ... Thinking of their majesties his Royal father at the coronation_l28 and goodnesses [is because] they founded the great capital and the "ratchawong" .124 The King explained that, as for King Rama III, "the second ruler [Rama II] ... had fallen ill ... King Mongkut was not the only king to not giving him the time to hand over the royal trace the origin of the dynasty to King Rama I. possessions to any particular individual ...". 129 King Chulalongkom also stressed the continuity This clearly shows that the royal power is seen in the dynasty in his announcements and as belonging to the king which then makes it an writings. For example, in his 1873 Announce­ "" for whomever the king designates. ment on the Founding of a Council and Royal The second aspect is related to the belief Establishments, he wrote that "King Chula­ that royal power is a possession of the king just longkom is the fifth king in the royal dynasty as all things in the kingdom also belong to him. that has been ruling in Krung Thep Mahanakhon As such the king is able to give such a possession [Bangkok]. 125 to whomever he wants.

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 92 ATTACHAK SATTAYANURAK

Notes

1 Chaiyan Rajchagool,l984 The Social and State 17 King Mongkut, "Khatha Thammabanyat' [Verse Formation in Siam, 1855-1932. (Manchester: Explaining the Dharma], in Prachum Phrachaniphon University of Manchester Ph.D. Disertation). Phasa Bali Nai Ratchakan Thi 4, Part I, p. 105. 2 Nakharin Mektrarat, 1992 Kan Patiwat Sayam 18 King Mongkut, "Phraboromarachowat Sadaen­ Ph.S. 2475 [The Siamese Revolution of 1932] gbaep Sin Yang Tam (Royal Command Describing (Bangkok: Social Science and Humanities Foundation Lower Moralities, in Prachum Phrachaniphon Thai & The 60 Years of Democracy Project). Nai Ratchakan Thi 4 Phak 1 (Collected Writings of 3 See details of Thai historiography in Charnvit the Fourth Reign, Part 1). Kasetsiri & Suchat Sawatsri, 1972 Prawatisat Lae 19 Somdet Phra Sangkharat (Sa}, Sarathanpariyai Nak Prawatisat Thai [Thai History and Historians]. (Printed for the cremation of Phrakhru Palatsama­ (Bangkok: Praphansan). thiphat Silachan, 1925). (Bangkok: Sophon­ 4 Nidhi Aeusrivongse, 1986 "Watanatham Kra­ phiphanthanakon) p. 11. thumphi Kap Wannakam Ton Ratanakosin" [Feudal 20 Vajiranana Library, Thammakhadi Section, No. Society And Literature in the Early Ratanakosin Era], 6, Drawer 121, Title Phromachariya Thetsana. In Pak Kai Lae Bai Rua [Quill and Sail]. (Bangkok: 21 Phra Sangkharat (Sa}, 1920 Sapphaasam­ Amarin) pp. 96-106. annyanusatsani Akkat Patipathanusatsani. (Printed 5 Nidhi Aeusrivongse, 1986 "Watanatham Kra­ for the cremation ofRongsawektho Khun Kanchana­ tumphi Kap Wanakam Ton Ratanakosin" [Feudal rangsan [Chan Semakanit). (Bangkok: Sophon­ Culture and Literature in the Early Bangkok Period], phiphathanakon Press) p. 19. in Pak Kai Lae Bai Rua [Quill and Sail]. (Bangkok: 22 King Chulalongkorn, 1968 Phratchaphithi Amarin) pp. 90-106. Sipsong Duan (Royal Ceremonies of the 12 Months). 6 Ibid, chapter 4. (Bangkok: Sinlapakon) p. 666. 7 Ibid, chapter 4. 23 For examples see Prince Damrong Rachanaphab, 8 Ibid, p. 324. Khon Di Thi Khapachao Ruchak, Vol III( Good People 9 Ibid, pp.281-282. I Know), pp. 80, 126. 10 In the rules for monks, "good" actions include 24 Sisuphon Kuangsakun, "Khwamplianplaeng only those aimed at attaining nirvana. Traditionally, Khong Khana Song ..." (Changes in the Sangha}, these were acts of merit making. At present, such pp. 45-51. acts include creative endeavors such as anonymously 25 King Mongkut, Phratchaphithi Sipsong Duan, writing non-religious literature. pp. 430-433. 11 Phrarachpuccha Nai Khan Krung Ratanakosin 26 King Chulalongkorn, 1975 "Phraboramora­ Tangtae Ratchakan Thi 1-Ratchakan Thi 5,1970 chathibai Waduai Khwamsamakkhi Kae Khwam Nai [Royal Questions in the Ratanakosin Kingdom from Khatha Thi Mi Nai Sayam Phaendin (A Royal the 1st until the 5th Reign] Vol. 2. (Bangkok: Explanation of Congeniality in the Kingdom of Siam) Khurusapha) p. 56. in Prawaiisat Lae Kanmuang (History and Politics). 12 Ibid, p. 63. (Bangkok: Thammasat University) pp. 174-175. 13 Ibid, p. 63. 27 King Mongkut, "Khatha Thammabanyai (A 14 Prince Poworetsawariyalongkon, "Ruang Racha­ . Discourse Explaining the Dharma) in Prachum prawat Nai Rachakan Thi 4" [Regarding the Phraratchaniphon Phasa Bali Nai Ratchakan Thi 4 Biography of King Rama IV], in Prachum Phra­ Phak 1 (Collected Writings in Pali During the Fourth rachaniphon Phasa Bali Nai Ratchakan Thi 4 Reign, Part 1), p. 105. [Collected Pali Writings in the Reign of King Rama 28 King Mongkut, 1962 "Phraphutthabutsayraf' In IV], Part 1. (Bangkok: Mahamakut Rachawithayalai) Chumnum Phraboramratchathibai Nai Phrabat p.2. Somdet Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua Muat Borana­ 15 King Mongkut, "Khatha Sansoen Phrathama­ sathan Lae Boranawattu (Collected Royal Expla­ winai [Verse Celebrating the Vinaya], in Prachum nations by King Mongkut, Section on Ancient Monu­ Phrarachaniphon Phasa Bali Nai Ratchakan Thi 4, ments and Objects). Printed on the occasion ofmaking Part 1, pp. 66-70. terra cotta amulets and for the cremation of Achan 16 Sisuphon Chuangsakun, "Khwamplianplaeng Phanna Khanodop. (Bangkok: Wiratham} p. 37. Khong Khanasong: Suksakorani Tammayut Nikai 29 Ibid. (Ph.S. 2368-Ph.S.2464)" [Changes in the Sangha: 30 Ibid., p. 36. the Case of the Thammayut Sect (1825-1921)]. 31 Ibid. (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University M.A. thesis in 32 Ibid., p. 34. history) pp. 154-157. 33 Ibid., p. 35.

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 93

34 King Mongkut, 1968 Prachum Prakat Ratchakan 48 Nidhi Auesrivongse, "Lok Khong Nang Nophamat Thi 4, P.S. 2408-2411 (Collected Royal Announce­ (The World of Nang Nophamat), in Pak Kai Lae Bai ments of the Fourth Reign, 1865-1868). "Phraratcha­ Rua, pp. 361-362. kamnot Kuang Nalika (Royal Setting of Clocks), pp. 49 Ibid., p. 359. 142-145. 50 Nang Nophamat, p. 46. 35 King Mongkut, 1966 Phraratchaniphon Nai 51 Georg~ Hall Feltus, 1928 Samuel Reynolds House Phrabat Somdet Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua Waduai Burut Chai Di (S.R. House: A Man with a Good Phongsawadan Phraphutthachinarat Chinasi Lae Heart). (Bangkok: Bunruang) p. 28. Phrasisatsada (Royal Writings by King Mongkut on 52 William L. Bradley, 1976 Siam Then. (Pasadena: the Chronicle of the Chinarat, Chinasi, and William Carey Library) p. 49. Phrasisatsada Buddha Images). Printed for the funeral 53 King Mongkut, "Nana Thamawicharini" (Col­ of Nang Punphuan Chomwithaya; King Mongkut, lected Dharma Writings) in Prachum Phrachaniphon 1933 Tamnan Phrasai Wat Pathum (Account ofWat Phasa Thai Nai Rachakan Thi 4 Phak 2 (Collected Pathum). Printed on the occasion of the Royal Kathin Thai Writings in the Fourth Reign, Part 2) p. 123. Ceremony sponsored by Prince Voradej (Bangkok: 54 Nidhi Aeusrivongse, Kanmuang Samai Phrachao Sophonphiphathanakon); and King Mongkut, Krung Thonburi (Politics in the Time ofKing Taksin), Chumnum Phraboramoratchathibai Nai Phrabat p. 267. Somdet Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua Muat Borana­ 55 Phraratchaphongsawadan Chabap Racha­ sathan Lae Boranawat. hatlekkha (Royal Autograph Chronicle). Printed for 36 Ibid. the cremation ofTailong Phonprapha, Thonburi, 1968. 37 King Mongkut, 1962 Chumnum Phraboramora­ 56 See discussion of the shaping of Thai borders in chathibai Na Phrabat Somdet Phrachomklao Thongchai Winichaikul. "Prawatisat Kansang Chaoyuhua Ruam 2 Muat (Collected Royal Expla­ Tuaton" (History of a Self-Creation) Yu Muang Thai, nations by King Mongkut, including 2 Sections). pp. 129-180. Printed for the Cremation of Prince Thipthepsut 57 King Mongkut, 1978 Phrarachhatlekha Khong Devakul, (Bangkok: Wat Thepsirin). Phrabat Somdet Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua (Writings 38 Ibid. of King Mongkut) in work celebrating the 84th 39 King Chulalongkom, Phrachaphithi Sipsong anniversary of Makutrachawithayalai. (Bangkok: Duan, p. ii. Makutrachawithayalai) pp. 601-603. 40 King Chulalongkom, 1964 Phrachakaran­ 58 Ibid., p. 353. yanuson. Bangkok: Khlangwithaya. 59 Ibid., p. 354. 41 King Chulalongkom, Rarachaphithi Sipsong 60 King Mongkut, Prachum Phrarachaniphon Duan. Phasa Bali Nai Ratchakan Thi 4 Phak 2 (Collected 42 Prince Damrong Rachanuphab, 1969 Tamnan Ho Pali Language Writings in the Fourth Reign, Part 2). Phrasamut: Ho Monthiantham Ho Wachirayan Ho (Bangkok-Thonburi: Mahamakutrachawithayalai) p. Phutthasatsanasankha Lae Ho Samut Samrap 553. Phranakhon. (Bangkok: Akson Charoenthat). 61 King Mongkut, Phrarachahatlekha Khong 43 Prince Damrong Rachanuphab, 1964 "Tamnan Phrabat Somdet Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua (Writings Loek Huai Lae Thua Pai" In Prachum_Phongsawadan of King Mongkut) p. 31. (Collected Chronicles). Pt. 17, Vol. 12. (Bangkok: 62 National Library, R4 C.S. 1219 Chotmai Thung Khurusapha) pp. 157-292. Thutanuthut Ruang Thoenam Phiphattaya_Lae Ruang 44 When the same changes occurred in Western Suriyuprakha, No. 134. Phrarachatlekha Thung society, explanations arose for all things, so much so Thutanuthut Mi Phramahamontri Pen Ton. that one authority noted "Everything has a history", 63 National Archives, R4, Lem 25, C.S. 1225 (1853) Peter Burke, The Sense ofthe Past, pp. Santra Waduai Yok Leksom Chaomuang Kromakan 39-50. Sak Mai Hai Pen Rua Samrap Lattrawen, cited in 45 King Mongkut, Phrarachahatlekha (Royal Niramon Thirawat,l982 Phrachadamri Thang­ Autograph Chronicle), p. 37. kanmuang Khong Phrabat Somdet Phrachomklao 46 King Mongkut, 1984 Phrachaniphon Nai Phrabat Chaoyuhua (Political Writings of King Mongkut) Somdet Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua (Royal Writings (M.A. thesis, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkom of King Mongkut). (Bangkok: Sanmuanchon) pp. University) p. 326. 22-23. 64 Nang Nophamat, p. 46. 47 Phrabath Somdej Pra Chomklaochaonhua, 1969 65 Ibid., p. 12. "The Brief Notices of the History of Siam", In Sir 66 Nidhi Aeusrivongse, "Watanatham Kratomphi John Bowring, The Kingdom and People of Siam, Kap Wanakam Ton Ratanakosin" (Feudal Culture Vol III. (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford) p. 342. and Literature in the Ratanakosin Era), in Pak Kai

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) 94 ATTACHAK SATTAYANURAK

Lae Bairua, p. 90. 85 King Mongkut, Phrarachahatlekha, p. 307. 67 King Mongkut, "Nanathamawicharini" in 86 King Mongkut, Chumnum Phraboromoracha­ Prachum Phrarachaniphon Phak Phasa Thai Na thibai Nai Phrabat Somdet Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua Ratchakan Thi 4 Phak 2 (Collected Writings in Thai Muat Boranakhadi Boranasathan. During the Fourth Reign, Part 2) p. 134. 87 King Chulalongkom, "Samakhom Supsuan Khong 68 King Mongkut Phrarachahatlekha, p. 203. Horan Na Prathet Sayam" (Committee to Investigate 69 King Mongkut, Phraratchahatlekha, p. 203. Antiquities in Siam) Silapakon 12 (July 1968), p. 43. 7° King Mongkut, 1912 Phrakhatha Ruang 88 Ibid. Phratchaphongsawadan Yo Krung Ratanakosin 89 Saichon Wannarat, "Patikiriya Ik Miti Nung Phitsadan Nai Ratchakan Thi 4 Lae Phra Khatha Samrap Sangkhitiyawong Kap Kanmuang Nai Raya Tamnan Phrakaeo Morakot Lae Phrakhatha Sansoen Raek Tang Krung Ratanakosin" (Another Dimension Phrathammawinai (Accounts on the Ratanakosin Regarding the Sangkhitiyawong and Politics at the Abbreviated Chronicle in the Fourth Reign and on Founding of the Ratanakosin Capital City); the Emerald Buddha and on the worship paid the Ruambotkhwam Prawatisat 6, pp. 82-90. Vinaya. Printed for the cremation of Chao Chom­ 90 King Mongkut, "Nanathamawicharini", in manda. (Bangkok: Bamrungnukulakit) pp. 15-16. Prachumphrachaniphon PhasaThai Nai Ratchakan 71 King Mongkut, Phraratchahatlekha, p. 29. Thi 4 Phak 2, pp. 126-127. 72 King Mongkut, Phrakhatha Ruang Phraracha­ 91 Dan Beach Bradley, ed., 1853 Phraracha phongsawadan Yo Krung Ratanakosin Phitsadan Nai Phongsawadan Chabap Phim Song Lem. (Bradley Ratchakan Thi 4, pp. 22-23. Printing of the Ayutthayan Chronicles). (Bangkok: 73 Nidhi Aeusrivongse, "Watanatham Kratumphi Khlong Bang Luang). Kap Wanakam Ton Ratanakosin", in Pak Kai Lae 92 Phraracha Phongsawadan Krung Si Ayutthaya Bai Rua, article no. 3. Chabap Phan Chanthanumat (Choem) (Royal 74 King Mongkut, Prachum Prakat Ratchakan Thi 4 Ayutthayan Chronicles, the Phan Chanthanumat P.S. 2408-24II, "Prakat Tuan Sati_Hai Sanguan Khao (Choem) Recension). (Bangkok: Khurusapha) 1969, Wai Yai Pho Kin Talot Pi (Announcement Warning to p. 241. Store Rice for Use the Entire Year) p. 195. 93 Phraracha Phongsawadan Krung Si Ayutthaya 75 King Mongkut, Prachum Prakat Ratchakan Thi Somdet Phra Phonarat (The Royal Ayutthayari 4 P.S. 2408-25II, "Prakat Ruang Cha_Phrarachathan Chronicles, the Somdet Phra Phonarat Recension). Piawat Phra Orasot Phrathida Na Phra Bowon­ (Bangkok: Khlang Withaya) 1972, pp. 579-580. It rachawang" (Announcement on What Will be Given was formerly and erroneously believed that Somdet to the and in the Palace), p. 7. Phra Phonarat was the author. In fact it is the same 76 VajirananaLibrary, R4 CS 1215, No. 82. Khwam recension· as that printed by Bradley in 1853. See Laolu 3 Prakan Thamniam Phrarachawang Phra­ Ubonsi Atthaphan, 1981 "Kanchamra Phraracha chaophaendin. Phongsawadan Nai Ratchasamai Phrabat Somdet 77 Vajiranana Library, R4 CS 1218, No. 107. Phraphuttha Yotfachulalok:' (Writing Royal Chroni­ 78 Vajiranana Library R4, CS 1215, No. 82. Sam cles during the Reign of King Rama I), (M.A. thesis, Prakan Lae Kongsun Tangprathet Dai Ngoen Duan. Sinlapakom University) pp. 37-41. 79 Sathian Lailak, Prachum Kotmai Pracham Sok 94 Phraratcha Phongsawadan Chabap Phraracha­ (Collected Laws, By Year) Vol6. hatlekha, p. 545. 80 See details in Ramphai Udomphachitrakun, 1984 95 Ibid., p. 462. "Kansawaeng ha Raidai Khong Phaendin Phainai 96 Phraracha Phongsawadan Chabap Phraracha­ Rachaanachak Thai Ph.S. 2398-2458'' (The Search hatlekha, p. 616. for Government Revenues in the Thai Kingdom, 97 Ibid., pp. 603-604. 1855-1915). (M.A. Thesis, Silapakom University). 98 King Mongkut, "Ruang Ratsadon Raluk Thung 81 National Archives, CS 1209 No. 57, Phra- Phradet Phrakhun Phrachaophaendin" (On the rachakamnot Phasiakon Tang Tang (Announcement People Paying Respects to the Power and Goodness on Tax Rates). of the King), in Boranakhadisamoson Chumnum 82 King Mongkut, Prachum Prakat Rachakan Thi 4 Phraboromarachathibai Nai Phrabat Somdet Ph.S. 2384-2400 (Collected Announcements of the Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua (Antiquities Society: Fourth Reign, 1841-1857); "Prakat Phim Khosana Royal Explanations by King Mongkut), p. 8. Phasi Ya", (Announcement of the Tax on Medicine), 99 Ibid., p. 9. pp. 133-134. 100 Phraracha Phongsawadan Chabap Phraracha­ 83 Sir John Bowring, 1969 The Kingdom and People hatlekha, p. 616. ofSiam, Vol L (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford) p. 35. 101 Ibid., pp. 6-7. 84 King Mongkut, Phrarachahatlekha, p. 51. 102 Ibid.

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000) The Intellectual Aspects ofStrong Kingship in the Late Nineteenth Century 95

103 Prince Damrong Rachanuphab, "Khunluang Tak 116 King Chulalongkom, Phrarachaphiti Sipsong Pen Ba Ru" (Was King Taksin Crazy?), in Ruang Duan,pp.63. 126,163,211,666,668. Bua Benchaphan Lae Banthuk Rap Song Somdet 117 King Mongkut, Phrarachhatlekha, p. 677. Kromphraya Damrong Rachanuphab Prathan Mom 118 Ibid., p. 605. Rachawong Sumonchat Sawatikun (On the Bencha­ 119 King Mongkut, Phrarachaphongsawadan phan Lotus, Recorded to Receive Prince Damrong Chabap Yo Krung Ratanakosin, p. 83. Rachanuphab by Mom Rachawong Sumonchat 12° King Mongkut, Prachum Prakat Ratchakan Thi Sawatikun). Printed for the cremation of M.R. Bua 4 Ph.S. 2400-2405 "Prakat Ruang Ok Nangsu Sanitwong and M.R. Thanyawat Sawatikun, Bangkok, Rachakitchanubeksa," [Announcement Regarding the 1959, p. 45. Publishing of the Royal Gazette] p. 116. 104 Phraracha Phongsawadan Chabap Phrahatlekha, 121 King Mongkut, Phrarachaphongsawadan pp. 65-66. Chabap Yo Krung Ratanakosin, pp. 36-37. 105 King Mongku, Phrarachakaranuson. Bangkok: 122 King Mongkut, Prachum Prakat Ratchakan Thi Khlang Withaya, 1964, pp. 22--41. 4 Ph.S. 2405-2408 "Ton Prakat Phrarachathan 106 Prabath Somdej Pra Chornklachaouhua, "The Laekplian Thi Wisungkhamsima Muang Lopburt' Brief Notices of the History of Siam," Sir John [Announcement on the Exchange at Lopburi], p. 50. Bowring, The Kingdom andPeople of Siam Vol. 2, 123 See in King Mongkut, Phrarachaphongsawadan pp. 343-345. Yo Krung Ratanakosin Phitsadan Na Ratchakan Thi 4. 107 Prabath Somdej Pra Chornkloauhua, "The Brief 124 King Mongkut, Prachum Prakat Ratchakan Thi Notice of the History of Siam," Bowring, Vol II, p. 4 Ph.S. 2394-2400 "Prakat Khanan Nam Phra­ 342. phutthapotimakon Pracham Ratchakan," pp. 24-25. 108 Ibid., p. 343. 125 King Mongkut, "Prakat Waduai Tang Khaonsil 109 Ibid., p. 342. Lae Phrarachabannyat", [Announcement on Estab­ 110 King Mongkut, "Phrarachakaranyanuson", p. 27. lishing a Consulate and Royal Orders], in Chai-anan Ill Ibid., p. 29. Samuddavanija and Khattiya Kamasutra, Ekasan 112 King Mongkut, 1912 "Ruang Ratsaton Raluk Kanmuang Kanpokkhrong Thai Ph.S. 241 I-2477. Thung Phradet Phrakhun Chaophaendin," (On [Thai Political and Administrative Documents, 1868- Citizens Rembering the Power and Good Qualities of 1934), p. 17. the King), in Chumnum Phraboramorachathibai Nai 126 King Mongkut, Prachum Prakat Ratchakan Thi Phrabat Somdet Phrachomklao Chaoyuhua (Col­ 4 Ph.S. 2394-2400 "Phraboramorachowat Phra­ lected Royal Explanations by King Rama IV). rachathan Rangwan Phoem Piawat Phramoroma­ (Bangkok: printed for cremation of Prince Sinakhasa­ wongsanuwong" [Royal Order Regarding the watsadi) pp. 6-7. A warding of Prizes and the Increasing of the 113 Ibid., pp. 6-8. Subsistence allowance, p. 266. 114 See Prachum Prakat Ratchakan Thi 4, for 127 King Mongkut, Phrarachahatlekha, p. 59. example "Ton Prakat Phrarachathan Laekplian Thi 128 King Mongkut, "Phrarachaphongsawadan Yo Wisung Kham LiMa Muang Thonburi, 1862 ". Krung Ratanakosin Phitsadan Nai Ratchakan Thi 115 Prince Darnrong Rachanuphab, Khwamsongcham 4,"pp. 10-11. (Reminiscences), p. 115. 129 Ibid., p. 14.

Journal ofthe Siam Society 88.1 & 2 (2000)