UMBC REVIEW JOURNAL OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH 2015 vol.16
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Kendall Queen Modeling the Building Blocks of the Pancreatic Islet: 10 Connecting a-, b-, and d-cells Hollie Adejumo Evaluating the Ability of Low-Tech Processes to Remove 36 Bacterial Contaminants from Drinking Water in Kenya Sarah Klimek The Tragedy of Reluctant Compassion: Jewish Child Refugees 48 and Britain’s Kindertransport Program before the Second World War Boris Tizenberg 78 Darwinism and Moral Realism Alexis Rubin Effects of Social Skills on Hearing-Impaired Children’s 90 Academic Achievement: A Mediation Analysis Hannah Jones Philanthropy and Reputation in the Lives of Joseph 108 Townsend and Baltimore’s “public spirited citizens” Ryan Kotowski Reanalysis of Modern Colloquial French Subject Clitics 138 as Agreement Features Alexa White Residential Waste Analysis and Achieving Understanding 168 of Waste Management Infrastructure for Improving Sustainability at a University Caitlyn Leiter-Mason Evaluating the Success of Question 6: 190 A Case Study of Abortion Politics in Maryland, 1990-1992 Alana Lescure The Role of RpS9 in Ribosome Assembly and rRNA 210 Processing in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
has has has has Review UMBC Review provides an exclusive opportunity to to opportunity an exclusive provides UMBC Review: of Journal Undergraduate Research will help these authors achieve their academic and and academic their authors these will help achieve UMBC Review The publication. The following articles are included in Volume 16: in Volume included are articles The following publication. UMBC students, for many of whom this is only the firstforay in the of publication that hope We process. publication the into many UMBC Review you, that hope also We be. may these whatever goals, professional of diversity great the enjoy this in featured disciplines reader, the continues this tradition, with ten fascinating articles from students students from articles fascinating ten with tradition, this continues The campus. departments across in various working for out and sent submitted papers are process: selection a rigorous and September of best and the May between review year, each of a part become to selected are among these be to edition, next the in Aprilreleased of year. following the EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION EDITORS’ the 2000, Since students UMBC from research showcase to outlet unique a been 16 of Volume the UMBC faculty. with working
6 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 7 EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION
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takes a critical stance on the on the stance a critical takes analyzes a conflict between the moral moral the between conflict a analyzes and her research team evaluate three three evaluate team research and her presents a reanalysis of a reanalysis presents pro subject and his colleagues thoroughly analyze analyze thoroughly his colleagues and investigates the role of role the investigates — a RpS9 challenges the narrative surrounding surrounding narrative the challenges elucidates the ethical dilemmas dilemmas ethical the elucidates explores the relationships among among relationships the explores were codified into the state constitution. state the into codified were details the current habits and outcomes and outcomes habits current the details Roe v. Wade Roe v. Alana Lescure Alana and demonstrates cells, — in yeast ribosomal protein of consequences the depletion. its Hannah Jones Hannah in prominence to rose who figure a Townsend, Joseph of years early in the Baltimore independence. American Kotowski Ryan grammarnouns in the of Modern Colloquial French. WhiteAlexa of and gives UMBC campus, disposal on the waste them. improve to on how insight thorough Leiter-Mason Caitlyn protections the in Maryland in which 6 debate Question of different water treatment methods as part ofto part efforts as methods treatment water different Kenya. in Isongo, quality water improve Klimek Sarah program Kindertransport Britain’s surrounding War. World Second the leading up to Tizenberg Boris oftheories Copp. and David Street philosophersSharon Rubin Alexis achievement and academic social skills, hearing ability, in children. Kendall Queen cells among of behavior the by pancreas in the islets hormone secreted their various in interactions simulating of proportions physiological including scenarios cells islet. 3 × 3 × 3 of a diffusion in hormones spatial and Adejumo Hollie
- could not uphold the standard standard uphold the could not have our deepest gratitude. These our deepest gratitude. have UMBC Review Department of History Department of & Statistics Mathematics
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Intercultural Communication Intercultural Engineering We are also grateful to the proofreaders from all over all over from also grateful proofreaders the to are We Andrea Miller Andrea Delana Gregg Delana Helms Sally McGlynn Janet Lisa Beall Tim Ford Granger Abby plines. Unfortunately, in the interest of anonymity, we are not able to to able not are we of interest in the anonymity, Unfortunately, plines. name. by reviewers these thank the during perspectives their us lent campus who UMBC the process: editing Shuyan Sun Shuyan The reviewers who contributed their time the papers for and effort to review reviewers, experts in their respective fields,were ableto ensure us disci in their and novel relevant papers the are edition in this that Lasse Lindahl McCray Stanley Peercy Bradford Pfeifer Jessica Ritschel Daniel Amy Bhatt Amy Lee Blaney Ellis Erle Marjoleine Kars ofThese publish. we that research in the for strive we that quality allowed that students their to guidance faculty advisers provided them to produce these fine research mentorseditors as authors to support their lent throughout as well papers. In addition,these process: publication the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of work the Without advisers faculty the and mentors of our the authors, student
8 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 9 EDITORS’ INTRODUCTION - - is as enrich UMBC Review Senior, Modern Languages, Linguistics & Modern & Linguistics Languages, Senior,
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Career ServicesCareer Center : – Intercultural Communication Intercultural Benjamin Woodworth Benjamin The editors hope that Volume 16 ofThe Volume editors that hope the editors the produce. to was for as it reader the ing for EDITORS Rhode Cameron publication. Their experience and support have been crucial to the the to crucial been have and support Their experience publication. ofrealization journal. this McDonough Susan Abraham Guenet The Office Education Office The Undergraduate of Office President’s The Office Provost’s The guide mentors faculty the to indebted who are we least, not but Last toward long process the editorsthe both through and designer We would like to thank the following for their commitment to under to commitment their for following the thank to like would We graduate at research UMBC and for their financial support of the UMBC Review Hrabowski Freeman Kate Phelps Sauter Carrie Souders Brian Thompson Brian MODELING THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE PANCREATIC ISLET CONNECTING a-, b-, AND d-CELLS
KENDALL QUEEN Co-Authors: Annie Dai1, David Palensky2, Alex Piatski3,and Gina Vockeroth4
1Department of Mathematics, Northeastern University 2Department of Mathematics, University of Maryland, College Park 3Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Pennsylvania 4Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Loyola University Chicago The spring semester of my sophomore year was at its close and I was excited to conduct research here at UMBC. When I joined the Interdisciplin- ary Program in High Performance Computing, an eight-week summer research program offered by the UMBC Department of Mathematics and Statistics, I was both ecstatic and anxious. I really was not sure what to expect, as this was my first research experience. From the first day of classes, my knowledge base was expanded. I had very little experience with high-performance computing and I knew even less about the functions of the pan- creas. What I did know was how to use the tools I needed to be successful in my research. I learned everything I needed to know for my project in just a few weeks. As a computer engineering major, I never thought I would work in biology again. Once I was introduced to the topic, I found that I liked to relate mathematical principles to biologi- cal concepts and processes. I now have a newfound appreciation and respect for biological processes and for the ability of science to cross fields of study to produce new knowledge.
- - - - - 1 9 Our model scales the Tri-Hormone Model into an N × N × We are interested in modeling islets made up of made islets in modeling interested are We cells these The cells responsible for the regulation of regulation the for The responsible cells glucose are blood INTRODUCTION actions actions between α- and δ-cells as diffusive. Theα- and δ-cells do glucagon inappropriately when those cells have a limited number number a limited have cells those when glucagon inappropriately of parameters. of capability the with N cube arrangement the and quan choosing tities of the differentcell types. electrical β-cell coupling and incorporate We model the chemical (paracrine) inter well-known the suppress insulin and glucagon through special potassium channels channels potassium special insulin and glucagon through suppress (GIRK channels). It also simulates the interaction of β-cells with α- and δ-cells by allowing insulin take interactions these model, In this channels. K(ATP) to through inhibit glucagon secretion concludes This islet. in the space a common place within simulation that paracrine interactions are able to suppress α-cells that secrete in order to further understand to further hormonein order interac or paracrine the extend we accomplish to this, In order cells. among the tions among the interactions the simulates which Model, Tri-Hormone of interaction the This simulates model types. cell three a popula tion of δ-cells with α- and β-cells by allowing the somatostatin to sensitive potassium channels, or K(ATP) channels, leading to the the to leading channels, or K(ATP) potassium channels, sensitive flow of calcium intothe cell,which results in insulinrelease. The levels glucose blood when rise levels whose glucagon, secrete α-cells insulin and somatosta by regulated are and glucagon levels low, are in β-cells and α- inhibits which somatostatin, secrete δ-cells The tin. insulin levels. control help to order or from 25.8 million people to 29.1 million people. 29.1 to 25.8 million people or from of islets in the found While pancreas. in the located Langerhans, these islets contain fivetypes of cells,we focus onthe three oscillations major voltage experience β-cells The δ-cells. and β-, α-, – types This ofclosing the to due is glucose introduced. is when energy- Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose blood high by characterized disorder is a metabolic Diabetes body the prevents β-cells, ofdestroyed result a diabetes, I Type levels. glucose blood decrease effectively to order in insulin producing from to resistant becomes body the occurs II diabetes when Type levels. affected is that of population portion The States insulin. United the by diabetes grew from 8.3 percent in 2010 to 9.3 percent in 2012, 1
12 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 13 KENDALL QUEEN
(1.1) , by s 7 f(u,x) = = s 2 = D 2 ∂s ∂t can be different state variables of cell. variables the state different be can u Another Another differencebetween rodent and human islets is the A major differencerodent between and human islets is found We simulate islets while considering varying distributions and and varying distributions considering while islets simulate We For our computational model, we implement a system of system a implement we model, computational our For 26, BACKGROUND have more disorganized cell population distributions in which most most in which distributions population cell disorganized more have total total number of islet cells, α-cells compose about 33 to 46 percent, percent. 20 than less up make δ-cells and realm inner the rodents, In of δ-cells. distribution and spatial β-, α-, (the core) of an islet is made up of β-cells, and the circumference islets human of contrast, composed In is mantle) δ-cells. (the and α- β-cell secretions. β-cell in the percentages of α-, β-, and δ-cells. comprise 60 to In 80 percent of rodent islets, the total islet β-cells cell population, α-cells make up about 15 to 20 percent, and δ-cells account for less than of percent 59 to 48 the up make β-cells islets, human In percent. 10 Theof component endocrine ofup made is pancreas the of groups hormone-releasing ofislets called cells Theseclusters Langerhans. are made up of individual α-, β-, and δ- cells. The α-cells secrete lower To glucagon, a hormone glucose levels. blood increases that glucose levels, β-cells release insulin. Finally, when glucose levels are high, δ-cells secrete somatostatin to regulate the α-cell and of α-, β-, and δ-cells in a compare rodent islet. the We rodent islet in differences the observe to order in distribution three-plane our to distributions. cell different for space in secretion 2 that is secreted by each cell. each by is secreted that arrangements of look at four different cases, α-, β-, and We δ-cells. ofthree arranged in a cubic model interactions the display which of planes in three of type each islet is a rodent case The cell. fourth percentages depicts observed the accurately which distribution, cell where where 23, and 21 ordinary differentialequations for α-, rates the plot interpret we interact, cells these β-, how To and respectively. δ-cells, of hormone the calcium, and as voltage, such variables for change not communicate electrically via gap junctions, so their secretion is is secretion so their gap via electrically junctions, communicate not molecules, secretory model We diffusion. as treated
- (2.1) In Section 2.1, we describe describe 2.1, we In Section 7 comp
Ins comp,b comp,b f The α-, β-, and δ-cells interact. Arrows show show Arrows interact. δ-cells and β-, α-, The 2 comp v ISR = comp dt dIns TRI-HORMONE MODEL. TRI-HORMONE inactivation. show and T arrows activation, REPRESENTATION AND INTERACTION REPRESENTATION TRI-HORMONE MODEL CELL CELL TRI-HORMONE MODEL
the the computation, scientists ignore diffusion andneglect all spatial all cells is secreted, a molecule time the at As a result, components. models equation The following instantaneously. it feel system in the insulin secretion: FIGURE 2.1. and all cells are influenced by this secretion. To further simplify The Tri-Hormone Model can be used to simulate paracrine paracrine simulate to used can be Model TheTri-Hormone of consists a model Such interactions. representative three cells: one α-, one a closed space, β-, and one δ-cell. Each cell secretes into islet. Results islet. follow Results in Section 4 with concluding remarks found in 5. Section 2.1 islets, however, electrical coupling occurs between clusters ofclusters between occurs coupling β-cells electrical however, islets, islets. between not but islet, same in the of model general a cell three the among interactions paracrine the and mathematical physiological the 2.2 provides Section types. Tri-Hormone the in interaction paracrine each behind models Model. In Section 3, outline we the ofstructure computational the β-cells β-cells are next to α- and δ-cells. An additional difference between occur communication intercellular is the islets and human rodent ring in β-cell populations via electrical coupling. In β-cells rodents, perform their the electrical coupling as a syncytium. In human
14 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 15 KENDALL QUEEN -
(2.2) (2.3) The following The following 8 2 0.04 is the effective insulin α-cells ) increases as well. An increase in in An increase as well. increases 40 + 100 + -cell secretion δ Ins -cell secretion K(ATP) - α E f f I a 0.006 * E f f + I a 1 + exp( 1 + K(ATP)a g = = . Similar equations hold for glucagon α-cell in the hold for equations . Similar comp,b f K(ATP)a -cell stimulation of -cell stimulation -cell inhibition of ) inhibits α-cell secretion by opening K(ATP) channels. E f f I a g β β Ins usually causes a decrease in glucagon secretion. a decrease usually causes The The IN THE TRI-HORMONE IN THE TRI-HORMONE MODEL PHYSIOLOGY BEHIND PARACRINE INTERACTIONS INTERACTIONS BEHIND PARACRINE PHYSIOLOGY K(ATP) an inward GABA Cl channel is used. This is used. because done can be Cl channel GABA an inward GABA is secreted alongside insulin, so the effect of GABA can be β-cell. the of by release insulin the on based modeled receive. As insulin increases, g As insulin increases, receive. g 2.2.2 β- andrelates δ-cell secretions, effectthat the stimulatory create To It is important to note that that note to is important It 2.2.1 Insulin ( equations: following the This by is modeled 2.2 of representation is a direct Model TheTri-Hormone small-scale explain sections following The δ-cells. and β-, α-, among interactions of type each how types other the with and interacts with works cell islet. of pancreatic effect a the create to exist exist four main paracrine interactions: secre (somatostatin) 1.) δ-cell β-cell stimulating β-cell inhibiting 2.) secretion. α-cell (glucagon) inhibiting δ-cell 4.) secretion. (insulin) β-cell inhibiting δ-cell 3.) tion. 2.1. Figure in shown as secretion, (glucagon) α-cell The of method of change Insulin is the compartment in the insulin insulin degradation minus volume unit per (ISR) Rate Secretion rate the with and somatostatin in the δ-cell. In the Tri-Hormone Model, there equations are used to model this effect: this model to used are equations - (2.6) (2.7) (2.8) (2.4) (2.5) ) activa Som This is modeled by This by is modeled 5 80)) - ) (
) 2 150 + 20) + 10 50 Vb Vb 10 ( -Ins + -Ins -cells -cells 5 -Som -Som + α β 0.8 1 E f f * Vd I d E f f I s 1 + exp( 1 + 1 + exp( 1 + 10 1 + exp( 1 + 0.1 = factor factor -cell inhibition of -cell inhibition of GSR IGIRKb = = IGIRKb E fE f = s I E f f = I d = IGABA This as if is modeled a K channel. were it δ δ 6 is the voltage of the affected β-cell. ofaffected voltage the the is is the δ-cell voltage. δ-cell the is Vd Vb The The in the glucagonof in the version 2.1. equation rate ofrate increases. glucagon in granules change as somatostatin (GSR) rate secretion glucagon the affects process this words, other In 2.2.4 The inhibition of α-cells is a bit more interesting. In GIRK addition to channel inhibition of de-primes granules α-cells, in order to inhibit α-cells. somatostatin from δ-cells the with glucagon secretion correlates which equation, following the where where The way δ-cells inhibit β-cells is ( somatostatin through of tion potassium (GIRK) inwardly-rectifying G-protein-coupled channels. where where 2.2.3
16 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 17 KENDALL QUEEN
- - - 3 = the sum of the = the M -cells. The variables of The variables -cells. cell each x is the number of number is the = the number of number the = steps time and x N , where , where The α, β, and δ functions are scaled by Na, Nb, and Nd, respec Nd, and Nb, Na, by scaled are functions δ and β, α, The To model various paracrine interactions, we add coupling add coupling we interactions, paracrine various model To cell one than more for model our scaled to implement In order M THE TRI-HORMONE EXTENDING MODEL × METHODOLOGY 3 × 3 × 3 cell islet with three contiguous planes of α-, β-, and δ-cells. and of β-, planes α-, contiguous three with islet cell 3 × 3 × 3 N where tively, of number the by multiplied then are of cells can look We type. that distribu different with scale larger much a on effects paracrine the at oftions type. cell each of a user Given function. islet our coupled for vectorize we type, each duplicated are functions differential the for values initial the input, of compatibility the to Due implemented. cell new each MATLAB parame function our initial exchange easily we algebra, vector with of distributions a different three consider We values. vector with ters parameters (in this case, in the form in the parameters of case, (in this our voltage to currents) of system a dynamic make us to This allows equations. that cells are affectedby the secreted hormones, aswell asby the individual of amount total the observe We cell each that secretion voltages. cell of values sum all the then receives, a hormone, creating a secreted our functions. by used scalar value respectively. In order to simulate the Tri-Hormone Model, we run run we Model, Tri-Hormone the simulate to In order respectively. of The of variables each cell each simultaneously. functions cell these is that matrix a into δ, to β to α from order, in stored and solved are N variables. cell The Tri-Hormone Model consists of Model TheTri-Hormone of one with an islet cell each to In order space. a shared into instantaneously secretes that type islet, sized physiologically a more to cells three from model this extend of type each partition we run can be each so that in MATLAB cell through Foran α-, ordinary β-, differential equation (ODE) solver. equations, differential 19 and of21, functions 24, use we δ-cells, and the original model in order to implement a model of a model implement to in order original model the with an islet additional concerning Details each. δ-cell and β-, α-, one than more report. technical in the found can be values parameter 3.1 3 Model Tri-Hormone the implements code working Our currently scale then We code. of MATLAB into code that translate We an islet.
4 -
in an in an
2 N − 1)
k + ( + N − 1) j + ( + i
) entry with k , j , i number of cells secreting, as in Case 3, to account for the the for account to 3, Case in as secreting, of cells number δ-cells. and of β- number changing secretion is divided by the number of β-cells number the by divided is secretion nine). case, (in this 2 Nd = 20, Nb = 5, = Na of distribution observed the This emulates case in cells the This islet. also keeps case division by the a rodent Na = Nb = Nd = 9 Nd = Nb = = Na the for accounts but 1 islet Case the This observes case of amount average dividing by secreted somatostatin of number the sum by secreted the that secreting cells is somatostatin summed the words, In other somatostatin. insulin summed the and ofδ-cells, number the by divided to ensure accuracy. ensure to 9 Nd = Nb = = Na ofsomatostatin sum ofthe effect the observes case This every at islet in the cell on each and insulin secretion step. time Na= Nb = Nd = 1 Nd = Nb = Na= earlier. explained Model This Tri-Hormone is the case of consists It of islet a compartmentalized of one cell. each NIH the by provided code the to version this compare We matrix. 3
4. 3. 2. 1. N CELL COUPLING × 3 In order to simulate β-cell coupling via gap junctions, we in in voltage change the models imple that product vector a matrix ment of representation index a linear duplicate We cell. cell. each each a ( cell each give We N 3.2
18 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 19 KENDALL QUEEN
Each colored colored Each
(BLUE), (BLUE), - β
th cell (either 0 or 1). 0 or 1). (either cell th ) entry) of matrix the j j , i (PINK), - th and th a
i ) position. We then take the product of product the take then We ) position. our coupled (GREEN) CELLS. i - , d i
COUPLING MATRIX CONTAINING MATRIX COUPLING AND EXAMPLE OF CELL COUPLING IN A PLANAR STATE. PLANAR IN A COUPLING CELL OF EXAMPLE type. cell different a to corresponds plane FIGURE 3.2. represents the individual connections for one cell, and stores this this and stores cell, one for individual connections the represents ( the in value matrix and our ofvector β-cell found voltages at that time step via solver. ODE the For For our 3 × 3 × 3 islet, our coupling dimensional function places positions the three- of our The ( matrix. coupling our into transcribed β-cells in a the for value connection the represents vector that is which then row, ith sums the our function matrix, in the cell ith the For FIGURE 3.1.
- - ListB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 v v v v v v v v v = b direction. We We direction. V k , or j
, 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 i -2
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 . We then index the origi the index then . We -3
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 -2 ListB
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 -3
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 -4
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 -3
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 -2
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 -3
. We do this because the coupling is not affected affected not is coupling the because this do We .
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 -2 ListB C = known, known, the coupling matrix stays constant; it is only the β voltage step. time every at changes that vector functions — concatenation of — concatenation functions of vector a zero placeholders the with This equations. differential the from ofvariables β vector calculated the coupling efficiency, improve is calculated at time every To step. wrapper in the calculated are version indexed and its matrix program before the main function and the ODE solver are called. This is done because once the number and position of β-cells are The matrix above is the coupling matrix for a 3:3:3 model, which has has which model, 3:3:3 a for matrix coupling the is above matrix The voltage slight a represents product Our 9. × 9 is it Thus, β-cells. nine is incorporated that coupling other to the in a similar fashion change value to the multiplicative inverse of inverse multiplicative the to value of sum the of all repre the of coupling the representing the row, each in connections sentative β-cells. remaining have values in values have by any row or column that represents a connection δ-cell, since to the electrical coupling an only occurs α- in adjacent β-cells. or defineadjacency as one unitawayWe in the hasof dimensions that matrix a square observe then of size the assigning each by diagonal values the augment we Finally, squared. Given Given that our matrix does not consist purely of β-cells, we adjust of index linear a new create to matrix coupling the positions the only of this call and system, our in β-cells do not that and columns rows all omitting by matrix nal coupling
20 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 21 KENDALL QUEEN
, 4 + + (3.3) (3.2) (3.1) z, t) Δ y, z, t) y, x, y, z, t) x, y, Δ Δ 2 2 2 is the degradation is the of the y x z k Δ Δ Δ ∂x 2s(x, y, z, t) + s(x - s(x z, t) + y, 2s(x, 2s(x, y, z, t) + s(x, y, z - y, s(x, z, t) + y, 2s(x, ks, -∞ < x, y, z < ∞ < z y, x, < -∞ ks, 2s(x, y, z, t) + s(x, y - s(x, z, t) + y, 2s(x, ∂s(x,t) 2 2 2 2 , such as voltage, and space where where and space as voltage, , such = u x s 2 ˆ z, t) ) to get to 2s(x,t) + s(x -Δx,t) s(x + 2s(x,t) 3 x ks Δ y, z, t) y, 2 , y, z, t) , y, (Δ 2 Δ ˆ Δx ) ˆ 2,t s) + f(u, x, y, z) f(u, x, y, + s) Cs + f + Cs s(x, y, z + + z y, s(x, 2 / s(x + + s(x s(x, y + y + s(x, 2 x ) = s(x + Δx,t) + s(x x Δ D x - ( (Δ s s = s x ≈ 2 2
= = = (D = ) Δ xx t t ˆ s = s s 2,t / x Δ is a function of is a function variables f x + x + We We use a simple finitecentral difference approximation ( s SECRETION ≈ x diffusion reaction equation: reaction diffusion This diffusion approximation is calculated by passing researchers previous by was developed that coupling matrix in the full adjacent two any between interaction the about care now since we cells, rather than just β-cells. Thus we obtain a new discretized second derivative, and get our diffusion equation. diffusion our get and derivative, second R to case this extend then We the cells are located. The parameter located. are cells the molecules. secreted of of instead order, second the derivative. limit a taking can approximate . Thus we singleIn the case, dimensional the for same approximation the use . We s already discretized system, and treat the locations of locations the treat and system, discretized already as cells the problem: reaction diffusion standard a consider We space. in points Here, 3.3 Next we simulate the secretion and diffusion ofinsulin, glucagon, of advantage take to decide We molecules. and somatostatin our
- - + (3.4) EffIa value is is value K(ATP) + 0.04. We then then We 0.04. + values (26.5 values EffIa K(ATP) is the full coupling matrix. matrix. full coupling is the C = 26.5 = K(ATP) . Here, . Here, has 1s in the positions of δ-cells, and and of positions δ-cells, the in 1s has z = ∆ y DeltaLoc DeltaLoc * Effsfun Effsfun * DeltaLoc = ∆ x = = ˆ f + 0.04) to the α-cells in our islet. This g EffIa , which is a binary vector of binaryis a vector which , linear the as length same the is a function that calculates the amount of amount the calculates that function a is (non-de effective is the vector function of function vector is the this For system. the into secretion ˆ f CASE 1: (1:1:1) TRI-HORMONE MODEL (1:1:1) CASE 1: PARACRINE EFFECTS ON HETEROGENEITY PARACRINE RESULTS Model. These voltages, in mV, correspond with each cell’s secretion, secretion, cell’s each with correspond mV, in TheseModel. voltages, existing existing Tri-Hormone Model code, we first runsimulations of one contains which islet, three-cell This is modeled a of type. cell each is felt cell each from secretion the in which islet as a compartmental Below islet. the inside space to regard and without instantaneously in Figure 4.1, we plot the voltages for each cell type and compare of code previous the from voltages the with them Tri-Hormone the We perform computational experiments on several islets with cell with cell islets perform several on experiments computational We δ). : β : (α proportions 4.1 accuracy of the check to In order against code the our MATLAB high blood glucose level with our g with glucose level high blood of α-cells effects on the felt without δ-cells and and with β- tests run of heterogeneity α-cells. the impacts coupling paracrine how see to 4 3.4 of hetero effects the the on coupling simulate paracrine to order In geneity of α-cells, we assign two different g 0.04, 32 varies in the α-cell, which channel the the K(ATP) conductance for depending of amount on the a simulate We glucose blood. in the 0s in the positions of α- and β-cells. The multiplication of multiplication of The two positions these the β-cells. in and 0s α- ofmodel in a proper results vectors entering somatostatin initial the the system. We use an equivalent process for α-cell glucagon and secretion. insulin β-cell Effsfun cayed) somatostatin that leaves a δ-cell. It is DeltaLoc then multiplied by ofordering system. the where we assume ∆ assume we where The have We secretion. somatostatin δ-cell use will we example,
22 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 23 KENDALL QUEEN -
MATLAB CODE (LEFT COLUMN) COMPARISON COMPARISON COLUMN) (LEFT CODE MATLAB COLUMN). (RIGHT CODE PREVIOUS WITH
, and we find similar oscillation patterns and timings for each. each. for timings and patterns oscillation similar find we and , M FIGURE 4.1. ence oscillation spikes from two to five minutes with maximum and and maximum with minutes five to two from spikes oscillation ence These voltages cell mV. 0 and -50 about at amplitudes minimum confirmthat we are ableto successfullyTri-Hormonerecreate the in MATLAB. Model to to the values obtained from the NIH’s the code. For β-cell voltage and two- the around spikes oscillation notice we in MATLAB, spikes in the voltage the to correspond which marks, six-minute also oscillations the for values β-cell The code. Model Tri-Hormone mV. -40 and 10 at minimum and maximum the see we as correspond experi MATLAB in δ-cell the for voltages the that observe also We in μ in begins voltage α-cell our that observe we simulation 10-minute a For and maximum with marks and six-minute two- the spiking around comparable are which mV, 10 and -50 around amplitudes minimum - - - - - Columns show voltage (mV), (mV), voltage Columns show
. We also observe a diminishing a diminishing observe also . We M around the two-minute mark and and mark two-minute the around M TRI-HORMONE MODEL (1:1:1) RESULTS. (1:1:1) MODEL TRI-HORMONE of β-, row α-, each for (μM) calcium cytosolic and (μM), secretion hormone δ-cells. and CASE 2: (9:9:9) MODEL WITH SUMMED SECRETION (9:9:9) MODEL CASE 2: spikes spikes for two minutes. The δ-cell in this summed simulation is in begins to decrease steadily until after 10 minutes. In comparison, In comparison, 10 minutes. after steadily until decrease to begins oscilla glucagon secretion show simulations Tri-Hormone the tions that range from 40 to 75 μ in the period for β-cell oscillation. The voltage oscillations exhib ited by the β-cells spike for oscillation displays which Model, our Tri-Hormone to contrast less than two minutes, which is in cell is overwhelmed by the amount of amount the by a is overwhelmed cell For hormone receives. it 10-minute simulation, we see that the voltage for the α-cell experi of periods extended for bursts large ences (between minutes four of instead marks) and six-minute two- the as in bursts two-minute the Tri-Hormone Model. Glucagon secretion also behaves differ ently in that it peaks at 77.5 μ 4.2 In obtaining Figure 4.3, we run simulations on a 3 × 3 × 3 cubic of cells nine containing each planes, sequential three with islet a of sum the apply we somatosta the case, this For type. cell different tin to each α- and β-cell, as well as the sum of the insulin on each α- and δ-cell. This is done to see the change in voltage when each FIGURE 4.2. We show α-, β-, and We δ-cell voltages in column 1; glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin secretion in column of4.2. 3 2; Figure column in levels calcium and α-, β-, and δ-cell
24 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 25 KENDALL QUEEN
- - in the Tri-Hormone Tri-Hormone in the M
Columns show voltage (mV), hormone voltage Columns show secretion
in comparison to 0 to 12.5 μ M CASE 2 (9:9:9) RESULTS. (9:9:9) 2 CASE lev High δ-cells. and of β-, row α-, each for (μM) calcium cytosolic and (μM), a with oscillations voltage α-cell high-amplitude of maintain els somatostatin loss in glucagoncorresponding oscillations. WITH NORMALIZED SECRETION CASE 3: (9:9:9) MODEL (9:9:9) MODEL CASE 3: shows maximum oscillations from two to four and from seven to to seven and from four to two from oscillations maximum shows it it by the number of β-cells — in this case, nine. also We sum the amount of secreted somatostatin that is detected by α- and β-cells and divide the sum by the number of δ-cells. This is done so that of amount average the detects cell each average we When secretion. the the secretions, ofbehavior the α-, β-, and δ-cells resembles the α-cell the for voltage The Model. Tri-Hormone the in seen behavior 4.3 In obtaining Figure 4.4, we run simulations on the same islet as in This case cases. two the over values secretion vary the we 2, but Case divides and δ-cells and α- the by detected ofinsulin amount the sums FIGURE 4.3. regular intervals ofintervals regular Tri-Hormone as minutes opposedto infive the of has periods which Model, which to The values minutes. 2.5 from range simulation in this oscillates secretion somatostatin cell 5 to 12.5 μ throughout rate a higher at released being is Somatostatin Model. simulation. this stark stark contrast to the δ-cell of the Tri-Hormone Model in that of instead its minutes 10 entire the for oscillates voltage experienc ing non-oscillating periods. The δ-cell also behaves differentlyin at secrete to seems Somatostatin secretion. somatostatin to regard
- - - - -
Columns show voltage (mV), hormone voltage Columns show secretion
CASE 3 (9:9:9) RESULTS. (9:9:9) 3 CASE Replac δ-cells. and of β-, row α-, each for (μM) calcium cytosolic and (μM), returns of those to traces the levels average with somatostatin ing total Case 1 (1:1:1). WITH NORMALIZED SECRETION CASE 4: (5:20:2) MOUSE ISLET (5:20:2) MOUSE ISLET CASE 4: values ranging from 50 to 75 μM instead of 40 to 75 μM. The β-cell β-cell The μM. of75 instead to μM 40 75 to 50 from ranging values cell distributions have on cell behavior. In this simulation, we notice notice we simulation, this In behavior. cell on have distributions cell a longer period of maximum oscillation for the voltage of α-cells The model. of range our averaged to compared is compa oscillation rable, but the period spans for three minutes (two- to five-minute of instead mark) Glucagon mark). four-minute to (two- minutes two behavior also differs slightly fromthat ofthe averaged model with 4.4 Figure 4.5 is obtained by simulating a mouse of islet cellular amount distribu secre the 3, Case in as Just islet. cubic 3 × 3 × 3 a for tion tion nine is in to divided order the examine by effects different that FIGURE 4.4. and -40 mV. The voltage for the δ-cell also exhibits maximum oscil maximum exhibits also δ-cell the for voltage The mV. -40 and lations between the two- and five-minute marks and between the 0 and between oscillations having marks, nine-minute and seven- of The behavior of each mV. -50 behavior the imitates cells these Model. Tri-Hormone in the shown nine minutes from 10 to -50 mV, just as in the Tri-Hormone Model. Model. Tri-Hormone the as in just mV, -50 10 to from minutes nine behavior Model Tri-Hormone the resembles also voltage β-cell The to two- the between periods the around spikes oscillation showing by 10 between with oscillations marks, nine-minute to seven- and four-
26 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 27 KENDALL QUEEN
Columns show voltage (mV), hormone voltage Columns show secretion (μM), and cytosolic calcium (μM) for each row of α-, β-, and δ-cells. δ-cells. and of β-, row α-, each for (μM) calcium cytosolic and (μM), secretion phase active in the time the increases distribution type in cell The change of period. burst the CASE 4 (5:20:2) RESULTS. RESULTS. (5:20:2) 4 CASE
SPATIAL CASE 3 SPATIAL is because we are no longer passing in the full hormone in the passing no longer are we is because secretion hormones The point. secreted each now at cell are each to values constant, delay an added and with dependent and time, space on point. discretized each at values in smaller result they 4.5 of implementation Upon the cell same run the we coupling, spatial 4.6 Figure 4. and 3 Cases compartmentalized the in as distributions tend values ofvarious amplitudes the The 3. Case for data the shows This models. compartmentalized in the those than smaller be to FIGURE 4.5. longer bursts oflonger bursts under just to minutes two (from minutes four about of instead six minutes) is also an initial There minutes. three about The case. other in any see do not we 0, which time at in voltage burst bursts. maximum extended also experiences secretion somatostatin three for μM 12.5 to 0 from minutes two at spike somatostatin see We of instead minutes model. our averaged as with minutes two for behavior is consistent with the averaged model. The voltages for the the for The model. voltages averaged the with is consistent behavior nine to seven from and minutes four to two from bursts exhibit β-cell our averaged with Compared model. averaged as in the just minutes, model, δ-cell behavior also changes. The δ-cell voltage exhibits - Columns show voltage (mV), hormone voltage Columns show
Density ofDensity of concentration to relates blue insulin see insulin. We
corresponding to the voltage and insulin traces above. and insulin traces voltage the to corresponding ISLET STRUCTURE AND INSULIN SECRETION IN SPATIAL CASE CASE SPATIAL IN SECRETION INSULIN AND STRUCTURE ISLET 3 (9:9:9). minutes, 4.0133 and minutes, 3.0283 minutes, 1.9950 = t at distribution SPATIAL CASE 3 (9:9:9) RESULTS. (9:9:9) CASE 3 SPATIAL δ-cells. and of β-, row α-, each for (μM) calcium cytosolic and (μM), secretion usual behavior, high-amplitude in the in amplitude decrease is a slight There minutes. five only are here Traces minutes. 4.5 through ly FIGURE 4.7. We are also able to create a visual representation (Figure 4.7) of4.7) (Figure representation visual a the create to able also are We islet. discretized the through insulin, hormone, of secreted flow the FIGURE 4.6.
28 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 29 KENDALL QUEEN -
Columns show voltage (mV), (mV), voltage Columns show
hormone secretion (μM), and cytosolic calcium (μM) (μM) calcium cytosolic and (μM), secretion hormone δ-cells. and of β-, row α-, each for SPATIAL CASE 4 (5:20:2) RESULTS. (5:20:2) CASE 4 SPATIAL SPATIAL CASE 4 SPATIAL as expected. Since all cells receive the same hormonal inputs, they hormonal same the they receive all cells Since inputs, as expected. now that the cells are in all different points act the However, same. of somatostatin, amounts and insulin different receive they space, in heterogeneously. acting cells in multiple resulting FIGURE 4.8. color variation, little very see we model, compartmentalized In the have much smaller amplitudes. The smaller amplitudes. spike δ-cell also voltage much occurs have after the first β-cellvoltage spike. Another keything to note is the different a with cell grapheach of spectrum graph.We our in color differently. behaving are if cells see the to color 4.6 Figure 4.8 shows a similar process for the spatial analogue of the compartmentalized Case 4. There are some vations here as noteworthy well. The obser α-cell voltage greatly increases after the firstβ-cell voltage spike. Until point, that voltage the oscillations At the exact time when the β-cell voltage spikes, the insulin greatly amount increases, as ofis confirmed by the 3D modelat that point in time. - + 0.04 to four α-cells EffIa
= 26.5 = K(ATP) g Density ofDensity of concentration to relates blue insulin see insulin. We
-CELL HETEROGENEITY α ISLET STRUCTURE AND INSULIN SECRETION IN SPATIAL CASE CASE SPATIAL IN SECRETION INSULIN AND STRUCTURE ISLET 4 (5:20:2). corre minutes, 4.033 and minutes, 3.005 minutes, 1.995 = t at distribution above. and insulin traces voltage the sponding to AND PARACRINE INTERACTIONS INTERACTIONS PARACRINE distribution islet, we assign we islet, distribution 4.7 are We able to simulate heterogeneity in α-cells with and without if see to This in order is done coupling. paracrine coupling paracrine can help normalize this α-cell heterogeneity. Each of uses simulations a 3 × 3 × 3 9:9:9 the cubic averaged cell islet. For these two In doing a similar visual simulation ofIn doing a similar visual simulation in shown secretion, insulin rapidly into more much the insulin spreads findthat 4.9, we Figure of This cell. the is a result a majority containing distribution cell the ofβ-cells. FIGURE 4.9.
30 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 31 KENDALL QUEEN
K(ATP) g
+ 0.04 to
EffIa = 32 K(ATP) g ISLET WITH COUPLING HETEROGENEOUS 9:9:9 9:9:9 HETEROGENEOUS HETEROGENEOUS MOUSE MOUSE HETEROGENEOUS ISLET WITH COUPLING (B) (D) + 0.04 to five α-cells. The non-coupled case EffIa
+ 0.04 to three α-cells and = 32 HETEROGENEOUS ISLETS WITH AND WITHOUT WITHOUT AND WITH ISLETS HETEROGENEOUS COUPLING. CELL EffIa K(ATP) g FIGURE 4.10. the the α-cells are coupled with β- and δ-cells, there is an increase in which means the α-cells begin overlap, to more similarly to behave One this between difference mouse islet andthe 9:9:9 one another. of period a longer exhibits islet mouse the is that cases maximum oscillation. voltage they start to exhibit more homogeneous behavior. This can be behavior. homogeneous more exhibit to start they of the run then overlap in increase the in seen We voltages. cell the assign We distribution. islet mouse the with simulation same 26.5 = two α-cells. The voltage oscillations in the non-coupled islet when also a lack ofexhibit However, cells. among the overlap voltage and heterogeneous the among frequency oscillation in differences shows lack of the by This is shown plots. cells. voltage two in the overlap when we account for the paracrine However, effects on the α-cells, NO COUPLING HETEROGENEOUS 9:9:9 ISLET WITH WITH 9:9:9 ISLET HETEROGENEOUS ISLET WITH NO COUPLING ISLET HETEROGENEOUS MOUSE HETEROGENEOUS (A) (C)
- - - - - values to our α-cells, K(ATP) g It would also be interesting to run simulations in which the the which in simulations run to interesting be also would It Moving forward in this project, it would be interesting to simu interesting be would it project, in this forward Moving We also noticed paracrine that effects had ataming quality in We When we scaled the Tri-Hormone Model from a three-cell a three-cell from Model Tri-Hormone the scaled we When CONCLUSION distance between cells is not one unit in the (i,j,k) direction. This (i,j,k) direction. in the unit one is not cells between distance when behave cells certain how observe to in order done could be surrounded by a specifictype of cell (forexample, how an that is α-cell surrounded by β-cells compared behaves to an α-cell whose neighbors vary). accounted for the effects that β- and δ-cells had on α-cells, the α-cells α-cells the α-cells, on had δ-cells and β- that effects the for accounted homogeneously. began more act to scaling whether test to in order done be This would islets. larger late an Creating islet largeraffects isletswould cell also behavior. allow arrangements. cell and realistic complex more simulate to user the period for these cells, which could be due to the increase in insulin in insulin increase the to due could be which cells, these for period islet. in the regard When to we α-cell did heterogeneity. not account for para crine coupling and assigned different we observed different behaviors among cells. However, when we After we averaged the amount of amount the averaged we After the cell, each by detected secretion was found which that emulated cell each for and secretion voltages with result this compared then We Model. Tri-Hormone in the a mouse islet cell When distribution. more β-cells incorporatwere in behavior a change saw we islet, mouse as in the islet an into ed in the α- and δ-cells. saw We an increase in the voltage oscillation Hormone of aspects Spatial Model. into taken also were islet the equations. secretion with secretion modeling by consideration ofeffects the testing simulations paracrine run to able also were We heterogeneity. α-cell on coupling behavior. cell replicate to able were we model, a 27-cell to model bution bution can Wewereaffect able cellto behavior. properlyscale the Tri-Hormone Model to a 3 × 3 × 3 cubic islet. We also success determine to is able user the in which a model fully implemented cell arrangement. This was done in order to simulate different cell proportions, specifically a mouseislet Tri- distribution, the in did we than behaviors cell different observe to able were which in we 5 of model computational our In producing we islet, a pancreatic gained understanding better a of have distri cell and size islet how
32 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 33 KENDALL QUEEN - - - UMBC National Security Agency (NSA) Scholars Program through through Program Scholars (NSA) Agency Security UMBC National was Lebair Teresa assistant Graduate NSA. the with contract a UMBC. by 2014 Summer during supported Research and Consulting (CIRC), and the UMBC High Perfor UMBC and the (CIRC), and Consulting Research U.S. the by is supported HPCF (HPCF). Facility Computing mance (grant MRI program the nos. through Foundation Science National CNS–0821258 and CNS–1228778) and the from support SCREMS substantial additional with program DMS–0821311), no. (grant the by part, in supported, was Queen Kendall UMBC. Co-author hpcreu) in the Department in the ofhpcreu) the at and Statistics Mathematics ofUniversity (UMBC) in Summer County Maryland, Baltimore 2014. This program is funded grant (NSF Agency Security National and the no. Foundation jointly by the National Science Depart UMBC, the from support additional with DMS–1156976), ofment Interdisciplinary for Center the and Statistics, Mathematics ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of part Interdisciplin as Site: obtained REU the were results These (www.umbc.edu/ Computing ary in High Performance Program
-
-
Matthias Physiology Physiology γ-aminobutyr and Arthur Sherman.Arthur and Angel Nadal. Angel and Patrik Rorsman. Patrik Modeling the building blocks of blocks building the Modeling the and Modeling Paracrine Interactions in in Interactions Paracrine Modeling Statistics about diabetes. http://www.diabe diabetes. about Statistics Margaret Watts. Margaret Somatostatin inhibits exocytosis in rat pancreatic α-cells α-cells pancreatic rat in exocytosis inhibits Somatostatin Arthur Sherman.Arthur and Regulation ofRegulation glucose: paracrine, by glucagon secretion and SSTR2 is the functionally dominant somatostatin receptor in human in human receptor somatostatin functionally dominant is the SSTR2 P. Rorsman. P. Patrik Rorsman. Patrik and 2011. 13:95–105, Metabolism, and Obesity Diabetes, both? or intrinsic project by Presentations HPCF-REU UMBC at presentation Islets, Pancreatic 2014. 26, June MD, Baltimore, UMBC clients, pancreatic β- and α-cells. American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology of - Journal Physiology American α-cells. and β- pancreatic 2012. 303(9):E1107–E1116, Metabolism, and homeostasis glucose in role secretion: glucagon and α-cell of pancreatic the 2008. March 199:5–19, of Journal Endocrinology, diabetes. and and of Gi2-dependent activation by and depriming calcineurin of granules. secretory 2001. 535(2):519–532, of Journal Physiology, The Rorsman, Patrik Anna L. Gloyn, Donald, Mac- E. Patrick Braun. pancreatic islet: Connecting α-, β-, and δ-cells. High Performance Computing Computing Performance High δ-cells. and β-, α-, Connecting islet: pancreatic 2014. August HPCF-2014-13, Facility, E. Peercy, Bradford K. Gobbert, Matthias Khuvis, High Performance islets. loss in computational oscillation Investigating 2013. August HPCF-2013-14, Facility, Computing Jonathan N. Walker, Paul R. Johnson, Paul Walker, N. Jonathan β-cells. pancreatic human in transmitter excitatory autocrine an is (GABA) acid ic 2010. 59(7):1694–1701, Diabetes, Peercy, E. Bradford K. Gobbert, Matthias Lebair, Teresa Vockeroth, Sherman,Arthur tes.org/diabetes-basics/statistics/, June 2014. June tes.org/diabetes-basics/statistics/, Margaret Watts Margaret Ivan Queseda, Eva Tuduri, CristinaRipoll, Tuduri, Ivan Queseda, Eva M. Braun, Johnson, R. V. P. Zhang, Q. R. Ramracheya, Walker, N. J. Jesper Gromada, Marianne Høy, Karsten Salehi, Albert Buschard, Høy, Marianne Gromada, Jesper R. Johnson, Paul Cheley, van de Bunt, Stephen Martijn Kailey, Balrik Gemma Gearhart, Shuai Jiang, Thomas J. May, Jane Pan, Samuel Samuel Pan, Jane May, J. Thomas Jiang, Shuai Gemma Gearhart, Matthias Braun, Reshma Ramracheya, Martin Bengtsson, Anne Clark, Clark, Anne Bengtsson, Martin Ramracheya, Reshma Braun, Matthias Alex Piatski, KendallQueen, Gina Palensky, Annie Dai, David American Diabetes Association. American Diabetes 9. 7. 8. 5. 6. 4. 2. 3. REFERENCES 1.
34 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 35 KENDALL QUEEN
making this research project a success. team’s research project. He also wants He also wants project. research team’s Arthur Sherman and Dr. to recognize of the National Institutes Watts Margaret Dr. the project providing of Health (NIH) for and hosting his team visit to the NIH. his team to recognize also like He would Palensky, David Dai, Annie members — and graduate Vockeroth, Gina Alex Piatski, the tremendous Lebair — for Teresa assistant and energy effort, they all put into time, in robotic sciences; however, after spending after spending however, in robotic sciences; workinghis summer at UMBC on a research biological application project involving he is considering furtheringof mathematics, to pursuehis education in biology biological to thank his like He would engineering. and Bradford Peercy, Dr. faculty mentor, Matthias Dr. summer program coordinator, helping to guide his team for Gobbert, progress and success in his to achieve Kendall Queen is a Meyerhoff Scholar Scholar is a Meyerhoff Kendall Queen who is majoringat UMBC in computer His primaryengineering. lie interests AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR EVALUATING THE ABILITY OF LOW-TECH PROCESSES TO REMOVE BACTERIAL CONTAMINANTS FROM DRINKING WATER IN KENYA
HOLLIE ADEJUMO Co-Authors: Madison Bondoc and Dalton Hughes Approximately 760 million people lack access to clean drinking water; a disproportionate fraction of those people are located in Sub-Saharan Africa. High chemical and bacterial contaminant levels in drinking water may cause a myriad of health complications. The small community of Isongo, Kenya lacks clean drinking water for its 500 resi- dents. The residents currently retrieve water from an unprotected spring located approximately 20 minutes away from some homes. In January 2013, the UMBC chapter of Engineers Without Borders (EWB-UMBC) traveled to Isongo to assess the cur- rent water quality and interview community mem- bers who use this water source. Results from the water quality tests revealed high levels of indicator organisms such as Escherichia coli and other fecal coliforms. Interviews indicated that many children suffer from dysentery and other waterborne diseas- es. Residents also expressed an interest in receiving information on best practices for sanitation and hygiene. In this report, we compare the abilities of three different methods to remove bacteriological contaminants from water supplies. The findings of this study will result in identification of a treatment system that can improve water quality and the overall health of the Isongo population.
- - -
29 41 45 < 0.5 WASH WASH WATER ISONGO EWB-UMBC
assessment team trav team assessment 27 27 17 < 0.5 WATER ISONGO ; this need laid the foundation foundation the laid need ; this DRINKING ) is an international organization EWB-UMBC EWB was established in 2009 to bring students bring students to in 2009 was established , a fecal coliform in the family Enterobac family the coliformin fecal a , EWB-UMBC < 1 < 1 < 1 < 0.5 EWB (REFERENCE) BOREHOLE AT BOREHOLE AT GUEST HOUSE ’s ongoing partnership with the community for the the for ongoing partnership community the with ’s Escherichia coli Escherichia ) chapter of) chapter CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL ASSAY DATA COLLECTED ON-SITE IN IN ON-SITE COLLECTED DATA ASSAY BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL KENYA. ISONGO, Isongo is a small farming community in western Kenya farming small a is Isongo westernin Kenya community PARAMETER EWB-UMBC (count/mL) Escherichia coli (count/mL) Enterobacteria (count/mL) Total chlorine chlorine Total (mg/L) coliforms Total UMBC presence ofpresence of risk a higher constitutes teriaceae, transmission. The pathogen ofresults 1. in Table summarized are assays the 1. TABLE eled to Isongo in January 2013; spoke with residents about the inter the about residents with spoke 2013; January in Isongo to eled chemical and conducted ofsection and hygiene; sanitation, water, These organisms organisms. indicator for assays and bacteriological of presence coliform potential the indicate tests Total pathogens. source, water the in exist contaminants bacterial that indicate can The illness. cause bacteria the whether indicate do not tests these but chapter and aims to bring clean water to Isongo, Kenya. Isongo, to water bring clean and aims to chapter ofconsisting The expressed village 500 residents. approximately to water clean for a need of An Project. Water Clean Kenya Engineers Without Engineers Borders Without ( in communities projects sustainable and implements designs that of The University world. the around County Maryland, Baltimore ( real-world solve to knowledge theoretical their apply to together of motivations the shares This study problems. the INTRODUCTION
38 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 39 HOLLIE ADEJUMO , - - - - -
E. coli Colonies ofColonies coliforms, total
, and enterobacteria were were , and enterobacteria water purification kit, solar KITS. E. coli plates. Petrifilm 3M the on counted PHOTO OF 3M PETRIFILM TEST TEST 3M PETRIFILM OF PHOTO
TM FIGURE 1. The objective ofTheobjective of abilities the evaluate was to project the counts were measured using 3M Petrifilm test kits, shown in Figure in shown Figure test kits, using measured 3M Petrifilm counts were transferring was performed 1 mL of1. Inoculation by sample the onto the growth region of each Petrifilm plate. A plastic spreader the across sample water the distribute to evenly used was then growth region. The plates were incubated at 37°C, and bacterial hours. 24 after counted were colonies EXPERIMENTAL MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALS EXPERIMENTAL Library Kuhn Albin O. the at collected samples were water Surface of abilities the quantify technol To treatment water three the Pond. bacterial water, Library the Pond from bacteria remove ogies to inants from a surrogate water supply, namely the Albin O. Kuhn Kuhn Albin O. the namely supply, water a surrogate from inants treatment The following campus. UMBC on the Library Pond PUR the investigated: were methods used was method Each filtration. biosand and (SODIS), disinfection The of applicability Library the Pond. from collected water treat to in Isongo is also discussed. processes these borne diseases, may be present in the water supply. Note that the the that Note supply. water in the present be borne may diseases, those than higher even were water wash the in levels bacteriological was deep which source, The reference supply. drinking water in the contaminants. bacteriological any did not contain groundwater, contam bacteriological remove to processes treatment water three As Table 1 shows, the drinking water supply in Isongocontam is water drinking the shows, 1 As Table of high levels with inated including organisms, indicator coliforms. total and of The presence enterobacteria, organ these water cause many which pathogens, human that isms indicates
Raw Water Raw PUR - - After After
ND Enterobacteria ND , parallel to the floor) onroofthe of Total coliforms Total i.e. ND Escherichia coli RESULTS FROM PUR TREATMENT OF LIBRARY POND WATER. POND LIBRARY OF TREATMENT PUR FROM RESULTS demonstrat (ND). These detected not results were counts bacterial treatment, contaminants. bacterial the in removing was successful process PUR the that ed
0
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Cell Count per mL per Count Cell the UMBC Engineering Building for six hours under direct sunlight. sunlight. direct under hours six for Building Engineering UMBC the SOLAR DISINFECTION (SODIS) was solar disinfec was explored that treatment The water second two- in clear conducted were These experiments or SODIS. tion, liter soda bottles that were filled with The untreated bottles water. laid were flat ontheir sides ( FIGURE 2. in large flocs, settle to the bottom of the container, allowing for easy easy for allowing of bottom the container, to the settle flocs, large in cloth-based filtration. The bacteriological results stemming from of treatment PUR 2. in Figure shown are water Library Pond and sedimentation. In coagulation, iron sulfate stabilizes the surface surface the stabilizes sulfate iron In coagulation, and sedimentation. of charge the disinfects hypochlorite calcium and solids dissolved suspended the As a result, microorganisms. inactivating by water of capable particles are form and a eventually floc. As aggregating, the water is stirred, more particle collisions occur and larger flocs form. of majority the In sedimentation, now solids, suspended the concentration of concentration and chemicals metals, protozoa, viruses, bacteria, from water. Each PUR packet, composed of iron(III) sulfate and calcium hypochlorite, was added settle to to allowed five was solution litersthe of stirring, minutes five of After untreated water. pond for five minutes. Duringthis period, three main processes helped to separate suspended solids from water: coagulation, flocculation, PUR PURIFIER OF WATER OF PURIFIER PUR process PUR the Inc., Engineering, Recovery by 1990 in Developed the reduce to applications humanitarian in household used is mostly
40 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 41 HOLLIE ADEJUMO
- - - PVC SODIS SODIS Raw Water Raw SODIS ND Enterobacteria replication from occurring. occurring. from replication DNA Engineering Technician, in constructing constructing in Technician, Engineering No enterobacteria were detected (ND) and more than 90% 90% than more (ND) and detected were No enterobacteria CBEE
Total coliforms Total and total coliforms and total eliminated. were replication prevents bacterial growth in the bottles. bottles. in the growth bacterial prevents replication E. coli DNA ) light, which dimerizes the cytosine and thymine bases in in bases and thymine cytosine the dimerizes which ) light, POND WATER. POND of the BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS FOR SODIS TREATMENT OF LIBRARY LIBRARY OF TREATMENT SODIS FOR RESULTS BACTERIOLOGICAL
UV . This dimerization prevents prevents . This dimerization Escherichia coli the the spigot. A diagram of the constructed biosand filter is shown in 4. Figure ent water and to provide an even distribution of distribution an even provide and to water ent the across water assistance the acknowledges team The research area. cross-sectional ofFulda, Victor Mr. bacte including particles, small operation, During filter. biosand the of bottom the at The gravel layer. sand in the captured are rial cells, the forfilterefficient allows collectionwater and of transmission to BIOSAND FILTRATION The biosand filter was constructed from biosand laboratory-scale This sand. fine and gravel, 0.25-inch pipe, 20-litera bucket, filter included a diffuser plate toreduce the kinetic energy of influ FIGURE 3. Clearly, this treatment process is most effective on clear, sunny days. days. sunny clear, on effective most is process treatment this Clearly, necessitate often cover cloud involving conditions Weather from results Bacteriological day. one than more for treatment 3. Figure in shown are trials During this six-hour exposure time, cells in the bottles absorb ultra absorb bottles in the cells time, exposure this six-hour During ( violet DNA Inhibiting
5 0
20 15 10 Cell Count per mL per Count Cell 27 cm
- and other and other Sand Gravel (12 cm) (15 cm) E. coli , total coliforms,, total and Water flows through the sand layer layer sand the through flows Water E. coli aids in the water purification purification water the in aids schmutzdecke forms of top the at is This layer sand surface. the /min. Over time, a biologically active layer called the the called layer a biologically active time, /min. Over and then is discharged from the PVC spigot. PVC the from is discharged and then DIAGRAM OF THE BIOSAND FILTER. FILTER. BIOSAND THE OF DIAGRAM
3 The collection method involved the use Theof collection method involved buck a five-gallon with the water sample to remove traces of traces remove to sample water the with After sources. water other treatment using the laboratory-scale biosand bacteriological filter, Figure 5 showsthat counts significantly. decreased and treatment after water the in detected not were enterobacteria of levels only trace coliforms detected. were to reduced flow rates. flow reduced to of edge the from water obtain to et – simulating Library the Pond from collected The water in Kenya. method collection typical the ofhigh counts pond initially had the rinsed was filter biosand the collection, data to Prior enterobacteria. enough enough hydraulic head for the water to flowat a constant rate of 40 cm schmutzdecke are ofcomposed that and particles matter, organic impurities, The surface. the at trapped which leads can but also process increase head loss the across filter, FIGURE 4. During operation, water is introduced at the top of the filter and flows throughthe sand layer. After traveling through the water flowsthrough the pipelayer, PVC and out of gravel the the spigot. provides and atmosphere gradientwater the The between pressure
42 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 43 HOLLIE ADEJUMO and and Raw Water Raw Biosand filter E. coli E.
or enterobacteria or enterobacteria E. coli ND No is the bacterial cell count count cell bacterial is the in c Enterobacteria * 100% * ) , and enterobacteria. The method SODIS , and enterobacteria. is the bacterial cell count after treatment. after count cell bacterial is the in out c c out c . Biosand filtration also demonstrated a high 2 Total coliforms Total 1 E. coli ( E. coli η(%) = = η(%) ND represents the removal efficiency, efficiency, removal the represents TREATMENT OF LIBRARY POND WATER. WATER. POND LIBRARY OF TREATMENT of >90% (ND) and detected were coliforms the eliminated. were BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS FROM BIOSAND FILTER FILTER BIOSAND FROM RESULTS BACTERIOLOGICAL
η Escherichia coli enterobacteria. The calculated removal efficiencies for all processes processes all for efficiencies removal Thecalculated enterobacteria. results these 2. In summary, in Table shown are and contaminants in all successful were options treatment water three the that indicate water. from contaminants bacteriological removing The results indicate that the PUR treatment removed nearly 100% 100% nearly removed treatment PUR the that indicate The results of coliforms, total 100% ofremoved all, of not but and most, enterobacteria total the coliforms and ofremoval of 100% removal coliforms, nearly and the three treatment processes can be calculated with the equation below, below, equation the with calculated be can processes treatment three where and treatment, before REMOVAL EFFICIENCY REMOVAL The efficiencyremoval of thebacterial populations in each of the FIGURE 5.
8 6 4 2 0
14 12 10 Cell Count per mL per Count Cell , - - - - can can SODIS PUR 90% is a house ~100% ~100% BIOSAND BIOSAND and FILTRATION SODIS PUR , PUR solution is implemented solution is implemented process is the excellent excellent the is process 94% 83% SODIS ~100% PUR PUR and would continue to consume consume to continue would and PUR removed 100% of removed bacteriological the PUR ~100% ~100% ~100% PUR method is extremely inexpensive, particularly particularly inexpensive, extremely is method is expensive; households need to buy a packet for for packet a buy to need households is expensive; represents an adequate solution for the water quality quality water the for solution adequate an represents SODIS PUR PUR REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES OF EACH WATER TREATMENT OPTION. TREATMENT WATER EACH OF EFFICIENCIES REMOVAL
The biosand filter approach involves construction, but the The PARAMETER Escherichia coli Enterobacteria Total coliforms Total used as a community solution to water quality issues. Several used filtersas solution a to community Several quality water issues. and represent a public health concern. health a public and represent In addition, and inexpensive. available fairly are materials required constructed be can and maintenance minimal require filters biosand Unlike durability. increased for using concrete biosand filters can be adaptedfor larger-scale systems and can be cated or expensive construction is necessary. The major disadvan is necessary. construction or expensive cated oftage of a long period is that process this obtain to is required time of volume low to Similar a relatively water. the hold correct treat solution. all Ensuring households that follow lead do so may to and failure task, is a challenging procedures ment pathogens retain may water the case, In this treatment. improper to contaminated drinking water. For this reason, the researchers do not not do researchers the reason, this For water. drinking contaminated that think in Isongo. problems this Because in Isongo. available widely are bottles plastic because no compli bottles, plastic two-liter only requires process treatment also remove select chemical contaminants from water, although although water, from contaminants chemical select also remove study. this in monitored specifically not were contaminants chemical However, jerry 20-liter each can of The water. members some be of may and so there level household the at the use not would that community The three water treatment methods investigated have several several have investigated methods treatment water Thethree deployed be to ability their affect that disadvantages and advantages of advantage One in Isongo. the treatment efficiency; contaminants. In addition to the high efficiency, removal DISCUSSION TABLE 2. TABLE
44 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 45 HOLLIE ADEJUMO
- - schmutzdecke , biosand filtration, SODIS Laboratories have a reported a reported have Laboratories IDEXX team is planning to drill a borehole and and borehole a drill to planning is team EWB-UMBC treatment performed in series. Such a scenario will build will build a scenario performed Such treatment in series. The PUR reduce the need for subsequent treatment (recall from Table 1 1 Table from (recall treatment subsequent for need the reduce of levels groundwater had low that contaminants), bacteriological more and implementing in discovering interested is still team the solutions. effective as the Colilert Method by by Method Colilert as the of limit detection sensitive a more 100 mL, providing per 10 counts detection. bacterial for method of Approval the Isongo community. the a hand pump for install team’s plans was received in May 2014. While this well should critical weaknesses of individual methods. For example, the high high the of weaknesses critical example, For methods. individual removal efficiencies found for eachprocess may provide a synergy of all traces nearly removes that It contaminants. bacteriological would also be beneficial have to investigate other industry, methodsfood the of in used widely bacterial while Petrifilms, 3M detection. of limit a detection such methods 100 mL. Other per counts 100 FUTURE WORK individ investigated been have processes chosen three the that Now studies pursue like to treatment would team research the ually, focused on assessing the effectiveness of and of advantages upon the of some addressing while process, each the to develop completely. As a result ofa result As construct to completely. required time the develop to the biosand filter andfor the bioactive layerto form, the biosand filter does not provide an immediate solutionto the water quality in Isongo. problems affordable option for water treatment, with the cost of ranging cost filters the with treatment, water for option affordable availability the on depending system, treatment per $30 to $12 from of of Disadvantages materials. construction option treatment this include a low effluent flow rate and a the disadvantages, these to In addition contaminants. chemical removal low efficiency of the for weeks few a require may approach filter biosand can be constructed in order to meet the water requirements. One One requirements. water the meet to in order constructed can be major advantage of the biosand filter isthat the solution is sustain the with members involved become can easily community – the able an are filters Biosand of product. management the and construction
Biosand Filter Filter Biosand . CAWST CAWST . (2006). (2006).
.
(2009).
Household Water Treatment Treatment Water Household . (SDWU). (2008).
Use ofUse Packet the PUR Process Fundamentals: Coagulation Fundamentals: Process Flocculation and Water Quality Engineering: Physical / Chemical / Chemical Engineering: Physical Quality Water (2013). (2013) (2006). Chapter 2: Bacteria and Water Quality. Chapter Water and 2: Bacteria Indicator Organism Testing by use of 3M Petrifilm Technology. of use Petrifilm by 3M Testing Organism Indicator . John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey. New Inc. Hoboken, & Sons, Wiley John . (2008). P&G Safe Drinking Water for Uganda for Water Drinking Safe P&G (2014). (Thesis Document). Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA. of Institute (Thesis Massachusetts Document). Technology, Biosand Filtration of High Turbidity Water: Modified Filter Design and Safe Safe and Design Filter Modified Water: of Filtration Turbidity Biosand High Lawler, D. Lawler, & (2008). (2009).
46 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 47 HOLLIE ADEJUMO
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Education for the unique opportunityEducation for of receiving Award. an Undergraduate Research for two years. Additionally, she is a member of the of the she is a member Additionally, years. two for ScholarsMeyerhoff Program Honors and of the intends to attend Hollie After graduation, College. graduate pursue school to her research interests health and engineering. relating to global and the Lee Blaney thanks Dr. She especially members of his laboratory involve their active for throughout the project and patience support, ment, to thank Janet McGlynn, like also She would process. Undergraduate of Office the and Fick, Devon Hollie Adejumo is majoringAdejumo is engineering in chemical Hollie She has servedin the bioengineering the as track. Without Borders president UMBC chapter Engineers AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR THE TRAGEDY OF RELUCTANT COMPASSION JEWISH CHILD REFUGEES AND BRITAIN’S KINDERTRANSPORT PROGRAM BEFORE THE SECOND WORLD WAR
SARAH KLIMEK At first glance, Britain’s Kindertransport program struck me as a uniquely successful humanitarian effort amid the relentless horrors of the Holocaust. In the final months before the Second World War, the British government offered temporary refuge to 10,000 Jewish children living under the growing menace of Nazi anti-Semitism. What could be more admirable? I came across the Kindertrans- port while doing some background research for my history capstone course with Dr. Ritschel on the British home front during the Second World War. For a program that was invariably depicted as a heroic rescue mission, I was surprised that I had never heard of it before and decided to focus my research on its creation and implementation. As my research progressed, however, I realized that the benign façade of the Kindertransport hid a much more troubling story. Far from a shining example of one country’s magnanimous efforts in the face of chilling oppression, the tale behind Britain’s Kindertransport reveals the profound ethical dilemmas created by a highly calculated act of reluctant humanitarianism. Tragically, the ones who ultimately paid the price were the very children, now collectively known as the “Kinder,” whom Britain intended to save. I was hooked by the story of the Kindertransport and hope readers will find it equally moving. - - - - - 4 In Britain, by contrast, by In Britain, 2 Since there is little doubt that the that doubt is little there Since By July 1939, European countries European 1939, July By 3 1 The children’s separation was unfortunately a defining Despite the undeniable accomplishments of accomplishments undeniable the Despite humanitar this element ofelement the for The Kindertransport. the only allowed program disappointments, hardships, and tragedies that they encountered encountered they that and tragedies hardships, disappointments, the for that, Their reveal memoirs and recollections way. along the of majority overwhelming prima the children, Kindertransport the ofry source aftermath in the faced they trauma the of rescue their families. their from separation the from resulted program and its legacy. Recollections by the children, now collec now children, the by Recollections legacy. and its program not tively known only first-handas provide the accounts “Kinder,” also but of war, during the and survival experiences children’s the as a result endured they that consequences traumatic the highlight of sincere their all conveyed children the While survival. their gratitude to those who saved their lives, they also reflected on the Kindertransport saved the lives of lives the perished saved Kindertransport have would who children singu a as applauded rightly been has program the Holocaust, the in of act remarkable larly and generosity. kindness British ian effort,this study ofthe memoirs writtenby the children of the Kindertransport offers a substantially more qualified view of the Jewish children from Germany, while the U.S. had rejected facilitating facilitating had rejected U.S. the while Germany, from children Jewish entrythe of German entirely. refugees child of British the Care the for Movement the Germany, from Children umbrella organization that coordinated the Kindertransport effort, of months nine in the children thousand ten nearly rescue would its 1939. September before operation Upon their arrival, the children were placed in family homes and in family homes placed were children arrival, the Upon their war in relative the spent they where Britain, throughout hostels comfort and safety. Compared to the actions of on behalf actions British States, United and the countries of other child European generous. extremely were refugees hundred several than more no in taken had Sweden and as France such Great Britain’s Kindertransport program is widely regarded as one regarded widely is program Kindertransport Britain’s Great of the most important humanitarian effortsto save EuropeanJews initi was mission, which This rescue War. World Second the before ated shortly after the Kristallnacht pogrom in November 1938 and oftransported outbreak 1939, the September until in war continued ofthousands Nazi territories Britain. to from children Jewish mostly INTRODUCTION
50 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 51 SARAH KLIMEK ------6 While at the time this separation this separation time the at While 5 We now know that the Kindertransport had tragic implications implications had tragic Kindertransport the that know now We The condition that only children up to the age of age the up to children only The that condition seventeen exclusion ofexclusion comparative this that ensured purview its from adults officials cannot blamed be for fate the Their of about-face children’s the and families. the concerted efforts of therefugee organi of thousands saved clearly Kindertransport in the involved zations task was a mammoth such that fact and the lives, children’s Jewish and admira remarkable is both months nine within accomplished of scope limited the Yet deliberate and its Kindertransport the ble. for the children who were rescued. The children’s lives were saved, saved, were lives The children’s rescued. were who children the for coun a foreign in and isolated alone themselves also found they but of accept not rest the would try that of end the After families. their all of nearly that discover to left were children the those war, the Of had perished. behind had left they government British course, welcoming response, the Chamberlain government continually continually government Chamberlain the response, welcoming of number a greater allow to all appeals resisted into refugees Jewish pogrom anti-Jewish the Kristallnacht, was only after It country. the in 1938 that generated intense public pressure for some action in agreed implementation the to government British the that response, of Kindertransport. the in 1933, Britain was faced with a steadily growing number of number Jewish growing steadily a with faced was Britain 1933, in anti-Sem Nazi from haven safe a for lookingdesperately applicants to refusing steadfastly by responded Theitism. British government on behalf accommodations special any make of refugees. Jewish in Germany conditions deteriorating the Despite and concerted efforts of domesticrefugee organizations in Britainto elicit a more cases their entire families, in the Holocaust. in the families, entire their cases immi British in pre-war rooted was transports the for eligible were of a variety by in part This policy was driven internal grationpolicy. highly own government’s the also by but and external pressures, power to immigration. rose Hitler After on Jewish views ambivalent was assumed to be temporary, the severity of severity the facing menace the temporary, be to was assumed that also hinted program this in Germany had prompted that Jews permanent, far more become would separation the implication an have historians Tragically, was grimly know accurate. now we that of that, estimated Kinder on the rescued children thousand ten the of percent ninety transport, and in most parents, their lost them admission ofadmission ofage the up to children unaccompanied seventeen, of majority vast the in that, meaning families children’s the cases, sons young their when Europe Central in behind stay to forced were and daughters left for England. ------This research This paper offersresearch an analysis ofthe Kindertransport The Kinder’s reflections ontheir initial separation and their circumstances circumstances that led to refugees’ attempts to flee from Germany children who were saved through the Kindertransport. the through saved were who children THE 1930S POLICY IN BRITISH IMMIGRATION the up to leading years in the refugees Jewish to response Britain’s of context in the considered be to needs War the World Second and survivor’s guilt. In doing so, my research will seek to reveal the the reveal to will seek research my In doing so, guilt. and survivor’s Kindertrans the from stem that problems and ethical psychological The it. shaped of intent policy that refugee hesitant and the port my analysis is to highlight the moral ambiguity behind official British shaped this in which ways and the refugees, Jewish towards attitudes of lives subsequent war and the the immigration policy before the contemporary debates surrounding Britain’s immigration policy Britain’s surrounding contemporary debates in the 1930s and the factors that eventually persuaded the Cham of agree to implementation the to government berlain Kinder the of An examination transport. will then experiences children’s the of some emphasize Kinder’s in the presented common themes the struggles their isolation, separation, with particularly memoirs, Kindertransport program. Kindertransport development the shaped factors the that particularly program, of Britain’s immigration policy in the 1930s, the creation of of impact and the as a product Kindertransport of policy, this the the This program lives. on analysis the will children’s firstexamine the demonstrates the ethical dilemmas that such reluctant humanitar reluctant such that dilemmas ethical the demonstrates stories while ian the collectively reflect actions children’s engender, of consequences inevitable perhaps but unfortunate the Britain’s measures. assistance refugee substantial implement to reluctance unique a create Kinder the reflections, and memoirs their Through of failures and tragic successes the highlights both that narrative the light the ambivalent consequences of consequences ambivalent light the It mission. rescue this reluctant of few if that, is clear have would anew, choice the children the given program very the Nevertheless in Germany. die and stay to chosen of traumas the also created rescue their for provided that separa psychological harmed substantially loss that and tion children’s the narrative Kindertransport the As such, well-being. and emotional humanitarian triumph would also add to the immense tragedy of tragedy immense the to add also would triumph humanitarian Holocaust. the of discoveries traumatic loss of the war high the families after their
52 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 53 SARAH KLIMEK - - - - - Since Since 15 After Germany’s Germany’s After 8 10 The infamous most piece 7 Visas were generally denied denied generally were Visas The government maintained maintained The government 14 12 In response, the government tightened restrictions by by restrictions tightened government the In response, 13 While Jewish emigration rates had fluctuated in the preced the in had fluctuated emigration rates Jewish While 9 Although Anglo-Jewish leaders pushed for the government to to government the leaders for pushed Although Anglo-Jewish Official British policy towards Jewish Official immigration British during policytowards this 11 presented an insurmountable hurdle for most applicants. As Jewish As Jewish an insurmountable applicants. most presented for hurdle which which moved the flood ofrefugees from British portsto consulate the which by process the slowed and countries home their in offices could gain entryrefugees Britain. to of suspected anyone to could prove or she he unless a refugee being a means of financial support and plansfor re-emigration. the GermanJewish this assets, had government confiscated private vidual basis and at its own discretion. own its vidual basis and at this policy until the German annexation of Austria in 1938, which of wave a new unbear put that brought refugees Jewish Austrian able strains on the financial supportby provided the Anglo-Jewish community. all German for a visa system immigrants, reinstituting and Austrian abroad, while charitable organizations like the Jewish Refugees Refugees Jewish the like organizations charitable while abroad, Committee underwrote their financial maintenance during their stay. offertemporary asylumto all Germanrefugees, government offi of “right no automatic could be there that cials insisted asylum,” only grant would on an indi asylum government the and therefore life in Germany in life apparent. more became of recognition clear combined period in facing Jews situation the Germany with an unwillingness to do much about it. From 1933 to the spring of 1938, the British government destinations to re-emigrated they until admitted only on a temporary basis, refugees a chilling policy of policy a chilling of stripped were Jews emigration, in which forced an emigra secure to and required assets economic remaining their deported or risk being a concentration to weeks two within visa tion camp. violence, and lulls in anti-Semitic peaks with in accordance ing years of realities harsh the as rapidly dangerous and increased now they economic, political, and social rights. and social political, economic, of Nazi legislation, the 1935 Nuremberg Laws, established criteria based on family background to defineJewishthose and considered of them deprived to marry right and their status full citizenship their “of anyone or employ German blood.” or related initiated government Nazi the 1938, March in of Austria annexation and central Europe in the 1930s. After Chancellor Hitler’s of appointment as Germany in 1933, the new began German to mix government official discrimination andstate-sponsored violence of gradually that policies anti-Semitic with Jews stripped their
------21 In 16 Anti- 19 The British 26 As a result, although although As a result, In the late 1880s, the the 1880s, late In the 25 17 After the destruction brought brought destruction the After 24 A certain degree A certain of prej anti-Semitic 22 20 Anti-Semitic hostility resurfaced once again once with resurfaced hostility Anti-Semitic 18 Britain was anxious to limit interference in Germany’s Germany’s in interference limit anxious to was Britain 23 The British government was also concernedThe government British the about In explaining their position, officials highlighted high the official criticisms avoid to provoking hostilities. any onize and isolate the Nazi regime. the and isolate onize means economic the had neither Britain War, First the World on by nor the public support to deal with another military conflict, and outcome. that avoid to keen was therefore members of of disapproved have may German government the determined were limit to they population, Jewish its towards actions and anti-Semitic prejudice. and anti-Semitic effects that its refugee policy would have on relationship its with Germany. internal affairs,fearing that any criticisms or substantial action in oftreatments country’s the to response antag would minorities its udice was also evident among membersamong of evident also was udice itself. government the Even though he ofdisapproved the violent measures by employed he that admitted Chamberlain Neville Minister Prime Nazis, the could understand German the of dislike population. Jewish their refugees Jewish help to reluctance government’s British the Clearly, anxieties both economic was by shaped anti-Semitism Nazi escape a new wave of Jewish refugees to Britain during the 1930s, driven immigrants the with compete that complaints would by part in job opportunities. scarce increasingly for citizens British organiza fascist British by and demonstrations propaganda Jewish of implications potential the about anxieties raised further tions a policy. refugee open more tatives oftatives concerns raised in Britain community about Jewish the of presence the in Britain. anti-Semitism arrival of Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe led to a resur important an played and later anti-Semitism in domestic gence role in the development of restrictions. some of Britain’s first immigration about fueling domestic anti-Semitic sentiments, and the need need the and sentiments, anti-Semitic domestic about fueling Germanywith reasons as relations diplomatic good maintain to for their indifferent response to of midst in the was Britain indeed the refugees. depres an economic desperate plight Jewish of rates. strugglingsion and had been unemployment high with and represen Hoare Samuel Secretary Home the addition, both refugees became increasingly desperate, the government responded responded government the desperate, increasingly became refugees restrictions. with further only of costs economic ofinflux mass a for providing concerns refugees,
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------32
These events genuinely genuinely These events 29 34 Geoffrey Mander, a Liberal 31 Similar outcries reverberated throughout throughout reverberated outcries Similar 30 In addition, Germany In addition, a new passed immediately 28 Close to one hundred Jews were killed and approxi were Jews hundred one to Close 27 The Foreign Secretary was particularly concerned particularly was Secretary the with The Foreign Kristallnacht clearly illustrated the Jewish plight in Germany, in Germany, plight Jewish the illustrated clearly Kristallnacht 33 of as well. reputation government’s the tism and the exodus it had spurred among Europe’s Jewish popula Jewish Europe’s among spurred had it exodus the and tism tion. reluctantrefugee policy had on effects itsrelationship that Britain’s needed government the and suggested that States, United the with of events the to measure in some respond to only not Kristallnacht, of sake the for sake the for but persecution Nazi flee trying to those ment ment officials quicklyrecognized thepressure to take some action days few a just 16, November on meeting Cabinet a At in response. up a discussion of Halifax opened Lord Kristallnacht, after “the of some reviewing by Problem” Jewish govern the that criticism the not for States, United and in the home at both received, had ment of issues growing the address to doing enough German anti-Semi Member ofMember in Germany as events the described (MP), Parliament “feeling a paganism”to and acknowledged a reversion but “nothing of of brutality horrible the at disgust universal on.” is going what of scrutiny public also increased it but government British the what persecution. trying Govern such escape to Jews help was doing to the German the sphere. public and economy ofevidence stark offered and violent public the British the appalled German Chamber Nazi rule. under faced population the Jewish the treatment by horrified am “I later, days few a sister his to wrote lain Jews.” the to behaviour and Parliament. public British the ers and party members viciously attacked Jewish communities communities ers Jewish members party and viciously attacked and burning and homes shop windows breaking Germany, across synagogues. mately 30,000 Jewish men were rounded up and taken to concen camps. tration series of laws that effectivelyJews prohibited from participating in QUESTION OF JEWISH REFUGEES REFUGEES OF JEWISH QUESTION OF KRISTALLNACHT THE WAKE IN with dealing avoided consistently government British While the the problem of Jewish refugees, the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938 of night On the issue. the forced 9, Nazi storm troop November government’s desire to maintain peaceful relations with Germany with relations peaceful maintain to desire government’s Nazi anti- regarding held have may they objections any trumped policies. Semitic
- - He described described He 36 Though they all eloquently all eloquently Though they 38 43 As the Secretary of Secretary As the Colo the for State the 41 However, while Noel-Baker gave an impassioned an impassioned gave Noel-Baker while However, 37 Noel-Baker presented a lengthy description of description a lengthy presented Noel-Baker While members While of induce to hoped likewise Cabinet the 35 Among the most frequently discussed options were Brit were options discussed most frequently Among the 39 40 Although the government reviewed these colonial options, options, colonial these reviewed government the Although 42 One point of point One agreement among members of government the Despite the mounting pressure, there was no consensus on on consensus was no there pressure, mounting the Despite the possibility of possibility the settlement. well equipped these developing colonies would be to absorb large absorb large to be would colonies developing these equipped well ofnumbers new settlers. of areas large out, pointed nies have Guiana would in British forests could refugees before surveyed areas and uncharted cleared be to arrive. examine further to promise the beyond made were plans definite few where a solution to the problem of finding asylum for refugees could could refugees for of asylum finding problem the to solution a where found. be also discussed they action, substantive more take to countries other of possibility the in British settlement refugee up land for opening colonies. how over concerns raised officials some but Kenya, and Guiana ish more mixed. more be would countries other supportersand their was that House in the ones the be to crisis and ought the with deal to equipped far better to offer resettlement opportunities for Jewishrefugees. country” this outside is “it that claimed Archibald MP, a Conservative Southby, measures, Conservative MPs warnedMPs members House fellow Conservative measures, by “stimulated become response their let to refuse must they that issue the address they that instead and insisted sentiment,” grounds.” practical “on severely of condemnation own their expressed on views their pogrom, the much were a policy standpoint from should respond Britain how one instance in Nuremberg in which “the inmates of inmates “the in which Nuremberg in instance one Jewish the boarding Jewish a while parade,” on up line to forced were hospital 2 a.m. The at demolished and utterly “was invaded in Caputh school protection, or guidance adult without driven, were children young night.” into the assistance refugee stronger implement to need the for argument the Labour party’s Philip Noel-Baker, argued that the British British the that argued Noel-Baker, Philip Labour party’s the warn and pogrom the protest should Germany that government if exist could not relations cordial measures anti-Semitic such continued. that humiliation and violence the in detail illustrating Kristallnacht, the Jewish population suffered duringthe pogrom. how or to what extent Britain should respond to the crisis. During During crisis. the to respond should Britain extent what or to how House the in minorities religious and political, racial, on debate a of as such MPs, opposition 21, some on November Commons
56 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 57 SARAH KLIMEK
- - - - This 48 In light In light In short, In short, 45 46 The Kindertrans 49 Hoare also went on to reiterate reiterate on to also went Hoare 44 Among other suggestions, the committee committee the suggestions, Among other 47 With regard to the entrance of entrance the to regard With mainland into refugees Jewish port proposal presented the government with an alternative group group alternative an with government the presented proposal port “Kindertransport” “Kindertransport” program signified Anglo-Jewish community as they the sought to help Jews fleeing Nazi desperation ofpersecution. The events brutal of Anglo- forced Kristallnacht the provide to could take they measures any for leaders search to Jewish the and pressure refugees Jewish to substantial assistance more response. positive a more adopt to government Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann and Lionel de Rothschild, a a Rothschild, de and Lionel Chaim Weizmann leader Zionist Chamber with met ofmember family, banking prominent the trying escape to Jews assist to measures discuss possible lain to Nazi Germany. could accept Britian of transfer the that recommended unaccom Germany states. and neighboring from children panied THE KINDERTRANSPORT SCHEME THE KINDERTRANSPORT Fortunately, the Anglo-Jewish of question the address to measures On in Britain. refugees community Jewish offered alternative of 15, a delegation included November that representatives Jewish of careful be to warned, barriers, Hoare continuing these “I have of nature the in anything avoid to mass immigration.” of wake in the pressure mounting public despite the Kristallnacht, changes substantial any consider unwilling to appeared government towards policies or its contemporary its to immigration procedures refugees. Jewish friendly relations with Germany. with relations friendly of consequences economic potential the refugees. accepting more of high rate already Britain’s to Hoare Pointing unemployment, arrival of the that argued only aggravate not would refugees more the encourage also further but problems, economic existing these ofgrowth and anti-immigrant movements. anti-Jewish a major role in Britain’s response to Nazi anti-Semitism and the and the anti-Semitism Nazi to response in Britain’s a major role influxever-growing ofJewishrefugees. In his speechto the House of Commons on November 21, Hoare expressed his Germany firm anti-Semitic on its confront Britain calls that to sition oppo in the intervene to was against he “all attempts that stating policies, ofaffairs maintaining domestic to committed and countries,” other Britain, the same political and economic concerns economic and political same the Britain, impeded had that again. once The resurfaced issue the address to attempts previous ofissue Anglo-German play to continued in particular relations
- - - - - Although Although 54 His concern, however, His concern, however, 56 Moreover, Anglo-Jewish Anglo-Jewish Moreover, 52 Interestingly, though he had had he though Interestingly, 55 The Inter-Aid Committee for for Committee The Inter-Aid 50 Since the Inter-Aid Committee’s work was was work Committee’s Inter-Aid the Since 51 53 The proposal for large-scale admissions of large-scale for The proposal children, Jewish Britain had acceptedBritain of groups refugees child unaccompanied was only momentary. Hoare was comforted by the thought that the the that thought the by was comforted Hoare was only momentary. suddenly expressed concern for the heart-wrenching decision that that decision concern heart-wrenching the expressed suddenly for what thinking help “I could not parents: children’s the face would in Germany parents have to Jewish the was to dilemma it a terrible into country, a foreign to children their sending between choose to to conditions terrible in the to live and continuing unknown, the in Germany.” reduced now are they which at the House of House the at 21. November on debate Commons Britain think did not he that clear it had made Secretary Home the immigration, adult to was compelled he to expand could do much country the into “without children could allow Britain that admit harmany population.” our own to concern little of shown fates the for previously Hoare refugees, adult generous generous individuals,” and that the Home Office would onlyhave admission into children’s the necessary the issue to visas facilitate to country. the 16, on November meeting Cabinet the up at was brought which again and was raised Hoare from consideration favorable received program. In fact, the Movement for the Care of Care the for Movement the In fact, program. from Children was Kindertransport, the oversee to created was which Germany, ofa merger orga refugee and other Committee Inter-Aid the nizations willing to help in the effort. and transport children’s the that government the leaders assured funds or by their by “either guaranteed be would maintenance Children Children from Germany had been established in 1936 to coordi Jewishchildrento Britainforefforts nate smaller-scale to the bring purposes of education. well underway by 1938, the Kindertransport represented a viable government, the to offer could community Jewish the that proposal of an expansion as merely construed could be it since an existing in previous in internationalprevious crises as a way to assist flee communities govern the persecution.ing war or Civil War, Spanish During the Britain of into transfer the sanctioned ment Basque thousand four Joint National the by was undertaken maintenance whose children Spanish Relief. for Committee of and polit economic same the pose arrival did not whose refugees of as that ical challenges not could and therefore immigrants, adult represented Kindertransport the context, In this as easily. rejected be Britain. in leaders Jewish by adopted tactic desperate final a
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------59 57 The children The children 61 Applications were submitted by Jewish Jewish by submitted Applications were 60 In addition, given the government’s fears about government’s the given In addition, 58 The British government’s reasons for accepting Kinder the for reasons The government’s British who were chosen for the transports were seventeen years of years seventeen were transports the for chosen were who or age organizing the Kindertransport shifted to the Movement for the the for Movement the to shifted Kindertransport the organizing ofCare Germany of and a host from Children contributing other organizations. refugee attention special with Europe, central and Germany in communities deported been had internedor parents whose those to and given camps. in concentration placed had been who boys charges of indifference without requiring it to reconsider its stance on stance its reconsider to it requiring without ofindifference charges immigration.adult BEGINS THE KINDERTRANSPORT of approval the With of task the secured, now government the increasing anti-Semitism in Britain, the Kindertransport provided a provided Kindertransport the in Britain, anti-Semitism increasing of As one solution. safer politically of coordinators the Kinder the and animals are “children dryly, noted Winton, Nicholas transport, money.” and raise sympathy get to which for things easiest two the attrac an with officials government presented The Kindertransport from government the protected that program humanitarian tive ing any ofing any its for as explanations cited previously had it problems the immigration. adult to Lipson, a Conser Daniel approach restricted brought were who children any that out pointed succinctly MP, vative government so the labour market,” in the competing be “will not over economic immediate worry to any about not have presumably would repercussions. very serious dangers that confronted the Jewish population in Central population Jewish the confronted dangers serious that very Europe. Although the pressure to act increased after Kristallnacht, on Jewish position its change to reluctant was still government the a officials British offered proposal Kindertransport The immigration. avoid while refugees, By accepting only child compromise. convenient decidedly crisis the to response positive a offer could government the transport program stemmed largely from an ethically questionable questionable an ethically from largely stemmed program transport ofcombination policy accom substantial any make to reluctance its reputa own its protect to and a desire refugees Jewish for modations of display an appalling had provided Kristallnacht tion. growing the ofbrutality of House the and Nazi anti-Semitism, Commons debate members its the no illusions about held that revealed in November parents would prefer to part with their children rather than keep than rather children their with part to prefer would parents government’s the praised and therefore in Germany, in danger them population. Jewish European suffering the the of ease to efforts
- - 69 Once a group of a group Once 62 The children who remained without without remained who The children 66 Upon their arrival, the children who already already who children arrival,the Upon their 63 Given the limitations imposed by the program’s program’s the by imposed limitations the Given 68 Children were placed in both Jewish and non-Jewish foster foster non-Jewish and Jewish in both placed were Children a sponsor were by guaranteed not were who Children From December 1938 until the outbreak of war in Septem in ofwar outbreak the until 1938 December From 64 65 67 from prison, the chance to send her son away became “a light in the in the “a light became son away her send to chance the prison, from reversal of happiness feel reversal normal To and principles. feelings one’s of boy little one’s to send able being About about what? away nine people to speak, not does he language country whose a foreign to if sure not oneself, know not does one him again?” see will ever one However, having been denied visas from four different countries and struggling of care take to returned husband recently a dying the the first trauma. Though did highlight who few the from accounts war, the survived parents tragicallya smallpercentage send to opportunity the by created dilemma heart-wrenching the of the the described Levy, Charlotte mother, One away. children their Britain: “The son to her send to decided she which in circumstances degree of this by revealed isbest driven be can you which to despair THE CHILDREN OF THE KINDERTRANSPORT THE CHILDREN OF The reluctant humanitarianism that defined the creation enormous consequences have subsequently would Kindertransport ofthe of experiences on the their from separated were who children the families and brought to England. The parents, of course, endured children from Germany and Austria and 669 children from former from and 669 children Germany and Austria from children Czechoslovakia. to needed organizations the with which urgency the and criteria of number the act, was months nine in just transported children remarkable. truly sent to temporary reception centers at vacant summer camps, most most camps, summer temporary to sent vacant centers reception at while the notably looked Movement at Bay, into Dovercourt offers families. foster potential from permanently more resettled in centerssponsors the were closed when hostels. ber 1939, the Kindertransports successfully brought over 9,354 Harwich, Harwich, England. Liver to off went them for provide to committed who sponsors had foster their up with met they London, where in Station pool Street families. class middle lower with often most country, the throughout homes families. younger, with some as young as two and a half. and as two as young some with younger, for their had departure, been assembled notifiedwere children and German-Dutch the across train border by usually traveled they Hook of the to ferries for destined boarded they where Holland,
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, - - - - - 73 Howev 72 I Came Alone: Alone: Came I We Came as Children as Came We Now settled in Jeru settled Now As they began their As they 80 71 Into the Arms of Strangers: She eventually relocat eventually She 75 Kurt spent the war years war years the spent Kurt 78 81 Kurt also lost both his parents both his parents also lost Kurt 79 was published much later, in 1990, in 1990, later, much was published , published in 2000, chronicles the expe the in 2000, chronicles , published After the war ended, Eva received the devas the received Eva ended, war the After 74 While Charlotte Levy and so many others ultimately others ultimately many and so Levy Charlotte While 76 70 When they arrived in Britain, both Kurt and his sister stayed stayed and his sister Kurt both in Britain, arrived they When 77 Kurt Landes was only eleven when he left Vienna with his older older his with Vienna left he when was only eleven Landes Kurt In these memoirs, we meet children like Eva Hayman, who The memoirs of glimpse into an invaluable provide Kinder the send my children off to a foreign land.” foreign a to off children my send like like Eva and her were separated. sister, in Birmingham, couple a childless with in hostels staying afterwards pursuing schooling. further before Holocaust. family in the his entire and nearly wonder sometimes “I reflected, Kurt of own, family his a with salem of challenge the up to faced have I would how to whether deciding tating news that both her parents had died. parents her both that news tating remained Vera while lives, currently she where Zealand, New to ed England. in sister. brieflyat Dovercourt and “Harritch” summer camps beforethey, to my sister, ‘Don’t be afraid, you will always have me.’” have will always afraid, you be ‘Don’t sister, my to er, at Liverpool Street Station, Eva and a family in with stay to went as Vera Vera were other, each from separated immediately Bournemouth.in school boarding a to went Eva while Lancashire Eva spent Once therest she of finished schooling, the warworking hospital. in a wartime from their families and continuing years after the war’s end. war’s the after years continuing and families their from was fifteenyears oldwhen she arrived in Britain from Čelákovice, sister. ten-year-old her with Czechoslovakia, family, their from separation the by journeyEngland, to devastated Eva promised that Vera she would look after writing, her, “I said in England, and discovering the fates of fates the England,discovering in and families. their The of Stories the Kindertransport of accounts written and features range that experiences Kinder’s the brief a few from pages. paragraphs several to ofStories Kindertransport the ofriences separations initial their with beginning Kinder, thirteen the experiences of experiences the Three transports. the by saved were who those ofcollections that testimony primary the source memoirs provided experiences. Kinder’s the analyze us to will allow excerpts of 1966, presents in published from entries anonymous life a new to adjusting as separation, topics such cover that Kinder darkness.” their safety, their ensure to children their with part to preferred of indication an clearly was children their relinquish to willingness of desperation sheer the in Germany. situation their
- - - - The chance to to The chance 84 For the children who were more aware aware more were who children the For Similarly, one child who was eleven at at was eleven who child one Similarly, 83 82 The stories that make up the Kindertransport narrative are, are, narrative Kindertransport the up make The that stories of and families. homes their leaving tance tance to leave was coupled with a conflicting sense ofrelief at the recalled, child As one in Nazi Germany. life from away get to chance sprung on suddenly was fairly decision the home, leaving “I hated of age the at even but me, a place I was coming to that I realised ten frightened.” be to have longer no would I where cost the at came but of chance precious a them offered leave safety, suddenly leaving their families. Eva Hayman explained, “To me, it me, suddenly their leaving families. Eva Hayman explained, “To I just us. to was happening this that believe I didn’t was all unreal. go back in time.” to wanted Mummy, ‘Please, and saying: “crying bitterly remembered time the away.’” me send don’t please of reluc this countries, home in their faced they anti-Semitism the THE MOMENT OF PARTING their marked families their from separation initial The children’s of Many experience. Kindertransport the into initiation children the of prospect the over and upset frightened understandably were decision to separate must have been for their families. While their their While families. their for been have must separate decision to the oftraumatic nature reflectionstake onthis nuanced view, their As expressed accounts. their throughout clear remains experiences others, many and Landes, Kurt of Hayman, stories the Eva through of consequences tragic the reveal lives their humani reluctant this success. of program’s nature the qualified the and program tarian children and the creation of creation and the children the allowed collections memoir these of view a broader take to Kinder personal experiences. very their deeper a understanding ofWith of context political the and prewar reflec Kinder’s the themselves, parents as now and Europe, wartime of a sense both express frequently tions precious the gratitude for of the recognition difficult and how received they survival at chance ter. Amid these ter. differences,there are several commonthemes that of nature distinct the highlight experience. Kindertransport the their memoirs are The Kinder’s similarities the among striking most of traumas on the emphasis collective and guilt, isolation, loneliness, separation the and long-term,immediate both from stemmed which The of length families. their from as experiences their between time of as course, diverse Differencesas in the age, themselves. children and where war, during the stayed children the whom and with where individual charac its account each give up afterwards ended they
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- - - - 88 Many of Many Kinder the 86
Over the next six years, the children faced the the faced children the six years, next the Over Comforted by their parents’ reassurances that that reassurances parents’ their by Comforted Kurt’s reaction to his departure was typical of was typical his to departure reaction Kurt’s 89 87 85 When When the children first confrontedthe prospect of adjusting Other children barely realized the meaning of meaning the realized barely children Other separa their sense ofsense in diary in her writing While moving after homesickness. as a result reflected not only the inherent challenges of to challenges emigrating inherent the only not reflected result a as of circumstances the to due that, fact the also but country, a foreign without challenges these with deal had to children the rescue, their of or comfort support the families. their acute an with overcome often were they country, alien an in life a to “Our first day in Birmingham was hell. It suddenly hit methat we no with language, the country knowing without in a foreign were or friends.” relatives of task daunting foreign in a completely lives new their to adjusting most had separated, frequently were siblings even and since country, encountered The they traumas emotional own. do so all on their to ISOLATION AND CULTURE SHOCK SHOCK AND CULTURE ISOLATION DURING THE YEARS WAR of realities the in Britain, arrived children the Once situa new their was overwhelming. impact the many, begantion sink in. For to trip, the about excited thoroughly had been who Holden, Herbert writing, arrived, he after feelings changed his markedly described would follow soon.” follow would their to said goodbye children the reunited, be eventually would they journey on their and uncertain life a new to families and embarked in Britain. future the pleasure of pleasure the to sea the across — going ahead adventure great the of feeling any missed have to appear I England.Somehow wrench, — managed sensible very were — who parents my probably or more of sign any show to not parting.” the at sorrow As one them. reassure to similar attempts parents’ their remembered of light made “My parents Kind wrote, they that saying parting, the summer camps, the Alps and even Yugoslavia, and took this to be just just be to this and took Yugoslavia, and even Alps the camps, summer good-bye.” another transports. the on went ofwho number children large significantly a fami their unconcerned leaving about relatively they were only Not of prospects the about excited were often they lies, impending their vividly more remember to “I seem recalled, child As another journey. tion. Kurt Landes’ sister also cried profusely when it was time to say say to time was it when profusely cried also sister Landes’ Kurt tion. signifi the registered barely he that remembered Kurt but goodbye, to ofcance home, from before away “I had been writing, event, the 94 While the children’s children’s the While 96 Yet even children who were were who children even Yet 95 Likewise, accounts from Bunce Bunce from accounts Likewise, 90 Some children were even isolated within the the within isolated even were children Some Likewise, fourteen-year-old Lorraine Allard Lorraine Allard fourteen-year-old Likewise, 93 92 Such severe homesickness was especially common common was especially homesickness severe Such 91 Of the combat could help also factors that were there course, As the children settled down with foster families or in hostels or in hostels families foster with down settled children As the difficult I suppose, and one felt always alone.” always felt one and I suppose, difficult very glad of very company.” other’s each escape always did not or in caring homes refugees among other ofa feeling in a group stayed initially who child, One loneliness. of challenges the described home, and establish trying down settle to friends, any make “I did not recalling setting, in a hostel even roots been have and wouldstrangeness reshuffling it with all the moving, I was banished to the kitchen where I also had my meals.” I also had my where kitchen the to I was banished of sense children’s ofOne abandonment. who children older the that remembered in Surrey hospital a children’s at work to went she felt “utterly abandoned and lost,” when she first arrived, but at the hospital “there were five morerefugee girls andwe were all remembered, “There was a terrible void and a terrible loneliness for for loneliness and a terrible void was a terrible “There remembered, warmth.” and for love One unwelcome. feel to in and made them took that families foster of rest the when margarine “I was given Kind explained, family the ofslice only one on the jam — put to butter, I allowed was ate bread visitors When came brambles. the I had collected which jam for very homes homes that merely aggravated their sense of abandonment. from separations successive the endured had already who Hayman, Eva only “the being that remembered sister, her her family and then alone, completely feeling her left in Britain school her at stranger” of “I wrote writing, one that dreamed diary: ‘I never in my time that so lonely.’” could be for the duration of into duration the for developed homesickness initial this war, the of sense a profound the haunted often that and isolation loneliness children’s the During this period, war years. the throughout children in determining ofrole severity the a key played situations living their war. the persisted it throughout to which extent and the loneliness or foster hostels in the elements were there not, than often More the transports, described the children as “very disturbed and very very and disturbed as “very children the described transports, the and homes their lost had they because unhappy, very and restless parents.” their among the children when they first arrived Britain,in memory of recent. was still separation and the families their the when with her new foster family, twelve-year-old Inge declared, “When “When declared, Inge twelve-year-old family, foster new her with a child lies here that grave my on put to have will they dead I am of died who homesickness.” from children hundred one in around took which in Kent, Court
64 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 65 SARAH KLIMEK - - - - Despite Despite 99 While learn While 100 Unfortunately, many of many Unfortunately, 101 Another child remembered that his foster mother was was mother his foster that remembered child Another Though a seemingly harmless of trait culture, British 97 98 The language barrier, which presented another formidable another presented which The barrier, language As the children confronted the emotional effects of being the Kinder did in fact lose the ability to speak in their native language, language, native in their speak to ability the lose did in fact Kinder the ing English was an inevitable adjustment that the children had to connec remaining last their represented languages native their make, of and some homes, their to tion learn to reluctant were children the years, several for English learning avoid to tried child One one. new a German “the of me to was left was all that language explaining, my up.” it give to want and I did not childhood further highlighted the absence of absence the highlighted further families. own their tried Many children. the for significance special a on took challenge, child one As ofnecessity. out simply possible as fast as English learn to could understand German who no one absolutely “I knew explained, myself make to desperate and I became understood.” loving loving family were affectedby this lack of outward affection. One Kind reflected, “Theywere in fact atruly charming and genuine restrictive, a little life their I found that fault their was not It family. a little lonely and lacking in ofexpression any affection.” of best intentions the of culture this families, the rein often reserve and in an unfamiliar home were children the that fact the forced but she didn’t hug and kiss me, whereas my mother was the exact exact was the mother my whereas and kiss me, hug didn’t she but opposite.” of absence this have may warmth children the when a time at came took dependent who on those were they since most, the it needed the them familial in comfort to and provide affection hadthey lost. an otherwise into welcomed were who children even Consequently, to, especially given the nature of nature the given especially to, Inge arrival. Nine-year-old their Sadan explained that “Europeans and Jews all together are very warm,” she when that in arrived recalled England,but “everybody Everything kisses. no and hugs no were There reserved. very seemed was cold.” loving, was She was her manner. “It explaining, aloof,” “somewhat separated from their families and alone in Britain, their isolation was was isolation their in Britain, alone and families their from separated of sense and bewildering an overwhelming by exacerbated culture were there degree, a certain to this was inevitable shock. While ofelements British reserved notoriously as the such culture, British adjust to children the for difficult particularly proved that manners, separation separation from their parents was difficultenough, their isolation of instability the refugees, other from the and situations, living their trau additional became families foster of effects unloving damaging difficulties. their to heavily contributed that mas
- - - 102 105 106 The successive separations separations The successive 103 As a result, the Kinder’s hopes of hopes Kinder’s the As a result, families their with reuniting While the end ofWhile the they that hope children the war gave the Throughout the war years, the consequences of consequences the years, war the Throughout Britain’s 104 tating disappointment for most. The few children whose parents parents whose The most. children few for disappointment tating war was finally over. On V-E Day, which marked the end ofend the war the marked which Day, V-E On over. finally was war in Lorraine Europe, remembered, “It was just wonderful, wonder thought, I just me, And for Circus. in Piccadilly danced all ful. We week.” next parents my see it, I’m going to is this well would finallyreunite withtheir families,this to proved be a devas cate with nor learn nor with cate of of fates the the war, the during families their throughout news for and fearfully expectantly both waited children as “a war years the described Hellman Michael in Britain. time their oftime of fate the about anxiety increasing behind.” left we those the clung to Lorraine like Allard children anxieties, their Despite ofhope the that fact the by heartened and were families their seeing detailing detailing Nazi againstatrocities their reluctance European Jews, to informationBritish this the that acceptmeant fully propagate and of unaware largely remained public the after until Holocaust the war. of news initial the following possibility be a real to seemed still the Allied victory in Europe. Although they could neither communi midst of challenges confronted children the circumstances, these of expected been normally could ever have what beyond well them. THEIR FAMILIES OF THE FATES DISCOVERING war the in on early reports numerous received officials British While Kindertransport ensured that the children would spend the war war the spend would children the that ensured Kindertransport effects on had tangible the transition clearly safety, living in relative wellbeing. and mental emotional their travelled who siblings any families, their — from endured they that the cut — essentially background cultural their and them, with the In years. war the during childhoods own their from off children total total immersion into English culture and complete alienation from children, the for a symbolic loss and a real represented homes, their of was one language native since of remnants last the lives home their retained. children the that the While shape. taking already were policy refugee constrained sometimes permanently. Kurt Fuchel, who had learned English within English learned had who Fuchel, Kurt permanently. sometimes ofsix weeks lost rapidly he that noted arriving regrettably in Britain, re-learn to able been it.” his German“never and had as a result The loss of Kinder’s the from resulted which languages, native their
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- - - - 114 111 109 110 Having spent so spent Having 113 112 For the children who eventually received received eventually who children the For 107 Others tried to locate their families by returning their to by families their Others locate to tried 108 Despite Despite these uncomfortable firstreunions, some ofthe chil The children’s discovery of discovery — their The children’s discover to — or failure did manage it. After about a year I felt part of part I felt a year about After it. did manage family again.” the go of a seven-year-old and got back a sixteen-year-old. My mother, go of My mother, and got back a sixteen-year-old. a seven-year-old sixteen-year- a But off. left she’d where on carry to wanted especially, a seven-year-old.” like treated be to like old doesn’t As Inge old relationships. their revive to able eventually were dren we beginning, the in difficult very was it “Although explained, Sadan in hiding. Kurt Fuchel, who had forgotten his German forgotten had who learned he once Fuchel, Kurt in hiding. they when parents his with communicate to able barely was English, among common too all was that experience an war, the after met first members. family with reunited who children the had initially his parents and he that recalled Kurt apart, years many let “My parents explaining, relationship, their rebuilding trouble transport experience. The children whose parents did not survive had survive did not parents whose The children experience. transport with reunion a terms to that come to realization shattering the with those Even whose their parents did take families place. would never of task daunting the faced now survive a relation trying re-establish to ship after spending six difficultyears, ifnot more, apart fromtheir of most families, years camps or spent Nazi death had endured whom After years of years After any for and waiting safety parents’ their for fearing uncertain in gnawing left were children these behalf, news on their ty over the final fates oftheir familiesand were denied any sense of closure. of beginning the marked fates parents’ of phase a second Kinder the hometowns. hometowns. Hedy Epstein decided to go back to her hometown in Kippenheim in 1947 to find outwhat happenedto her parents. until 1956. to Auschwitz sent had been learn did not She they that fully learned to happened what never children the cases, In some of “The death remembered, child One ones. loved their parents my was only confirmedby the lack of informationto the contrary.” the devastating news that their families had perished, their searches searches their had perished, families their that news devastating the if months, several took often never were sometimes and years, not Lorraine learnedfully resolved. of of deaths the of both parents her coldly impersonal the Red through war ended the after months a few oflists published and notices Cross concentration in died who those camps. did survive often heard directly from their families. However, since since However, families. their from directly heard often did survive through murdered had been end of the by Jews million six war, the of chances children’s the Solution, Final Hitler’s parents their seeing small. tragically were
- - - 120 119 The agonizing guilt that so so The that agonizing guilt 121 Although their family members family their Although had physi One of One decided mother whose Kinder, the 116 115 In the poem “Cast Out,” another Kind captured Kind captured another Out,” “Cast poem In the 118 Reflecting on her experiences, HaymanEva wrote, 117 The Kinder’s lives in the years after War World Two finally To assuage such devastating feelings of feelings devastating such assuage often children the guilt, To lovely daughters and now being a grandmother myself, a feeling a feeling a grandmother being daughters and now myself, lovely revealed the true implications of the Kindertransport policy. Several of implications true the Several revealed policy. Kindertransport the arrival in Britain, initial and their rescue children’s the after decades psycho and emotional post-war its and separation oftheir effects the logical consequences still remained. As Erika Shotland remarked, fifty“After years in England, being happily married, bringing up Reflecting upon his rescue, Fred Durst explained, on social matters time considerable and spend since, grateful ever “I been have society.” to debt my tryto and repay ofmany perished families their surviving while for felt Kinder the chil the haunted often and burden psychological a heavy remained of rest the for dren lives. their spent their future lives trying to justify their existence, to prove to to prove to trying existence, their to justify lives future their spent After had received. they rescue the deserved they that themselves been could have children other that reminded constantly being always I have then “Since Kind explained, one place, in her rescued survival.” my justify I must that thought the with obsessed been but also guilty for being alive. Here I was alive, and my parents were were parents and my I was alive, Here alive. being for also guilty but I that fair seem didn’t It suffered. had they and suffer, didn’t I dead. here.” should be I think “Sometimes statement, unnerving the with haunting guilt this parents my with / together die to me for / easier been have would it alone.” survive to / them by surrendered been have / to than For many Kinder, the hardest challenge would perhaps be to live live to be perhaps would challenge hardest the Kinder, many For had families their while had survived they that knowledge the with living victims the burdens guilt Survivor’s Holocaust. in the perished of of children and the all atrocities, no were Kindertransport the exception. “My experience of coming to England made me grateful for life, a gulf bridged.” be to familial the losing up ended still Kinder these war, the survived cally had. once they relationships GUILT SURVIVOR’S For others, however, the prolonged separation left permanent left separation prolonged the scars however, others, For ties. familial on their other each visit “We stated, in Germany remain to war, the after great too proved have separated were we years the occasionally but
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- Similarly, Similarly, 126 for what was was what for The Kinder’s The Kinder’s 123 now 125 The just was no longer Kindertransport 122 Nevertheless, the Kinder’s accounts revealed revealed accounts Kinder’s the Nevertheless, 124 Not surprisingly, the children’s separation from and loss of from separation children’s the surprisingly, Not have given my love and gratitude even in those early days if days early in those and gratitude even love my given love have struggles to feel grateful when she first arrived in Britain, describing describing Britain, in arrived first she when grateful feel to struggles herself as grateful feeling not as I should have for guilty as “feeling myself.” I found where much liking very not and been, grateful be “I shall always Kind explained, as one my down rammed been had not I wish it although us then, for done understandI could I and better Now . . . child a as much so throat Kinder, as they combined their frequent expressions of expressions frequent their combined as they with thanks Kinder, they tragedy and hardships the on reflections frequent equally their pains of the cases, In some separation way. along the encountered of expressions Kinder’s in the evident even and loss were gratitude. of as “an act Kindertransport the described who Leverton, Bertha her acknowledged world,” in the else anywhere equalled not mercy, experiences: “People wonder how anyone whose life was saved could could was saved life whose anyone how wonder “People experiences: and saved be to happy be just should He was saved. he qualify how that.” like isn’t life real But anything. take their families underlay the reflectionsthat they presented in their memoirs in the of is evident ambiguity The memoirs. resulting the the full range of range full the traumas and psychological emotional lasting the of nature the by created Kinder the These traumas that rescue. their suffered,together withthe ethically dubious political humanitar motivations this over pall a cast inevitably program, the defined that arrived he old when years was eight who Sugar, ian mission. Robert of complexities the summarized succinctly in Britain, Kinder’s the to express their heartfelt gratitude to Britain for saving their lives lives their saving gratitude heartfelt their for Britain to express to “‘Britain, up, summed Kind As one Kindertransport. the through thanks.’” today, here be not would we you without focusedreflections were primarily introspective, on capturing their on others for blame cast to attempting and rarely experiences own their sufferings. CONCLUSION The experiences and reflectionsthat the Kinderrecorded in their of nature complicated ethically the to a testament memoirs provide sure made Kinder the memoirs, In their program. humanitarian this of persists.” still loss return could children the which after measure, a temporary rescue psychological and emotional the had. Instead, once they lives the to ofconsequences end. war’s the after long remained survival their
- - - - - 128 While the Kinder’s gratitude Kinder’s the While 127 The story of shortcom about is as much Kindertransport the schemes, reminding us of the need to view our own acts of acts own qualified our view of to us need reminding the schemes, Act,” and strikinglysimilar “Dream recent as the compassion, such memoirs so vividly Kinder’s As the and wary a critical with eye. of consequences the demonstrate, potential the do so have failing to harmful. and irreversibly profoundly be to political context in which the Kindertransport was implemented: was implemented: Kindertransport the in which political context justly been have criticisms and many too, was insensitivity, “There could no which against Nazi years, policy during the British levelled if refugees more many saved have doubt there.” will had been the The history of warning a critical provides Kindertransport the humanitarian in all such present moral ambiguities about the difficulties of accommodatingthe rest their of families. great The the awaited that fate in the lies oftragedy War World Second the Jews left behind in Europe, yet we cannot minimize the suffering of as a result Kinder the by endured compassion that calculated the on one a child as came who Rayner, John Rabbi rescue. their shaped of up the summed best war, the before organized transports last the desperate desperate effort inthe midst ofthe extremely of perspective the from dire British the Yet circumstances in Germany. facing Jews assis calls for to reluctantly very had responded which government, of victims to tance provid Kindertransport the Nazi anti-Semitism, course easy an ed of magnanimous make the to it allowed that action ofgesture the with deal to having without children Jewish rescuing and complex nature of nature and complex of as children experiences their Kinder the suffering. and effects survival conflicting of the to and transport ings of official British policy asit is about the psychological pains of was a humanitar Kindertransport the core, its At survival. ian program, proposed by the Anglo-Jewish community as a final had been given to me more freely.” more me to given had been also they and sincere, heartfelt was undoubtedly survival their for remembered the extremely difficult experiences that they endured along the Their way. reflections and memoirsattest to the unique
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(Oxford: (Oxford: (accessed June (accessed June
Whitehallthe and Britain in the Britain host (London: Edward (London: (London: Macmillan, (Boulder: Westview Press, Press, Westview (Boulder: , ed. Gerhard Hirschfeld Hirschfeld Gerhard , ed. , EBSCO , , ed. David Cesarani (Oxford: Basil (Oxford: Cesarani David , ed. , 117-9. London, 114-5; , Traditions of Traditions Historical Intolerance: (Manchester: Manchester University University Manchester (Manchester: Shofar: An Interdisciplinaryof Journal Shofar: , 10. ,11. : History and Memory” Cali (M.A. Thesis, (New York: Longman Publishing, 1977); Publishing, Longman York: (New Britain and the Jews of Jews the and Britain 1939-1945 Europe, Academic Search Premier Search Academic , 32-3. , 32. , , 66. , 65. Kindertransport (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: , 14-5. , , 79-80. Men ofofVictims to Aid Anglo-Jewry’s Vision: regimeNazi the 1933- Anti-Semitism in British Society 1876-1939 Society in British Anti-Semitism Holocaust and Rescue: Impotent or Indifferent? Anglo-Jewry 1938-1945 Anglo-Jewry Indifferent? or Impotent Rescue: and Holocaust The Holocaust: Roots, History, and Aftermath and The History, Roots, Holocaust: Whitehall and the Jews 1933-1948: British immigration policy, Jewish Jewish Whitehallimmigration British 1933-1948: policy, Jews the and Political anti-Semitism in England, 1918-1939 in England, anti-Semitism Political The Making of Modern Anglo-Jewry Britain and the Jews of Jews and the Britain Europe Britain and the Jews of Jews and the Britain Europe , 23, no. 1 (2004): 4. (2004): 1 no. 23, , Exile in Great Britain: Refugees from Hitler’s Germany Hitler’s Refugees from Britain: Exile in Great Men of Vision Men of Vision WhitehallJews the and WhitehallJews the and WhitehallJews the and WhitehallJews the and The Holocaust: Roots, History, and Aftermath and The History, Roots, Holocaust: Aftermath and The History, Roots, Holocaust: (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998), 103. 1998), Nicolson, & Weidenfeld (London: , 59-60. London, See Colin Holmes, Colin Holmes, See and Chris Cook, Stevenson Arnold1979); John Ltd, (Publishers) 1929-1939 Depression:Politics, and Society Lebzelter, G.C. Lunn, eds., and Kenneth Kushner 1978); Tony in Britain Discourse Race and on Fascism Perspectives 1989). Press, London, Ibid, 19. Wasserstein, 64. Immigration,” German the and Government British “The Wasserstein, Wasserstein, Gottleib, London, London, “Jewish Refugees, Anglo-Jewry and British Government Policy,” 170; Ber Policy,” and British Government Anglo-Jewry Refugees, London, “Jewish 1933- Immigration German the and Government British “The Wasserstein, nard in 1945,” 69-70. 1984) Inc., Press Humanities Jersey: (New German the and “The British Government Immigration,” 71. Wasserstein, 174; Policy,” Government British and Anglo-Jewry Refugees, “Jewish London, London, Crowe, Crowe, Gottlieb, Crowe, Jews Policy, Government and British Anglo-Jewry Refugees, Louise London, “Jewish in 1930-1940,” 1990), 165; Ibid, 169-171. Ltd, Blackwell Wolfgang Benz and Andrea Hammel, “Emigration as Rescue and Trauma: The Trauma: and Rescue as “Emigration Hammel, Andrea and Benz Wolfgang of Historical Context Kindertransport,” the Studies Jewish 2014). 24, M.Crowe, David 2008), 106; Bernard Wasserstein, 1979), 5-6. Press, Clarendon Ibid. Shatzkes, Pamela 2002), 69. Mitchell, (London: Vallentine “The A. Norton, Jennifer 30. 2010), Sacramento, University, State fornia Zahl Gottlieb, Amy 1945 Louise London, Louise Holocaust the and refugees 2000), 121. 23. 22. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 12. 13. 14. 8. 9. 10. 11. 6. 7. 2. 3. 4. 5. ENDNOTES 1. 33, no.2 (2008): no.2 33, Into the Armsthe Into ofStories Strangers: InternationalSecurity (accessed May 11, 2014). 11, May (accessed host , 112. Never The Back: Look in Great Refugee Children Jewish , 100; Ibid, 40-1. Ibid, 100; , 113. , , 105-6. , 33. , , 98. , 69. , 66. , 69. , 65. , EBSCO , , 103; Ibid, 114. Ibid, 103; , , 117-8. , 100-1. , 90. NeverBack Look (London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2000), 149. 2000), Publishing, Bloomsbury (London: (West Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 2012), 104. 2012), Press, University Purdue Lafayette: (West Holocaust and Rescue and Holocaust Holocaust and Rescue and Holocaust Rescue and Holocaust Holocaust and Rescue and Holocaust Men of Vision Men of Vision Men of Vision Men of Vision WhitehallJews the and WhitehallJews the and WhitehallJews the and WhitehallJews the and WhitehallJews the and Academic Search Premier Search Academic Gottlieb, Gottlieb, Shatzkes, Shatzkes, Baumel-Schwartz, Tydor Judith 1938-1945 Britain, Gottlieb, Ibid, 111. Ibid, 116. Baumel-Schwartz, 1938, vol 341, cc1473-1475. 341, vol 1938, c1474. 341, vol 1938, November 21 Deb HC Ibid. cc1474-1475. Ibid, c1317. Ibid, HarrisOppenheimer, and Deborah Jonathan Mark of the Kindertransport Ibid, 100. Shatzkes, London, Gottlieb, Shatzkes, c1474. 341, vol 1938, November 21 Deb HC November 21 Deb HC 227; p. 1938, Nov. 16 (38)5, 55 Cab. 23/96 CAB TNA: Ibid, pp. 222-4. pp. Ibid, 223-4. pp. Ibid, 222-4. pp. Ibid, c1464. 341, vol 1938, November 21 Deb HC c1468. Ibid, Ibid. London, Ibid. 1435-1436. cc 341, vol 1938, November 21 Deb HC cc1428-1431. Ibid, c1429. Ibid, c1444. Ibid, c1441; Ibid, c1460. Ibid, 221-5. pp. 1938, Nov. 16 (38)5, 55 Cab. 23/96 CAB TNA: Gottleib, Gottleib, London, Shatzkes, London, Ibid, 99. c1444. 341, vol 1938, November 21 of Debate, House Commons 221. p. 1938, Nov. 16 (38)5, 55 Cab. 23/96, CAB Archives: National The Ibid, 33. Ibid, Thinking The or Buying Time?: “Wishful Levy, S. Norrin M. Ripsman and Jack 1930s,” the of in AppeasementLogic British 159. London, 66. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 24. 25. 26.
72 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 73 SARAH KLIMEK - - -
(New York: Har York: (New , 88. , 220. , 110. 204. , , 207. , 126. , 84. , ‘Bystanders’ to the Holocaust: the to ‘Bystanders’ I Came Alone: TheI Came Alone: of Stories Kinder the NeverBack Look Auschwitz, the Allies and Censorship Censorship and Allies the Auschwitz, , 163-9; Ibid, 343-4; See also David Cesa David also See 343-4; Ibid, 163-9; , , 145-6. , , 57. 149. , , 179. , 57. 63. , , 59. , 19. : History and Memory,” 37. Memory,” and History : : History and Memory,” 38-9. Memory,” and History : (London: Holocaust Educational Trust, 1998); David David 1998); Trust, Educational Holocaust (London: I Came Alone I Came Alone I Came Alone I Came Alone Into the Armsthe Into of Strangers Armsthe Into of Strangers Into the Armsthe Into of Strangers Armsthe Into of Strangers Into the Armsthe Into of Strangers Into the Armsthe Into of Strangers , 125; Baumel-Schwartz, , 125; Baumel-Schwartz, We Came as Children: A Collective AutobiographyChildren: Came as We Kindertransport Kindertransport (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014). Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: , eds. David Cesarani and Paul A. Levine (London: Frank Cass (London: Frank A. Levine and Paul Cesarani David , eds. Britain and the Jews of Jews and the Britain Europe We Came as Children Came as We Children Came as We Children Came as We We Came as Children Came as We Men of Vision (Sussex: The 1990), 179. Book Guild Ltd., (Sussex: Britain and the Holocaust the and Britain Harris and Oppenheimer, Harris and Oppenheimer, rani, of Rescuers Taxonomy a Towards Englishmen: and Dogs “Mad Cesarani, in 1933-45,” Britain – Country ‘Bystander’ a in A Re-evaluation Fleming, Michael 2002), 28-56; Publishers, of the Holocaust and Lowensohn, Leverton Ibid, 199. Gershon, Ibid, 86. Ibid. HarrisOppenheimer, and “TheNorton, Wasserstein, Ibid, 77-8. HarrisOppenheimer, and Ibid, 215-6. Gershon, Ibid, 97. 36. Ibid, HarrisOppenheimer, and Ibid, 46. Ibid, and Lowensohn, Leverton Gershon, and Lowensohn, Leverton “TheNorton, and Lowensohn, Leverton Gershon, Ibid, 179-80. Ibid, 180. Ibid. Ibid. Harris and Oppenheimer, Gershon,Karen ed., Inc., 1966), 19. & World, Brace court, Ibid, 110. 131-2. Ibid, Ibid, 205-6. Ibid, 225. Ibid, 278-9. eds., Lowensohn, and Shmuel Leverton Bertha transport Ibid, 123. Ibid, Gottlieb, Harris and Oppenheimer, Ibid. Ibid, 278-9. 106. 105. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. - Into the Armsthe Into of Journal of Journal Nervousand , 248. , 136. , , 220. 234. , , 384. , , 247-8. , , 8; Harris and Oppenheimer, , 8; Harris Oppenheimer, and , 75-6. 49, no. 2-3 (1968): 313-5; William G. Nieder G. William 313-5; (1968): 2-3 no. 49, , 151. , 116. 174. , , 112. : History and Memory,” 90-1. : History and Memory,” : History and Memory,” 86. : History and Memory,” I Came Alone I Came Alone I Came Alone Into the Armsthe Into of Strangers Armsthe Into of Strangers Into the Armsthe Into of Strangers Armsthe Into of Strangers Kindertransport Kindertransport 139, no. 5 (1964): 458-74. (1964): 5 no. 139, We Came as Children Came as We We Came as Children Came as We We Came as Children Came as We We Came as Children Came as We The Holocaust: Roots, History, and Aftermath and The History, Roots, Holocaust: , 148. , Strangers Gershon, and Lowensohn, Leverton Ibid, 33. Ibid, “TheNorton, HarrisOppenheimer, and and Lowensohn, Leverton land, “Psychiatric Disorders Among Persecution Victims,” Victims,” Among Persecution Disorders land, “Psychiatric Disease Mental Harris and Oppenheimer, Gershon, 31. Ibid, and Lowensohn, Leverton 314. Ibid, Harris and Oppenheimer, Harris and Oppenheimer, Ibid. 231. Ibid, “TheNorton, Gershon, Syndrome,’” ‘Survivor on the “Clinical Observations Niederland, G. William See Internationalof Journal Psycho-analysis Crowe, Crowe, Harris and Oppenheimer, 242. Ibid, 243. Ibid, Gershon, 127. 128. 123. 124. 125. 126. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111.
74 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 75 SARAH KLIMEK
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2004. “Emigration as Rescue and Trauma: Trauma: and Rescue as “Emigration 2004. London: Holocaust Educational Educational Holocaust London: 49, no. 2-3 (1968): 313-5. (1968): 2-3 no. 49, 139, no. 5 (1964): 458-74. (1964): 5 no. 139, Never The Back: Look in Great Children Refugee Jewish
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76 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 77 SARAH KLIMEK
in the Reference Department at the Albin O. Kuhn Kuhn Departmentin the Reference Albin O. at the expects to graduate She 2015, in May Library. pursueand will go on to of Library a Master Science faculty adviser, to thank her Sarah like would degree. encouragement his continuous for Daniel Ritschel, Dr. the research process. and guidance throughout the editors to thank also like She would and reviewers their helpful UMBC Review for at the suggestions and advice. Sarah is a history Klimek the and a student in major at certificate program education childhood early Sarah During has worked her time at UMBC, UMBC. AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR DARWINISM AND MORAL REALISM
BORIS TIZENBERG I came to study my research topic after taking an upper-level philosophy of science elective that focused on natural selection. After discussing my final paper with Dr. Pfeifer, the professor for the course, she suggested I use the paper as a basis for a research project. This paper continues a debate between two philosophers, Sharon Street and David Copp. It is an investigation into the problem that natural selection causes for moral realism — that there are objective moral truths independent of our moral attitudes — as presented by Sharon Street. David Copp believes he has come up with a way for true and objective moral rules to be possible, even if Darwinian forces caused us to evolve to make certain moral judgments. He presents a possible solution to the problem, which I reject, but suggest that he is correct in asserting that a solution is possible.
- - To describe the adaptive link account I will cite both Sharon Sharon both I will cite link account adaptive the describe To likely likely that Darwinian forces indirectly influenced our moral beliefs responses promoted reproductive success among our distant ances our distant among success reproductive promoted responses our ancestors’ circumstances links between adaptive creating tors by induce to helping by circumstances those to responses and their advan reproductively were that and actions beliefs, emotions, those ancestors our distant did likely that notes 127). Street (Street tageous form to capacity more is so it cognitive the moral beliefs, have not moral beliefs, can be at least partially explained by evolutionary evolutionary by explained partially least at can be moral beliefs, evolutionary way specific the for proposals various are There theory. is the proposal such One our moral psychology. shaped pressures link account. adaptive kinds of certain The is idea that Kitcher. and Philip Street evaluative THE ADAPTIVE THE ADAPTIVE LINK ACCOUNT First, Darwinian the assumptions. multiple requires This argument view is the The Darwinian hypothesis true. held be has to hypothesis that evolutionary forces have influenced human moral psychology of content including the nature, its very even degree the to that our the rejection of rejection the society- his but ground, valid a has realism moral moral theory of accomplish its task not does centered the justifying of is capable account the Instead, account. quasi-tracking avoiding than reason different very a for altogether dilemma Darwinian the Copp suggests. quasi-tracking account. I will also explain why Copp believes that that Copp believes why I will also explain account. quasi-tracking if even possible is still moral realism and link account adaptive the using his This will require true. both are Darwinian dilemma the beliefs our moral why theorymoral explain to society-centered argues section fourth the Finally, truth. moral the semi-track to tend belief Copp’s that necessitate not does dilemma Darwinian the that by describing Street’s adaptive link account. The second section The link account. section second adaptive Street’s describing by the why justify to uses Street that Darwinian dilemma the describes ofexistence realism. moral undercuts in ethics forces Darwinian can use realists Copp believes how addresses section Thethird of version and an amended link account adaptive the both the horntracking of calls the he what up with come to dilemma the In this paper I analyze David Copp’s argument regarding natural natural regarding argument Copp’s David I analyze paper In this a to response is a argument Copp’s realism. moral and selection significantproblem for moral realism raised which she by calls the Street, Sharon Darwinian dilemma. The first section begins
80 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 81 BORIS TIZENBERG - - The adaptive link account can be broken down into four stag four into down broken can be link account The adaptive 110-111). Street’s view, in contrast to moral realism, is a formis a realism, moral to contrast in of view, Street’s 110-111). THE DARWINIAN DILEMMA THE DARWINIAN The appears Darwinian dilemma conclusion that, the to lead to natural moral realism, and given Darwinian hypothesis the given Moral realism truths. moral produce to unlikely seems selection of existence the dictates that view philosophical the is knowable independent of are that moral truths (Street our moral attitudes evolution ofevolution existence the postulating without well moral psychology of independent of are that moral truths thus moral attitudes, our Darwinian dilemma the with face realists that problems the avoiding 121). 113, 109, (Street that the evolutionary function of function evolutionary the that normative for a capacity having pressures Selective social cohesion. promote was to governance and social cohesion promoted that behaviors those favor would oppose those that favored selfish and antisocial behavior (Kitcher of stages all four that 176). Copp assumes link account adaptive the are true. Street argues that this account describes the effects of example, this stage can be used to explain why humans evolved to to evolved humans why explain to used be can stage this example, reward to encouraged and are behavior upon helpful look favorably of type this in return help with stage 127). The third (Street behavior certain form to tendency ofnon-reflective appearance a the involves by was proposed stage 127). The fourth (Street basic moral beliefs of and is outside Kitcher believes Kitcher proposal. original Street’s second second stage, selection for capacities and dispositions affected the of abilities cognitive specif 127). More ancestors distant less (Street ically, it influenced the content ofthe evaluativejudgments to an explanation for This allows stage they make. to disposed be to came judgments make to a tendency evolved humans why as to made be For ancestors. distant for was adaptive that behavior favored that and dispositions in our distant ancestors. The presence of The presence ancestors. in our distant and dispositions these of development the to led and dispositions capacities dispositions kinds of Certain attitudes. form to tended that evaluative certain stage and in this ancestors, for adaptive been have would behaviors form to them led that dispositions evaluative humans developed 129). In the (Street behaviors adaptive in such resulted that attitudes by by directly influencing primitive pre-conceptual 118-120). ancestorsdistant (Street states of those capacities psychological basic for selected First, Darwinian forces es.
- Street argues that realists who accept the tracking thesis must accept must thesis tracking the who realists that argues Street The dilemma is presented as a choice between two options: options: two between as a choice The is presented dilemma ancestors’ environment and their response to it, while the tracking tracking the while it, to response and their ancestors’ environment account is unacceptable because it is contradictory to the adaptive is contradictory it because is unacceptable account adaptive the to theories The two plausible. more is empirically which link account, contradict each other because they provide different explanations of state current the for link account The adaptive beliefs. our moral advantageous reproductively were that moral beliefs the claims that our between links” “adaptive created that those our ancestorsto were explain why it holds. In order to do so they must accept track the must do so they to In order holds. it why explain ing account (Street 135). The tracking account is with in line be to our moral beliefs caused the Darwinian forces that hypothesis promoted truths moral detect to capacity the moral facts because tracking the that notes She 125-126). (Street success reproductive tracking thesis must accept, if must tracking thesis it is that true, are beliefs our moral moral bring about to Depending on chance chance. to only due this avoid To realist. the for skeptical too seems truth a result accept the who skeptical realists appears conclusion, it that accept (Street thesis tracking the must Darwinian hypothesis 121-122). psychology in such a way that our moral beliefs tend to track the the to track tend our moral beliefs that a way in such psychology to means thesis tracking the Denying (Copp 191). moral facts deny that natural selection affected our moral psychology in a way viewing to leads this that argues Street moral truths. tracked that from away judgments as pushing our evaluative Darwinian forces the denies who a moral realist that reasons She moral truths. then coherency considerations will not yield moral truth. Therefore, Therefore, truth. moral yield not will considerations coherency then if Street, to according face realists is true, Darwinian hypothesis the dilemma. Darwinian the calls she which a dilemma, realists either must affirm or thedeny tracking thesis. The tracking thesis is the hypothesis that natural selection affected our moral moral realism, which moral claims are true is not a function of a function is not true are moral claims which moral realism, what depending one’s on Therefore, hold. to happen we truths moral ofview our moral attitudes for is possible it moral epistemology, if example, For moral truth. moral us about justify mislead to we our moral attitudes, to considerations coherency applying claims by and if we start off with moralattitudes that are radically incorrect, constructivism, according to which moral truth is constructed is constructed truth moral which to according constructivism, of source the view, In a constructivist our attitudes. our moral from to happen our attitudes Whatever matter. not does moral attitudes to according In contrast, them. from is constructed moral truth be,
82 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 83 BORIS TIZENBERG
- - To avoid the skeptical conclusion presented by denying denying by skeptical the presented conclusion avoid To a more forceful argument (197-198). argument forceful a more the tracking thesis, one can take either the aggressive strategy aggressive the either can take one or thesis, tracking the The that strategy aggressive show aims to strategy. defensive the defen the while facts, moral quasi-track to do tend Darwinian forces is unpersua skeptical the argument that strategy show aims to sive strategy aggressive the provide to seems it because Copp chooses sive. use of our cognitive capacities, would attempt to establish a reflective reflective a establish to attempt would capacities, of use cognitive our equilibrium that would lead to moral truth. The use of a reflective among all beliefs. coherence create that processes involves equilibrium for allowing This by Darwinian dilemma the escape to account seems with consistent being while beliefs moral our on influences Darwinian 193-196). (Copp realism moral reproductive success. The success. influenceindirect ofreproductive on forces Darwinian of content the adaptive the with (as in accordance moral beliefs our such was influences, other all with considered when hypothesis), link distorting could for influencesreflection correctrational any on that their content and yield moral Rational knowledge. reflectionwould the and, through truth approximated that moral beliefs with begin ancestors. To quasi-track means that our moral beliefs will be close will be moral beliefs our that means quasi-track To ancestors. Copp truth. the to lead can reflection rational that truth the to enough because moral facts quasi-track to tend moral beliefs our that argues of was part moral truths to detect capacity the of a system evaluative This of system our ancestors. for was adaptive that responses evaluative enhanced that behavior motivated it because was adaptive responses COPP’S REPLY rejected be can account tracking the that in response, Copp argues, can accept one Instead, the thesis. tracking the denying without caused Darwinian forces that hypothesis the account, quasi-tracking capacity the moral facts because the quasi-track to our moral beliefs among our success reproductive promoted moral truths detect to the environment and were selected for. The claims thesis tracking for. selected and were environment the advantageous, were truth the to closer were that characteristics that a Darwinian perspective from explanation a weaker and provides 128-135). (Street account claims that those moral beliefs that best approximated approximated best that beliefs moral those that claims account account link The adaptive advantageous. most the were truth the certain Darwinism: with in line more is that an explanation provides to responses advantageous more to led and actions thoughts, beliefs,
This theory states that a basic moral proposition is true only only is true a basic moral proposition This that theory states Copp believes that realists must propose a theory of propose must realists that Copp believes truth Copp admits that in pursuing the aggressive strategy, it would would it pursuing in strategy, aggressive the admits that Copp the society (Copp 199). society the truth conditions of conditions truth This entails account normative propositions. A moral moral propositions. not moral standards, be must there that is “no is one a moral standard while is wrong,” is “torture proposition account society-centered the The is that part second tortured.” be to of of status the grounds truth This requires part moral standards. authority in the the that firstmoral entailed standards by part have people are motivated to be peaceful, cooperative, and productive and productive cooperative, peaceful, be to motivated are people (Copp 198). if meet to society enable to serve best would that code moral the norm. corresponding a relevantly included needs its The theory is of account standard-based a the is offirst Thecomposed parts. two conflicting interests. To help limit conflict, societies need to motivate motivate to need societies conflict, limit help To interests. conflicting To productively. and cooperatively, peacefully, together us to live governed be to needs a society living conditions, such help establish appears It a social moral code. norms shared words, — in other by of function has the morality that its meet to a society enabling of rules the When ends. its members, internalized are code the by conditions ofconditions This theory of moral judgments. can then moral truth be used to explain why beliefs influencedby Darwinianforces are provide to In his attempt link account. adaptive the with in accord He moral theory. society-centered the Copp proposes a theory, such to need to also seem but in societies, not only live we that reasons have people since problematic be This may need in societies. live led to different moral beliefs as aresult, it is likelythat our moral If truth. the approximate still would beliefs fails explanation the the approximate least the at to have our moral beliefs why show to of truth approximate the truth, a be to will appear beliefs our moral (Copp 197). accident fortunate predicts for us to hold will at least seem close to moral truth. The moral truth. to close seem least will at us to hold for predicts if held is link account adaptive the why, explain to is thing important been have would moral truth quasi-track ability to the true, be to of part of a system The explanation was adaptive. that responses if even that, idea the support needs to our had led selection natural moral to psychology would be whatwhich it have different from is, be insufficient to argue that the basic moral beliefs primed by natural natural by primed beliefs moral basic the that argue to insufficient be If true. approximately intuitively seem selection link adaptive the it that propositions moral the is likely that it true, holds account
84 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 85 BORIS TIZENBERG
- - - - The quasi-tracking account does have some grounds. If grounds. some The have does account quasi-tracking there To answer the Darwinian dilemma, the society-centered society-centered the dilemma, Darwinian the answer To A society with a social moral code would generally experience experience generally would code moral social a with society A than he presents. he than adaptive link account nor the cultural norms cultural nor the link account adaptive during about come that not does Evolution truths. moral resemble not would part fourth the deny not does it yet truths, moral be our moral beliefs that necessitate is solution Copp’s However, moral truth. can approximate they that Darwinian the escape to is possible it Nevertheless, adequate. not reason different a for of but account truth, his moral given dilemma theory appears to provide an account of moral truth that justifies adaptive the with and is compatible account quasi-tracking the link account. neither suggest to that reason enough is not there moral truths, are of part third during the about come that basic principles the the enabling society to meet its needs included a corresponding norm. a corresponding included needs its meet to society enabling if to Copp, According evolution is true, account adaptive-link the norms social cohesion, to lead behavioral those select to ought that social to lead that moral codes that believe to is reasonable and it func the serve best would that moral codes will also be cohesion oftion The society-centered needs. its meet to society enabling quasi-tracking account (Copp 201). In the fourth stage of stage fourth (Copp 201). In the account quasi-tracking adap the favor would pressures selective claims that Kitcher link account, tive and oppose those social cohesion promoted that behaviors those that favored selfish and antisocial behavior (Kitcher 176). Accord is moral proposition a basic theory, society-centered Copp’s ing to only iftrue of function the serve best would that moral code the explanation ofexplanation Theof development the our moral psychology. depend not link account does of truth on the adaptive moral the in for selected Darwinian forces that predicts it which judgments The truth. or approximate truth their with is compatible it yet us, would our moral judgments theory that implies society-centered the justify to attempting by this does It true. approximately be likely moral codes would facilitate cooperation and productivity better better and productivity cooperation facilitate would moral codes that code the theory, society-centered to and according others, than of basic needs the serve best would is moral that code is the a society 199-200). (Copp society that to respect with ly authoritative link account’s theory adaptive the with connected be to needs fewer fewer internal conflictsand less harmfulconflicts and its cooperation, more be would There code. a such without than society a Some in pursuing needs. their productive more be members would
- - - Copp could attempt to resolve this issue by providing an providing this issue by to resolve Copp could attempt The society-centered theory, however, is insufficient The in however, society-centered justify theory, populations. In other words, selection does not yield the best of best the yield does not selection words, In other populations. all society, then the society-centered theory is incapable of theory is incapable society-centered the then the justifying society, oftruth account. quasi-tracking the through moral beliefs our could have forces evolutionary only selective why as to explanation significantly affected our moral beliefs. thereHowever, is aneven in past is present can only act on what Selection deeperproblem. migration, which might have influenced our current moral beliefs. of or random, nature the The non-selective, prevents forces, these would our moral beliefs why explaining theory from society-centered is no there words, In other truth. the quasi-track least, the at to, have our is good for what quasi-track to moral beliefs our for good reason If our is good for society. what quasi-track do not our moral beliefs that the society-centered view entails that our moral beliefs quasi- our moral beliefs that entails view society-centered the that rational through that believe to is reasonable it moral truth, track the oftruths. knowledge moral have to come can we reflection There truth. the quasi-track to tend would beliefs our moral ing why anddrift as such non-selective, are that forces evolutionary other are women’s rights were relatively swift, and although it is possible to say say to possible is it and although swift, relatively were rights women’s of establishment in the role a direct played selection that partic this generations. many many, usually takes selection ular moral belief, ofattitudes evaluative our on reflection rational that likely more is It moral this on impact significant more a had of women treatment the if Hence, is moral progress. This change revelation. case is the it ing the ownership to be passed down to her husband. Over time, time, Over husband. to her down passed be to ownership ing the of considerations women that idea the to led our moral attitudes Accepting moral standard the property. considered be should not have (assuming they respected be must human being every that certain allowed be and must respect) that lose to anything done not in The both. advances enjoy to free be also should women rights, truths. Humans have the capability to think rationally. If rationally. think to capability the natural have Humans truths. close come us to has led account, link adaptive the through selection, wouldwe be reflection, to it moral through is that, truths, plausible concept the of example, For truths. women’s these ascertain to able a that was held it societies, platform.rights has a moral In Western of property was the woman was married, she until allow father her ESCAPING THE DILEMMA if that proposing in correct is Copp that argue I to evolved beliefs our moral to them guide would reflection rational truth, the quasi-track
86 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 87 BORIS TIZENBERG - - - - If what matter not does it then outlines, isas Copp truth moral The reason the Darwinian dilemma arises in the first place However, Copp can escape the Darwinian dilemma in another in another Darwinian dilemma the Copp can escape However, social sciences to determine which moral codes best serve society’s society’s determine to social sciences serve best moral codes which um on these beliefs). The problem is that if that is The beliefs). these um on problem close not are beliefs these reflection rational that think to reason little is there then truth, the to if Therefore, moral knowledge. will yield has produced evolution cannot realist moral the truth, the from distant are that moral beliefs Howev moral knowledge. have to come might we how for account ifer, of account Copp’s on the can rely we is correct, moral truth allow society to meet its needs. its meet to society allow of view a particular to is related gain we that — moral knowledge ratio and using our moral beliefs with starting by moral knowledge inconsistencies correcting by (perhaps these correct to reflection nal of method some equilibri using reflective by or beliefs moral our in not make a bit of difference whether the moral beliefs framed by our our by framed beliefs moral the whether of bit difference a make not if Even truth. the quasi-track past evolutionary produced evolution as political — such disciplines other moral beliefs, radically incorrect use not need We ones. correct the — could produce or social science all. at knowledge moral ground to evolution by produced beliefs the will best moral codes what study empirically can simply we Instead account, a moral proposition is true only if only true is proposition moral a account, of, part a be either can it its serve to a society enables best code which a moral by, or implied (Copp 200). Ifneeds of account Copp’s there is correct, moral truth all. at account quasi-tracking the defend to is no need does it words, In other from. came they where or are beliefs our moral and therefore available for selection. Copp seems to be falling victim falling be seems to Copp selection. for available and therefore ofpitfalls to the Gould and by outlined program adaptationist the (1979). Lewontin The way. society-centered theory defines moraltruth interms of what is beneficialto According to society. Copp’s society-centered corresponding norm. Even if selection and only selection is operating operating is selection only and ifselection Even norm. corresponding moral beliefs quasi- our that establish Copp cannot on a population, is code moral the that requires truth moral since truth, moral track theory The society-centered needs. societal best serves one that the function ofthe norma that serve guarantee best does not would that in a population, be present would its needs to meet society enabling possibilities, since all possibilities might not be present in popula past since all possibilities not be present might possibilities, theory of to Copp’s according a basic truth, moral However, tions. only if is true proposition moral serve best would that code moral the function ofthe a relevantly its needs included society to meet enabling
- -
18. 1 18. 1
. David David .
Philosophical Issues Issues Philosophical 205. 1161 (1979): 581-598. Print. 205. 1161 (1979): 581-598. “The Spandrels of“The Spandrels Marco San The of Handbook Oxford ed Theory, Ethical Richard C. Lewontin. C. Richard 127. 1 (2006): 109–166. Print. and “Biology and Ethics.” Ethics.” and “Biology “A Darwinian Dilemma for Realist Theories of Realist for Darwinian Dilemma Value.” “A “Darwinian Skepticism about Moral Realism.” “Darwinian Skepticism Moral Realism.” about Copp could respond by suggesting that even if even suggesting that by Copp could respond society- the Thus, there is no need to defend the quasi-tracking account since account quasi-tracking the defend to is no need there Thus, Philosophical Studies Studies Philosophical (2008): 186-206. Print. of A Critique Paradigm: and The Panglossian Programme.” The Adaptationist ofProceedings The Sciences Society B: Biological Oral Print. 163–185. (2006): 1 1. Copp Street, Sharon. Street, Copp, David. Copp, J. Stephen Gould, Philip. Kitcher, does not undermine not does If moral realism. of his account is moral truth moral realism, undercut not does Darwinian dilemma the correct, ifeven moral truth. the quasi-track do not our moral beliefs CITED WORKS is beneficial arise, itis does selectionbeneficialexclude not as arise, a driving possible of a combination be may moral truth to Access in discovery. force of type this disciplines. other gained from knowledge and selection Darwinis theory prevent not does society-centered the Therefore, of selection tic moral truth. the to leading from moral judgments Darwinism theory the claim that justify the not does still However, would be unimpeded in their pursuit. Copp’s account of account pursuit. in their unimpeded be Copp’s would moral truth Darwinian the theory circumvents society-centered the through if even dilemma, turns false. be to out hypothesis quasi-tracking the of make Darwinian selection theory may centered moral judgments of capable are unnecessary that disciplines once determining what moral codes that were reproductively advantageous were far from the far from were advantageous reproductively were that moral codes could determineand social sciences political truth, ones. correct the most needs its meet to society allow will moral codes what Studying In of beliefs. independently moral pursued current be can effectively ifeven the same manner, natural selection did not affect our moral social sciences and political truth, the tracked that way in a psychology the Darwinian dilemma no longer poses a threat to moral realism. moral realism. to threat a no longer poses dilemma Darwinian the justifyeither to realists requires dilemma the earlier, As mentioned reproduc be would moral truths detect to capacity the about what moral our affected selection natural that deny or advantageous, tively if even the However, moral truth. the tracked that way in a psychology needs. (It is important to note that Copp does not believe that his his that believe not does Copp that note to is important (It needs. theorymeta-ethical of in beliefs moral from is derived truth moral epistemically not in the grounded are beliefs Meta-ethical way. this moral beliefs.) level as object way same
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thankful to Dr. Jessica Pfeifer for her guidance, her guidance, for Jessica Pfeifer thankful to Dr. expertise, and support paper. this in publishing During of relevant topics, the discussion interesting perspectives she provided that further. in the paper much the ideas helped take Boris medical school and pursue plans to attend As a in bioethics. a postdoctoral fellowship to teach bioethics in medical clinician he hopes field, the to research contribute schools, a hospital. and chair an ethics committee in Boris Tizenberg graduated from UMBC Boris minors major and a philosophy in 2014 with very He is in both chemistry and biology. AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR EFFECTS OF SOCIAL SKILLS ON HEARING- IMPAIRED CHILDREN’S ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT A MEDIATION ANALYSIS
ALEXIS RUBIN The research presented explores the relationship between social skills and academic achievement among hearing-impaired children. My desire when I began my research was to explore an area of functioning for children with disabilities. Within the Quantitative Mathematics lab at UMBC led by Dr. Shuyan Sun, I gathered data from the ECLS-K, a longitudinal study following children from kinder- garten to the eighth grade. The ECLS-K included a relatively large subpopulation of hearing- disabled children and so I chose to investigate that disability. The following paper is the culmination of my own research on the real-world implications of hearing impairment in children.
- - - - interventions may take place. take may interventions of 14 ofpercent the study, impaired individuals unemployed, were of rate unemployment an had individuals unimpaired while only seven percent. In order to effectively employment, and future careers academic successful for children prepare hearing-impaired academic aid that characteristics determine to made be must efforts educational proper so that children in hearing-impaired success at the age of age the at impair serious individuals with that found 25. They peers their than during elementary levels performedments lower at be to also likely far less individuals were such and that education accepted into higher education settings (a 64 percent acceptance acceptance rate an 88 percent in comparison to was observed rate of similar impairments). individuals without time the at In addition, tial. The 2010 U.S. Census approximates that there are 212,000 212,000 are there that approximates Census Thetial. 2010 U.S. of age the under children form some with offive disability. hearing impairment hearing that shown has a lifelong have studies Previous Järvelin, instance, For development. on individuals’ impact negative hearing- Sorri, (1997) compared and Rantakallio Mäki-Torkko, normally individuals and their impaired peers hearing (N=11,780) approaches to learning were found to be a significant mediator. The mediator. significant a be to found were learning to approaches practice. and research both for implications important have findings A major educational concern today is how to effectively educate poten fullest their reach may they disabilities so that with children ment ment and academic achievement. By using data from study this Cohort, Kindergarten Study Longitudinal Childhood the Early social competency had lower children hearing-impaired that found normally than and children, hearing achievement and academic that a specific subset of social skills mediatedthe relation between Teacher-reported hearing impairment achievement. and academic Previous research suggests that hearing-impaired children without without children hearing-impaired suggests that research Previous than academically levels performskills social adequate lower at explic that is no study there normally However, children. hearing itly examines whether words, social skills — in other through academic achievement hearing impairment negatively impair hearing between relation the skills mediate social whether affects ABSTRACT
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- - - Interpersonal and communication skills may also contribute also contribute Interpersonal skills may and communication Previous Previous research has highlighted the positive effects of social with non-impaired peers were more likely to feel separation and and separation feel to likely more peers were non-impaired with Luckner, Kreimeyer, and Luckner, Kreimeyer, Reed (2011), difficulties in communica of development the hinder may tion skills that, social appropriate of are described, as previously settings. in academic high importance hearing- that found and Kluwin (1996) further Whitmire, Stinson, around comfortable more feeling reported who children impaired interactions positive less peers and having hearing-impaired to hearing-impaired children’s learning outcomes. Long, Stinson, Stinson, learning Long, outcomes. children’s hearing-impaired to have who children hearing-disabled that (1991) found and Braeges become may teachers and peers their with communicating difficulty inattentiveness to leading possibly classroom, the in discouraged Jones, Anita, by As shown learning. towards and disinclination the most important teacher-reported and parent-reported attributes attributes and parent-reported teacher-reported important most the determination were learn, to children in these success academic for form to ability and skills, social relation meaningful organizational of a combination Luckner and Muir suggested that ships. skills such hearing-impaired in other development academic facilitate may impairment hearing whose those as severe. is not even children, hearing children, so it is not yet clear whether the same is true for for is true same the whether clear yet is not so it hearing children, between relation the on evidence Existing children. hearing-impaired children in hearing-impaired achievement social skills and academic education special interviewed (2001) Muir and Luckner scarce. is of and parents teachers, education general teachers, 20 high- that was found It children. hearing-impaired profoundly achieving, Malecki and Elliot (2002) also found that children’s positive social skills grade. third in the competency and math reading predicted cantly social positive children’s that found also (2002) Elliot and Malecki correlated and self-control) assertiveness, (including cooperation, behaviors problem whereas achievement, academic with positively these However, achievement. academic with negatively correlated on normally conducted mainly were prior research, much like studies, self-regulation, and that academic performance academic ifthat and increase may self-regulation, Likewise, classroom. in the promoted be to were self-regulation and more longer with children that al. (2007) found Duncan et ofspans had high levels attention focused In a achievement. later (2010), maternal and Kohen Pagini, Babchishin, Romano, by study reports of desirable social their skills kindergarten signifi children’s skills on children’s academic achievement. For instance, Buckner, Buckner, instance, For achievement. academic children’s on skills high with children that found (2009) Beardslee and Mezzacappa, performed low with self-regulation those than academically better
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impaired and normallyimpaired children hearing The of impact impairment hearing children’s on social skills by as mediated academic development Differences in academic performance between between performance academic in Differences and normallyhearing-impaired children hearing hearing- between of skills levels social in Differences Though the effects ofthe presence or lack of social skills on groups groups of children (N=747) were included in the current analysis. beginning with kindergarten and following the same children children same the and following kindergarten with beginning of amount a large collects It school. middle through a from data of sample representative nationally and families, their children, a wide how study to researchers allows it in doing so, schools; their associ individual factorsand are of range community, school, family, Two performance. school and development children’s with ated PARTICIPANTS Data were drawn from the public-use data set of the Early Child hood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten ofDepartment Cohort Statistics, Education for Center National Education, (ECLS-K; U.S. 2006). The ECLS-K focuses on early school children’s experiences, METHOD the following: the discussed discussed earlier suggests that hearing impairment may affectchil words, In other skills. social through achievement academic dren’s impairment hearing between relation the mediate could skills social hypoth mediation the Unfortunately, achievement. academic and address To literature. in the examined explicitly been not has esis examined this study research, previous gaps and extend such communication skills. communication normally relatively for are children hearing achievement academic hearing-im for conducted specially understood, research well hearing which by mechanism the Moreover, is rare. children paired impairment negatively affectschildren is notPrior clear. research discouragement, which could hinder their academic achievement. achievement. academic their hinder could which discouragement, These findingsform the basis ofthe currentwhich study, ines exam whether hearing impairment outcomes negatively indirectly affects by academic affecting children’s interpersonaland
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- % 7.23 7.90 5.67 36.55 49.26 18.74 16.87 21.02 30.15 30.15 13.00 77.91 22.09 63.45 N 54 59 94 41 273 368 140 126 152 218 218 582 165 474 Other Some High School or Less High School Diploma Some College College Degree College Degree Above Normal Hearing Difficulty Hearing Male Female White Black Hispanic Asian . Children’s academic achievement was indicated was indicated achievement academic . Children’s DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE SAMPLE USED FOR ANALYSIS. FOR USED SAMPLE THE OF DEMOGRAPHICS Mother’s Education Mother’s Hearing Status Sex Race/Ethnicity by Tourangeau, Nord, Lê, Pollack, and Atkins-Burnett (2006). Pollack, Lê, Nord, Tourangeau, by procedural knowledge of knowledge procedural as problem-solving as well mathematics of consisted assessment The knowledge general in ability. that, items of knowledge measure a single scale, and sciences natural the both in used were assessments those from scores scale IRT social studies. reading, .97 for were set data this for estimates Reliability study. this demonstrated as knowledge, general for .89 and mathematics, for .94 MEASURES AchievementAcademic and general mathematics, in reading, scores assessment their by to designed questions included assessment The reading knowledge. The and comprehension. vocabulary, skills, reading basic measure conceptual and measure to was designed assessment mathematics tion. Demographicstion. of presented are analysis for used sample the 1. in Table 1. TABLE The normal hearing group included 582 children who were reported The normal were who children 582 included group hearing special-needs any normal receive not did who and hearing have to children 165 included group difficulty hearing The school. at services who were reported to have difficulty hearing normal conversa
- - - - - . Children’s social skills were measured by both both by measured were skills social Children’s . . The fiveteacher-reported subscaleswere designed Mediators Social Skills Social Atkins-Burnett (2006). low self-esteem, and sadness in a child. Lastly, the teacher-reported teacher-reported the Lastly, child. a in and sadness self-esteem, low Externalizing Problem Behavior subscale and the parent-reported and parallel be to designed were subscale Impulsive/Overactive impul acted argued, angry, got children often how questioned sively, fought, and disturbed and Pollack, Lê, Nord, activities. Tourangeau, from adapted are mediators The definitions ofthe or aided other children, children’s abilities to form to abilities and maintain children’s children, other or aided and how feelings, their to express abilities children’s friendships, of feelings the to were children sensitive The teacher-re others. parent-re and the subscale Behavior Internalizingported Problem and parallel be to designed were subscale Sad/Lonely ported of consisted of presence the about loneliness, questions anxiety, dren’s abilities to regulate their tempers, accept suggestions peer tempers, their regulate to abilities dren’s the and respect pressure, peer to well respond activities, group for of belongings Interpersonal The teacher-reported Skills others. were subscale Interaction Social parent-reported and the subscale information and requested parallel be to designed on children’s relationships with differing individuals, how children comforted contained contained similar questions modified to gain an understanding of The Approaches environments. or home settings educational either Learningto to children’s pertaining questions included subscales organizational skills, flexibility,attentiveness, ability to persist on and eagerness learn. to The learn to ability task, a independently, chil into tapped that questions contained subscales Self-Control Approaches to Learning, Self-Control, Social Interaction, Sad/ Interaction, Social Self-Control, Learning, to Approaches of estimates Reliability subscale and Impulsive/Overactive. Lonely, scores varied from .63 to .89 & Atkins-Burnett, 2006). (Tourangeau, Nord, Lê, Pollack, to parallel the five parent-reported subscales. Each subscale were asked to tell how often a student exhibited certain social skills social skills certain exhibited a student often how tell to asked were or 4 — very 3 — often, 2 — sometimes, (1 — never, and behaviors Approach SRS: formed teacher the were subscales from Five often). Interpersonal Internalizing Self-Control, Learning, to es Skills, parent The Behavior. Problem Externalizing and Behavior, Problem SRS was geared to the home environment and had five subscales: teacher reports and parent reports on a Social Rating Scale (SRS). (SRS). Scale Rating Social a on reports parent and reports teacher The SRS was adapted with permission from Elementary Scale A parents and Teachers 1990). Elliott, and (Gresham Often?”) (“How
96 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 97 ALEXIS RUBIN - Academic Academic Achievement
test was used. To perform To was used. test t Sad/Lonely to Learning Self-Control Self-Control Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Social Interaction Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Interpersonal Skills Impulsive/Overactive Approaches to Learning Internalizing Behavior Problem Externalizing Behavior Problem Teacher-Reported Approaches Approaches Teacher-Reported Sex, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status were included included were status and socioeconomic race/ethnicity, Sex, . Three covariates were included in data analysis: analysis: data in included were covariates Three . THE PROPOSED MEDIATION MODEL WITH SRS SUBSCALES AS AS SUBSCALES WITH SRS MODEL MEDIATION PROPOSED THE MEDIATORS. mathematics, reading, for conducted were analyses Separate as covariates. Approaches “Teacher-Reported boldfaced Only the knowledge. and general hearing between mediator significant a be to found was subscale Learning” to impairment achievement. and academic Normally Hearing vs. Hearing vs. Covariates Hearing-Impaired FIGURE. skills between normally skills between and hearing-impaired children hearing an independent-measures children, mediation analysis, a parallel mediator model (shown in the figure) by of written set macros a SPSS PROCESS, the using analyzed was five and reports SRS teacher from scores subscale Five (2012). Hayes mediators. as parallel included were reports SRS parent from because they were found to correlate frequently with academic academic with frequently correlate to found were they because literature. in the achievement PROCEDURE To assess group differences in academic achievement and social child sex (male, female), child race/ethnicity (White, Black, Hispan Black, (White, race/ethnicity child female), (male, sex child ic, Asian, and Other), and socioeconomic status or SES (measured on a continuous scale from -3 to 3). These were selected covariates
- =0.04), <0.001), <0.001), p p <0.001), and and <0.001), p = 709, = df = 636, =0.002), lower on on lower =0.002), df <0.001). Compared Compared <0.001). p p = 742, = 4.85, = df t test was used to compare compare to was used test t = 686, = = 642, = 2.05, = t df df = -3.72, t =0.005), higher parent-reported scores scores parent-reported higher =0.005), p = 6.33, t = 3.08, t =0.001). As for teacher-reported SRS scores, scores, SRS teacher-reported for As =0.001). =0.04). p = 744, = p p <0.001), mathematics ( mathematics <0.001), df p = 737, = 634, = df = 689, = df = 2.83, = t df = = -3.37, = 3.85, = = -2.09, -2.09, = t t t the Interpersonalthe ( subscale Skills subscale Behavior Internalizing on the and higher Problem ( subscale ( subscale ( subscale Sad/Lonely on the subscale Impulsive/Overactive the on scores parent-reported higher ( children with hearing difficulty scored lower the on Learningto ( subscale Approaches academic achievement and social skills. Children with hearing diffi hearing with Children skills. social and achievement academic performedculty normally than worse in reading children hearing ( ( knowledge and general also difficulty hearing with children children, hearing normally with Learning to Approaches the on scores parent-reported had lower RESULTS DIFFERENCES GROUP of deviations and standard Means reported are variables continuous 2. An independent-measures in Table children with hearing difficulty to normally hearing children in the the 95% confidence interval (CI)does not coverzero. An indirect bootstrap its in included not significant is statistically is zero effect if confidence interval.Separate analyseswere conducted forreading, knowledge. and general mathematics, indirect indirect effect isthe extent which to hearing children’s impairment social affects skills, which in turn may achievement. An affect indirect effect their was academic estimated for each mediator. of hearing that estimate suggests effect negative indirect A or direct direct A achievement. academic on effect negative a has impairment effect is statistically significant if the valuep isless than 0.05 or if This mediation model estimates two distinct types of effect: direct effect and indirect effect. Here, direct the controlling after effect hearing impairment achievement, on academic is the effect of for the effects of demographics children’s and social skills. The
98 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 99 ALEXIS RUBIN SD 0.58 0.58 0.69 0.52 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.72 0.75 0.62 0.64 8.54 18.44 16.71 M 2.77 2.70 3.10 1.84 2.34 2.55 2.95 2.81 1.86 1.80 -0.07 57.97 45.81 25.81 HEARING DIFFICULTY SD
0.54 0.59 0.62 0.49 0.80 0.75 0.64 0.65 0.69 0.54 0.75 8.64 20.92 18.79 NORMAL HEARING M 1.76 1.69 1.68 2.10 2.77 3.07 2.95 2.90 2.79 3.18 0.00 65.39 54.12 30.98
HEARING DIFFICULTY GROUP. DIFFICULTY HEARING DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR NORMAL HEARING GROUP AND AND GROUP HEARING NORMAL FOR STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVE
Internalizing Problem Internalizing Problem Behavior Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Interpersonal Skills Teacher-Reported Externalizing Problem Behavior Teacher-Reported Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Impulsive/Overactive Teacher-Reported to Learning Approaches Teacher-Reported Self-Control Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Self-Control Parent-Reported Social Interaction Parent-Reported Sad/Lonely Scale Score IRT General Knowledge Scale Score Parent-Reported to Learning Approaches Socioeconomic Status Socioeconomic Scale Score Reading IRT Mathematics IRT TABLE 2. TABLE
0.24 0.32 0.98 0.00 0.09 0.10 UPPER UPPER BOUND BOUND
95% CI 95% Bootstrap CI -1.01 -0.78 -1.38 -0.98 -0.64 -6.68 LOWER LOWER LOWER BOUND BOUND SE SE 0.26 0.16 0.31 0.26 1.95 0.34 -0.23 -0.07 -0.27 -0.12 -0.53 -2.85 EFFECT EFFECT =0.14). This signifies that hearing impairment hearing that signifies This =0.14). p ON READING SCORES THROUGH MEDIATORS THROUGH ON READING SCORES INDIRECT EFFECTS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT INDIRECT EFFECTS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
= 496, = df DIRECT EFFECT OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT ON READING SCORES DIRECT EFFECT OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT HEARING IMPAIRMENT ON READING SCORES.READING ON IMPAIRMENT HEARING A SUMMARY OF DIRECT EFFECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS OF OF EFFECTS INDIRECT AND EFFECT DIRECT OF SUMMARY A
MEDIATOR Impulsive/Overactive Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Social Interaction Parent-Reported Sad/Lonely Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Parent-Reported to Approaches Learning Parent-Reported Self-Control Direct Effect Direct = -1.46, -1.46, = t TABLE 3. TABLE did not have a significant direct effect on reading scores (direct effect: effect: (direct scores reading on effect direct significant a have not did hearing suggest 0.98). These to 95% CI: -6.68 -2.85, that results impairment only negatively affects reading achievement through model The mediation learning. to approaches teacher-reported scores. reading in of variability percent the 34 explained (indirect (indirect effect:-2.27, 95% bootstrap CI:-4.44 to -0.46). In other words, hearing difficulty isnegatively related to the demonstration children’s affects turn in which learning, to of approaches successful was shown it social skills and covariates, for controlling After reading. scores reading their of in groups differ not two did the that children ( MEDIATION ANALYSES MEDIATION For reading scores (Table 3), the teacher-reported Approaches to Learning subscale was the only significant mediator inthe model
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- - - 0.12 0.08 1.21 1.35 -0.46 UPPER BOUND
95% Bootstrap CI -0.77 -0.91 -4.44 -0.12 -0.43 LOWER LOWER BOUND SE 1.01 0.28 0.42 0.18 0.21 0.20 0.28 -2.27 -0.07 -0.16 EFFECT =0.02). In other words, the direct effect of p ON READING SCORES THROUGH MEDIATORS THROUGH SCORES ON READING INDIRECT EFFECT OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT IMPAIRMENT OF HEARING EFFECT INDIRECT
= 505, = df MEDIATOR Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Internalizing Problem Behavior Self-Control Teacher-Reported Interpersonal Skills Teacher-Reported Externalizing Problem Behavior Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported to Approaches Learning* Teacher-Reported = -2.42, t mathematics achievement through teacher-reported approaches approaches teacher-reported through achievement mathematics to learning. The mediation model explained 36 percent scores. in mathematics variability of the still had lower mathematics scores than normally than scores mathematics children hearing had lower still ( signif impairmenthearing was statistically scores on mathematics the summary, In -0.79). to -7.58 CI: 95% -4.19, effect: (direct icant mathe children’s affects directly difficulty hearing that suggest data matics achievement in addition to indirectly affecting children’s For For mathematics scores (Table 4), the indirect to learningapproaches er-reported was effectsignificant (indirecteffect: of teach -2.34, 95% bootstrap CI: -4.52 to -0.54). Other mediators were not statistically significant. Even after controllingfor social skills and covariates, it was shown that children with hearing difficulty *The only significant effect the is learning to CI does not bootstrap 95% (its approaches teacher-reported through scores indirecteffect of hearing impairment zero). cover reading on -
0.25 0.10 0.06 0.54 0.68 0.16 1.32 1.06 0.14 -0.54 -0.79 UPPER UPPER BOUND BOUND
95% CI 95% Bootstrap CI -0.37 -0.68 -0.69 -0.08 -0.36 -0.82 -4.52 -0.06 -0.15 -0.53 -7.58 LOWER LOWER LOWER LOWER BOUND BOUND SE SE 0.28 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.25 0.23 1.00 0.32 1.73 0.18 0.16 0.17 0.06 0.09 0.34 -0.03 -0.01 -0.18 -2.34 -4.19 -0.12 -0.09 EFFECT EFFECT INDIRECT EFFECTS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT IMPAIRMENT INDIRECT EFFECTS OF HEARING
ON MATHEMATICS SCORES THROUGH MEDIATORS THROUGH SCORES ON MATHEMATICS DIRECT EFFECT OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT ON MATHEMATICS SCORES MATHEMATICS ON OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT DIRECT EFFECT HEARING IMPAIRMENT ON MATHEMATICS SCORES. MATHEMATICS ON IMPAIRMENT HEARING A SUMMARY OF DIRECT EFFECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS OF OF EFFECTS INDIRECT AND EFFECT DIRECT OF SUMMARY A
MEDIATOR Externalizing Problem Externalizing Problem Behavior Teacher-Reported Internalizing Problem Behavior Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Self-Control Teacher-Reported Interpersonal Skills Teacher-Reported Sad/Lonely Parent-Reported Impulsive/Overactive Teacher-Reported to Approaches Learning* Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Self-Control Parent-Reported Social Interaction Parent-Reported Parent-Reported Parent-Reported to Approaches Learning Direct Effect* Direct ment on mathematics scores through teacher-reported approaches to learning to CI (neither approaches teacher-reported through scores on mathematics ment zero). covers *The two significant effects are the direct effect and the indirect effect indirect the impair and hearing of effect direct the are effects significant two *The TABLE 4. TABLE
102 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 103 ALEXIS RUBIN - - - = df
0.12 0.02 0.04 0.26 0.23 -2.49 UPPER UPPER BOUND BOUND = -5.04, t
95% CI 95% Bootstrap CI -0.33 -5.68 -0.39 -0.32 -0.04 -0.30 LOWER LOWER LOWER BOUND BOUND SE SE 0.08 0.06 0.13 0.11 0.81 0.09 0.03 -0.04 -0.02 -0.05 -4.09 -0.09 EFFECT EFFECT INDIRECT EFFECTS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT INDIRECT EFFECTS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT ON GENERAL KNOWLEDGE SCORES THROUGH MEDIATORS THROUGH SCORES ON GENERAL KNOWLEDGE HEARING IMPAIRMENT ON GENERAL KNOWLEDGE SCORES. KNOWLEDGE GENERAL ON IMPAIRMENT HEARING A SUMMARY OF DIRECT EFFECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS OF OF EFFECTS INDIRECT AND EFFECT DIRECT OF SUMMARY A
<0.001). Stated differently, the direct effect impair effect hearing of direct the differently, Stated <0.001). p MEDIATOR DIRECT EFFECT OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT ON GENERAL KNOWLEDGE SCORES ON GENERAL KNOWLEDGE DIRECT EFFECT OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT Direct Effect* Direct Social Interaction Parent-Reported Sad/Lonely Parent-Reported Impulsive/ Overactive Parent-Reported Parent-Reported to Approaches Learning Parent-Reported Self-Control Parent-Reported a significant indirect negativeeffect ongeneral knowledge through model The mediation learning. to approaches teacher-reported scores. knowledge general in of variability percent the 34 explained 5. TABLE shown shown that children with hearing difficultystill hadlower general normally than scores ( knowledge children hearing 504, effect: (direct significant statistically was knowledge general on ment a has difficulty hearing summary, In -2.49). to -5.68 CI: 95% -4.09, to addition in knowledge general on effect negative direct significant Similar patterns were found for general knowledge (Table 5). Teach (Table knowledge general for found patternsSimilar were er-reported approaches to learning were the only significant medi to -1.25 CI: bootstrap 95% -0.59, effect: (indirect model the in ator -0.12). Even after controlling for social skills and it covariates, was -
0.34 0.27 0.38 0.11 -0.12 UPPER BOUND
95% Bootstrap CI -0.06 -0.09 -1.25 -0.10 -0.20 LOWER LOWER BOUND SE 0.10 0.07 0.09 0.08 0.28 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.03 -0.59 EFFECT INDIRECT EFFECTS OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT IMPAIRMENT OF HEARING EFFECTS INDIRECT ON GENERAL KNOWLEDGE SCORES THROUGH MEDIATORS THROUGH SCORES KNOWLEDGE ON GENERAL Findings from the present study have important implications implications important have study present the Findings from MEDIATOR Internalizing Internalizing Behavior Problem Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Interpersonal Skills Teacher-Reported Externalizing Behavior Problem Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported Teacher-Reported to Approaches Learning* Teacher-Reported Self-Control on the mechanisms by which hearing impairment hearing which types and other by mechanisms the on tended to be less organized, less attentive, and less independent attentive, less organized, less be to tended learners hindered indirectly normally than which children, hearing be to found was effect Thismediation achievement. academic their knowledge. and general mathematics, in reading, present research more for need is an urgent There and practice. research for poorer social skills and performedpoorer normally than academically worse were that skills social specific the importantly, More children. hearing to learning (including approaches teacher-reported under included and eagerness persistence, task learn) to skills, were organizational impairment hearing between relation the and mediate to found children hearing-impaired words, In other academic achievement. DISCUSSION The present study made a significant contributionto the area of impair hearing which by a mechanism identifying discussion by ment negatively affects children’s academic performance. had children hearing-impaired that found was Using it data, ECLS-K the *The two significant effects are the direct effect and the indirect effect the indirect and effect direct the are effects significant *The two hearing of to approaches teacher-reported impairment through scores knowledge on general zero). learning CI covers (neither
104 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 105 ALEXIS RUBIN - - It is important to note that the ECLS-K data used in this study study this in used data ECLS-K the that note to important is It spring of first the grade, longitudinal nature ofthe ECLS-K study oflong-termeffects the impairment and on hearing research allows research The next achievement. on academic social competency investigation. a longitudinal to study this step extend is to one-on-one instruction time, and promotion of and promotion time, instruction one-on-one encouraging more a possi every into investigation Further home. learning at atmosphere of type ble is necessary. intervention make to used be cannot and consequently data experimental not are in the collected data only used study this Although causal inferences. use ofuse personalities as children’s well as services education special may ofmediators significant Identification environments. home and chil improve ofto interventions development the effective facilitate of a multitude learning exist There outcomes. dren’s interventions including but achievement, academic children’s boost to designed in increases on social skills, groups training to in-school limited not of disabilities affect children’s successfully school identified teacher-reported performance. approaches to learning This as study ofmediator one is necessary It explore to achievement. academic the and characteristics as classroom such mediators potential other - -
,
(2006). (2006). (1997). Effect Effect (1997). American Annals Annals American (2011). Social (2011). Social , 165-175. DOI: DOI: , 165-175. American Journal Journal American (2010). School readiness readiness (2010). School Reed, S. Reed, & (2009). Self-regulation (2009). Self-regulation , 1428-1446. DOI: DOI: 1428-1446. , Atkins-Burnett, S. Rantakallio, P. T. P. Rantakallio, School Psychology Quarterly, 17(1) PsychologySchool Quarterly, & (2007). School readiness readiness (2007). School Journal ofJournal Psychology, Educational , 435-446. , (1996). Self-perceptions of(1996). Self-perceptions social & Kohen, D. & (1991). Students’ perceptions of perceptions (1991). Students’ communi Japel, C. Japel, , 489-504. 489-504. , , 995-1007. DOI: 10.1037/a0018880. DOI: 995-1007. , & Beardslee, W. R. W. Beardslee, British Journal of Journal British 31(3) Audiology, & Kluwin, T. N. Kluwin, T. & (2002). Children’s social behaviors as predictors of as predictors social behaviors (2002). Children’s Braeges, J. Braeges, . New York: Guilford. Guilford. York: New . Developmental Psychology, 43(6) Developmental Psychology, , 19-30. DOI: 10.1037/a0014796. DOI: 19-30. , (2001). Successful students who are deaf are who students Successful (2001). educa in general , & Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: process conditional and moderation, to mediation, Introduction Elliot S. N. S. Elliot American Annals of Annals American 146(5) Deaf, the Muir, S. Muir, Exceptional 77(4) Children, & . U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center Center National DC: ofWashington, Department Education. U.S. . & , 136(5), 414-421. DOI: 10.1353/aad.2012.0455. DOI: 414-421. 136(5), , (CD-ROM). (NCES 2006-035). Washington, DC: Author. DC: Washington, 2006-035). (NCES (CD-ROM). (2012). (2012). ECLS-K Longitudinal Kindergarten-Fifth Grade Public-Use Data File and Electronic Electronic and File Data Public-Use Kindergarten-Fifth Longitudinal ECLS-K Grade Developmental Psychology, 46(5) DevelopmentalPsychology, , 132-143. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.88.1.132. DOI: 132-143. , for Education Statistics. Education for (2006). Codebook relationships in hearing-impaired adolescents. adolescents. in hearing-impaired relationships 88(1) Kindergarten of Class Study, Longitudinal Childhood Early Combined 1998–99 (ECLS-K), (NCES Codebooks Electronic and Files Data Fifth-Grade ECLS-K the for Manual User’s 2006–032) academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis. analysis. A longitudinal achievement: academic 10.1521/scpq.17.1.1.19902. DOI: 1-23. Canadian using a nationwide and extension Replication achievement: and later survey. of in northern 25 years Finland. 10.3109/03005364000000019. success. academic to relate they and engagement: ease How cation of Deaf the settings. tion and later achievement. achievement. and later 10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428. A regression-based approach of impairment hearing age the up to and employment outcomes on educational classrooms. classrooms. youths. income in low functioning adaptive to relations and its of 79(1) Orthopsychiatry, M., Brooks-Gunn, L., Engel, Feinstein, L. S., Pagani, P., Klebanov, K., H., Duckworth, Sexton, J., outcomes ofoutcomes deaf are who students of and hard education general in hearing U.S. Department of Department U.S. Statistics. Education Center for National Education, Stinson, M. S., Whitmire, K., Whitmire, Stinson, M. S., J.M., Pollack, Lê T., C., K., Nord, Tourangeau, Malecki, C. K., C. Malecki, L.S., E., Babchishin, L., Pagani, Romano, Long, G., Stinson, M. S. G., Stinson, Long, L, J. Luckner, Hayes, A. F. Hayes, E., Sorri, M. J., MR., Mäki-Torkko, Järvelin, Buckner, J. C., Mezzacappa, E., Mezzacappa, C., J. Buckner, A., K., A. Magnuson, Huston, C., Claessens, J., Dowsett, C. Duncan, G. J., REFERENCES K. H., Kreimeyer, J., Luckner, P., Jones, D., Anita, S.
106 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 107 ALEXIS RUBIN
she hopes to pursue a Ph.D. in child and family family in child and she hopes to pursue a Ph.D. pursuing in addition to clinical psychology, to thank like Alexis would a writing career. giving her the opportunity Sun for Shuyan Dr. valuable providing and for to engage in research Alexis would In addition, assistance. and feedback and brothers to thank her parents also like for encouraging and instilling in her a drive her to succeed. Alexis Rubin is a junior biological sciences sciences is a junior biological Alexis Rubin minor major with a double and psychology After graduation writingin creative UMBC. at AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR PHILANTHROPY AND REPUTATION IN THE LIVES OF JOSEPH TOWNSEND AND BALTIMORE’S “PUBLIC SPIRITED CITIZENS”
HANNAH JONES I was extremely fortunate to have been asked, in July 2012, to do an independent research project for Baltimore Equitable Insurance, the company which Joseph Townsend founded in 1794. Together, UMBC graduate student Meghan Colabella and I set about gathering biographical information about the lives of the company’s founders, directors, and policyholders, for use in their newsletters and other published materials. This position developed into an independent study under Dr. Marjoleine Kars from fall 2012 through August 2013. However, the subject seemed to call for deeper study in order to understand the complexities behind the staggering amount of public service these men had under- taken. Skeptical of the unadulterated altruism of these massive public figures and intrigued in par- ticular by the scandal Townsend had experienced during the yellow fever epidemics, I resolved to supplement my primary source research from my earlier projects with secondary scholarly research to uncover the more nuanced motivations that led these men to become philanthropists. I applied for and received an Undergraduate Research Award in spring 2013. . Instead Instead 1 published published Smith boldly boldly Smith 2 Matthew 6: 1-2 3 Federal Gazette Federal concurred. Baltimore American Baltimore “Take care not to perform not to care that order in deeds righteous “Take a blow not do alms, give you them...When see may people of praise the win you...to before trumpet others...” Though Smith’s demands evidently failed to produce notable notable produce to failed evidently demands Though Smith’s of Baltimore society. Likely emboldened by Smith’s denunciations, denunciations, Smith’s ofby emboldened Likely society. Baltimore explained, so too proper health laws could not be formulated by by formulated be not could laws health proper so too explained, of “men to left was best work politicians; this and humanity,” science of editor as the the the opened they administration, health public city’s in the change pinnacle the at his place Townsend cost nearly a scandal that door to assistance was limited to “sign[ing] orders of orders “sign[ing] to was limited assistance the admission into and Mayor the from praise generous received they hospital,” yet donations. private and as salaries Council, as well City of a reorganization for called of Board the be to it believing Health, a constitution could as Much task.” the to inadequate “men run by Smith mechanics, nor a bank run by physicians by written be not and of services. charitable their for accepting payment illicit city’s the and public the as ofafflicted,” and poor the visiting “daily “they that claimed provocatively Smith believed, administration of and out home, was supposed at it When kept themselves danger... labors... disinterested in their and unwearied diligent were they that ofmost Their persons.” own on their centered philanthropy their during the recent yellow fever epidemic. Although the Mayor and and epidemic. Mayor the Although fever yellow recent during the exertions” “extraordinary men’s the lauded Council had lately City willing to was less Smith threat, health public the with in dealing [its] from public] [the accept “arouse to seeking altruism; their accused Smith criminal stupidity,” or rather inactivity, delusive of and Fonerdan failing Townsend to fulfilltheir dutiesto the poor During the winter of winter During the Baltimore’s 1800-1801, ofa series of one for disaster spelled nearly letters that city’s the most influentialleaders. Beginning November, in local physician denounced “Humanitas,” pseudonym the under Smith, James Dr. for Fonerdan and Adam Townsend Joseph businessmen prominent as members of power their abused having of Board city’s the Health INTRODUCTION
110 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 111 HANNAH JONES ------Smith’s Smith’s 4 decried Townsend’s Townsend’s decried Federal Gazette Federal While affording some men unpar 5 Prospects were particularly “rosy” “rosy” particularly were Prospects 6 Since its founding in 1729, the town town in 1729, the founding its Since 7 When Townsend, a penniless but ambitious school teacher and and teacher school ambitious but a penniless Townsend, When of until wheat was not it but as a port, used had been Baltimore Quaker, left his home in Chester County, Pennsylvania, after the the after Pennsylvania, County, in Chester his home left Quaker, in choosing was not alone he ofdevastation War, Revolutionary the as his destination. Baltimore a from trade wheat the transformed had been which by city, in the banks of on the village forgotten state’s the to Bay Chesapeake the center. primary commercial important among the city elite. city among the important of throne the to to accede opportunity alleled without power elite familial previous or financialthis connections, openness simultane elites new the and required merit elites’ about anxiety ously created of an exercise through trust public cultivate to virtue. philanthropic tise, originated in the radical economic changes that took place in in place took that changes economic radical the in originated tise, the in upheaval political following the and Maryland1760s, the in ofwake historian what factors These created two Revolution. the Charles G. Steffen has called a culture of “openness, and fluidity, ambitious to opportunities greater gave both impermanence,” which enormously reputation made and simultaneously newcomers that had been in place since the Revolution. the since place in had been that “PUBLIC SPIRITED CITIZENS” THE THE RISE OF in Balti parvenu a total Townsend, had allowed The that system of heights the to rise to exper much without society, power more would place expertise instead of instead expertise place would holding for criteria as the reputation public office — contradicted the existing system, in whichwealthy their by merely power political social and merited elites merchant The subsequent reputations. enterprisingphilanthropic and nature scrutiny of altruism Townsend’s in the Polly Elliot case shows the of doubt public growing right a rule, to right elite’s merchant the resulted in negative repercussions for Townsend (who was not reap not was (who Townsend for repercussions negative in resulted his long-held lost and even year following the Board the to pointed of sets two accu the Society), Equitable Baltimore the with position of indicative were sations taking — one a common phenomenon country. the throughout but in Baltimore merely not place that — a change system administrative city’s in the change call for subsequent letters published in the in the letterssubsequent published actions in the case of a young orphan girl named Polly Elliot, this was it While hospital. to the admission refused had he whom to outcry and public engendered story that human-interest more 9 - - - - - Unlike tobacco, tobacco, Unlike 8 In this situation, young enterprising men young situation, In this 11 The explosion of The explosion and promi size city’s the 10 Until the incorporation the Until of the time which in 1797 (at town the As Baltimore’s mercantile landscape became more complex complex more became landscape mercantile As Baltimore’s Baltimore, ever wary of ever utilized Baltimore, Revolution, the following “tyranny” opportunities to make fortunes without a birthright, these newcom these a birthright, without fortunes to make opportunities previous without power gain to ers municipal chance also had the the also become to elite merchant new the led which influence, social of powerhouses social and political city. the City Council was created and first Mayorelected), the citizens of the city, these young men climbed to positions of positions to climbed men young these power municipal city, the of way by social This increased minor appointments. relatively “open an as paradoxically, described, Steffen what created mobility wealth required that an elite by dominated a society plutocracy”: of white and civically-active wealthy any admitted its members but ofman, regardless new had used as they Just his family background. nence put additional demands on its administration at exactly the the exactly at administration on its additional demands nence put offlourishing a ideas ofand new purge the royalists elite when time underminedrepublicanism and about democracy established the hierarchy. socio-political country the throughout opportunities, found Townsend Joseph like in unknowns Though vacuum. power a fill to Baltimore, in as well as opened up new political possibilities for the merchant elite, in Balti in elite, merchant the for possibilities political new up opened turn By the of large. country as in the at more century the Baltimore had surpassed and Maryland other “in size city Annapolis and every administra by governed being was still but importance,” economic settlement” commercial “tentative the for created structures tive in 1729. had been it purchase, store, and sell the goods, while the divide between agricul between divide the while goods, the sell and store, purchase, their selling no longer were owners (plantation and commerce ture of creation the for goods) allowed own class ofa new local resident engage to in trade. a plantation own to need not did who merchants, of wake in the and mature Revolution the changes, economic these by British commercial agents, wheat could be grown by smaller smaller by grown could be wheat agents, commercial British by farmers and was in western Maryland and southern Pennsylvania of variety a wider to distributed especially became — this buyers a monopoly held no longer Britain when Revolution, the after true of The unpredictability goods. on American and production both of establishment the necessitated rates purchase to warehouses ousted tobacco as the state’s primary commodity in the 1760s that primarythat 1760s in the commodity state’s as the tobacco ousted of out operating merchants the began its living within town the of instead borders plantations. surrounding on handled and was often cultivate to plantations large required which
112 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 113 HANNAH JONES
------16 The 13 14 He simultaneously became involved in in involved became simultaneously He The first ofthese wasthe Mechanical 17 12 Less than five months after its incorporation, the state legisla state the incorporation, its after months five than Less These appointments, which earned Townsend a place in the in the a place earned which Townsend These appointments, The path to civic prominence, opened by economic changes changes economic by opened civic prominence, to Thepath 15 him quickly became the cornerstones the became quickly him of administration. urban Townsend had had no previous experience. As the son ofson the As experience. previous no had had Penn a Townsend farmer sylvania businessman urban a successful had become who about little very known have would Townsend merchant, and cities in the Yet, or medicine. law, education, civil engineering, of and ubiqui initiative, enterprise, America, post-Revolution tous involvement sufficed in lieu of expertise, sohe andmen like efforts to improve the city’s schools, liberate slaves through compli through liberate slaves schools, the efforts city’s to improve preserve to efforts various in eventually and proceedings, legal cated below. as explained health, public city’s the to powers and varied vast them with brought plutocracy,” “open control and influencethe city and its people — powersfor which construct sewers, condemn property, and even regulate the dimen the regulate even and property, condemn sewers, construct sions of of loaves borrow to authorized being in addition to bread, of thousands and spend infrastructure. city’s up the build pounds to until there 1792 and remained in Board the to was elected Townsend of time the at dissolution its incorporation in 1797, sharing city’s the in this immense influence. ing, pitching, paving and repairing the streets, and the building and and building the and streets, the and repairing paving pitching, ing, it Company, Fire Mechanical the like but bridges,” the repairing town’s the in body potent very “a become to gainedquickly power life.” empowering enormously, Commissioners’ the powers expanded ture pumps, erect and wells sink measures, prevention fire enact to them and political upheaval, is also evident in Townsend’s case in the the in case in Townsend’s evident also is upheaval, political and ofBoard the formed institution an Commissioners, Special by arrival in Townsend’s before year in 1782, the Maryland Assembly of condition dismal the to address Created streets, city’s the city. the level the superintend “to power was given Board seven-man this urban which served, infires, the absence of alternative authorities, years.” dozen next the for quasi-government facto “as a de centrality of the fireand fire several decades, and insurance it was the companies Baltimore Equitable a Society, enduredfire for really that today, city in the operates still that company insurance city. in the high standing Townsend’s established the “commission model” ofmodel” “commission the endowed which organization, municipal power considerable with and committees boards autonomous nearly local problems. handle to originally organized in 1763 to cope with prevalent Fire Company, - - - - Public Public 18
Civic power fed reputation reputation fed Civic power 20 19 this era of era this expan rapid and uncertainty Federal Gazette Federal At the peak of peak At the of system the which potency, its by reputation in his daily endeavors. Perhaps the most obvious example is his is his example obvious most the Perhaps in his daily endeavors. letter in the the in letter of system the it and with an end, sion was coming to that reputation top of the at held Townsend society. Baltimore many in the found could be power to had ascended Townsend and philanthropy government municipal intersections between and vice versa, in a system that ensured the continued influence ofinfluence a continued the ensured that system a in versa, vice and ofbenefits the of without role elites the to acceded of who class men of prestige familial the either the nor aristocracy planter earlier the of expertise technical remained system this While professionals. true and Revolution the of between period transition the during effective turnthe his published Smith time the of by century, nineteenth the is also reflected inthe institutions manythemselves, of whichwere and magna virtue elite emphasize as to a way in such organized in was correct Rockman Seth historian then, ways, In many nimity. and...self-interest” philanthropy, leadership, “civic that observing of that in ways lives in the intertwined as Townsend such elites and prominence. power their preserved drawn into philanthropic projects through their work in munici work their through projects philanthropic into drawn as his Townsend This for case the was certainly pal organizations. of Board the on work in the Commissioners Special his to role led ofcreation of web the him create it also helped Field; a Potter’s elite was threat his reputation him when save later would that contacts and reputation civic appointment Theened. between connection REPUTATION AND PHILANTHROPY AND PHILANTHROPY REPUTATION THE CITY IN WORK AT The ofsystem despite power in elites kept merchant that reputation lack of their the between depended relationship on the expertise of powers concrete power reputational and the civic appointment were elites as other, the to could lead one the Often of charity. public access to resources” through continued appointment. continued through resources” access to formedof basis the philanthropy the assured which reputation, this ofpublic to appointment continued their and ensured virtue their ofpositions power. municipal There remained, however, an anxiety about the merit of merit the about anxiety an men these however, remained, There of lack their for ofmantle the inherit to compensate To elite. the merchant new the expertise, or occupational familial prominence [facilitate] and trust “[inspire] to reputation on rely to came elite
114 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 115 HANNAH JONES
- - - - - , protest Townsend then then Townsend 21 Association with these “few “few these with Association 23 Such associational overlap was not was not overlap associational Such 22 North American and Mercantile Daily Mercantile and American North Advertiser 24 As a crucial component ofAs a crucial component asso this structure, power elite the power defended the practice of practice the defended power presenting by overlap associational Fonerden specifically, who were pursuing the positions of positions the pursuing were who Secretary specifically, Fonerden officers already and despite President were the fact they that of the whether Thisquestioned stockholder Society). Equitable Baltimore to likely more be would appointments so many collected who men of instead interests own their serve of those or the company the of line this refute To of in positions serving elites thought, city. civic ciational overlap did not go unnoticed by the people of people the by go unnoticed did not overlap ciational Baltimore. ofA stockholder it pointed Company Insurance Fire Baltimore the the to in a letter out of many ing that company’s the for being considered candidates the Board of Directors already held “a profusion of offices,” “more... and Townsend mentioned (he to” do justice possibly can they than individuals” became another source of source another individuals” became path and the trust, public of entry depended plutocracy” “open the into Newcomers on it. a rela cultivate to in order and undertakings organizations joined of circle this with tionship gain and thus acceptance of as one greats, number. their either business or philanthropy. business either of roster “[t]he described, Rankin Clark as Dennis unusual; every hoc ad an simply or militia a group company, fire a whether group, reveals poor, the for subscriptions solicit to organizing group ward indi few same the by manned posts pattern: same the executive top usually members ofviduals, elite.” the project, and chosen to superintend the burial ground once it had had it once ground burial the superintend to chosen and project, his reputation him to nurture allowed it While established. been ofas a benefactor and minds of hearts poor in the the Baltimore’s his bonds strengthen him to also allowed undertaking the citizens, of rest the with half Over elite. Baltimore the of to appointed those through Townsend with acquainted already were project the oversee ard burials: he and his associates published a notice in December in December a notice published and his associates he burials: ard of common practice but 1792 deploring unauthorized the burying often were bodies the where streets, city under deceased poor the repaired. being were roads the while discovered became one of the primary exponents of the the overseeing committee effort every to elected being Field, Potter’s to create the work with the Special Commissioners and his participation in the the in Commissioners Special the with participation his and work of poor or the creation for ground burial a public Field, a Potter’s unidentifieddeceased. AsTownsend a Commissioner, been had of aware made ofproblem prevalent the and haphaz makeshift
------29 Far from from Far 26 In the same year year same In the Other institutions institutions Other 25 28 27 While the associational overlap among elites helped anchor anchor helped among elites overlap associational While the mendation ofmendation assistance. medical free receive to a contributor now lay claim to the thanks of thanks the claim to lay now poor. city’s the Bank of Savings including the did likewise, third (the Baltimore it left in 1818), which founded country, the bank in savings oldest poor” who and thrifty “industrious the distinguish to trustees its to Dispensary General Baltimore or the could deposit vaults, in its recom the have applicant a that required in 1801), which (founded which made its charitable services the direct result of result direct the services charitable its made which action elite granted could be who decide to power the trustees giving its by opinions of the that admission. Asserting were men” “intelligent of organi this against abuses protection known best “the charity,” the at distributed be would offered it charity any that ensured zation hands of could and moral judgment superior had who elites, the zational structure of structure zational also performed served the they institutions the of Many function. same organiza municipal earliest Baltimore’s the promote simultaneously to function charitable used their tions ofrhetoric of reputations the and reinforce charity elite elite their officeholders. One of the mostobvious examples of this Baltimore Almshouse, created in was1773 by the the Maryland Assembly, Union Manufacturing Company committee — that “only personal that — committee Company Union Manufacturing of eyes the before responsibility of threat — the public the dishon self-serving, — could restrain audience an ever-vigilant or before politicians.” ambitious of in positions organi them the often power, social and municipal tration of power in the hands of the few as beneficial under the regu the under beneficial as few of the hands the in of power tration oflation of system the This native was not mentality reputation. of city the to driving large, country in the at existed but Baltimore, ultimate as “the pursue to classes elite new reputation country’s the Federal in the himself, Hamilton government. new in the check” members the of by forth put sentiment the shared Papers, ist the of the efficacy of worries any rest to put constitution company’s the write to appointed this monitoring mechanism. committee The of number a small to company the entrusting about that saying men, of hope the “both of fear and the acquiring reputation punishment” of governance altruistic the ensure would institution. the of members concen the painted Board the a source being anxiety, the elites’ concern for reputation as a “monitoring mechanism that that concern elites’ the mechanism as a “monitoring reputation for persons honest.” to be self-interested force[d] another founded, was Company Insurance Fire Baltimore the that members its assured Company, Union Manufacturing the company,
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- - - Like many of many Like his 31 . Today, these accusations accusations these . Today, The fever of The fever 1800 killed
33 Federal Gazette Federal 30 Townsend was elected to the Board each year between between year each Board to the was elected Townsend 32 Given his historyhis of Given service, public and involvement civic fell ill with yellow fever would die of die would fever yellow ill with fell it. combat the yearly visitation of the fever, which wreaked havoc on on havoc wreaked of which visitation yearly the combat fever, the 1794 the During fall. early and summer late in population city’s the ofepidemic, most suscepti in six residents one area (the Point Fells of prevalence the to due disease the to ble disease-carrying mosqui to rose numbers virus; in 1797, the the contracted water) near toes turn the of and by in four, one century the half about of who those Townsend was a Townsend clear choice in 1793 to be appointed by the City of Board Baltimore Council to the of “a group Health, local gentle of against health threat the public the protect to appointed men” fever. yellow 1793 and 1800 (excluding 1796, when it was not reformed), to member, he was entrusted with new responsibilities that would paint paint would that responsibilities new with was entrusted he member, ofhim as a guardian ofsavior and a good health city’s the people the the by was complicated image this of time a during However, crisis. in the published accusations of system the signify that and more more was growing reputation period. during this tenuous the key to his continued success, making him both a staple financial financial staple a both him making success, continued his to key the of powerhouse up built had He icon. philanthropic a and city the of people the with trust and actions his own through both Baltimore, endorsement the ofby ofIn light elites. his fellow trajectory, this his appointment to the city’s Board of Health in 1793 could have step another just Board a been as social ladder; the up climb his in local meetinghouse oflocal meetinghouse of Society the commonly (more Friends known as Quakers), founded the and firststate’s AbolitionSociety, ran the Baltimore Equitable Society, a 1841. in death his until 1794 in creation its fire from insurance company, nor previous familial prominence neither enjoyed who elites, fellow was involvement this sprang from that reputation the experience, THE YELLOW FEVER EPIDEMIC EPIDEMIC FEVER YELLOW THE OF HEALTH BOARD THE BALTIMORE AND first his during of involvement avenues of many use made Townsend in addition virtue: civic for his reputation to build city in the years the in Commissioners Special the with participated he work his to Thus, many charitable institutions, while effectively serving the poor, poor, the serving effectively while institutions, charitable many Thus, of image the strengthen to also served superior and magnanimity elite moral judgment. - - 35 In addition In addition 36 38 37 this this afflictive scene; and to them the city of Baltimore is espe exertions, extraordinary their for indebted greatly Townsend, Joseph and Mr. Adam Fonerden, Mr. cially to of hazard the at who and post, their at remained lives their indigent, sick and the the for provision make to attended most of by deserted when neighbors. their The Board ofThe Board through task had an arduous have Health Under these conditions, the wealthy citizens ofcitizens wealthy the conditions, these Under Baltimore 34 In such a time of a time In such authority all governmental almost crisis, accumulated considerable municipal power during the crisis, and and crisis, during the power municipal considerable accumulated praise lavish the warrant to magnanimity sufficient with it exercised of the after report a published Council, who City and Mayor the epidemic lauding his actions: DENUNCIATION AND SCANDAL DENUNCIATION of publication the Before Novem on denunciations Smith’s James epidemics fever yellow the during actions 12, 1800, Townsend’s ber of achievement crowning the be to seemed had his activism. He hospital at Hawkin’s Point, inspected ships for possible infection, and and infection, possible for ships inspected Point, Hawkin’s at hospital health. information general collected city’s the about Townsend administration, health public city’s the spearheading to assisted in relief efforts, notablythe erection of arefugee camp for of inhabitants the and most to susceptible most area the Point, Fells fever. the by devastated his close friend Adam Fonerdan. As one ofone As Adam Fonerdan. friend his close members Board only two and carried enacted public city-wide out Townsend remain, to city’s the enforced He single-handedly. almost health measures stringency, or lesser greater was imposed, with (which quarantine turnthe until of century), the projects, cleaning citywide enacted quarantine the and city hospital the both managed arranged burials, shut down, local government ground to a halt, and the poor, who who poor, and the a halt, to ground local government down, shut ofhad no way without left were go, to and nowhere city the leaving care. medical and as food such basic necessities access to of Board the to defaulted to power additional channeling Health, and Townsend city: in the members solitary remaining Board two nearly nearly 1,200 citizens between August and October — almost five percent of the city’s population, or the equivalent of over 31,000 today. businesses result, a As countryside. surrounding the for city the fled
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------Feder This 41 Federal Gazette Federal these accusations proved highly combustible, spark highly combustible, proved accusations these 40 39 on November 23 and December 25, 1800, challenged Although the requirement of requirement the Although was signature a physician’s The first defamatory letters thatSmith publishedin the It It was the system of reputation at its finest: concrete power for the early American elite, which became (according to Ditz) Ditz) to (according became which elite, American early the for ing so much public discourse that the editors the discourse of that public much so ing the matter. on the more anything publish to refused eventually of outcry nature to the was due passionate which accusations, the of foundation the it and with reputation, Townsend’s had challenged and Joanne Ditz as Toby such historians, Many city. in the his power of importance the discussed and studied have Freeman, reputation fore obliged to walk with Polly to the hospital, where she died four four died she where hospital, the to Polly walk with to obliged fore later. days hospital in the available space limited the given reasonable entirely (similar measures were enforced in Philadelphia during its epidemic), 1793 ed a physician’s ed certificatea confirmingphysician’s that she After had thefever. the provide to a doctor for hours” searching “several spending requisite certification (therewere supposedly onlyfour practicing who McCormick city), in the left physicians returned Townsend, to transportation, her arrange to for refused granted but admission her of out child the casting supposedly McCormick his home. was there as neglectful but as actively despicable. The girl, aged between ten ten between aged The girl, despicable. as actively as neglectful but of home the livingin been had fourteen, and Henry one Purcell family the when was abandoned and fever the with ill fell she when fled theShe city. was laterby discovered Young grocerJames and admitted her McCormick, have to sought who William stonecutter demand who Townsend, Joseph by refused were but hospital the to al Gazette al ofaccusing him by reputation sterling neglecting his Townsend’s of an act be to was supposed what for and acceptingduties pay civic publi the 20, 1801 with on January continued These attacks service. merely not Townsend painted which of story, cation Elliot Polly the of and country city the aftermath in the of was on Revolution, the crisis during the Townsend Though for had functioned it wane. the of as Smith such physician a little-known epidemic, the that fact the defer automatic the that shows in 1801 him criticize openly so could longer was no elite merchant philanthropic the to once shown ence been. had once as it as potent opening opportunities for philanthropic engagement which assured assured engagement which philanthropic for opportunities opening him contin merited have and would virtue of public the Townsend’s survival the to so vital system, this Yet future. in the appointment ued
------48 The power of The power 43 Smith argued for for argued Smith 46 This sentiment challenged This challenged sentiment 47 Dr. Smith lived in Fell’s Point Point Fell’s in lived Smith Dr. 44 Smith was less willing than the Mayor Mayor the willing than less was Smith To be caught acting in a way that did not not did that way a in acting caught be To 45 42 For decades, men like Townsend had formed backbone the Townsend men like decades, For Challenging Townsend’s rule by reputation was a new system system was a new reputation by rule Townsend’s Challenging tation for philanthropy. Smith’s letters marked the beginnings of beginnings the letters marked Smith’s philanthropy. for tation public trust built on philanthropic virtue as their sole credential. credential. sole as their virtue on philanthropic built trust public things had begun turnBy the of however, century, nineteenth the The of city change. to incorporated in 1797, was Baltimore, permanent more formsdeveloping of of place in governance ad forms new and these particular hoc committees, more demanded a repu and spirit” “public a generally-acknowledged than expertise Revolution. In retrospect, this challenge speaks to a coming change change a coming to speaks challenge this In retrospect, Revolution. of in an age usher eventually would which in place professionalism of post-Revo the during flourished had that plutocracy” “open the of period lution reorganization. social and economic of citing as Baltimore, such cities in American urban development the primacy ofthe in one and prominence: reputation over expertise writ be could not as a constitution much that, complained he letter laws health proper so mechanics, run by nor a bank physicians by ten politicians. by formulated be could not of rule to right the had inserted who citizens” spirited “public the of facet every into themselves the since administration city’s the home. He had even served as temporary physician of as temporary physician served had even He home. hospi city the epidemic 1797 the ofillness during the throughout tal ordinary its Way. Joseph Dr. physician, admin of accept Council to and City benevolence the Townsend’s golden city’s the and not specialists, medical that believing istration, of in control should be boys, health. public the sphere, widespread skepticism of widespread sphere, began merit their emerge. to and physician a prominent Smith, of Dr. by promoted government European bringing by fame gain to on go would who immunologist America. to practices vaccination his into them victims and welcomed fever treated and had both could be “immediately and unavoidably blasted and undone” by by and undone” blasted and unavoidably “immediately could be only “a small piece of gossip, a sniff of scandal.” almost supported been years had for businessman-philanthropist the began altruism in their faith as blind but trust, public by exclusively to fade (as exemplifiedby Smith’s accusations andthe Polly Elliot of face scandal) in the public in the professionalism burgeoning a like a theatrical performance personasaintly a a theatrical like masked in which of code a Freeman) to (according or regu that honor reality, a private behavior. public elite lated fit hisreputation for saintly kindness was a as disaster, a merchant
120 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 121 HANNAH JONES - - - , written , written Gazette In his letter, Hillen Hillen In his letter, 52 The firstto respond 51
, it was the respectability and and respectability was the , it Federal Gazette Federal 50 For these men — fellow elites who also relied on the the on also relied who elites — fellow men these For In the same way, Townsend’s next defenders, prominent prominent defenders, next Townsend’s way, same In the 49 53 Swiftly Swiftly following the publication of the Elliot Polly a missive, Collin Mackinzie, added the weight of weight the added Collin Mackinzie, agreeing with by words their was “over solicitous” in making his “first appearance public.” in oflack His not was he that indicated implied, Hillen prominence, have to swore leader, city Hillen, a respected whereas trusted, be to good his friend’s and upheld described events the to a witness been conduct. hospital, the to physician attending and the Jenkins William citizen own reputations to turn to a into conduct reputations ofown matter the Townsend’s ofquestion against another. word man’s one Hillen, an influential member ofwas John well the City Council as as a former Special Commissioner, Baltimore Equitable director, personal closest ofand one friends. Townsend’s who him as a neophyte painting obscurity, relative Smith’s stressed battle ofbattle in the words long-term held that friends elite of over reputation sway Townsend’s opinion. public ofseries in the appeared letters Townsend defending ofarray impressive an “by offorce the used individuals” who their — Smith’s accusations were supremely dangerous; if dangerous; supremely were accusations — Smith’s philanthropic lose would they appointment, civic for sufficient longer no was virtue Thus surprising not is it Townsend’s that power. to claim only their againsthim defend to eager his and Smith supporters elite were of high positions the by “Unawed” detractors. fellow his adversaries, weeks-long the throughout but persistedSmith his criticisms, with TOWNSEND’S DEFENSE TOWNSEND’S In his first letters,Smith had acknowledgedthe dangers reputa an impressive had such who of Townsend, cizing a man like criti of “some supporters, powerful such with and tion high are whom in office.” power of reputation for social influence andmunicipal authority to fade, and in 1801 it was still powerful enough to save Townsend Townsend save to enough powerful was still and in 1801 it fade, to for even legacy shining his preserve and scandal Elliot Polly the from posterity. distant THE RESPONSE TO ACCUSATIONS: public skepticism ofpublic of system older this back and the reputation, that indicates virtue public once-indelible againstlash Townsend’s suspicious of becoming was too, populace, general the his merit. of system the for longer much take would it reputation However,
- - - 58 Nevertheless, both both Nevertheless, This equiv implied 57 55
This traditional view is difficult is view traditional This 59 Next was Jesse Hollingsworth, a merchant and and merchant a Hollingsworth, was Jesse Next 54 56 This closing of was not philanthropists elite the ranks by to avoid, and even recent historians have emphasized the enormity the emphasized have historians recent and even avoid, to THE “PUBLIC-SPIRITED CITIZENS” “PUBLIC-SPIRITED THE CITIZENS” SCHOLARSHIP IN HISTORICAL has conformed elites on Baltimore most scholarship to recently, Until of majority the by told tale the and chronicles contemporaries; their of and “fathers citizens” “public-spirited call them histories city the do no wrong. could almost who city” perhaps waning, would not be so easily uprooted. That Townsend Townsend That uprooted. so easily be not would waning, perhaps 1841 in death his until Baltimore in power great wield to continued testifies tothe enduring power ofreputation, which continues day. present the to memory even public to over hold sway Smith admitted in February 1801 that he had lost both friends and and friends both lost had he 1801 that in February admitted Smith of lost his part, as a result for patrons and Townsend, criticisms, his Baltimore and with permanently, Board both on the his positions Equitable for the year following the scandal. prominence, continued achieve on to and went recovered eventually of system the that case, while reputation, in Townsend’s showing, stone ofstone of system the formed it reputation; basis of the Townsend’s cornerstone the become and had now appointment continued of his defense. entirely effective in deflectingSmith’s detractions, as bothhe and skirmish the from emerged tarnished with reputations. Townsend attention to all the things that Townsend had accomplished for had accomplished for Townsend that things all the to attention public in the had done Smith little how with it contrasting city, the any outweighed surely deeds previous All ofsphere. Townsend’s if even single argued, he misdeed, of words the “reputable” all these claims. Smith’s to refute enough not were men ofalence was a corner moral rectitude with involvement public in this specific instance,but throughout generally, the duration of nearly home Townsend’s visited have to claimed He epidemics. the “surround accusations) him (contrary and seen Smith’s to day every giving relief distressed, the with ed sick, the to assistance poor, the to hospital, the to giving admittance barracks, the to provisions sending called He children.” thirty and twenty between for and providing Hillen’s testimony. Hillen’s of member a prominent as well Council City on the sat who elite the He, Society. Equitable ofof Baltimore Board Directors the the on as not actions, Townsend’s to an eyewitness been have to claimed too,
122 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 123 HANNAH JONES - - Increasingly, Increasingly, 63 However, scholarship over over scholarship However, Works by historians Jerome Jerome historians by Works 60 61 Finally, Seth Rockman made the connection between between connection the made Rockman Seth Finally, 62 system, inaugurated in the disorganization following the Revolution, Revolution, the following disorganization in the inaugurated system, CONCLUSION The of system Joseph like men held that and reputation deference of top the at philanthropists, elite fellow his and Ameri Townsend, half second during the can urban culture of century eighteenth the ofsuccessful promotion on the completely relied as it feeble, seems persona. Against public virtuous and long-standing this a charitable public image. Townsend’s life offers a powerful example of this system ofthis example powerful a offers life Townsend’s image. public at work, while Smith’s criticisms and the events of the Polly Elliot turn the at fade to was beginning it that ofscandal indicate century the today. it know as we professionalism to way give to self-interest,” he argued, “becomes evident in the prominence of prominence in the evident “becomes argued, he self-interest,” those in involved men same the reliefwere poor leading who men efforts,” of life and mercantile political, religious, the city. the who citizens” spirited “public the that recognized have historians of on a system relied urban culture American early dominated reputa virtuous an impossibly promoting by power their maintain to tion charity charity and profitexplicit, pavingthe wayfor more questionsto be of and necessity utility the to regard asked with work philanthropic of lives in the ideal the that proposed Rockman elite. Baltimore the also but of duty, only as a Christian not was seen service charitable ofas a way insuring oneself of against wrath potential the angry the elite and poor: “The of intertwining philanthropy, civic leadership, merchant elite as an amalgamation of as an amalgamation elite merchant enterprising rather newcomers class. elite monolithic established an than this to and Sheryllynne Ditz, Haggerty contributed Toby Garitee, of importance the outlining by endeavor and to in addition reputation from businessmen and of merchants lives the in profit with collusion in period. this the past few decades has slowly begun to turn to begun slowly has decades few past the of tide the laudatory this epithet a deeper and seek understanding of positions unique the both their behind motivations complicated and the occupied men these Steffen G. Charles Historians generosity. municipal and philanthropic and Thomas for example,M. stressed have the Doerflinger, fluidity philanthropic the and described ofsocial hierarchy, Baltimore’s early of these men’s contributions to the city’s development. Sherryof Olson, development. city’s the to contributions men’s these innovations...are [city’s] the [of] “All that in 1997 wrote example, for of a single to network traceable ideas whose men and articulate gifted town.” over all mushrooms like up sprang - - The continuation of The continuation these 64 memory. The example of Joseph Townsend reminds us that, even even us that, reminds of The example Townsend memory. Joseph governance about arguments has acceptedSmith’s which in a world of power lasting the and professionalism, of system the reputation continues to influence our perspective onthe pastand opinion of history. early city’s the dominated who citizens” “public-spirited the Baltimore, was perhaps more universally known, in the city” than his his than city” in the known, universally more was perhaps Baltimore, published obituaries lavish the by supported statement a — father his “public proclaimed which Orleans, as New away as far even benevolence.” and practical spirit the that shows scholarship present-day into epithetslaudatory even of system public in dissolved completely been not has reputation the case of Joseph Townsend due to the reputational power of power reputational the to due of case the his Townsend Joseph The of system friends. elite — for elite a prestigious by government of Board as the such endeavors whom philan more were Health enough and resilient durable — proved professional than thropic to last through the dawn of At his the death new in century. 1841, in died ever who “no one that asserted son Richard Townsend’s stood men like Dr. James Smith, who challenged the right of right the challenged who Smith, James the Dr. like men stood that and insisted alone, reputation on based rule to elite merchant This asser power. public to prerequisite the be should expertise modern the to in failed reasonable though tion, ultimately mind,
124 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 125 HANNAH JONES
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Chester County County Chester
MarylandHistorical Observations Epidemic on the (Shippensburg, PA: White Mane White PA: (Shippensburg, , Eyewitness Accounts ofAmerican Accounts the Eyewitness , September11, 1777: , November 23 and December 5, 1800, as cited in cited as 1800, 5, December and 23 November , , Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and in Historical Studies Hopkins University , Johns , no. 33; Dielman-Hayward Collection, Maryland Historical Maryland Collection, Dielman-Hayward 33; no. , Theof Battle Brandywine From Gentlemen to Townsmen: The Gentry of Gentlemen Townsmen: to From County, Baltimore , November 12, 1800, as cited in Douglas F. Stickle, “Death “Death Stickle, in Douglas 1800, as cited 12, F. , November The Federal Gazette The Federal , Issue 3 (Fall 1979): 288. 1979): (Fall 3 Issue , (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1993), 6-7, 163. 6-7, 1993), of Press Kentucky, University KY: (Lexington, (Baltimore: Reese, 1819), 51). Overall, it is not the question of is not the it Overall, 1819), 51). Reese, (Baltimore: or whether for the first time in the fall of 1783, leaving his family’s farm in Chester County, County, Chester in farm family’s his of leaving fall 1783, the in time first the for Society, Baltimore, Md.; Bruce E. Mowday, Mowday, E. Bruce Md.; Baltimore, Society, Philadelphia Dooms Brandywine at Defeat Washington’s Baltimore 21-22, ofHistory,” Draft “FirstBES Hall, 164; 53, 2002), Books, Society, Historical Maryland 165, Box 3020), (MS Collection Society Equitable “Notice of Md.; Henry C. Townsend, Baltimore, ofLife the Townsend,” Joseph Townsend, in Joseph Baltimore came to 1969), 15. Townsend Times, New York York: (New Revolution pany had been “wrested from his control” (Amherst B. Hall, “First Draft ofDraft “FirstBES Hall, B. (Amherst control” his from “wrested been had pany Maryland 165, Box 3020), (MS Collection Society Equitable Baltimore History,” Md., 67-68). Baltimore, Historical Society, Steffen, G. Charles 1660-1776 (1756-1841),” ofTownsend “Biography Joseph Darlington, William OfNotes: Events Men and “Letter from James Smith to Jesse Hollingsworth February 19, 1801” in Smith, February Hollingsworth Jesse to Smith James from “Letter 290. Baltimore,” in Class and “Death Stickle, 36-37; Number,” Additional “The executive this in replacement His 293. Baltimore,” in Class and “Death Stickle, only a Director had become who newcomer a total Keeports, position was George loss the of year, the following the it regain he would Although before. year the ofcreation he had held since the position (which he was keenly felt; company) the com the in which year as the afterward decades bitterly period the remembered Political Science 14, no. 2 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1896, Reprint New New Reprint 1896, Press, Hopkins Johns The (Baltimore: 2 no. 14, Science Political his for paid been not had he yet 13-14), 1973), Corporation, Reprint Johnson York: Reese, Meredith (David Camp Point Fell’s with the work of 1819 an but is important, that Board on the being paid for was actually not Townsend ofappreciation for his reputation damaged have paid would being that fact the altruism. selfless them for the time & danger to which they are subjected” (“Correspondence. Health Health subjected” (“Correspondence. are they which to & danger time the for them Files), 1 (Administrative Series (BRG16), City Council Collection report,” Board’s seems it However, Md.). Baltimore, City Archives, 217, Baltimore 1, item Box was a new Board when as, unanswered, to demand a salary went this attempt that spoken of had were salaries in 1801, their created Townsend as a new development. Thomas, been paid a salary his position as Commissioner a Special (Thaddeus for P. TheGovernment City of Baltimore James Smith, “The Smith, Lettersthe to Number Additional of James Humanitas” (Baltimore, 38; 5-6, 1801), received specified, he Townsend, 289-290. Baltimore,” in Class and “Death Stickle, service their for payment that is true It city. the from dollars year per one hundred minds was on the ofmembers the of ofBoard the Board entire in 1799 the Health; that suggested,new members tellingly, They elected. be that and requested resigned compensate Salary some measure as might in such allowed [be] boards “all future The Federal Gazette The Federal of Epidemic 1800,” Fever Yellow The Baltimore: in Class and Magazine 74 5. 6. 3. 4. 2. ENDNOTES 1.
- ,
, 158.
Vigorous Vigorous article, article, (Baltimore: (Baltimore: (PhD diss., (PhD diss., (New Haven: Haven: (New , 101-102; Jerome Jerome , 101-102; (Baltimore: The (Baltimore: Federal Gazette Federal In Pursuit of Pursuit In Profit , September20, 1929). Robert OliverRobert Annals ofAnnals Baltimore Robert Oliver, Merchant of Merchant Oliver, Robert Baltimore, , 21-22. History of County, and City Baltimore (Chapel Hill: University ofHill: University (Chapel North , 29; Sidney Redner, “Distribution “Distribution Redner, , 29; Sidney , 1798-1808 (Baltimore: Baltimore City Baltimore (Baltimore: , 1798-1808 Municipal Journal Municipal A Vigorous Spirit ofSpirit A Vigorous and Merchants Enterprise: Black Townsmen Black TheHistory Financial of Baltimore Historical InformationHistorical of Society Equitable Baltimore the Black Townsmen Black (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, Press, Hopkins University The Johns (Baltimore: , 370. , , 27-28. In Pursuit of Profit: The Annapolis Merchants in the Era of Era the the in of Merchants Annapolis Pursuit The In Profit: Baltimore, 1729-1829: TheBaltimore, of Genesis Community a , 31; Dantas, Dantas, 31; , Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic New the in Politics of National Affairs Honor: Private Enterprise and Public Spirit: Baltimore Privateering in the War of War in the Privateering Baltimore Spirit: Public and Enterprise Private , 364; Dantas, Dantas, 364; , , The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political in Historical and Political Studies Hopkins University , The Johns Robert OliverRobert Black Townsmen Black Black Townsmen: Urban Slavery Urban Eighteenth-Century in the Freedom and Americas Townsmen: Black Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, (Baltimore: Regional Publishing Company, 1971): 237; 1971): Company, Publishing Regional (Baltimore: (PhD diss., American University, 1973), 35; Papenfuse, Papenfuse, 35; 1973), University, American diss., (PhD B. Hall, historian of the Baltimore Equitable Society, “ The early town and city’s city’s and town early The “ Society, Equitable of Baltimore historian the Hall, B. Baltimore Equitable Society Collection (MS 3020), Box 207, Maryland Historical Maryland 207, Box 3020), (MS Collection Society Equitable Baltimore Md.; “History of Baltimore, Department is Linked With Fire Baltimore Society, of Life,” Years Hundred City’s Two the Fire Mechanical the like companies fire parochial dangers, such to response In examples of first some the in citizens organized others many and Company own of as Townsend’s such insurance companies engagement,while community Amherst to According support. institutional provided Society Equitable Baltimore “Shaped by Risk: The American Fire Insurance Industry, 1790-1920,” Dissertation 1790-1920,” Dissertation Insurance Risk: Industry, TheAmerican Fire by “Shaped warn a with came 1747 in enlargement city’s The 2004). International, Abstracts Great the like catastrophes and safety, fire about Assembly Maryland the from ing city’s burgeoning the to disastrous proved 1796 ofConflagration 4, December Thomas, J. (Scharf, economic and social growth 1 Part in as found 5, 1796, December Joanne B. Freeman, Freeman, B. Joanne xxi-xxii. 2001), xiv-xv, Press, University Yale Dennis Rankin Clark, 387. 383, 375, of1976), University America, Catholic Clark, of - threat fire the to response in up sprung structures power new of city’s Many the Baranoff, (Dalit centers urban new the in ubiquitous and prevalent ofmost one the A Name Index to the Baltimore City Tax Records Tax City A Name IndexBaltimore the to Reference, Department Legislative Office, of Management Records and Archives Harry Hollander, 1981), i; Jacob Griffith, W. Thomas 17; 1899), Press, Hopkins Johns Bruchey, in cited as 148-149, 1824), Wooddy, William Randolph Garitee, 1812 Dantas, Dantas, Bruchey, 1790, to 1770s the from 13,000 over to 6,000 from doubled population city’s The 1790 1800. Between 26,500 by over again reach 1790s to during the and doubled (Doerflinger, exports. ofstate’s thirds the two handled Baltimore 1795, and ofSpirit Enterprise ed., Cox, J. Richard of Physics; Boston University Baltimore,” City Populations, 1975), 143; Thomas M. Doerflinger, Doerflinger, M. Thomas 143; 1975), DevelopmentEconomic in Revolutionary Philadelphia Bruchey, Weems Stuart 44; 1986), Press, Carolina 1783-1819 L.R. Mariana 32; 1956), Press, Hopkins Johns (Baltimore: 1 no. 74, Series Science, Dantas, 45. 2008), Macmillan, Palgrave York: (New Pennsylvania which had been devastated by the Battle of Battle the by devastated had been which on fought Brandywine Pennsylvania armyAmerican the Septemberbetween 11, 1777 of George Major General armyBritish and the of Washington Howe. William Sir General Papenfuse, C. Edward Revolution,American 1763-1805 11. 12. 13. 14. 8. 9. 10. 7.
126 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 127 HANNAH JONES ,
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, 39-42 ,
, 53; Doer 53; , , 125, The Theory From Gentlemen to From 12, no. 2 (1917): 187- 2 (1917): 12, no. Records of Records City the From Gentlemen Townsmen to From TheHistory Financial of Baltimore , 12. 66, no. 2 (Summer 1971): 149). 1971): (Summer 2 no. 66, The Theory ofSentiments Moral Observationsepidemicon the of 1819 , 12.; Clark, Baltimore, 1729-1829, 1729-1829, Baltimore, , 12.; Clark, , 151,160). Likewise, nineteenth-centurycity , 151,160). Likewise, 45, no. 10 (May 20, 1891), 253; Whitehome, Whitehome, 253; 1891), 20, (May 10 no. 45, MarylandMagazine Historical , 351-352; Steffen, 351-352; , , 169-171; Hollander, Hollander, , 169-171; , 164; Reese, Reese, 164; , , December 20, 1792. , December ‘Merely for Money’? Business Culture in the British Atlantic, 1750 Money’? ‘MerelyAtlantic, British in the for Culture Business Bring Out Your Dead: TheDead: Plague Great of in Philadel Out Your Bring Fever Yellow ‘Merely for Money’? ‘Merely for , 370-373. As Adam Smith explained in his book his in explained Smith Adam As 370-373. , MarylandMagazine Historical , a man who enjoyed prestige and power in a society but did not in a society but and power prestige enjoyed , a man who TheGovernment City of Baltimore Scraping By: Wage Labor, Slavery, and Survival and Baltimore Early in Slavery, Labor, Wage By: Scraping The Underwriter Baltimore (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1949), 20, 63; Clark, Clark, 63; 20, 1949), Press, of University Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: TheGovernment City of Baltimore , 4; , Vigorous Spirit of Spirit Vigorous Enterprise Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012), 99; Steffen, 99; 2012), Press, University Liverpool (Liverpool: Goddard and James Angell, 1789); Wilbur F. Coyle, ed., Coyle, F. 1789); Wilbur Angell, and James Goddard was a member of the Electing Committee of the Maryland Society. William Trim William ofSociety. Maryland Committee ofthe Electing member the a was ofActing Committee on the a Baltimore was a Quaker, ble Maryland the Society, was Tyson Elisha times. several Commissioners the assisted and Director, Equitable Acting the on and Society, Equitable Baltimore the to Subscriber a Quaker, fellow a Commit Electing the on was Wilson William ofSociety. MarylandCommittee the of(“Constitution Director Equitable Baltimore a and ofSociety Marylandtee the William (Baltimore, ofAbolition the Promoting Marylandthe for Society Slavery,” Baltimore DailyBaltimore Repository Baltimore,” Fields, “The Potters of a member was a Quaker, Brown ofActing Committee the 191. John Mary the Hillen John Society. Equitable of incorporatorBaltimore an the and Society, land was Mickle John Director. Equitable Baltimore a and Commissioner Special a was service the into called been had Presstman George Director. Equitable Baltimore a and Board, with the time oftimes during Townsend’s Commissioners the several (Douglas G. Carroll, Jr. and Blanche D. Coll, “The Baltimore Almshouse: “The Coll, Baltimore D. and Blanche Jr. Carroll, (Douglas G. History,” Early An was necessary it that and power had wealth was understoodIt among those who “title” their secure to in order and philanthropy engageto them in charity for social superiority. to Rockman, Seth 218. 2009), Press, Hopkins University Johns (Baltimore: Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, ofSentiments Moral kind of with any respond the from or alliance no loyalty service was owed concrete members of (Adam Smith, community the in Haggerty, as cited most when wealth, superior to title “the that noted Griffith W. Thomas chronicler arise” to permitted ofif was state shaken, suffering a be might acquired, legally Sheryllynne Haggerty, Sheryllynne Haggerty, - 1815 Townsmen The 1814 Baltimore for Battle flinger, Powell, Harvey John in 1793 phia 170-171. Clark, 17, 21; Thomas, Ass’tand Treasurers 4, Treasurers InformationHistorical of Vol. Society, Equitable Baltimore the Historical Maryland 207, Box (MS3020) Collection Society Equitable Baltimore the in 1796, just before dissolved in fact, was, Md. The Board Baltimore, Society, incorporation. city’s war with the ever-present menace of fire goes hand in hand with the development development the with hand in hand of goes menace fire ever-present the with war like “reads companies insurance and of fire first records the the ofand insurance,” ofHistory,” Draft “First BES (Hall, sons” of worthiest of roll honor a Baltimore’s 3). Thomas, 21. 22. 20. 18. 19. 16. 17. 15. ,
-
- -
, 88;
(Bal
Diary A History ‘Merely for Money’? ‘Merely for Annals ofAnnals Baltimore , Revised and Expanded Expanded and Revised , (Lancaster, PA: PA: (Lancaster, (Baltimore, MD: Johns MD: Johns (Baltimore, The of Life Tyson, Elisha , 35-36). While his faith gave him gave faith his While 35-36). , (Baltimore: Baltimore General Baltimore (Baltimore: (Baltimore: Meyer & Thalheimer, & Thalheimer, Meyer (Baltimore: (Ellicott City, MD: Historic Ellicott City, City, Ellicott Historic MD: City, (Ellicott The Baltimoreans Amiable (Baltimore Monthly Meeting of Monthly Meeting (Baltimore Stony Friends, Minute by Minute Minute by , 1656-1818, MS 377, Maryland Historical Society, Society, Historical Maryland 377, MS 1656-1818, , 81, no. 1 (June 1994): 57; Haggerty, Haggerty, 57; 1994): (June 1 no. 81, , 99. , 372. , 372. , , xix. Minute by Minute: A HistoryMinute by of MonthlyBaltimore the Meeting (Oyster Bay, NY: Townsend Society of America, 2004), 25). of2004), Society America, Townsend NY: Bay, (Oyster First Records of Baltimore Town and Jones Town 1729-1797 of Town Records First Jones and Town Baltimore Baltimore: TheBaltimore: of Building City American an Record Book Record (Baltimore: B. Lundy, 1825), 19; Richard H. Townsend, H. Townsend, 1825), 19; Richard Lundy, B. (Baltimore: ‘Merely for Money’? ‘Merely for Affairs ofAffairs Honor Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, also complicated his participation in the financial world of the Baltimore elite. elite. of Baltimore world the financial the in participation his complicated also and Petitions. Health Commissioner. Janney, Levis,” Baltimore City Archives, City Archives, Baltimore Levis,” Janney, Commissioner. Health and Petitions. 295). 7, item Files), Box 1 (Administrative Series (BRG16), City Council Collection ofClerk the became and Monthly Townsend Meeting, Gunpowder the Later, (Gunpowder Monthly Meeting Baltimore the a Lending Library for found helped ofSociety Friends, Md.: 52; Mallonee, Baltimore, a Quaker being and make connections city, in the gain to an opportunity respect ofofSociety the Prepar Baltimore the for He began as a schoolteacher Friends. continuing in meeting’s involved this position became and through Meeting, ative contracting boards, survey on sitting city, the in education Quaker grow to efforts ofcreation the and overseeing teachers, other C. Dunlap, (William new schools ofan Account Meetings with Virginia and QuakerYearly in Baltimore Education Meet Certain Philadelphia with Affiliated Shore Easternof the ings and Delaware Applications Council. “City 36-41; 28-32, 1936), Co., Printing Press Science The 1818-1866: A Historical and Analytical Study,” The Johns Hopkins University Hopkins University The Johns A Historical and Analytical Study,” 1818-1866: Hopkins Johns 2 (Baltimore: 72, no. Science and Political in Historical Studies 15-17. Appendix Number,” Additional “The Smith, 24-32; 1954), Press, ed., Bank of “The Savings Payne, Baxley, 15; C. Herbert Baltimore,” of1801 Founded Dispensary, General the Baltimore xvii. 1963), Inc., Foundation, Dispensary meetinghouse local the begansociety through his entry into Baltimore Townsend Haggerty, Haggerty, ofCompany Union Manufacturing of Maryland, “Report and Committee the ofConstitution of Company Union Manufacturing the Maryland” (Baltimore: 13. 1808): Frailey, & Niles Freeman, 138-141. Almshouse,” Baltimore “The Carroll, ofBank Baltimore, Savings “The Davis, Edwin Lance and Payne Lester Peter Clark, Clark, Representations Mercantile Masculinity Imperiled: or, Ditz, “Shipwrecked: I. Toby SelfPhiladelphia,” Eighteenth-Century Gendered in the and of Failure The of Journal History American 107; Sherry Olson, 44; 1997), Press, University Hopkins Johns The (Baltimore: Edition Bicentennial Clark, of HomewoodRun and Stony Friends, Mylander, Ellicott Allison 42-45; 35-38, 31-33, 15, 1992), Homewood, and Run TheHolya for Striving Ellicotts: Community Beirne, F. Francis 13; 1991), Inc., Tyson, S. John 269; 1984), Press, University Hopkins Philanthropist the ofH. Townsend Richard of 1782-1797 Commissioners) (Special Baltimore Griffith, 241; 230, 219-220, 209, 173-175, 154, 150, 1909), ed., Coyle, F. Wilbur and Bonny, Karkalits Jane Mallonee, C. Barbara 53; 1905), Library, City timore: Fessenden, B. Nicholas 30. 31. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 23. 24.
128 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 129 HANNAH JONES - - - - - North , April , 184; , The Negro (Balti . Journal of Journal Early the , 184-185. For the Potter’s Potter’s the For 184-185. , The Negro in Maryland , 269; Jeffry R. Brackett, R. Jeffry 269; , , October 7, 1791; Litwack, 7, , October World Population Review Population World
Mail (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Books for NY: (Freeport, Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, The Transformation of The Transformation Fighting Abolitionism: American , 181-182. The Baltimoreans Amiable (Chapel Hill: The of (Chapel University Press, Carolina North
Quaker Strongrooms: A blog from the Library the from ofQuaker Strongrooms:A blog ofSociety the Friends , 25). (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), 3, 53-55, 3, 1948), Press, of Carolina University North Hill: (Chapel Diary Meeting House and Counting House: The and Meeting House of Quaker Merchants Philadel Colonial , 18; Richard S. Newman, S. , 18; Richard 25, no. 4 (Winter 2005): 598-599; Stickle, “Death and Class in Baltimore,” Baltimore,” in Class and “Death Stickle, 598-599; 2005): (Winter 4 no. 25, Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, The Baltimore Equitable Society was perhaps the most important endeavor endeavor important most the perhaps was Society Equitable Baltimore The On September 8, 1789, Townsend helped found “Thefound Maryland helped Society On September8, 1789, Townsend For Townsend’s elections, see Clark, Clark, see elections, Townsend’s For Republic 297. 284, ofA Series Fever Yellow or Epidemic Late the to Documents Relating Other and Letters ofVictims “Certain an International 1820), 115; Chew, Warner, William more: 2014,” Population “Baltimore 598; Contagion,” of Victims an “Certain Chew, 282-283; Baltimore,” in Class and “Death Stickle, InternationalContagion,” 599. tors would come to encompass much ofencompass come to torsmuch would of his web was elected Townsend contacts. his until 1794 in inception its from year every of company the Treasurer the as George to position the lost he of when exception 1802, sole the with 1841, in death 67-68). ofHistory,” Draft “FirstBES (Hall, Keeports Clark, ofVictims “Certain an InternationalTheContagion: Chew, Panic S. Richard of Times ofHard 1797 and the 1790s in Baltimore,” Late the 2002), 19). According to Richard, Townsend’s son, his father’s abolition society abolition son, his father’s Townsend’s Richard, to 2002), 19). According of freedom securing the for was responsible African Americans hundred” “several ofduring its short existence (Brackett, only a few years Townsend, was it today, existence in still is which company insurance fire A life. ofTownsend’s Direc its and 1794, 21, January on home Townsend’s in held meeting a at founded for their freedom (Beirne, (Beirne, freedom their for in Maryland:ofA Study ofInstitution the Slavery almanacs, of Banneker’s sale Benjamin the promoted also It 52-53). 1969), Press, of American Convention in the and participated met which Abolition Societies, ( 1794 in beginning Philadelphia in annually of Slavery Slavery Republic Early in the Precious Gems,” Gems,” Precious (http://librarysocietyfriendsblog.wordpress.com/2013/04/29/common 2013 29, place-books-collections-of-precious-gems/)). the state, the in society abolition first The ofAbolition Slavery.” the Promoting for both society worked the society, the world, sixth in the and the country, in the fourth in petitioning assist and to individual slaves legislation restrictive more promote to 82, 241). That Townsend himself was personally concerned with this dilemma is dilemma this with himselfconcerned personally was Townsend That 241). 82, ofcontents the by shown his “commonplace book” kind (a of scrapbook contain sermons several included which prayers), and quotations, ing literary passages, ofhypocrisy condemning the faith while the to devoted be to claimed who Friends of an explanation concerns (For worldly consumedbeing by “commonplace book,” Historical Library: http://www.swarthmore. Friends College’s Swarthmore see ofalso Commonplace Books: see Collections edu/Library/friends/Albums.htm; The Quakers of Townsend’s time had a complex relationship with worldly with worldly The relationship Quakers a complex had time of Townsend’s of importance the leaderstheir stressed while endeavors; they industriousness, concerns warned repeatedly also corruptworldly let not to (Frederick them were Tolles, B. 1682-1763 phia, 36. 34. 35. 32. 33. - , , , - , , , 98).
Diary
, August , August , 326-327. 326-327. , Federal Gazette Federal Federal Intelligencer Federal Philadelphia Gazette Philadelphia , 178-179; Observations Epidemic on the , 329, Smith, “The Addi “The Smith, 329, , , xxii. Philadelphia Gazette Philadelphia , July 22, 1800; , July , July 22, 1800. The 22, quarantine , July Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, 44, no. 6 (June 1968): 677-679; 677-679; 1968): (June 6 no. 44, ObservationsofEpidemic on the 1819 , 181-184, 329-331; 329-331; 181-184, , 12, no. 2 (1917): 187-191. For quarantine quarantine For 187-191. 2 (1917): 12, no. , September 12, 1800; Townsend, , September12, 1800; Townsend, Affairs ofAffairs Honor Federal Gazette Federal Federal Gazette Federal Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, , 181-184, 329-331; 181-184, , , September 15, 1797; Reese, , September 1797; Reese, 15, , November 8, 1800). , November A Series ofA Series Documents Other and Letters Philadelphia Gazette Philadelphia Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, A Short Account ofAccount A Short Latelyin Philadelphia Prevalent Fever, Malignant the Federal Gazette Federal , November 12, 1800, as cited in Stickle, “Death and Class “Death in Stickle, 12, 1800, as cited , November 286; Class in Baltimore,” and “Death , September6, 1800; Stickle, Baltimore, 1729-1829 Baltimore, Federal Gazette Federal MarylandMagazineHistorical Bulletin ofBulletin Academyof the New York Medicine , 83-85). Unsure of the true nature of the fever, the city compromised by by compromised city the offever, nature ofthe true Unsure the 83-85). , Ditz, “Shipwrecked,” 54-55; Freeman, Freeman, 54-55; “Shipwrecked,” Ditz, edited by Richard C. Wade (New York: Arno Press, 1970), 34. 1970), Press, Arno York: (New Wade C. Richard by edited Baltimore,” in Class and “Death Stickle, 7; 3-5, Number,” Additional “The Smith, 291-292. Smith, “The Additional Number,” 3-5; Stickle, “Death and Class in Baltimore,” Baltimore,” in Class and “Death Stickle, 3-5; Number,” Additional “The Smith, 291. Gazette Federal Carey, Matthew who contracted the disease (Clark, disease (Clark, the contracted who Lettersto the Number tional of and “Death AppendixStickle, 1-2; Humanitas,” Reese, 297; 286-288, 284, Baltimore,” in Class 178-179; 52-60, 52-53, September10, 1800; Gazette Federal 288. in Baltimore,” tents, and sixty plank buildings, and was supported by the donations (ofdonations the by and was supported and sixty plank buildings, tents, both cash son, Granville own ofand provisions) Townsend’s towns. and other local citizens physician as acted abolitionist), English famous the Sharp, Granville after (named October until existed and 3, September on opened was camp The camp. the for of a total for thousand people and three one between 25, housing and caring for impres an – of fever died the inhabitants eleven time which during days, fifty-three percent those fifty of to up claimed elsewhere fever the that considering figure, sive information collection, see Ordinances and Resolutions ofinformation Resolutions and Ordinances see collection, and City Mayor the Clark, in cited as 1797, 3, April 11, No. Council, African American for a school use ofalso made Townsend Academy, African the orphanedhouse children to earlier, a few years found he had helped which children ( fever the by just north of was composed The camp, Point, Hawkin’s hospital at a quarantine of one hundred over rope-walks, donated makeshiftshelters using two constructed fever (Clark, (Clark, fever 677-679; Cities,” American Century Eighteenth in Fever “Yellow Blake, 1797; 24, ofOrdinance Health April7, 1800; 1795; 4, May of 1819 correct” view might be either possibility “based on the that measures instituting and hospital, ship inspections, quarantine the 678). For Fever,” “Yellow (Blake, Cities,” Cities,” ofOrdinance Health April7, 1800; turn the of approximately stringency until or lesser with greater was enforced ofcommunicability the over contention time which had by fever the century, the usefulness of the thrown which into question. The quarantine opposing theory, passed from be to not able is, (that disease was non-communicable the that held oflack general personcity’s the person),to blamed onset of the cleanliness for the Field, see Health Department Collection (BRG19), Series 1 (HRS Records), Records), 1 (HRS Series Department Health see Field, (BRG19), Collection Fields, and “The Md., Potters Baltimore, Archives, City 1, Baltimore Box Baltimore,” Clark, see measures, American Century Eighteenth in Fever “Yellow Blake, B. J. 1797; 24, August 42. 41. 39. 40. 38. 37.
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, February 10 , February Medical Annals ofAnnals Medical , 244) as well as continuing continuing as well as 244) , TheofAnnals Medical Maryland, (Baltimore: Nautical (Baltimore: TheofAnnals Medical Maryland , 81. TheDailyand Commercial American Advertiser The 1814 Baltimore for Battle History ofCounty and City Baltimore , January 23, 1801; Smith, “The Additional Number,” 9-11. Number,” Additional “The Smith, 1801; 23, January , 12-14. Number,” Additional “The Smith, 1801; 26, and 24 January , (Baltimore: Press of Williams & Wilkins Company, 1903), 48-50, 571, 48-50, 1903), Company, Wilkins of& Press Williams (Baltimore: ‘Merely for Money’? ‘Merely for , Smith founded the country’s second Vaccine Institute in 1802 to promote promote to in 1802 Institute Vaccine second country’s the founded , Smith Turnpike Road Company ( Company Road Turnpike Townsend continued his involvement in fire prevention, joining the Mechanical Mechanical the joining prevention, fire in involvement his continued Townsend (Scharf, Company Fire public in involved remained He Society. Equitable Baltimore the with work his of Hospi Maryland Committee” of the “Executive member the a as efforts health 1 (Adminis Series (BRG16), City Council Collection City Archives, (Baltimore tal Companies, Road Turnpike various supported and 314), item 64, Box Files), trative Run and Rock Baltimore Road, and Maryland Line Turnpike York including the management ofmanagement bodies” ofand commercial benevolent all proof gave city that the ofof and sound judgment” (Society prudence, spirit, “public their Balti Friends, and Baltimore; ofHouse, Meeting Sketch Town’ ‘Old “A Monthly Meeting, more ofSome Anniversary” (Baltimore: in its One Hundredth as Read its Occupants, 1881), 11). Woods, W. John Treasurer as position his regained He 34-35. Number,” Additional “The Smith, 1841. in death his until it held and year, following the of Equitable Baltimore “proverbial” in the city (Townsend, Diary, 116). Diary, city (Townsend, in the “proverbial” Gazette Federal Gazette Federal 14. Number,” Additional “The Smith, instance ofA similar of“Sketch in the this implicit assumptionfound can be ‘Old ofMonthly Meeting Baltimore the by House” created Meeting in Friends Town’ in the Quakers’elite was the it “prominence claims that author the 1881, in which Joseph W.A. Whitehome, Whitehome, W.A. Joseph 164. of1997), Company America, Publishing Aviation & 19, 1801” in Smith, February Hollingsworth Jesse to Smith James from “Letter 35. Number,” Additional “The 8. “TheSmith, Additional Number,” 293. Number,” Additional “The Smith, friendship was and Hillen’s his father’s that claimed son Richard Townsend’s 1799-1899 680). 673-674, Smith James of from 8, 1797,” in “Letter “Report November Committee, Joint the 30. Number,” Additional “The Smith, in 1801” 19, February Hollingsworth Jesse to Cordell, 30; Number,” Additional The Smith,” 669, 672 36-37. Number,” Additional “The Smith, Federal Government created a “National Vaccine Institution” under his direction, his Institution” under direction, Vaccine a “National created Government Federal ofeditor the he became until 1822, when he headed which new journal the the groundbreaking the promote to efforts these to addition In Inquirer. Vaccine ofphysician as attending also served Smith techniques, vaccination both the of DispensaryAlmshouse and General and Treasurer Baltimore and Medical the prevention the for Society Beneficial “the founding as well as Faculty, Chirurgical M.D., Cordell, Fauntleroy (Eugene of hydrophobia” Haggerty, Haggerty, the by Maryland” in of Vaccination “Father the called Eventually Maryland He it. accompany to Society a Vaccine and in 1810 poor, among the vaccination the time which at 1813, until 1809 from state the for Agent” “Vaccine a be would 58. 57. 53. 54. 55. 56. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 45. 46. 47. 43. 44. . - , - , - American 39, no. 3 no. 39, History of The for Battle Daily National for more such such more for Newark Daily
Richmond Whig Richmond Baltimore Patriot Baltimore Baltimore Gazette and Gazette Baltimore , 53. See also J. Thomas J. also See 53. , From Gentlemen Townsmen to From Annals ofAnnals Baltimore , October 2, 1841; 2, October , , 1816-1819, Baltimore Equitable Equitable Baltimore 1816-1819, , , October 2, 1841; 2, October , , October 5, 1841; 5, October , MarylandMagazineHistorical , and Steffen, and , , Ditz, “Shipwrecked,” and Haggerty, and Haggerty, , Ditz, “Shipwrecked,” , October 21, 1841. 21, October , North American North , October 17, 1809, October 17, 1810, 17, 17, 1809, October , October , Aprilalso http://www.mdhs.org/ 1826; see 29, (Baltimore: Turnbull Brothers, 1874) and 1874) Brothers, Turnbull (Baltimore: Commercial Advertiser Commercial , October 23, 1811, October 20, 1814, October 20, October 1814, 20, October 1811, 23, October , Sentinel of Freedom Observationsepidemicon the of 1819 45, no. 10 (May 20, 1891), 253; Whitehome, Whitehome, 253; 1891), 20, (May 10 no. 45, , and Thomas W. Griffith’s Griffith’s W. Thomas and , Times-Picayune , 218. , October 17, 1815, October 24, 1821, 24, October 1815, 17, October , , March 5, 1810), and the Baltimore and Yorktown Turnpike Turnpike Yorktown and Baltimore and the 5, 1810), , March . Federal Republican Federal , 262. For sample obituaries see William Darlington, “Biography “Biography Darlington, William see sample obituaries , 262. For A Vigorous Spirit ofSpirit A Vigorous Enterprise Board of Board Minute Book Commissioners , 44. , Eastport Sentinel Eastport , 164; Reese, Reese, 164; , , October 16, 1826, October 20, 1828, October 19, 1830, October 1830, 19, October 1828, 20, October 1826, 16, October , Private Enterprise and Public Spirit Public and Enterprise Private Diary Scraping By Scraping , October 4, 1841; 4, October , Chronicles of Chronicles Baltimore , October 4, 1841; 4, October , Baltimore Baltimore Patriot Baltimore The Federal Gazette The Federal Intelligencer Advertiser and 1841; 5, October Olson, Doerflinger, See Garitee, See Money’? ‘Merely for Rockman, Townsend, (1756-1841)”; ofTownsend Joseph April 1826; 18, reminiscences-baltimore-1824). The Underwriter Baltimore 1814 Baltimore Scharf ’s County and City Baltimore contributions. on their perspectives of ofCommittee the and Safety,” Vigilance ofCommis Board City the to again appointed was and 212), 1944): (September sioners in 1817 ( Baltimore, Society, Historical Maryland 192, Box (MS3020), Collection Society America in to trip latter’s during the Lafayette de Marquis the Md). He received send (eventually afterward him with correspondence a maintained and 1824, 115; Diary, (Townsend, estate) his French for ing him a turkey Daily Advertiser 18, October 1835, 22, October 1834, 21, October 1833, 22, October 1831, 18, Jail of City’s Governor the and Visitor a became He 1837). 18, October 1836, 1 (Admin Series (BRG16), City Council Collection City Archives, (Baltimore 41, Box 449; item 39, Box 700; item 38, Box 436; item 35, Box Files), istrative of of1812 War Committee the Reliefof city’s during member the a 633), item Minutes 1814-1815: Baltimore, in Defense “Civilian ed., Jr., Hoyt, D. (William and 25, 1819), the York and Conewago Turnpike Road Company Company Road Turnpike and Conewago York 1819), the and 25, ( ( Company Road Dailyand Commercial Advertiser 1818, 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 59.
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Maryland Society Historical Baltimore Equitable Society Collection (MS3020) Box Box (MS3020) Collection Society Equitable Baltimore . , no. 33. Dielman-Hayward Collection, Maryland Histori Maryland Collection, Dielman-Hayward 33. no. , A Vigorous Spirit of Spirit A Vigorous Economic and Merchants Enterprise: The History Financial of Baltimore
‘Merely for Money’? Business Culture in the British Atlantic, Money’?‘Merely Atlantic, British in the for Culture Business
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“Practicing Medicine at the Baltimore Almshouse, 1828- Almshouse, Baltimore the at Medicine “Practicing “Biography of Joseph Townsend (1756-1841).” (1756-1841).” ofTownsend “Biography Joseph Records ofRecords City of the 1782-1797. Commissioners) (Special Baltimore Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic New the in Politics of National Affairs Honor: Annals ofAnnals Baltimore . PhD diss., American University, 1973. University, American diss., PhD . Quaker Education in Baltimore and Virginia Yearly Meetings with an with an Meetings Virginia and Quaker Yearly in Baltimore Education
. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. Macmillan, Palgrave York: New . ed. ed. “First Draft of BES History.” Baltimore Equitable Society Collec Society Equitable Baltimore ofHistory.” Draft “First BES “Ante-bellum Black Education in Baltimore.” Baltimore.” in Education Black “Ante-bellum . Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012. Liverpool: Press, Liverpool University . 71, no. 3 (Fall 1976): 360-366. 1976): (Fall 3 no. 71, “Shipwrecked: or, Masculinity Imperiled: Mercantile Representations Representations Mercantile Imperiled: Masculinity or, “Shipwrecked: Maryland Magazine Historical and Ass’t Treasurers Ass’t and Md. Baltimore, 207, Maryland Society, Historical www.springgrove.com/history.html). 1899. Hopkins Press, 1850.” Md. Baltimore, Archives, Society, Historical Maryland 207, Box 3020), (MS Collection Society Equitable Md. Baltimore, Historical Society, Baltimore, Md. Baltimore, Society, Historical 1750 - 1815 165, Box 3020), (MS tion Yale University Press, 2001. Press, University Yale Magazine of War in the 1812 Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia 1986. Press, Philadelphia. with Affiliated ofShore EasternofAccount the Meetings and Certain Delaware 1936. Co., Printing Press Science The PA: Lancaster, Notes: OfNotes: Events and Men Md. Baltimore, cal Society, Philadelphia.” SelfEighteenth-Century Gendered in the and of Failure The of Journal History American Baltimore: Meyer & Thalheimer, 1909. & Thalheimer, Meyer Baltimore: Century Americas “A History of“A Grove.” Spring Harry. Jacob Hollander, Health Department Collection. Department Health Historical Information ofSociety Equitable Baltimore the 4, Treasurers Historical Information Vol. ofSociety, Equitable Baltimore the Haggerty, Sheryllynne. Haggerty, B. Amherst Hall, Katherine A. Harvey, Gardner, Bettye. Gardner, Randolph. Jerome Garitee, W. Thomas Griffith, of Society Gunpowder Friends Dunlap, William C. William Dunlap, B. Joanne Freeman, Darlington, William. Darlington, I. Ditz, Toby M. Thomas Doerflinger, Coyle, Wilbur F., F., Wilbur Coyle, L.R. Mariana Dantas,
134 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 135 HANNAH JONES
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39, no. 3 3 no. 39, . Chicago: . Chicago: . Baltimore: Baltimore: . 12, no. 2 (1917): 2 (1917): 12, no. . Baltimore: Reese, 1819. Reese, Baltimore: . . Revised and Expanded Expanded and Revised . Nicholas B. Fessenden. B. Nicholas and “The Savings Bank of“The Savings Baltimore, Maryland Magazine Historical . (http://aomol.net/000001/000439/ . . Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Hopkins University The Johns Baltimore: . . Baltimore, Warner & Hanna, 1799. & Hanna, Warner Baltimore, . Maryland Magazine Historical
(RG9), Series 2 (Mayor’s Correspondence), Baltimore Baltimore Correspondence), 2 (Mayor’s Series (RG9), . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979. Press, University MA: Harvard Cambridge, . Observations of Epidemic on the 1819
Lance Edwin Davis. Lance In Pursuit of Profit: The Annapolis Merchants in the Era Era the in of Merchants Annapolis Pursuit The In Profit:
ed. “Civilian Defense in Baltimore, 1814-1815: Minutes of Minutes 1814-1815: Baltimore, in Defense “Civilian ed. The Transformation ofThe Transformation Slavery Fighting Abolitionism: American Bring Out Your Dead: The Dead: Plague Great of in Philadelphia Out Your Bring Fever Yellow
. Chapel Hill: The University of Hill: TheChapel University . 2002. Press, Carolina North
and The of Chronicles History Complete Being a Baltimore; of “Baltimore
September 11, 1777: Washington’s Defeat at Brandywine Dooms Dooms Brandywine at Defeat September 11, 1777: Washington’s History of in Maryland, Printing of Bibliography 1791-1800 with a
North ofNorth Slavery: The 1790-1860 Negro States, Free in the Scraping By: Wage Labor, Slavery, and Survival and Baltimore in Early Slavery, Labor, By: Wage Scraping
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. Shippensburg, PA: White Mane Books, 2002. Books, Mane White PA: Shippensburg, .
Baltimore DirectoryBaltimore 1799 for
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. Baltimore: Regional Regional Baltimore: . . Baltimore: Warner & & Warner Baltimore: . . Johns Hopkins University Hopkins University Johns . . Baltimore, MD: Nautical & & MD: Nautical Baltimore, . “A Sketch of Meet Sketch ‘Old Town’ “A . Oyster Bay, NY: Townsend Townsend NY: Bay, Oyster . “Report of“Report Committee the The Baltimore Town and Fell’s Point Point Fell’s and The Town Baltimore
. Eyewitness Accounts of American Accounts the Eyewitness . 74, Issue 3 (Fall 1979): 282-299. 1979): (Fall 3 Issue 74, The Baltimore Directory, 1803 The Directory, Baltimore
. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948. Press, of Carolina University North Hill: Chapel . The 1814 Baltimore for Battle
James L. Walker. James Diary of H. Townsend Richard
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Baltimore: William Warner, 1820. Warner, William Baltimore: and Meeting House and Counting House: The Counting House: and Meeting House of Quaker Merchants Colonial .
The of Battle Brandywine From Gentlemen to Townsmen: The Gentry of Gentlemen to Townsmen: From 1660- County, Baltimore History of 1 Part County, City and Baltimore Family book.” Moore/Tyson commonplace Townsend’s “Joseph
“Death and Class in Baltimore: The Yellow Fever Epidemic Epidemic Fever Yellow The Baltimore: in Class and “Death “Letter from Granville Sharp, Esq. of London, to the Maryland Maryland the of to Esq. London, Sharp, Granville from “Letter “The Lettersthe to Number Additional of Humanitas.” Maryland Magazine Historical . First Edition. Baltimore: Fechin & Co., 1796. Co., & Fechin Baltimore: Edition. First . . Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1993. of Press Kentucky, University KY: Lexington, . Society of2004. Society America, ofand Constitution of Company Union Manufacturing the Maryland.” 1808. & Frailey, Niles Baltimore: of Company Publishing Aviation 1997. America, Philadelphia, 1682-1763 Philadelphia, 1969. Times, York New York: New Revolution. Historical Friends Swarthmore Family), 2 (Townsend Series (RG5/206), Papers Pa. Swarthmore, College, Swarthmore Library, of 1800.” Hop Johns The Baltimore: 2. no. 14, Science Political and Historical in Studies 1973. Corporation, Reprint Johnson York: New Reprint 1896. Press, kins Directory Anniversary.” Baltimore: John W. Woods, 1881. Woods, W. John Baltimore: Anniversary.” 1803. Hanna, 1776 Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, and the Relief and the of Abolition the Promoting for Society of Slavery, Negroes Free 1793. Patton, and Yundt Baltimore: Bondage.” in Held Unlawfully Others, and 1801. Baltimore, of and Some Baltimore; ing House, Hundredth One in its as Read Occupants, its Publishing Company, 1971. Company, Publishing Fever or Yellow Townsend, Richard H. Richard Townsend, ofCompany Union Manufacturing Maryland. W.A. Joseph Whitehome, Townsend, Joseph. Townsend, Joseph. Townsend, Thomas, Thaddeus P. Thaddeus Thomas, William Thompson, B. Frederick Tolles, Stafford, Cornelius William. Cornelius Stafford, G. Charles Steffen, DouglasF. Stickle, Sharp, Granville. Sharp, Smith, James. ofSociety Meeting. Monthly Baltimore Friends, Scharf, J. Thomas. J. Scharf, ofA Series Epidemic Relating Other Documents and Late to the Letters
136 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 137 HANNAH JONES -
elite philanthropists. and hopes to continue her studies by pursuingby her studies and hopes to continue an Her project was funded by in history. a Ph.D. from the UMBC Award Undergraduate Research made was and Education, Undergraduate of Office Marjoleine support the invaluable by possible of Dr. also like Hannah would her faculty advisor. Kars, contributions the of the Baltimore to acknowledge which introduced InsuranceEquitable Company, her the opportu and gave Townsend her to Joseph fellow his of lives the and life his study first to nity Hannah Jones is a historyHannah minor a double major with early and medieval and in English modern studies. an Undergraduate and Fellow Research A President’s be graduating she will 2015 May in Scholar, Award AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR REANALYSIS OF MODERN COLLOQUIAL FRENCH SUBJECT CLITICS AS AGREEMENT FEATURES
RYAN KOTOWSKI I decided to undertake this paper for the comple- tion of the Honors Program in Modern Languag- es, Linguistics, & Intercultural Communication. My original vision for the paper was to do a purely syntactic analysis of the subject clitic in Modern Colloquial French dialects, analyzing their occur- rence in children’s speech. This approach proved to be unfeasible and I thence turned to historical linguistics for the framework to analyze French subject clitics, while not disregarding generative syntax altogether. Using historical linguistics to analyze the development of French subject clitics, a grammatical occurrence usually analyzed with- in the framework of generative syntax, revealed intriguing properties about the nature of language change and its implications for linguistic theo- ry. In analyzing a language-specific occurrence, I was able to make claims regarding the nature of language itself. Writing this paper made me realize how valuable it is to use the framework of multiple theories and how seemingly unrelated fields can be intertwined and applicable to a single analysis. Using this research approach, I was able to analyze the issue of subject clitics on level more complex than I would have using one theoretical framework. - - - or ifor in MCFr in MCFr pro-drop pro-drop esprit révolutionesprit clitic argument-bearing subjects argument-bearing . The transitory nature of. The transitory nature subject the The present investigation will go forth in this in this go forth will investigation Thepresent and will analyze French subject clitics as reanalyzed agreement as reanalyzed clitics subject French and will analyze of clitics since independent words and affixesbehave differently Clitics are words that are in a transitional stage and that are, as as are, and that stage in a transitional are that words are Clitics full word from leads that “in a process (2009: 85) states, Seuren (1977) Zwicky Similarly, affix.” ofmorphological status the to status reinterpreted will be stage one at as a clitic seen a word that states as a derivational or inflectional affix Fromthe at next. a syntactic point of such an view, occurrence causes difficulty in the analysis defined in a glossary at the end of paper. end the the at glossary a in defined ANALYSES OF SYNTACTIC OVERVIEW CLITICS analyzed. Then, the historical development of Then, development historical the analyzed. subject French the Then, ofparadigms clitic subject the analyzed. is clitic French Swiss is QbFr) (hereinafter French and Québecois SwFr) (hereinafter the of mechanism the to in regard analyzed Finally, reanalysis. theory linguistic and for has for change linguistic that implications of nature the terms Bolded discussed. are in general language will be naire prefixes. This does investigation not partake of any syntactic anal ofconclusions the examines but ysis, historical and syntactic both of nature the about more discover to means a as research linguistic is in syntax First, debate clitic subject the peculiarity. linguistic this MCFr subject clitics are true true are clitics subject MCFr analy Historical conjugation. to akin agreement features are they ofses best in fact, are, clitics subject MCFr suggest issue this that provide analyses historical Such as agreement features. analyzed of nature the about observations insightful often that language literature. syntactic in the claims made the challenge The verbal morphology Theverbal of (hereinafter Modern French Colloquial presented has that system verbal a divergent developed has MCFr) in determining ambiguities many of setting the its parameter of state a pivotal is at language the suggests that towards transition a new The grammar. field of syntax is divided onwhether or not INTRODUCTION
140 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 141 RYAN KOTOWSKI
- in the syntax. Kayne (1975 (1975 Kayne syntax. in the DPs in the StanFr discontinuous construction construction discontinuous StanFr in the ne , the , the The field of syntax has provided ratherexhaustive analyses finite verbs to to ANALYSIS OF NE ANALYSIS that grammar requires StanFr) (hereinafter French Standard adverb. and a post-verbal formed be negation a pre-verbal using both of sort this to refers Culbertson In regard as discontinuous. negation syntax. They furthermore argue that cliticisation occurs only at the the occurs furthermore only at cliticisation They syntax. that argue by claims affirms these (1981:275) Chomsky of level phonology. the independent is of cliticization that stating parameter pro-drop the subject MCFr that argues however, (2010), Culbertson altogether. of point a syntactic from and that agreement features are clitics view supported. can be argument this of in the representation and their clitics and object subject MCFr whether is address analyses these Thesyntax. that main question full clitics are subject MCFr or not are clitics subject French that and 1991) and Rizzi (1986) argue the in position canonical subject the and occupy argument-bearing for regular verbal paradigms. This analysis allows the claim that that claim the This analysis allows paradigms. verbal regular for of occurrence the clitics subject however, is non pro-drop; MCFr a full analysis of after will see We argument. using this complicates morphology verbal rich the that argument clitics, subject MCFr of claim the further to used in Rizzi, 1986) will be (as presented this investigation. present OVERVIEW OF THE SUBJECT CLITIC DEBATE IN SYNTAX IN SUBJECT CLITIC DEBATE THE OF OVERVIEW its to due language a non pro-drop considered has been MCFr lack of system conjugation The standard morphology. verbal rich of MCFr distinguishes only the conjugations, first leaving and the second first person and plural person homophonous plural conjugations singular and third the second person singular and evident. If one analyzes a language synchronically, then clitics pose pose clitics then Ifevident. synchronically, a language analyzes one of because a major problem Accepting the transitory their nature. appear the analyze of claims must one above and Zwicky, Seuren of ance diachronically. in a language clitics in the syntax. Transformations involving independent words only only independent words involving Transformations syntax. in the morphology whereas syntax in the movement, upwards involve involves downwards movement as in the case with affix hopping. of issue the Here, analysis becomes and diachronic synchronic - is used used is ne -retention -retention ne has limited has limited ne in StanFr, De Cat De Cat in StanFr, appears after the verb. appearsverb. the after
pas -retention in child-directed in child-directed -retention
ne is a feature of is a feature MCFr. ne wh-questions
is still obligatory in some instances in in instances in some obligatory is still
ne ; instead only ; instead ne , a claim supported by Rizzi. The this with fault by supported , a claim , follows the verb. Using this model, one can claim can claim one model, this Using verb. the , follows IP pas intervenes between the subject clitic and its host verb, verb, host clitic and its subject the between intervenes ne Mange-t-il le gâteau? le Mange-t-il cake the he Eat-3SG cake?” “Does he eat “Nobody eats cake.” eats “Nobody Personne ne mange le gâteau. le ne mange Personne cake the eat-3SG NEG Nobody is a required particle of particle is a required grammar forming when StanFr Ne (2) (1) is sensitive to the presence of presence the to is sensitive argues Culbertson clitic. a subject not but verb, the and subject a DP between intervene freely may no syntactic movement. Kayne (1975) argues that inversion with with inversion that (1975) argues Kayne movement. syntactic no The traditional syntactic explanation for this occurrence is that the the is that occurrence this for The explanation syntactic traditional undergoing clitic subject the with syntax in the upward moves verb SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION SUBJECT-VERB and yes/no from Using evidence of inversion claims that An is possible. and verb clitic subject the ofexample in (2). is given a construction such rate is 7%. Culbertson argues that these data support the claim that claim that the support data these that argues is 7%. Culbertson rate ne ifthat can claim that one then agreement markers, are clitics subject ne verb. and the clitic a subject between Culbertson analyses the instances of instances the analyses Culbertson of dialect Lyon the in speech that show These data French. in 83.3% of utterances that include a DP subject. When a subject the subject) a DP or without with (either is present clitic De Cat (2007) argues that that (2007) argues De Cat of as a marker regulat is syntactically MCFr which scope, negative of in (1) is an example Theed. given sentence an instance. such the the specifier of particle the assumesanalysis is that of In colloquial dialects negation. however, French, of in colloquial dialects The found construction common most uses. include not does French always follows the subject clitic or DP subject. The second negative The subject. DP or clitic subject the negative second follows always usually adverb, because that syntax: the in position higher some occupy must clitic subject the
142 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 143 RYAN KOTOWSKI
- - . This is syntax in the occurrence
VPs
Jean?
Que mange mange Que Jean eat-3SG What eat?” does Jean “What mange-t-il? *Que he eats-3SG What Using data from the Lyon dialect, Culbertson (2010) shows that that (2010) shows Culbertson dialect, Lyon the from Using data (4) (3) be repeated in conjoined in conjoined repeated be of An example such gappingcalled and is grammatical in StanFr. in (5). is given a sentence CONJOINED VPS CONJOINED Theof analyses not need clitics subject that and Rizzi state Kayne grammatical in Colloquial French, whereas (4) would not. would (4) whereas French, Colloquial in grammatical the inversion for DP subjects in yes/no questions, the trend mirrors trend the questions, yes/no in subjects DP for inversion the in wh-ques subjects DP for rate inversion the regarding results the fully available be to seems subjects DP involving Inversion tions. speakers the offor data the mirror data and these dialect Lyon the found in the retention rate of ne. Therefore a sentence such as (3), deemed be would subject, and a DP a wh-question involves which when a DP subject is present. In regard to the Québecois dialect, Québecois the to In regard is present. subject a DP when as presented in Auger (1994), subject-clitic inversion appears only wh-questions for rate The inversion person second the with singular. 0.9% for and accounts low, is similarly present clitic a subject when inversion the is present, subject a DP when of However, utterances. in increase smaller the Despite 88.5%. to significantly increases rate similarly claims that French has no surface pronouns due to their their to due pronouns has no surface French claims that similarly subject that maintain (1989) however and Roberts Rizzi nature. clitic position. in subject housed DPs are clitics inversion the questions, yes/no to In regard is rare. inversion clitic rate is only 0.1% when only subject clitics appear and only 2.4% subject clitics is possible, but syntactically distinct from the inversion inversion the from distinct syntactically but is possible, clitics subject concludes Kayne difference, this to Due DPs. subject with occurring of sort a gener are are clitics subject that affix nominal French that (1981:28) Chomsky deleted. becomes that full subject a with ated - -
le thé. le boit boit et il et le gâteau gâteau le le gâteau et boit le thé. le boit et gâteau le He eat-3SG the cake and he drink-3SG the tea the drink-3SG he and cake the eat-3SG He drinks cake and tea.” “He eats Il mange Il mange Il mange Il mange tea the drink-3SG and cake the eat-3SG He cake and drinks tea.” “He eats (6) (5) appearance ofappearance left-dis the to due clitic is a subject and DP a subject be must it In accepting hypothesis, this oflocation DP. subject the and not subjects bearing argument are clitics subject that taken of example an (7) is in The given sentence agreementfeatures. a subject. a doubled with sentence SUBJECT DOUBLING The of occurrence serves clitic a subject along with DP a subject clitics subject French claim that the for evidence as compelling the that claims Rizzi subjects. argument-bearing from distinct are “Le “Le clitique de 3sg se comporte différemment des clitiques de 1sg person (The behaves clitic third à la coordination rapport 2sg par et differently than the first secondand of use the for paradigms Hofherr proposes coordination).” person in clitics cliticsin to regard gapping of for allow may a language in which phrases, conjoined others. for allow not but VPs, in conjoined pronouns certain This also holds true for the Québecois dialect in which the subject subject the which in dialect Québecois the Thisfor true holds also clitic must be present in conjoined VPs (Auger 1994). This obser vation seem to contradict the claims of Hofherr (2004) who states, corpus gapping in conjoined that (2010) demonstrate in Culbertson behave clitics subject and that dialect in that available is not VPs in each present overtly be must they in that clitics object to similarly in (6). given sentence in the demonstrated as VP Culbertson states that if that states Culbertson a pose would it true, analysis were this again evidence empirical to Turning claim. her to hindrance serious of claims the discredits Culbertson dialect, Lyon the from Kayne conjoined for rate 100% repetition a near show and Rizzi. The data VPs. The percentage for first person and second personrepetition Lyon the person from is 96.5%. The third data is 99.2% and for
144 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 145 RYAN KOTOWSKI
- - -
the cake the le gâteau. le
mange mange eat-3SG eat-3SG
Jean il il Jean he Jean cake.” eats “Jean In addition to the prosodic signature and grammaticali signature prosodic the to In addition In an experiment conducted to determine the prosodic nature determine to conducted In an experiment nature prosodic the (7) (2010:119) states that “the vast majority of verbfinitetokens occur learners encourage these must clitic subject a with along treat to morphological as elements of markers agreement.” agreemetn features. In an analysis ofagreemetn features. dialect, Lyon the from data only one was there that (2002) found and Waugh Fonesca-Greber ofoccurrence 589 occur in clitic a subject without pronoun a strong ofrences Culbertson, to according This suggests, pronoun. a strong In regard pronouns. strong with obligatory is doubling subject that acquisition of the to Culbertson speech, in child doubling subject and full subject DPs would prevent their co-occurrence in broad- co-occurrence their prevent would DPs and full subject contexts. focus of occurrence the also discusses Culbertson tests, judgment ty strong pronouns with subject clitics and gives evidence from first are clitics MCFr that claim her support to acquisition language narrowly narrowly focused subjects and when the subject is indefinite. This However, respectively. and Rizzi, Cat De with in line are observation contexts. broad-focus in acceptable be to found was doubling subject with utterances contexts, in broad-focus that states Culbertson DPs. and not IPs simple considered should be subject a doubled If them between competition arguments, true were clitics subject claim made in Rizzi were indeed true, the prosodic signature would would signature prosodic the true, indeed in Rizzi were claim made The conclusion of objects. left-dislocated with a resemblance bear the is that a grammaticality Cat De after modeled test judgment ofoccurrence to is sensitive in Colloquial French subject doubled The grammaticality factors. certain by conducted test judgment in was acceptable less doubling subject that showed Culbertson Using experimental evidence from Colloquial French, Culbert Colloquial French, from evidence Using experimental of claims the dispute that data son presents on literature previous in French. subjects doubled of the that found Culbertson subjects, doubled with utterances of is similar to that signature prosodic If subjects. non-doubled the
- - r
F id TO M r F ld vindrent à Cademelée vindrent i ils r F ld par mer tant que que tant mer par i by sea until they came to Cademelée came to they sea until by pro pro in Old French (hereinafter OldFr) manifested manifested OldFr) (hereinafter in Old French corurent corurent
Einsi run-3PL Thus Cademelée.” to came they sea until ran by “Thus they (8) break down. Einhorn (1974) states that the first stage of stage first the erosion that this states Einhorn(1974) down. break One factor that licensed the use of use the licensed that factor One verbal rich is the subjects null ofeach for distinct were OldFr. in persons which six the inflections, morphology in Rizzi verbal This rich is the developed principle thirteenth the Between is non pro-drop. claim MCFr to is used which to began person each for inflections distinct centuries, sixteenth and from from Adams, 1987: 44-45), demonstrates the occurrence of clause. in a subordinate absence and its a main clause in subjects null Null subjects languages, Romance other in found those from differently themselves in subordinate not but in main clauses, occurring predominantly of point a pragmatic from peculiar This is rather occurrence clauses. its when a subject represent unnecessary seems as it overtly to view, in (8) (taken given The example represented. is covertly antecedent to MCFr. to O DEVELOPMENT FROM HISTORICAL V2 IN O AND NULL SUBJECTS borne in the mind that the present investigation is one of is one borne investigation present the mind that in the histori development the look at a diachronic and therefore cal analysis, of history in the subject the of is neces language French the are section above in the discussed analyses syntactic as the sary, based analyses syntactic the that will see We analyses. synchronic than MidFr) (hereinafter French Middle to apply more on StanFr investigation, I will accept the conclusions made by Culbertson Culbertson I will accept by made conclusions the investigation, fact on the based agreement features, are clitics subject French that ofdialects colloquial analyzes she that academic As an French. represent truly not does French Standard and literary language, governed are that colloquial language in the produced utterances of rules the by be must It grammar mental convention. than rather INTERIM SUMMARY INTERIM of nature the far examined thus I have problematic and their clitics of rest the For analysis. syntactic to in regard present this nature
146 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 147 RYAN KOTOWSKI
- - - ‘have’. ‘have’. at ‘Mass and the the and ‘Mass
gesehen. heard escolét. Messe e matines Messe reis reis the king the have have at li at ‘today’ has been permitted to rise above permitted has been ‘today’ above rise to Heute matines matines matins matins ‘have’. Similarly in (10), Similarly ‘have’. habe Heute habe ich den Mann ich habe Heute Messe e Mass and mass matins.” “Theand the King heard Today have-1SG I the-ACC man seen I the-ACC have-1SG Today man.” seen the I have “Today OldFr OldFr again differedfrom the restof Romance its breth (9) (10) allowed for other constituents of constituents other for allowed before appear to sentence the verb. the and subordinate clauses; however, the Germanic the for allows sort however, clauses; and subordinate If clauses. only in main inversion in OldFr subjects pronominal the satisfy to able be not would they then MidFr, in as cliticized, had their to bound phonetically are clitics because V2 requirement the had maintained in OldFr pronoun subject the Because verb. host it full independence verb, the bound to phonetically and was not As can be seen in (9), seen As can be verb the auxiliary the verb above rise to allowed been have matins’ main clauses in both inversion free for allow languages The Romance “verb-second”), a property in which any constituent of constituent any in which a property “verb-second”), a sentence may raise above the finiteverb, thereby placing it intothe second exam The (10) give in (9) and sentences sentence. in the position Adams, from (taken ofples respectively V2 in German and OldFr, 1987:101-102). of all verbal inflection in MidFr. The loss of pro-drop occured simul occured of loss pro-drop The MidFr. in inflection ofverbal all a that argues of Adams inflection. leveling verbal the with taneously cause to suffice not does alone ofagreement morphologicalloss rich non pro-drop. become to MidFr as V2, to (referred Germanic used it that fact in the ren inversion of inflection occurred with the loss of the final consonant of the third third the consonant of final ofthe loss the with occurred ofinflection person singular suffix. This suffix presentwas in earlythe twelfth of end the The by had disappeared centuryand century. twelfth ofcontinued erosion ledinflectioneventually verbal to the leveling
- SVO r F id It must be borne in mind that these changes had not occurred at borne at be occurred had not changes these must It in mind that and for a certain developmental period for MCFr as well. Taking the the Taking as well. MCFr for period developmental a certain and for morphology was clitic subject the Because was lost. and V2 lost, was V2 requires V2, since license to ability the lost it verb, the bound to Theraised. be to loss ofable be must constituent any that verbal in expressed morphology overtly be to subject the caused thereby independent is still subject the The in that assumption all instances. phonology in the and is only a clitic syntax the MidFr for holds true one can assume that in these cases MidFr licensed V2. Only in the V2. Only in the licensed MidFr cases in these that can assume one of states later V2. license to cease language did the MidFr INTERIM SUMMARY verbal rich had fully cliticized, subject the in time point At some period of indecision where, despite the move towards non pro-drop, ofperiod non pro-drop, towards move the despite where, indecision during 1997). Null subjects of use the (Vance, was optional pronoun of stages early the circumstances. in only limited used were MidFr (main) matrix include Vance, by described These circumstances,as embedded and non-conjunctional and in conjunctional clauses of By nature clauses. clauses, in matrix appearing subjects null the to the verb, it could no longer satisfy the requirements of requirements the satisfy could no longer it verb, the to V2 as it to clitic the causing rise, to constituents other the license could not separate from the As verb. a result, developed a MidFr fixed clauses. main and subordinate in both order was a MidFr generations. many over rather but in time, moment one pitch and final stress. As a result of this, the possibility of out possibility singling the ofresult this, a As stress. final and pitch of This weakening the caused was eliminated. alone stress by words the subject pronoun and, as argued Adams, was by one of the first of cliticization the steps towards The cliticiza pronoun. subject the Germanic the on effect an had therefore pronoun of subject tion the bound phonetically became subject the Because ofinversion OldFr. system. It is the development of development is the It system. the was that system prosodic a new of cliticization the for catalyst system The stress pronoun. subject the of of included it that that in from differed MCFr and OldFr MidFr the of By way stress. and initial stress end (namely, erosion phonetic evolved eventually of system stress mixed the schwa), offinal loss the rising by is marked which in MCFr, present system oxytonic into the DEVELOPMENT TOWARDS M TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT loss of the by OldFr to in contrast is marked verbal its MidFr loss of the morphology, of development V2, and the prosodic a new
148 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 149 RYAN KOTOWSKI - - -
) r F w Statistical analysis from a corpus analysis from ofStatistical informants shows SwFr Theanalysis of claims the discredit to served has Culbertson clitics. However, clitics. for However, the 3SG and 3PL there are many instances morphologized. We will brieflyexamine the conclusions made by of each about Fonesca-Greber corresponding clitics’ subject the allomorphs corresponding their or agreement and whether markers, morphologization. complete undergone have they not subject and 2PL 1PL, 2SG, morphologizationcomplete 1SG, for discussed as morphologicaldiscussed is It agreement as “agreement markers.” true the become have pronouns disjunctive the that argued further the by of left personalpronouns void the filling thereby dialect, this a paradigm proposes Fonesca-Greber morphologized clitics. subject of allomorphs) corresponding (and their agreement markers for fully become not have clitics subject certain that maintains but SwFr, CLITIC AS AN AGREEMENT MARKER SWISS FRENCH (S FROM DATA of a system has created SwFr that (2000) argues Fonesca-Greber morphological agreement of out formerly indepen were what when clitics subject to refer shall I Hereinafter, clitics. subject dent our diachronic and synchronic view of view and synchronic In our diachronic language. French the of mechanisms the apply will we this doing this explain to reanalysis of dialects two in these change French. THE FRENCH SUBJECT OF REANALYSIS is in a state ofis in a state clit subject argument-bearing having from transition pro-drop. license that agreement features pre-verbal having ics to French the analyzing how by historically ourselves oriented Having French that showing and by diachronically has developed language of capable as syntactically analyzed can be agree pre-verbal having of set our next take now can we markers, ment complete to data of the previous syntax-focused literature which state that French of French that state which literature syntax-focused previous the This bearers. as argument status their maintain still clitics subject of way by done was that demonstrated that evidence empirical colloquial dialects grammatical in the certain forms present not were of dialects Québecois Swiss and the of to Turning French French. language French the that notion the support that data see shall we notion that linguistic change does not occur at a point in time, but but in time, a point at occur not does change linguistic that notion of a period across a is in rather MCFr assumed that be must it time, ofperiod transition. - - - - z] « ] [ « n] ̃ ɔ lz] [ ̃] [ ̃] « ɔ l] [ « ‹ils› [i] [il] PLURAL ‹on› [ ‹elles› [ ‹vous› [vu] [vuz] [v] [vz] [vu] [vuz] [v] ‹vous› . IPA l] ̃n] « ] [�] ] ɔ ʒ ] [ ̃] [ ̃] « ] [ ɔ ʒɘ ‹tu› [t] ‹il› [i] [il] ‹ça› [sa] [s] ‹on› [ SINGULAR ‹elle› [ ‹je› [ ‹qui› [ki] [kj] [k] [ski] , however, demonstrate more complex allophones. allophones. complex more demonstrate , however, elles SUBJECT CLITIC ALLOMORPHS. CLITIC SUBJECT r F , and w S
Fonesca-Greber reports a 100% occurrence rate for the agree the for rate occurrence a 100% reports Fonesca-Greber vous , 3rd person neuter 3rd ‘qui’ Inflectional ‘on’ Indefinite 1st person 2nd person person masculine 3rd person feminine 3rd and is often replaced with the 3PL-MASC in many instances. many in 3PL-MASC the with replaced often is and zation because of the redundancy produced by having a definite NP definite a having ofby because produced zation redundancy the occur does feature agreement 3SG the However, clitic. subject a and in the corpusrobustly of with data indefiniteThis NPs. observation conditions the to regard of in findings Culbertson the to corresponds that also notes Fonesca-Greber can appear. subjects doubled in which form the 3PL-FEM is becoming the marked for agreement markers ment markers for 1SG, 1PL, 2SG, and 2PL, thereby indicating that that indicating thereby and 2PL, 2SG, 1PL, 1SG, for markers ment morphologized fully agreement into features. have clitics subject these environ to the 3SG and 3PL subject clitics seem to be in a transitory restricted However, be to appears feature agreement this 3SG that The states period. Fonesca-Greber NP. definite a include not do that ments morphologi undergo to last the logically be most would environment forms that are phonologically regulated. Most of Most forms phonologically regulated. are that forms reduced the The agreement markers a vowel. with begin that verbs occur before qui The of notion of high rate this during important will be allomorphy our discussion of reanalysis. For each of each full and reduced exist there agreement markers, For above the determined had fully cliticized. clitic subject a certain or not whether in given will be transcriptions All phonetic 1. TABLE where the subject clitic still has not completely morphologized. completely has not still clitic subject the where morphologized the 1 summarizes form ofTable and clitics subject (2000) propos allomorphs corresponding their Fonesca-Greber that informants the which agreement these used markers at The rate es.
150 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 151 RYAN KOTOWSKI - On Vous Ils [i], [j] Ils [i], PLURAL ) r F b Je Tu Ça On/Tu Il [i], [j] Il [i], Elle [a], [al] Elle [a], SINGULAR SUBJECT CLITICS. SUBJECT r F b Q
3rd person feminine person 3rd Impersonal neuter person 3rd 1st person 2nd person masculine person 3rd markers. Auger does, however, discuss the variation in the pronunci the in variation the discuss however, does, Auger markers. the illustrates 2 Table markers. agreement 3PL and of3SG ation the The variations phonetic in Auger. agreement paradigm as proposed below. indicated are markers agreement 3PL and of 3SG the 2. TABLE become fully morphologizedfully become morphologization the with that and of of structure the clitics, subject the the similar to will become QbFr of structures This notion, languages. American agglutinating Native in the written in literature stated previously has been interestingly, not does Auger Fonesca-Greber, Unlike century. twentieth early allomorphs corresponding present ofparadigm her for agreement Auger states that syntactic analyses cannot explain morphology explain cannot analyses syntactic that states Auger syntax are the within elements theory the because assumes that via syntactic moved or are position in their base-generated either of assume either not does Auger transformations. positions, these all handles syntax, not morphology, that position the taking instead have QbFr in clitics object that states Auger language. a in inflection DATA FROM QUÉBECOIS FRENCH (Q FRENCH QUÉBECOIS FROM DATA morphological a strictly QbFr from analysis, that argues Auger as morphological analyzed can be clitics subject agreement markers.
- on . The je suis in the 1SG is is 1SG in the être r F b becomes fully integratedfully becomes je ‘to follow’ which is which follow’ ‘to AND AND Q r F w suivre ) and a move towards a paradigm of towards ) and a move fully ‘to be’, most especially for the 1SG form. 1SG the for especially most be’, ‘to elles être . Having analyzed data from two dialects of dialects two from data analyzed . Having French, être in both dialects is always taken to mean ‘I follow’ and can and can ‘I follow’ mean to taken is always dialects in both . je suis Both ofBoth of in a period are dialects these which transition, être thereby causing a change in the mental grammar mental in the causing a change of thereby Over a speaker. subject clitics. subject OF REANALYSIS THE NATURE ofThe mechanism change linguistic for is a driving force reanalysis of assignment the causes as it to another, a grammatical feature morphologized subject clitics. Both dialects show the development development the show dialects Both morphologizedclitics. subject of agreement forms verbal irregular pre-verbal new based on this conjugations tense present the with seen can be as system, feature verb the for will we which by mechanism the turn can now we reanalysis, to of phenomenon the explain to attempt morphologization the of the form forms 1SG aforementioned the to phonologically reduced be never of of seen be simplification can a (as includes system pronominal their of nature marked the with for the present tense of tense present the for agreement the marker dialects, In both into the verb creating the forms [ʃɥi] for and SwFr [ʃy] for QbFr. a morphological be a and not must this change that argues Auger of conjugation the In StanFr, phonological change. of that homophonous to verb the where the tonic pronoun co-occurs with the subject clitic, thereby co-occurs thereby clitic, subject with the tonic pronoun the where of piece an important providing morphologization the for evidence of of reassignment 2) the clitics, subject the impersonal the clitic clitics’ subject person third the 3) plural, person third the indicate to of development conso and vowels allomorphic before variations formsof idiosyncratic development the 4) and dialects, both in nants system ofsystem has or has clitic subject each how and demonstrated SwFr French analyzed morphologization. complete undergone not Auger morphological a solely clitics from subject of point claiming view, Four morphology. by syntax, but by not handled is best issue the that 1) The analyses: two these from drawn can be parallels important ofdevelopment use of the as personal pronouns pronouns tonic the GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT ABOUT GENERALIZATIONS S purposes. different have Auger and of analyses Fonesca-Greber The an analysis of provided agreement the marker Fonesca-Greber
152 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 153 RYAN KOTOWSKI - - ex and linguistic and linguistic Universal Universal Grammar De Smet expands on the simplifiedtwo-step version analysis The actual process ofThe process actual stages two to reduced can be reanalysis to be illogical. Considering the nature of nature the Considering illogical. be to Grammar, Universal categorical incursion requires an ambiguity to be present. However, However, present. be to ambiguity an incursion requires categorical discussed above, claiming that the mechanism of mechanism the that claiming above, discussed can be reanalysis divided into three fundamental mechanisms. The first ofthese is The promi as analogy. is also known incursion, which categorical of characteristic nent which nature, leap-like is its mechanism this reanalysis, Like in general. reanalysis to is commonly attributed De Smet (2009) states that in order for an ambiguity to arise it must must it arise to an ambiguity for in order that (2009) states De Smet representations syntactic many have must children that assumed be If faculty. language innate in their interpretation this is held available interpretation is and a ‘future’ an existing “ambiguity between then, logically possible and affords a powerful mechanismfor explaining 1730). 2009: Smet (De innovations” syntactic change has occurred and the language is now distinct from an earlier an earlier from distinct is now language and the has occurred change form. If of occurrence is the reanalysis linguistic for catalyst the a the for catalyst the consider must one then grammatical ambiguity, ofoccurrence (2009) considers Smet De creation the ambiguity. the of grammatical a new form) syntactic a new analysis (especially nihilo by any speaker of speaker any by new the steps, two these Between language. the grammar mental grammar mental old and (G2) plau become (G1) grammar mental in the adopted become may which analyses, sible of new speakers (Adams 1987). G2 Eventually, will spread at the ofexpense of prevalence causing the thereby G1, mental a new grammar linguistic point, this At 1987). (Adams language the in within one language that do not hinder comprehension between between comprehension hinder do not that language one within development. This in a language’s point speakers. is a crucial of reanalysis 2009): 1) the Smet, De by (as discussed an ambiguous of actualization and 2) the category a new to grammatical feature licensed be may no longer it grammatical new this that so category as the interaction between between interaction as the an be must there input, linguistic new with confronted input. When of generation a new for allows which present ambiguity speakers by unnoticed remaining whilst it, analysis to robust a new assign to of generation older the speakers (Adams 1987). This a most causes ofpresence the occurrence: peculiar grammarsmental multiple time, this change in the mental grammar mental in the change this oftime, by is adopted a speaker of aspects other to speakers spreads and more grammar. a language’s This in turn of creation the to leads to and eventually dialects new basic its most form at understood can be Reanalysis new languages. - - - - r F b AND Q r F w pronoun. Let us recall the morphological erosion that occurred occurred morphological the that us recall Let erosion pronoun. If paradigms for verbal the consider we century OldFr. in twelfth MidFr given in 3 Table and for SwFr and QbFr given in 4, Table ofevolution the see can we post-verbal rich less an increasingly morphological paradigm. GRAMMATICAL AMBIGUITY IN S AMBIGUITY IN GRAMMATICAL Using the two-step approach to historical reanalysis, we must first and SwFr for linguistic data in the present ambiguities any identify a loss of show dialects Both morphology post-verbal QbFr. causing a ofleveling form. vous 2PL the This for process save all conjugations, of of cliticization any before well had begun leveling subject the as agreement features. This is the traditional two-step approach to to This approach two-step traditional is the as agreement features. Smet De proposed mechanisms will use the Then, we reanalysis. morphologization the analysis for an alternative of provide to the clitics. subject parent construction. Despite this deconstruction of deconstruction this Despite construction. parent into reanalysis as a driv viewed can be reanalysis mechanisms, fundamental more ofer remaining whilst circumstances in certain change linguistic 2009: Smet (De mechanisms epiphenomenal three other the to in ambiguities the will analyze we section, following 1752). In the reanalyzed be to clitics subject the cause would that and QbFr SwFr nal change is valid both diachronically and synchronically due to to due and synchronically diachronically both is valid nal change third The of boundaries. nature categorical flexible and abstract the to construction a causes This mechanism automation. is mechanism of By way construction. parent its graduallybecome from isolated repeated use, this more specific construction becomes increasingly abstract more the to access cognitive less independent requiring must must be superficiallysimilar. The second mechanism to a construction causes This mechanism category-internal change. gradual is to interpretation semantic a new reassigned being without undergo boundaries of the Instead, category. are a new category an existing present been had not interpretationa new include to that expanded of stage an earlier at of The mechanism a language. category-inter in categorical incursion interpretation new the in categorical of is ambiguity the of Because exists. already that a construction to assigned analog the of ical nature incursion, ambiguous construc the both categorical is reassigned it grammatical and the tion which to construction
154 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 155 RYAN KOTOWSKI - ] ̃ ɔ n] n] n] n ne] ne] ˈ ̃ ˈ ˈ ̃ ̃ ɔ ɔ ɔ ɔ ɔ ɔ [s [s [s [s [s [s PLURAL PLURAL n] n] n] n] n] n] ɔ ɔ ɔ ɔ ɔ ɔ [s [s [s [s [s [s SINGULAR SINGULAR CONJUGATION PARADIGM FOR SONNER. FOR PARADIGM CONJUGATION r F b CONJUGATION PARADIGM FOR SONNER. FOR PARADIGM CONJUGATION AND Q AND r r F F id w S M Let us consider the implications if implications the us consider Let and the GA2 is adopted 1st person 2nd person person 3rd 2nd person person 3rd 1st person clitics are reanalyzed as agreement features, this leads to the creation creation the to this leads as agreement features, reanalyzed are clitics be non pro-drop and the subject clitics remain argument-bearing argument-bearing remain clitics subject the and pro-drop non be Ifsubjects. of generation a new by GA1 is adopted then speakers, mental the grammar mental new their from is indistinguishable grammar of speakers. older the If subject of speakers. the grammars new mental the on has it effects He states that if that states He will subse it change, a certain undergoes a language if that example the gives He a property. some other develop quently an develop subsequently will it order word VO a develops language If well. as order AuxV speakers change linguistic then GA1, adopt of furtherance the from apart occurred truly has not erosion the to continue to of MCFr GA1 allows morphology. post-verbal the option would be to fill the linguistic gap left by the loss of loss post-verbal the by left gap linguistic the fill to be would option ofmorphology role the clitic subject assigning the by agreement grammatical us cause this Let are analysis GA2. There feature. major differences in the implications that adoption the of notion this (1979) discusses Lightfoot GA1 or GA2 has. and cause either of of adoption the to regard with effect feature. certain grammatical a Theloss of morphology post-verbal this speakers the with presents of challenge grammaticala clitics subject the assigning analysis. The first to be would analysis grammatical ambiguity. the lies Here bearing as argument clitics subject the analyze to simply continue be to continue to language the cause thereby This would subjects. us call this grammatical Let analysis GA1. The second non pro-drop. TABLE 4. 4. TABLE TABLE 3. 3. TABLE
- - or Jean between the subject clitic clitic subject the between ne ‘it rings’ as affix+verbal root, root, affix+verbal as rings’ ‘it il sonne ‘your father’ appear with the subject clitic; the disjunctive disjunctive the clitic; subject the with appear father’ ‘your by De Smet. De by the French subject clitics to a new grammatical function. We have have grammatical a new to clitics subject We function. French the the reanalysed speakers of that claimed further have and QbFr SwFr evidence the on based and that as agreement clitics subject features analysis of syntactic in the given analysis this that Culbertson, analysis the will now We in MCFr. occurrences the explains best proposed mechanisms three the using French in issue clitic subject argument-bearing subject. argument-bearing REANALYSIS BEYOND of implications the discussed have can that analyses two the We of ambiguity the with faced speakers are when made be assigning ton père This claim the parallels clitics. subject the with also appear pronouns become have pronouns disjunctive that Fonesca-Greber by made the true personal subject pronouns of This is SwFr. another effect of adoption the by caused If GA2. reanalyzed are clitics, subject the of category the gap a linguistic as morphology for open leaves it ical occurrences: 1) the intervention of intervention 1) the ical occurrences: of occurrence the 3) and VPs; conjoined in gapping 2) verb; the and of each dismisses Culbertson inversion. subject-verb claims by these of colloquial dialects from counter-examples The providing French. most important of the findings of Culbertson isthat ofthe occur rence of Not only do definite DPs subject such as doubling. clitics, the mental grammars mental the clitics, of a speakers of have and QbFr SwFr how ponder might of One setting positive parameter. pro-drop the of adoption the that certainty said with be can it in fact, has, GA2 conclusions mind the to call us Let grammar. mental the in occurred argued literature syntactic (2010). The in Culbertson made previous of because pro-drop be not could MCFr that main grammat three of as agreement features, reanalyzed been clitics have subject the morphology verbal rich to reintroduced has and QbFr SwFr then the conjugate dialects two these grammars. their that said be can It rich Rizzi, by As proposed end. the than rather beginning the at verb morphologyverbal of main feature is the allows which a language, of result As a licensed. be to pro-drop of reanalysis the subject the of GA2, adopting In grammar. mental in the entity single a verbal as such a verb analyses speaker a linguistic true can see we Here a single constituting word. thereby If onan the effect mental grammar. have each must which change,
156 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 157 RYAN KOTOWSKI
------Grammatical incursion concernsGrammatical of assignment the a gram The mechanism ofThe mechanism devel the illustrate fails to automation had previously existed were not lost and categories that had not had not that and categories lost not were existed had previously was an active feature. In SwFr and QbFr, what were previously argu previously were what QbFr, and SwFr In feature. active an was morphol as verbal reanalyzed were pronouns subject ment-bearing the causing the thereby need for the gap to be filled.ogy, Similarly, reanalysis of the subject clitics causes a gap, which must be filled a by new set of This subject pronouns. gap has been bywhat filled that categories see, can one As pronouns. formerly disjunctive were matical construction to another already present in the mental gram mental in the present already another to construction matical gaps. linguistic various the discussed we section, previous In the mar. Thefirstof oferosion the by left one the is linguistic gaps these the morphologypost-verbal of grammar mental In the verb. MidFr the of of state morphology previous the verbal language, French the dialects of SwFr and QbFr, the language has returned language the of use the to ofdialects and QbFr, SwFr assign had done: clitics subject the do what to agreement features verb the considered not have we However, person and number. notion important this revisit will We present. the besides in tenses of in the and agreement subjects features between similarity the section. next features to assign person, tense, and number. The development The development number. and assign person, to tense, features of of use the French in the is seen grammatical features two these assign to on agreement solely features relied OldFr language. agreement the features In MidFr, and number. person, tense, redundantly albeit also was assigned, Number only tense. assigned in the especially In MCFr, nature. non pro-drop languages the due addition to tense. Instead of Instead tense. addition to form, parent the the from alienation inherit functions the expanded morphologized have clitics subject ed from their parent construction. In fact, the difference between minute. is rather and agreement subject bearing feature argument seems and it verb the to meaning assign referential to serve Both and agreement pronouns subject both to use can evolve languages the subject clitics in the mental grammars mental in the clitics subject the of speakers older is that of rich feature not did MidFr Because subject. argument-bearing of use the necessitated agreement, therefore it verbal subject the of person the and number so that In analyzed. could be verb the grammar mental the of newly the use to GA2, speakers continue in morphologized person and number, represent to clitics subject opment ofopment The of main function clitics. subject French the this grammatical new the construc disassociate to serves mechanism The construction. grammatical parent its offunction from tion - - - -
development development of linguistic change; and 3) account for the most Lightfoot (1979) states that because language change is a manifes change language because that (1979) states Lightfoot oftation a theory create to used can be it grammatical change, of a theory accommodate should such that states He language. is permissible what between distinction 1) provide following: the simultaneous grammar; mental the and impermissible 2) relate by historical the relate can grammara which provide and change IMPLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL OF HISTORICAL IMPLICATIONS THEORY LINGUISTIC ON ANALYSIS GENERAL IMPLICATIONS virtue ofvirtue morphol verbal rich constituting agreement these features using the issue clitic subject French analyzing the to In addition ogy. in it also analyzed have we reanalysis, to approach two-step traditional of mechanism the to regard Smet. De by proposed change linguistic shared properties interesting observe us to This analysis allows further and agreement features. pronouns subject by Using data from Fonesca-Greber and Auger, we have claimed that that claimed have we and Auger, Fonesca-Greber from Using data of way by agreement become features have clitics subject French Ifreanalysis. speakers accepts one of claim that the dialects two these syntactic supports the further GA2, it called I have accepted what have claim that us to also allows It Culbertson. by observed occurrences by languages of dialects two these pro-drop become have French matical subject and the category of category and the subject matical to expanded agreement feature the regarding ambiguity the can see again we Here it. accommodate ofdistinction and agreement feature. pronoun subject INTERIM SUMMARY undergo a semantically distinct analysis, which causes the category category the causes which analysis, distinct a semantically undergo This category. in another included become to belongs it which to of merging causes the assimilation with grammatical categories two form earlier in an not present was interpretationa semantic that ofIf language. the of reanalysis the consider we it clitics subject as a gram weight its lost clitic subject the semantically that seems existed were not created. Instead, grammatical features were shifted shifted were grammatical Instead, features created. not were existed ofreanalysis the gaps linguistic the by caused accommodate to the of mechanism the how consider now us Let clitics. subject catego grammatical new A must construction ry-internal works. change
158 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 159 RYAN KOTOWSKI - The nature of Thenature De by proposed mechanisms the and reanalysis as subservient to syntax as proposed by Chomsky (1995:133), who of part the a In strictly syntax. morphology is inflectional that states interesting an be to perceive I what analyze will I sections, following morphology between relation this implications and the and syntax theory. linguistic on has observation specific more phonology rules the apply to to able be it should also syntax, and to morphologyof linguistics, generative In mainstream morphology. Chomsky (1995) accounts syntax. to be subordinate to is assumed for the occurrence of the English downward head movement 3SG of agreement the affix feature from as toI a V position in process called a It affixseems hopping. that morphologymay notbe Instead, the already present grammatical constructions were simply simply grammatical were constructions present already the Instead, reassigned to differentroles. Thereanalysis ofthe French subject of point the from clitics view of to Theory Optimality able be may of a simple reordering that demonstrate French caused constraints morphology verbal place to of beginning the at than rather verb the If end. the of ordering hierarchical the to applied can be constraints to to a language, which accepts pro-drop, Lafond proposes different of state each for orderings constraint French. all grammatical suggestSmet forms mental that in the present are grammar that section of previous in the I proposed speaker. the and QbFr. grammaticalno new forms in SwFr created had been mental grammars, and that these constraints are in a constant state state in a constant are constraints these grammars,mental and that applied originally being despite ofTheory, Optimality reordering. simple a by change linguistic for account to able is phonology, to of set a of proposes that (2003) constraints reordering Lafond rules. In stage. OldFr its since language French in the present been have change and the order in V2 word change the for account to order and that through historical change one can discover the various various the can discover one change historical through and that Prince by as developed Theory, Optimality grammar. on constraints a theory ofand Smolensky (2004), seeks to provide language based of hierarchy the around deter which grammatical constraints, Thistheory well-formedness constitutes in a language. what mine of number a set have all languages that assumes in their constraints data with the minimal amount of amount minimal the with (1979:12) data Lightfoot machinery. between choose to way a theory the can provide that proposes historical that states Lightfoot hypotheses. synchronic competing will research be most profitable in atheory ofrestrictive grammar
- -
marker (Ka, 1994). However, aspect is on marked attached suffixes (Ka,marker 1994). However, the carry to able is pronoun the Wolof, In 1994). (Ka, pronoun the to supports of meaning which referential and tense, person, number, morphology verbal both claim that pronouns and subject my indistinguishable. are pronouns must be able to convey tense and aspect as well. For the the For as well. and aspect tense convey to able be must pronouns purposes of as together and aspect tense I group argument, my over system verbal a tense-based either prefer often languages many this claim, I must support to In order system verbal an aspectual of outside from evidence bring in linguistic Wolof In the French. language, the verb is generally uninflected apart from a past tense the nature of nature the whether and agreement features, pronouns subject historical the with shown have As I or post-verbal. pre-verbal of subject the either development assigned by features the French, pronoun or agreement feature have changed Thisfluidly. leads to are and agreement features pronouns subject conclusion that the subject valid, be to claim this offor variants order In entity. same the person, number, and tense. In MidFr, the post-verbal morphologypost-verbal the In MidFr, tense. and person,number, forms all verbal and only person for tense to distinguish and served the MCFr, As with redundantly. albeit and 2PL, 1PL the for number although as agreement features, reanalyzed been have clitics subject necessitating thereby tense, not person and number, only for morphology This consider to post-verbal one leads tense. assign to ogy paradigm, the future also uses a differentverbal root, in most only form of If analyze infinitive to verb. full were the the one cases verbal that assumption false the to lead it would tense, present the morphology of of solely consists MCFr agreement pre-verbal indicate to morphology in MCFr continues Post-verbal features. morphologypost-verbal the distinguish to served OldFr, In tense. tenses apart from the present tense. For the imperfect, the morpho the imperfect, the For tense. present the from apart tenses logical prefix is [ɛ]for all personsfor save the 2PLwhere it is [je]. only where paradigm, tense present the to This bears a resemblance the 2PL has distinguishing prefix. The futuretense differs slightly from the present tense as the prefix [e] is usedfor the 1SG, 2PL, 3SG, and 3PL. In addition to the different post-verbal morphol ON THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN BETWEEN DISTINCTION THE ON SUBJECT AND AGREEMENT PRONOUNS FEATURES forms verbal account into taken has not in other This investigation
160 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 161 RYAN KOTOWSKI - -
throw 1SG-NOM PST not PST 1SG-NOM throw
chi- pila –li –tok kiyo parle. en 3SG-DAT 2SG-ACC 2SG-ACC 3SG-DAT
He 1SG-DAT of speak-3SG of 1SG-DAT He it.” “He talks to me about Ko:wi ĩ- lion lions.” the to you “I did not throw Il m’
Vendryes (1920/1950:202) noted a similarity between the the between a similarity (1920/1950:202) noted Vendryes (16) (15) are found which mirror the functions of functions the mirror which found are Chinook counter their grammatical morphemes languages, grouped latter are the In parts. of beginning the at together arguments lexical with sentence the of end the at appearing sentence. the constructions given in (15) and agglutinative constructions found in in found constructions in (15) and agglutinative given constructions in (16) The Chinook example and in Basque. languages Amerindian (taken from Davies, 1986:147) demonstrates heavy morphological In the object. and the subject the both for agreementverb on the pronouns and prepositional in (15) and (16), object examples French are bound by the laws of laws the bound by are able be should not and therefore syntax I disagree the with pronouns. fashion as subject same in the act to between distinction the that Chomsky and will argue by claim made and morphologysyntax of variants are they is unnecessary and that and agreement pronouns as subject same the much entity, same the of variants are features same entity. the formation apart from I to V movement that occurs in affix hopping. hopping. affix in occurs that movement V to I from apart formation Morphology by theory in syntactic governed be to is considered the syntactic transformations. On this issue Chomsky (1995:133) states inflectional morphology is a part ofthe syntax proper morphology and derivational that of a part is strictly Since lexicon. the agreement features are considered inflection morphology, they independent entities in the syntax and are able to undergo movement movement undergo to able independent and are syntax in the entities that is assumed it theory, syntactic In standard and transformations. in VP-internal generated based are all subjects undergo and position A-movement to their specifier position. For the purposes Agreement syntax. with pronouns subject I will associate argument, my of trans syntactic to regard with mobile as not are however, features, ON THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN BETWEEN DISTINCTION THE ON AND SYNTAX MORPHOLOGY as viewed are treatments theoretical standard in pronouns Subject
-
3SG ABS 1SG-DAT 2SG-ERG 1SG-DAT ABS 3SG
not travelled your cousin to Africa to cousin your travelled not
etxea eman d- i- da- zu da- i- eman d- etxea a encore pas voyagé, ta cousine, en Afrique en cousine, ta voyagé, pas encore a
there has-3SG yet yet has-3SG there
“She has not yet travelled there, your cousin, to Africa.” your there, travelled “She has not yet Zuk niri gave house 1SG-DAT 2SG-ERG house.” me the gave “You Elle n’y n’y Elle She Ifof rules the bound by are words by rules the then syntax, (18) (17) dependent upon morphology that My proposal syntax. than rather between word and morpheme. word between that seems It for. accounted be morphemes bound must which are V and I to in Chomsky regarding agreementthe theory proposed V to I movement holds only for English and French. The theory heavily are which as Basque such languages accommodate not does purpose. If language has heavy morphology, whether on the verb Ifpurpose. verb on the whether morphology, has heavy language of importance the takes it noun, or the away. order word strict if word use must it morphology, heavy its loses a language Similarly, order to convey what the lost morphology had done. Either way, proper assign to is, goal: that same the accomplish languages the ambiguous boundary can see the we grammatical form. Here, overt overt subject filledvoid leftby the lack of morphology. However, a form are of pronouns subject claim that on my based verbal of rules the that assume can one morphologymorphology, French changed. has not language the syntactically, and that, changed have syntax between distinction the This that conclude to me leads and morphology same the accomplish both unnecessary is they as Auger, reflecting onAuger, such similarities, askswhether the subject and or as words as analyzed should be in French pronouns locative of development historical the morphemes. Throughout French, imple from far away truly ventured never language the that seems it morphologymenting of part as an active could One grammar. its syntactically a morphology, verbal rich its lost as OldFr that assume occurring at the end of end the occurring at is true; same the In Basque, sentence. the morphemes the arguments in which and lexical order the however, language. head-final a is it that being reversed is grouped are Auger Auger (1994: 2-3) gives a further Québecois example given in (17) is which in (18) example Basque the to similarity their and discusses of along examples verb the QbFr the In (1993:23). Laka from taken referents lexical corresponding their with clitics subject the with
162 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 163 RYAN KOTOWSKI
- - - - - development of other languages, it will prove to reveal much about about of much development reveal to will prove it languages, other of nature the faculty. human language the If notion of to the adhere similar and are all languages Universal also and Chinook must as Basque such languages then Grammar, have historically shifted between different stages,which outwardly syntax grammatical around based constructions favour to seemed of instances in fact, If, morphology. around based and those reanaly of that sis similar to historical in the present are clitics subject French needed. The study of The needed. study of development historical the aggluti such of nature the regarding insight much will provide languages nating seems surface, on the language, The French and morphology. syntax morphol verbal it had rich in which stages through gone have to the claimed, I have as However, had not. it ogy in which and ones grammatical same the weight. have to continued have changes CONCLUSION If and morphology syntax that entity same the this proposal but are or two different manifestations of higher a of entity, is Chinook and Basque as agglutinatinghighly such languages research then truly challenges the current linguistic theory claiming that pro-drop pro-drop theory linguistic current the claiming that challenges truly properties other to reducible is it and that parameter true a not is Whether identification. feature and government directional as such of is not claim is true this or not of is What importance. importance theory the and forces true be is held to what challenges it is that reviewed. be to uous then the same must be true for syntax and morphology. This and morphology. syntax for true be must same the uous then and morphologysyntax that conclusion the to leads one be must that This requires further assumption rules. same the by governed morphology of rules the to subservient be not In addition syntax. challenges claim also my notion, research up an interesting bring to, that a major proposition Adams makes theory. linguistic current syntax and morphology are the same entity provides a very inter a very morphology and syntax provides entity same the are If based. can be research which around topic esting assumes one and and all morphemes pronouns subject like words all are that is ambig them boundary the between in that agreement features
: the concept that all human languages share the same common common same the languages share all human conceptthe that : : the concept that languages can either covertly or overtly or overtly covertly can either languages conceptthe that : : having a theta role, that is a specific semantic purpose (agent, (agent, purpose semantic specific a is that role, theta a having : : interrogative words such as ‘who’, ‘what’, etc. ‘what’, as ‘who’, such words interrogative : : a subject that is phonologically absent, but present in the syntactic syntactic in the present but is phonologically absent, that a subject : : a verb specified for tense, person, and/or number. and/or person, tense, for specified verb a : ‘auxilliary verb’. ‘Subject Verb Object’, a common word order typology found typology order found a common word Object’, Verb ‘Subject . ‘International Alphabet’. Phonetic . ‘determiner is a determiner. head whose phrase a lexical phrase’, ‘inflection phrase’, a functional phrase whose head bears the tense tense the bears head whose phrase functional a phrase’, ‘inflection abbr. : a word that is phonologically bound to its host. is its bound to phonologically that a word : abbr. properties that are hard-wired in the brain, making the acquisition of brain, making the in the hard-wired are that properties a language innate. representation. of arguments the express a sentence. cross-linguistically. of a sentence. experiencer, theme, etc.). theme, experiencer, : abbr : abbr. : abbr. : : Universal Grammar Universal Wh-questions Null subject Null parameter Pro-drop SVO AUX Clitic DP Finite verb IP IPA GLOSSARY Argument-bearing
164 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 165 RYAN KOTOWSKI
.
Generative Generative
. Eds. Eds. .
. Dissertation . Dissertation Linguistic InquiryLinguistic . Amsterdam: . Amsterdam:
. Oxford: Oxford Oxford . Oxford: . (2003): 387-412. (2003): . Cambridge, Mass.: Mass.: . Cambridge, 86.1 (2010): 85-132. (2010): 86.1 119 (2009): 1728-1755. . Dordrecht, The Netherlands: The Netherlands: . Dordrecht, “Modularity and Reanalysis of and Reanalysis “Modularity the Language Lingua “The of clitics subject Conversational . Cambridge: Cambridge University University Cambridge . Cambridge: . Lanham: University Press Press . Lanham: University . Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1995 MIT Press, Mass.: . Cambridge, 6.2-3 (1994): 103-123. 103-123. (1994): 6.2-3 The change from pronoun to clitic to prefix and the rise ofrise the null and prefix to clitic to pronoun from change The Romance languages Romance theory linguistic and
Probus “Les clitiques sujets du français le paramètre du sujet du sujet paramètre du français le sujets clitiques “Les A Romance perspective on language knowledge perspective A Romance use and . Eds. José Ignacio Hualde and Jon Ortiz de Urbina Urbina de Ortiz Jon and Hualde Ignacio José Eds. . Fernande Depuis. Fernande Laura Waugh. Laura 141 (2004): 99-109. (2004): 141 Optimality TheoryOptimality language and change . Dissertation (PhD), University of University (PhD), . Dissertation 2000. Arizona, “Convergent evidence for categorical change in French: in French: change categorical for evidence “Convergent and Choctaw verb agreement grammar universal and Old French, Null Subjects, and Verb Second Phenomena Second Verb and Null Subjects, French, Old and “Analysing Reanalysis.” Reanalysis.” “Analysing
French syntax: The syntax: French transformational cycle “Romance Clitics, Verb Movement, and PRO.” and PRO.” Movement, Verb Clitics, “Romance
The Program Minimalist Lectures on GovernmentLectures Binding and
French dislocation: Interpretation, syntax, acquisition syntax, Interpretation, dislocation: French of impact “On the information clitics on the subject French “Historical Changes in Verb Second and Null Subject in Old French in Old French and Null Subject Second in Verb Changes “Historical Pronominal Clitics in Québec Colloquial French: A Morphological Analysis A Morphological French: Colloquial in Québec Clitics Pronominal 1993. “The structure of inflection: A case study in X0 syntax.” syntax.” X0 in study case of A structure inflection: “The 1993. Old French: A Concise Handbook Concise A French: Old
Wolof Phonology Morphology and
Langue Française Française Langue Dordrecht: Reidel, 1986. Reidel, Dordrecht: 2007. Press, University ofstructure sentence.” the Foris Publications Holland, 1981. Holland, Publications Foris to agreement clitic subject marker.” From 22.4 (1991): 647-686. (1991): 22.4 Modernto French.” Linguistics in Basque Studies 21-70. (1993): nul.” nul.” of1994. America, 1975. MIT Press, subjects in Swiss French in Swiss subjects change, semantic change, grammatical Morphologization, French: European in progress.” and change John Amsterdam: Cameron. and Richard Luis López, Núñez-Cedeño, Rafael 2002. 99-118. Benjamins, John Benjamins, 2002. 2002. Benjamins, John Pronoun.” Subject French 1974. Press, Dissertation (PhD), University of Pennsylvania, 1994. of University Pennsylvania, (PhD), Dissertation (PhD), University of University (PhD), 1987. California, Angeles, Los Davies, William D. William Davies, De Cat, Cécile. De Cat, Cécile. Chomsky, Noam. Chomsky, Jennifer. Culbertson, Lafond, Larry. Lafond, Laka, Itziar. Hofherr, Patricia Cabredo. Patricia Hofherr, Ka, Omar. S. Richard Kayne, S. Richard Kayne, Fonesca-Greber, B. Fonesca-Greber, De Smet, Hendrik. Monique Dufrense, Einhorn, E. Bonnibeth. Fonesca-Greber, Auger, Julie. Auger, Noam. Chomsky, BIBLIOGRAPHY Marianne. Adams, -
. 21 17 (1986):
Probus Parameters and function and Parameters Linguistic InquiryLinguistic .” pro . Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Blackwell Mass.: . Malden, . Cambridge: Cambridge University University Cambridge . Cambridge: . Eds. Adriana Belletti and Luigi Rizzi. Oxford: Oxford: Rizzi. Luigi and Belletti Adriana Eds. . Optimality TheoryOptimality
“Complex inversion in French.” in French.” inversion “Complex . Paris: Albin Michel, 1920/1950. Albin Michel, . Paris: . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Linguistic Linguistic IN: Indiana University . Bloomington, “The clitics mechanism in French and Italian.” Italian.” and in French “The mechanism clitics Le langageLe Syntactic Change in Medieval French: Verb-Second and Null Subjects and Verb-Second in MedievalChange Syntactic French:
Principles ofPrinciples Syntax Diachronic
Paul Smolensky. Paul On clitics
Ian Roberts. “Null objects in Italian and the theory the and in Italian “Null objects of and and Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997. Publishers, Academic Kluwer Dordrecht: 1977. Club, 501–557. syntax in comparative Essays heads: al 1989. 91-116. Press, University Oxford 83-142. (2009): Press, 1979. Press, 2004. Publishing, Vance, Barbara S. Barbara Vance, Joseph. Vendryes, Arnold. Zwicky, Rizzi, Luigi. Rizzi, Luigi Pieter A. M. Seuren, Lightfoot, David. Lightfoot, Alan Prince,
166 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 167 RYAN KOTOWSKI
Young and Marie de Verneil, as well as Dr. Thomas Thomas as Dr. as well Verneil, and Marie de Young all of their sage advice Anna Shields for Field and Dr. and guidance during the writing this thesis. of with a specialization in Applied Lingusitics. Lingusitics. Applied in with a specialization into graduateHe was accepted school at the University College London in the United Kingdom of Science in Language to complete a Master in Linguistics with Sciences with specialization program, this year-long After Neuroscience. his doctorate towards plans to continue Ryan to like would Ryan and a career in academia. Stanley McCray, Dr. thank his thesis advisor, Steven committee membershis defense Drs. Ryan Kotowski graduated Kotowski in December 2013 Ryan Arts Bachelor of with his in Modern Languages, & Intercultural Communication Linguistics, AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR RESIDENTIAL WASTE ANALYSIS AND ACHIEVING UNDERSTANDING OF WASTE MANAGEMENT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR IMPROVING SUSTAINABILITY AT A UNIVERSITY
ALEXA WHITE My research started as conversations with Donna Anderson, Manager of Landscape, Grounds, and Recycling at Facilities Management. We talked about how UMBC could improve its composting program, which at the time was only present at True Grit’s and with one small bin in the corner of The Commons. Ms. Anderson suggested col- lecting data to show the campus community that the problem exists to make a case for change. I was inspired to go to my academic advisor at the time, Dr. Erle Ellis. He guided me through how to do a literature review, develop methodologies, and complete statistical analysis. He also provided me with many of my materials. Donna Anderson and Glen Cook, a staff member of Facilities Manage- ment, were also always willing to provide materials and their time. My project reflects waste disposal practices that could be improved on our residential campus and suggests infrastructure and advocacy programs that could be implemented. Thanks to the many people who were eager to help, I learned a great deal about the various components that go into research, and produced a useful product that future UMBC students, faculty, and staff can use to improve campus sustainability. - - in resource recovery. Recycling reduces the need to gather resources resources gather to need the reduces Recycling recovery. in resource In 2010, the US produced 250 million tons of produced US In 2010, the (approximately waste 4.43 pounds per person per day). Based on trends seen from 1960 to 2010, this Only amount is 34.1 to ofprojected percent increase. the 250 million tons was composted or recycled Protection (Environmental Agency [EPA], 2010). Recycling and composting are essential waste disposal efforts, becauseeach one is a main process structure may be improved. be may structure INTRODUCTION OF PROBLEM STATEMENT the need for a composting program and adjustment of and adjustment program a composting for need the students’ potential found This study recycling. about attitudes and education UMBC campus. on the disposal practices in waste improvement for It presents students, and faculty, staff with information regarding of and structure composition the stream waste residential UMBC’s disposal infra and waste students for programs educational so that ing samples extracted from dumpsters using a digital scale, it was was it dumpsters scale, a digital using from extracted samples ing determined that only 42 percent of this campus’ residential waste these into separated was Thetrash. was percent 58 other stream categories: compostable (30 percent), plastics, metals, and glass (17 The that fact (5 percent). cardboard and (6 percent), paper percent), ofmost suggests or composted recycled been could have waste the and transform habits. At the University ofand transform University the At habits. Maryland, Baltimore of (UMBC), a team County in audits waste conducted students of determine to area residential much how UMBC’s waste the In this recycled. been could have much and how trash was really “trash” paper, will refer to landfillwaste and “waste” willrefer to of is disposed By measur that everything category. the no matter The manner in which municipal solid waste is discarded and and is discarded solid waste municipal The in which manner factors in are disposal waste about educated are individuals how waste study to is important It sustainability. determining overall with locations are campuses because campus setting disposal in a of as models function that populations concentrated and society gain to students information new for settings educational provide ABSTRACT
170 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 171 ALEXA WHITE
- - - - - Education for 1 Campuses are like small municipalities in terms small municipalities like Campuses are of structure 2,700 graduate students and 11,000 undergraduate students. 2,700 graduate students. and 11,000 undergraduate students BACKGROUND Maryland, 15 County, Baltimore in suburban UMBC is located minutes from Baltimore’s Inner Harbor of time the At D.C. about UMBC served sampling, Washington, and 30 minutes from Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC) aims to achieve sustainability sustainability achieve (UMBC) aims to County Maryland, Baltimore of reduction is through greenhouse Change gas (Climate emissions of is part minimization 2010). Waste [CCTF], plan the Force Task mini this make to In order emissions. campus’ carbon the reduce to necessary determine to audits are waste where a reality, mization 2004). Brooking, & Oberender, (Mason, needed is improvement a global scale (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultur al Organization [UNESCO], 2008). Universities are centers our future developing at aimed application and knowledge teaching for leaders. Educational institutions play a crucial role in developing available make they programs the through communities sustainable of University the that way 2009). One (Arbuthnott, students their to and consumed resources. There is increasing pressure on campus pressure is increasing There and consumed resources. sustainability. their improve to world the around es sustainable development has been an increasingly influential topic ofConference Stockholm the since higher established 1972, which of as a crucial component education on sustainability promoting organic materials are composted, the soil that is produced has a wide a wide has is produced soil that the composted, are materials organic ofarray promoting fertilizers, chemical including replacing uses of yields higher revitaliza habitat facilitating agriculturalcrops, tion, 2013). and The more (EPA, current study analyzed the waste area residential in the stream and waste infrastructure management of determine UMBC to improvement. for potential their the main contributor to climate change) is created. Composting has has Composting created. is change) climate to contributor main the similar benefits withregard to pollution andenergy (EPA, 2013). of percent thirty to diverted could be waste Twenty country’s the from landfills and composted 2010). (EPA, Thiswould save space landfill-oc of amount from the emitted reduce is and that methane When degrading. properly not are that materials organic cupying like timber, water, and minerals that would normally would that minerals and the in used be water, timber, like When cardboard. and of production paper, glass, metals, plastics, and energy or used, sought being not is saved are resources these of that (especially less pollution greenhouse gas (GHGs), emissions Composting was and is facilitated by by and is facilitated was Composting 2 Map of dumpster sampled with area residential UMBC’s SAMPLING SITES.SAMPLING 2013). Life, Residential (UMBC arrows by indicated locations This study focused on the population of population the on focused Thisstudy reside that students help divert materials from landfills and instill more conscious waste conscious waste landfills and instill more from materials help divert PURPOSE ofThe objective amounts determine was to study this relative the study The weight. on based waste residential of in materials specific also offers recommendations for changes in practice that might FIGURE 1. in the residence halls still have no way to compost unless they bring bring they unless compost to no way have still halls residence in the The to Commons. materials applicable area The residential fall and spring semesters. on campus during halls. and six residence complexes apartment four into is divided of locations the 1 displays Figure sampled. were dumpsters the that Of those 11,000 undergraduates, about 3,900 clean separates it that meaning lived recycling, has dual-stream UMBC on campus. recyclables. other from paper living Students Grit’s. dining hall, True the The and by Commons
172 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 173 ALEXA WHITE - - -
This of is a list and used categories
tea bags, brown napkins brown tea bags, with recycling symbols 1 and 2 (cereal boxes, snack boxes, etc.) snack boxes, (cereal boxes, COMPOSITION DESCRIPTION clean and dry paper and magazines into the following categories, Other* categories, into the following clean and dry corrugated cardboard and paperboard boxes bags, straws, plastic utensils, materials polystyrene containing plastic utensils, straws, bags, food scraps, fruit peels, biodegradable containers and Pepsi cups, cups, biodegradable containers fruit and Pepsi peels, scraps, food over-contaminated recyclables, soft plastic food wrappers, plastic plastic wrappers, soft plastic food recyclables, over-contaminated any glass, any aluminum and tin cans, plastic bottles and containers and tin cans, aluminum any glass, any (including, but not limited to, Styrofoam), anything that does not fall that does not fall anything Styrofoam), not limited to, but (including, COMPOSITION DESCRIPTIONS. COMPOSITION waste from on guidelines based are Descriptions one. in each materials the with in Appendix document the neutral.com, personal and communication B, Donna Anderson. CATEGORY Paper Cardboard Compost Plastics, and Metals, Glass Landfill Waste Waste Landfill and Other yard dumpsters within the residential area were sampled. were area dumpsters residential the within yard The research was conducted during spring 2013 (Sunday March 31, on Sunday April 7, three and April Tuesday days 9). These days pick-up Management’s on Waste based chosen were days availability. and on student and Fridays) Wednesdays, (Mondays, was pick-up Management’s Waste before days The goal in choosing Only eight- fullest. their at were they dumpsters the sample to while samples and the values were not large enough to warrant their own category. Appendix D category. warrant to enough own their large not were values the samples and found. were that items lists the METHODOLOGY CONTEXT OF RESEARCH *Other: This includes electronics and ink cartridges. These items are recycled through through recycled These are items and ink cartridges. This*Other: electronics includes in all of appear did not They the respectively. and The Management Commons, Facilities posed indicates that valuable resources are not being diverted from from diverted being not are resources valuable that indicates posed wasted. being is energy and landfills 1. TABLE disposal behavior in UMBC students. Theof contents students. in UMBC behavior disposal trash the of percentages and analyzed, dumpsters were materi categorized in determined improved be to needs were 1) what see to (Table als of Presence disposal. proper to regard repur could be that materials - - - - The sample size was based on the conditions within the resi the within conditions on the was based The size sample glass were placed in the recycling dumpsters; paper, cardboard, and and cardboard, dumpsters; paper, recycling the in placed glass were The to taken loading dock Commons’ were composted be to items of end the at was returnedwaste remaining and the the to day; each dumpster. trash made that the five predetermined categories would always be repre be always would categories predetermined five the that made sented. This was verified, and a sixth category (electronics and ink This repre was not category additional was discovered. cartridges) Waste” “Landfill with grouped was it ofso all samples, in the sented newly the and weighed, sorted were samples the Once as “Other”. and metals, Plastics, of disposed were materials separated properly. of scientific literature pertaining of as part Furman at waste University, a residential Researchers wasteto audit methodologies. depend that dumpster) pounds per (27-51 small samples audit, took of fullness and accessibility on the mostly ed (Baldwin dumpster each limited were and person-power time 2012). The that fact & Dripps, The was assumption warranted study. current in the samples smaller an accuracy of each that, After on-site. and sorted pounds, ±0.1 size weighed. sample The was material, specified its with filled box, to need the to owing dumpster, 22 pounds per to 15 from varied full bags ofextract waste. dential area at UMBC and factors that were identified in a review At each dumpster a site, tarp was laid out and six — boxes for five ofeach extracted be to sample total the for and one categories the blue=recyclable, (black=trash, bags color-coded with up set were — from 2. A sample in Figure Thegreen=compostable). is shown setup with shipping scale digital a on weighed extracted, was dumpster the dumpsters. Waste was obtained by reaching through the side doors side the through reaching by was obtained Waste dumpsters. of of dumpsters the out parcels and pulling had been that waste Volunteers instructedwere to baggedor residents cleaning by staff. afterwards. and clothes faces, hands, fully wash their AND CATEGORIZING SAMPLING WASTE SAFETY PROCEDURES SAFETY Every student volunteer who sorted waste wore coveralls, a mask, was permitted No one the fully enter to gloves. and heavy-duty
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test performed test on t The setup before categorization at one of one at categorization The before setup Walker the SAMPLING DESIGN.SAMPLING sites. dumpster apartment Avenue ANOVA was used to obtain p values for each category. The p category. each for p values obtain to was used ANOVA across the days. The “Plastics, Metals, and Glass” category had had Glass” category and Metals, The “Plastics, days. the across values were not used to test a null hypothesis, but to determine to but the hypothesis, a null test to used not were values significance ofvariance in samples acrossthe days.P values above 0.05 indicated that there were no notable differences. The closer for mean the to was percentage the closer 1, the was to p value the among samples variance more indicated p values Low category. that no significant differences amongthe weight values across sampling confirmthat to day each for performed were tests same These days. day. one within samples the among variation significant no was there average the dividing by produced was percentage categorized Each ofaverage the by days all sampling across category each for the sizes. sample STATISTICAL METHODS STATISTICAL course the of over was completed Sampling The days. three of a total for day per six samples collected team research 18 samples. and a an analysis ofBoth (ANOVA) variance sum ofthe were there that ensured day each for sizes sample the FIGURE 2. FIGURE 2.
5.2% 5.9% 42.0% 30.1% 16.8% PORTION OF PORTION TOTAL SAMPLE TOTAL tests. t ±3.38% ±3.82% ±5.51% ±4.11% ±2.55% All samples across the residential area were were area residential the across All samples INTERVAL 95% CONFIDENCE VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF WASTE DISTRIBUTION. WASTE OF REPRESENTATION VISUAL averaged and percentages were determined as shown. The 95% confidence confidence 95% The shown. as determined were percentages and averaged determined were intervals using DISTRIBUTION OF WASTE. OF DISTRIBUTION CATEGORY Plastics, Metals, and Glass Metals, Plastics, Cardboard Paper Landfill Waste and Other and Waste Landfill Compost FIGURE 3. differences among the days. the among differences AND DISCUSSIONS RESULTS 2. TABLE a p value ofa p value 0.26 between values had 0.005. The categories other and 0.94, indicating that there was no significantvariance among of out category was only one there Since days. three the had six that no notable was determined it were there that p value, low a very
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------About 10,200 pounds of About plas Although each of each Although catego two these At the time of time the At of a third sampling, campus the Appendix D gives a detailed list of list a detailed Appendix D gives items additional Other. Appendix A shows the calculations for the different Disposal of UMBC campus is on the materials compostable Glass. and Metals, Plastics, and Cardboard. Paper program (Anderson, personal communication, 2013). communication, personal (Anderson, program samples. in the found were that weights, and Appendix E gives a categories. different communications plan for the ries constitutes a small portion of a small portion constitutes ries at stream, waste residential the ofpounds 6,600 least area residential the from cardboard and paper has and cardboard paper repurposedcould be Recycling week. per Facil university. the for money produces and benefits environmental and paper and dry clean recycled UMBC’s sells Management ities recycling the back into goes sales these from The money cardboard. materials from campus to a composting facility in Wilmington, Wilmington, in facility a composting to campus from materials 2012). (Hopkins, Delaware on recycled and landfills from diverted be could glass and metal, tic, dumpsters the study. in this sampled basis from a weekly indicates that, within the sample population of population sample the within that, indicates approx dumpsters, 18,000 pounds ofimately into converted could be week per waste of a multitude for soil and used purposes up space take than rather landfill. a in these transports This Neutral. company Waste by possible made DISCUSSIONS Compostables. of was composed stream waste residential as such compostables This napkins. brown and biodegradable containers, scraps, food through recycling or composting. This equates to 34,800 pounds ofpounds 34,800 to equates This composting. or recycling through sampled. Approxi was that population the from week per material mately a third (~30 percent) of the waste stream could be diverted plastics, was category largest next The composted. and landfills from small the were cardboard and Paper and glass percent). (17 metals, respectively. percent five and percent six with categories est SUMMARY than halfMore of in UMBC’s weight) by percent (~58 waste the of consists area residential repurposed could be that materials - - - Related research could be designed and conducted on student on student and conducted designed could be research Related measured with before-and-after surveys that assess perspectives on on perspectives assess that surveys before-and-after with measured year is already done to some extent during the move-out process process move-out during the extent some to done is already year of use the with disposal bins. dumpsters and electronics extra in infra done be to is work disposal. There waste regarding behavior apart disposal in the and cardboard paper as with (such structure ofeffects be The could education. efforts in educational and ments) of ofsize and quantity the is desired, analysis should samples the differ of understanding any greater achieve help may This increase. of times among and complexes housing among exist may that ences new any tailor to Management Facilities allow would which year, the programs to or or individual to complexes times buildings different of time the to infrastructure dumpster of Tailoring year. school the across all days proved that variance was minimal. variance that proved all days across FUTURE RESEARCH and improved could be sampling technique studies, future For If examined. be could behavior student depthand accuracy greater At the start of start At the of total calculated the scale, digital the sampling with all of Once size. original sample the than was greater categories the without was changing value tare scale’s the that was observed it this; prevent to altered were methods scale, the touching anything to was used box empty the was weighed, category a new time each analysis of statistical errors, these Despite scale. the tare weights the — could have been improved. The measurements that took place place took that The measurements improved. been — could have on the first daywere done on a household scale, andthese results was it since scale the read correctly to inability the by affected were occasional were there was acquired, scale a digital Once digital. not if re-calibrate would scale digital the when occurred that errors scale of day third the until on. This left was it was not realized sampling. category. This could have been due to varying student activities or or activities varying student to due been This could have category. This of out only category was the random chance. six — including of so variance, showed — that weight sample total the ANOVA the Each days. sampling the across results compare to acceptable was it determined was statistically within to measurement accurate be to samples the weighing — stage initial the Accuracy at ±2.55-5.51%. SOURCES OF ERROR OF SOURCES ofvariance no notable was There each within measurement and Glass” Metals, “Plastics, in the except days the among category
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- - - and composting rates in the residential area of area residential in the rates and composting analy UMBC. An sis of that dumpsters revealed residential from extracted samples less than half (42 percent) of campus residence hall waste is actual trash. Of the other 58 almost percent, one third (30 could percent) metals, plastics, recycled: could be and 28 percent composted be (5 percent). and cardboard (6 percent); paper and glass (17 percent); or his negative environmental impact while on campus and retain a a on campus and retain while impact environmental or his negative of reuse and use the toward attitude sustainable our resources. CONCLUSIONS in recycling improvement for is potential there that found This study Action Action Steering Committee in fall 2014. This group of individuals Hrabowski Freeman Dr. president, advising the with was tasked and climate on impacts negative UMBC’s diminish to how III, on structured 2010). A more 2075 (CCTF, by neutrality carbon achieve this accomplishing in significantly help could program disposal waste Ifgoal. her reduce may student each successful, are programs these educational programs, clear dissemination of dissemination clear programs, educational information regard of implementation disposal, and waste ing proper a composting The potential networks. social media and using signage program of in rates increases the lessen would and composting recycling goal of is a greenhouse gas of emissions which the university, the Climate the renamed Force, Task Change Climate university’s recycling, composting, the environment, and sustainability to see see to sustainability and environment, the composting, recycling, how students’ outlooks and behaviors were affected, ifFacil at all. Life Residential UMBC, and at Sustainability Management, ities structured through study current the from findings the on act could - - - of one’s waste. Appendix C shows the design of the fliers that were later made later were of that fliers design the the shows C Appendix ofwaste. one’s sustainability and myUMBC the through staff and faculty, students, to available be had to Ink cartridges in The Commons. electronically and advertised websites Campus Information the to recy be to in The Center brought Commons order in located Management Facilities to delivered be to had batteries and Electronics cled. side of southwest the at of outside campus, academic encircles campus the loop that area. residential and the buildings waikhat & Abubakar, 2008). Since sustainability is multifaceted, focused projects projects focused is multifaceted, 2008). Since sustainability & Abubakar, waikhat com be can improvement require that areas individual study that and initiatives conditions behaviors. and unsustainable current bined to graduallyimprove of The structure in period study used during the was that program recycling the on students to available only was list This B. Appendix in found be can 2013 spring were There up. look it to time the take meaning students had to UMBC website, the dispose to containers the how detailing instructions on or around placed no detailed Sustainability is determined Sustainability of a balance by economic, cultural, social, ecological, negatively without balance this Creating 2005). Loch, & (Seiffert factors spatial and (Alshu sustainability campus achieving in challenge the is stakeholders affecting 2. ENDNOTES 1.
180 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 181 ALEXA WHITE - - .
-
13(12), 13(12),
(2), 152–163. 152–163. (2), The Sun Baltimore . Retrieved from from . Retrieved
Resources, Conservation and Resources, (16), 1777–1785. http://dx.doi. (16), 1777–1785. CCTF Action Plan Action CCTF Journal ofJournal Production, Cleaner . Retrieved from http://unesdoc. from . Retrieved (2004). Source separation and potential potential and separation Source (2004). (2010). , 107–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. (2008). An integrated approach to achieving achieving to integrated(2008). An approach (2013). Composting for facilities-basics. facilities-basics. for Composting (2013). basics. Recycling (2013). (2010). Municipal solid waste generation, generation, waste (2010). Municipal solid Brooking, A. Brooking, (2005). Systemic thinking in environmental manage in environmental thinking (2005). Systemic UNESCO Bangkok & (2012). Spatial characterization and analysis of characterization (2012). Spatial the Abubakar, I. Abubakar, (2013). Residential map. Retrieved from http://www. from Retrieved map. Residential (2013). Journal ofJournal 16 Production, Cleaner & Loch, C. (2012). UMBC Recycling at a glance. UMBC Facilities UMBC Facilities a glance. at Recycling (2012). UMBC & (2009). Education for sustainable development beyond attitude attitude beyond development sustainable for Education (2009). (2008). Reinventing higher education: Toward participatory and and participatory Toward education: higher (2008). Reinventing Sustainable solutions for commercial & institutional waste waste & institutional commercial solutions for Sustainable Dripps, W. Dripps, (2012, May 13). Turning food scraps into compost. compost. into scraps food Turning 13). May (2012, 40(2), 155–172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0921-3449(03)00068-5 155–172. 40(2), & International of Journal 10 Education, in Higher Sustainability White%20Paper%20REV.pdf [UNESCO]. development. sustainable unesco.org/images/0016/001631/163155e.pdf. http://www.wasteneutral.com/WN%20 from Retrieved and recycling. reduction re-use ofre-use campus. a university at residuals resource Recycling, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2004.07.004 1197–1202. umbc.edu/reslife/communities/map.html. Retrieved from http://www2.epa.gov/recycle/recycling-basics from Retrieved http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2012-05-13/business/bs-bz- from Retrieved interview-keith-losoya-20120513_1_food-waste-composting-facility-food-recycling http://www.umbc.edu/sustainability/pdf/action_plan.pdf. Retrieved 2010. for figures and Facts States: United the in disposal and recycling, http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/msw_2010_rev_fact from sheet.pdf http://www.epa.gov/compost/basic.htm from Retrieved doi:10.1108/14676370910945954 Institution. Arts Liberal a small private at stream waste campus residential 65 Conservation Recycling, and Resources, resconrec.2012.06.002 agement practices. practices. agement org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.12.002 http://www.umbc.edu/sustainability/pdf/action_ from Retrieved Management. plan.pdf At_A_Glance_UMBC_Recycles.pdf; change. campus sustainability: assessment of assessment campus sustainability: man campus environmental current the ment: support for sustainable development. development. sustainable for support ment: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Organization Cultural and Scientific Educational, Nations United Neutral. Waste UMBC Residential Life. Residential UMBC Environmental Protection Agency. Protection Environmental J.S. Hopkins, A., I., Mason, Oberender, Environmental Protection Agency. Protection Environmental Agency. Protection Environmental Baldwin, E., Baldwin, [CCTF]. Force Task Climate Change Anderson, Donna. Anderson, K. D. Arbuthnott, REFERENCES H. M., Alshuwaikhat, Seiffert, M. E. B., E. M. Seiffert,
be recycled be 59,940 lbs x .58 = 34,765 lbs that can be repurposed be can that lbs 34,765 = .58 x lbs 59,940 composted be can that lbs 17,982 = .3 x lbs 59,940 that glass and of metals, lbs plastics, 10,190 = .17 x lbs 59,940 recycled can be can that cardboard ofand lbs paper 6,593 = .11 x lbs 59,940 Average estimated tonnage from Waste Management Management Waste from tonnage estimated Average week per tons 4.995 Management: Facilities and location dumpster per dumpster / lbs 9,990 = dumpster / tons 4.995 lbs 59,940 = population in dumpsters 6 x dumpster / lbs 9,990 population in sampled • • • • • • • All poundage report* in the rounded is APPENDIX A APPENDIX CALCULATIONS
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a variety ofa variety materials. and maintenance building, construction, UMBC RECYCLING PROGRAM AT A GLANCE AT PROGRAM UMBC RECYCLING summarya is of Thefollowing in recycled be cannot and can what This program. all-inclusive an not is community-based present the and recycle shops collect Management Facilities addition, In list. APPENDIX B APPENDIX Anderson Donna in Facilities by This was created document oftime the for was applicable It Management. project. the 184 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 185 ALEXA WHITE
Events Team). Events This is a potential flier created to be posted near waste disposal systems. systems. C APPENDIX disposal waste near posted be to created flier potential a is This It was created by members of ReSET (Recycling Sustainability
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A smartphone battery A smartphone filter* water A Ten double-A batteries double-A Ten cords Three ink cartridges Five A pair of headphones A calculator • • • • • • • Community Directors). A half-hour training about what and how and how what about training A half-hour Directors). Community recycling to dual-stream recycling, so paper bins were installed installed bins were so paper recycling, dual-stream to recycling on each floor. Facilities Management could culture student the alter to In order bins. composting for completeprocess same the in terms need of would there disposal and sustainability, waste by overseen component and motivational an educational be to and Assistants as Resident (such employees and its Life Residential dispose of dispose of much as is not there as waste, their Life Residential a staff presence inthe apartments asthere is inthe residence halls. of is disposed waste where halls, residence in the Composting on complicated. be more might basis, or wing-by-wing a floor-by-floor To install composting bins on each floor single-stream from UMBC switched could Recently, is possible. it but be cumbersome, Composting at placed could be dumpster a composting apartments, In the all collection so that and recycling trash for locations central the the around and placed in be could Signs together. containers are of aware more be would students so that apartments to how APPENDIX E PLAN COMMUNICATIONS FOR AREA AT RESIDENTIAL UMBC *not an electronic or ink cartridge but can be shipped back to the facility by the the by facility to the back shipped be can but ink cartridge or electronic *not an disposal proper for purchaser APPENDIX D APPENDIX This of is a list out taken were that and ink cartridges items electronic of properly. recycled been and have weighed being after sample the
- - disposing of waste properly, could instill habits in the residential residential in the habits could instill disposing of properly, waste university, the leave they when them with take they that students society. campus and into the beyond bringing sustainability Final Recommendations of a combination With better-struc analysis, social and quantitative residential in the implemented could be programs educational tured ofarea waste could learn UMBC. Students university’s the about More conscious. environmentally more and become disposal system of encouragement and awareness and separating in as such action, to properly dispose of properly to If cardboard. their program recycling the area disposal better-defined a be should there improve, to continues way a not was there apartments, the In floor. each on cardboard for of dispose to or cardboard. paper but it was unclear what should be done with cardboard. Jimmy Jimmy cardboard. with done should be unclear what was it but supervisor of Reyes, UMBC, at company cleaning ABM, the bins waste beside cardboard their could place students that stated of dispose would workers the halls and in residence it correctly. dumpsters entire in the cardboard only two were there However, how know to student any for was no way and there area, residential A condensed version of version A condensed or students to Appendix given be B could floors. on posted and Cardboard Paper paper disposal bins on the floors There were of residence halls, the Recycling The ofdetails signage with visible more should be made recycling (Appen online available made were that fliers The instruction. and is recyclable. what specify did not but helpful, been dix C) could have to compost could be incorporated into Residential Life employees’ employees’ Life incorporated be could compost to Residential into of beginning the at trainings to employees the enable to year the This a crucial step could be changing in questions. residents’ answer culture. student the
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She aims to work educator as an environmental Corps. through the Peace in Mexico or Panama volunteersShe thanks the student all of their for Kei Ellerbrock, Marina Nicholas, contributions: and Helen Wiebel, Valentino Zoe Gensheimer, her utmost to express also like She would Twigg. Anderson Cook and Donna appreciation to Glenn ABM; from Reyes Jimmy of Facilities Management; her editor, lab; of the Ecosynth Dana Boswell Erle Ellis. Dr. and her mentor, Cameron Rhode; Alexa White is an environmental science major science major an environmental White is Alexa graduating music with Spanish and 2015 in May certificate. College Honors an and minors AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR EVALUATING THE SUCCESS OF QUESTION 6 A CASE STUDY OF ABORTION POLITICS IN MARYLAND, 1990-1992
CAITLYN LEITER-MASON My interest in this topic was piqued by chance. As a sophomore, I interned in the Maryland House of Delegates during the session when the legislature passed marriage equality. After its passage, I was still worried that the upcoming referendum campaign would undo this progress. Trying to assuage my concerns, the delegate I worked for brought up the Question 6 campaign. “Marriage equality will pass on the ballot,” she assured me, “Just look at how progressive Maryland voters were about abortion in 1992.” This simple comment started my interest in 1992’s Question 6 campaign which I had never heard of before. Two years later, when given the opportunity to pursue my own original research in my capstone class, I decided to come back to this story. Through books, journal articles, data, news- paper articles, and, most interestingly, oral histories, I was able to answer my own questions about this period in Maryland’s political history and produce a work of original research that contributes to the ongoing conversation about abortion policy and direct democracy.
- - - Ballot Language of Language Ballot 6 Question into their state laws (“State Policies” Policies” (“State laws state their into Roe v. Wade Roe v. , women in Maryland would maintain the right to to right the maintain in Marylandwould , women Roe by licensed physicians; provides good-faith immunity immunity good-faith provides physicians; licensed by performing abor physicians to conditions certain under regulations; abortion adopt to State authorizes tions; related and disciplinary penalty certain repeals provisions performance the to of abortions.” time and to provide certain exceptions to the requirement requirement the to exceptions certain provide to and time or parent an unmarried notify minor’s physician a that pre-abortion repeals abortion; minor’s to prior guardian alternatives; abortion about information requirements repeals some, and clarifiesother, provisions related to performed be abortions that requires referral; abortion “Question 6, Chapter, Statewide Referendum, Abortion Abortion Referendum, Statewide 6, Chapter, “Question pro to law abortion Maryland’s Revises Revision: Law decision abortion woman’s with interference State hibit any at conditions, certain under or, is viable, fetus before This paper begins by connecting Question 6 to larger academ larger 6 to Question connecting This by begins paper I argue that the Question 6 win in Maryland was the result of 6 win in Maryland Question the result was the that I argue the ic conversations about direct democracy and abortion policy and policy and and abortion democracy direct about ic conversations study. case this methodology the approach to use I explaining that from emerging and themes major developments the explore I then 1990 from processes and electoral legislative the about research this Ultimately, policy. abortion current Maryland’s to led 1992 that to choose choose abortion during their first trimester. significance,Despite the its story historic of this of resurgence the With decades. two past campaign being democracy direct has been lost the the over years, in recent level state the policy at abortion decide to used story of Maryland’s campaign can offer critical,reflective lessons topic. on the On November 3, 1992, 1.1 million Marylanders voted for Question Question for voted Marylanders million 1.1 1992, 3, November On making Maryland of one place, local polling their 6 at only seven codified have to states and Maryland Democrats 1). The by campaign waged successful if even that, ensured activists pro-choice Court were Supreme the reverse to INTRODUCTION
192 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 193 CAITLYN LEITER-MASON - - - - The use of oral history in this project differed fromthe usual important new areas of areas new important that ensured inquiry” (Thomson 29), which I found that oral history brought out that “new direction” to our our to direction” “new that out oral history brought that I found understandingtraditional of (Thomson and politics government electoral the to a human element added 28). My oral histories provided They articles. and newspaper language, legislative data, critically more were machinations, behind-the-scenes into insight the and “opening allowed up officialthan sources, any reflective of extract knowledge and insight from the personal, subjective experi personal, the subjective from and insight knowledge extract ofences interviewees. their history, was on political First, research this ways. in two conventions phenom social and cultural the into delve oral histories most while However, in academia. overlooked previously been have that ena cally, oral history interviews are longer than interviews used in other in other used interviews than longer oral history are interviews cally, a single hours session for two lasting approximately methodologies, the over sessions place in multiple taking oral histories some with course of than Rather (Oral Historyor months Association). weeks analysis as objective or provide facts recount to asking interviewees to seek oral historians interview, a structured in might researchers in critical historical research are important sources because they they because sources important are research historical in critical (Thomson 28), expanding direction” a new from evidence “allow our understanding of beyond and events lives to include past the Research and leaders. events on political focus usual dominant the deeper cultural social and into on oral historybased delves generally Practi methodologies. other by not captured are that observations METHODOLOGY of variety a While illuminate and investigate to me helped sources this historical event, this paper’s methodology is most significantly influencedby the research tradition of oral Oral history. histories by suggesting that the ostensibly supportive political establishment establishment political supportive ostensibly the suggesting that by complicated and undermined pro-choice efforts. Without of importance mizing the gained in 1992, were that protections the mini activists feminist between tension a larger elucidates study case this ofand systems in the present is still that power political traditional today. movement pro-choice Democratic Party’s advantage among voters in the state and the and the state in the voters among advantage Party’s Democratic of developments political national 1990s. early 1980s and late the win of pro-choice the cast to temptation the despite However, narrative that plan on challenging I victory, 6 as a feminist Question
- The and The Sun Baltimore . The news coverage was helpful to both confirm and both to helpful was coverage news The . In addition to these oral histories, my research is influenced My second oral history interview was with Dr. Carole McCann, Carole oral historyMy second Dr. was with interview My first oral history was with former state senator Barbara staff at Maryland NARAL. Maryland at staff the legislative and electoral developments of developments and electoral legislative the 162 and Ques SB 6. Thesetion from mainly came articles Post Washington of sequence the clarify and interviewees my by presented as events of a sense get to time. that at issue the about narrative popular the by 1992 provided from campaign materials I examined Additionally, activists in the state and provided more critical feminist insight into the into insight feminist critical more and provided state the in activists leadership political and the activists did Senator than between tension perspective. institutional Hoffman’s First, I science. political accepted from methodologies several by about 1992 1990 through from articles newspaper regional analyzed the campaign. We connected through my adviser when Dr. McCann Dr. when adviser my through connected We campaign. the expressed an interest in my met project. We in person at her office for about 45 minutes. My questions for her focused Maryland the about NARAL and from news the from on remembered what she passage of SB 162, as well as her memories from her Election Day pro-choice the to was connected experience Her work. volunteer about the role of role the about SB passing in eventually establishment political the of climate political 162 and the invaluable. were time the UMBC, Department Studies at ofchair Women’s + Gender the of Maryland the with chapter was a volunteer who National the during (NARAL) League Action Rights and Reproductive Abortion connected to Senator Hoffman by a professor at UMBC who knew the knew I was ballot. the to petitioned 6 when Question became that 162) SB who UMBC at professor a by Hoffman Senator to connected a for phone the on spoke I and Hoffman Senator senator. state former legislative the on focused her for questions My minutes. 30 over little offilibuster the the and of especially 1990 processes 1991, and 1990 insights Her sessions. legislative two the in strategy between change for less than an hour. While my interviews were shorter than most most shorter than were interviews my While an hour. than less for principle important most the to adhered they sessions, interview of history an oral in-depthwas “an goal their interview: of account Association). History (Oral reflections” and experience personal as to (referred legislation pro-choice ofthe sponsor lead the Hoffman, this research paper would be contributing new knowledge, rather rather knowledge, new contributing be would paper research this than aggregating and regurgitating official time the of and specificity project records the my to due Second, narratives. and popular ofconstraints history oral lasted interviews my interviewees, my
194 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 195 CAITLYN LEITER-MASON . - - - - Roe v. Wade Roe v. (1973), the Supreme Webster v. Reproductive Health v. Webster Roe v. Wade Roe v. opinion, ruling instead that they they that opinion, ruling instead Roe and the legality and the of late the from abortion Roe v. Wade Roe v. , when the Court started to back away from the trimester trimester the from back away to started Court the , when This pattern in 1989 with changed Before Before 1973, there was no national standard for states’ abor This diversity in sources ensures that this project does not not does project this that ensures in sources This diversity I also cite secondary data, collected from two main sources: main sources: two from collected secondary cite I also data, — to codify the 1973 protections into state law so that if the Supreme Supreme if the that so law state into protections 1973 the codify to — standards that were key to the the to key were that standards strict, and less a new, under restrictions abortion consider would (Segers and Byrnes standard viability fetal 5). This ruling scared in precedent change this that believed who activists pro-choice many of reversal outright in the culminate might eventually Maryland of in one including wave — a efforts inspired fear a Such cy. Many state governments opposed this decision and continued and continued decision this opposed governments state Many cy. regulation. through abortion to access women’s tryto and restrict Between 1973 and 1989, the Court rejected these attempts ofseries in cases. a Services tion policies. The of majority policies. tion any under abortion prohibited states their liberalize to beginning were states a few while circumstance, ruling on in their However, laws. a with interfere could not governments state that asserted Court of pregnan trimester a first the during abortion an to right woman’s LITERATURE REVIEW LITERATURE much on an oral history framework, draws research original my While of of disciplines the from came reviewed literature the science political These of bodies and legal studies. understand to me helped research the historical context and many of the macro-structures that influ of object the enced study. case my but but critically engages different types of knowledge of view holistic but complicated 1990 between events historical the produce to a the identify I could better understanding, new this and 1992. From of and lessons themes campaign. the across the state. The polling data from Gallup compares the public’s public’s the compares Gallup from The data polling state. the across on opinions to is important This data day. present 1990s the to early 1980s and moment. historical in the research my situate process political the about narrative a conventional simply reproduce electoral electoral data from the State Board of Elections and public opin important provides The data electoral Gallup. from ion poll results information about the success of Question 6 in different counties - - - - - In a study ofIn a study of presence the link between the democracy direct While the citizen approval of approval citizen the While in Maryland day election 162 on SB significant deviations from public opinion resulted in abortion policy abortion in resulted opinion public from deviations significant tools in a state’s constitution and that state’s abortion policy, Arcene policy, abortion state’s and that constitution in a state’s tools initia of and absence referenda or presence the simply that finds aux majority “the writing, difference, a makes constitution state’s a in tives of abortion have to predicted are states democracy non-direct these politics that are significantly differentfrom what they wouldbe if all, of not but Most, existed. and referenda initiatives statistically these allows allows public opinion to more significantly impact automatically up to set was not “government countersCarter that public policy, major that when particularly (317), people” of the will the implement when happens often is what which others’ limit to will is used ity rights, decide. to voters for ballot on the put is an abortion to right a woman’s policy; however, there are serious problems with using direct democ using direct with problems serious are there policy; however, racy to set abortion policy. In her legal analysis, Carter against of use the arguments identifies many of on issues referenda abortion, “dangersincluding the of “lack of majoritarianism,” education “lack ofand participation,” minorityto and “danger deliberation,” rights” (317-320). While proponents argue that direct democracy is considered a pro-choice victory, the fact that the issue appeared on appeared issue the that fact the victory, a pro-choice is considered was The referendum opponents. abortion was a victory ballot the for made progress undermine to meant pro-choice the and overturn to meant are and referendum initiative the In theory, legislators. by public engagement and improve citizen for opportunities increase direct democracy: an initiative allows citizens to propose legislation legislation propose to citizens allows an initiative democracy: direct to citizens allows and a referendum or reject, approve to voters for of piece a petition of hopes in ballot the to legislation passed already reproductive legislate to used been have Both tools it. overturning of number a in policy health activ anti-choice by often most states, abortion. to access on women’s limits place to seeking ists Center 1-2). Center AND POLICY-MAKING DIRECT DEMOCRACY history in this theme An important of use is the to democracy direct of tools two are and referendum The initiative abortion policy. set Court ever fully reversed their decision, women in individual states states in individual women decision, their reversed fully ever Court would still have some protections (Arceneaux codificationreferendum 376). closelyfollowed similar Maryland’s successes in both Strategy Initiative in 1991 (Ballot and Washington in 1990 Nevada
196 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 197 CAITLYN LEITER-MASON - - - - - Planned Planned in Roe v. Wade Roe v. influenced the timing oftiming the influenced and Maryland Webster , allowing for even more restrictive abortion regula abortion restrictive more even for , allowing Another Another significant influence comes nationalfrom special Liberties Union and local labor unions (Carney 54). The anti-choice anti-choice The 54). (Carney unions labor local and Union Liberties ofmillion dollars, three raised kNOw Coalition a signif Vote which in Maryland. However, Church Catholic the icant amount was from kind same ofthe in other key has been that force pro-life national electoral current in particularly campaigns, referenda abortion southern in the race. this in was absent battles and western states, firms run initiative andreferenda campaigns asthey do candidate races” (319). This danger did not seem to have had a by campaign was spearheaded impact in Maryland. The pro-choice significant of Marylandthe chapter million two over raised which NARAL, dollars for the campaign, recruited 7,000 over volunteers for Elec Civil American state the the like allies with and worked Day, tion interest groups. The of view idealistic groups. interest gives often democracy direct “an insidious campaigns can be referenda reality; pure to a less way form of of guise in the manipulation elite democra citizen-based cy” (Arceneaux 373). Carter also refers to this phenomenon as the and consultants which of by “professionalization democracy, direct ant factor was that 1992 was a presidential election year. Abortion Abortion year. election was a presidential 1992 was that factor ant the with lines, along party contest national in this attention received platform anti-abortion adopting a strongly and the Republicans platform. also election The presidential pro-choice a Democrats, been have would it than higher turnout voter was much that meant 21). Haider-Markel and (Roh 1994 in or 1990 in other other states’ pro-choice codificationefforts. In 1992,the Supreme pattern their continued Court of amending Casey v. Parenthood especially was a rallying factor, this case The around outrage tions. because Maryland’s referendum held that November was the first (Carney import 52). Another year that earlier ruling the after one NATIONAL INFLUENCES ON STATE ISSUES STATE ON INFLUENCES NATIONAL National influence on state elections comes in and Haider-Markel (Roh major two events and national groups interest national forms: 19). The in decision that was less restrictive than predicted” (Arceneaux 383). States that that States 383). (Arceneaux predicted” than restrictive less was that to right a woman’s protect to likely more are referenda for allow do not available tools democracy direct have that states whereas an abortion, laws. in their protections these have to likely less are citizens to - - -
contributed to this success. this to contributed of Maryland’s 24 county jurisdictions, including in 12 counties that that counties 12 in ofincluding jurisdictions, county 24 Maryland’s presi concurrent the Bush in H. W. George Republican supported Maryland the While election. dential did not coalition FOR Choice take victory for granted and organized a massive field operation, histor the culture, political Maryland’s to factors inherent many ofical context of state 1992, and the opinion on abortion public ENHANCERS: POLITICAL DYNAMICS POLITICAL DYNAMICS ENHANCERS: THE ERA AND OF MARYLAND On November 4, 1992, the supporters of Maryland FOR Choice ofsigh a breathe could won had coalition The pro-choice relief. the contest by 23.4 percentage points, with 61.7 percent voting for 17 in won 6 Question it. against voting percent 38.3 and 6 Question pro-choice activists and political leaders. While Question 6 ultimately 6 ultimately Question While leaders. and political activists pro-choice a more enhancers both and spoilers, studying by a landslide, by won feminist between tensions illustrates that story emerges complicated and leaders. institutions and political activism out as it did in Maryland. I have divided these themes into enhancers into themes these divided did in Maryland. it as out I have pro-choice the to contributed that factors were Enhancers spoilers. and in Maryland, a culture political the including success, electoral to the Spoilers refer context. historical and the opposition, disjointed hesitant including the campaign faced, pro-choice the that challenges between and a disconnect establishment Democratic the from support abortion and direct democracy manifested in a specific state contest. state specific a in manifested democracy direct and abortion EVIDENCE Examining both oral histories and secondary sources, I was able to 6 campaign turned Question the why explain that themes extrapolate compared to the broader theoretical research of research theoretical broader the to compared liter academic the of use my In addition, oral democracy. and direct on abortion ature add new that experiences and evidence pulls in original histories sources these Looking at narrative. conventional to the knowledge understanding a critical of provides together abortion Maryland’s about theories academic way the in-depth lookat a more politics and CONTRIBUTIONS TO THIS THIS TO CONTRIBUTIONS CONVERSATION This research, which focuses specifically electoral on processes the of legislative and Maryland’s codification, is a case study,
198 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 199 CAITLYN LEITER-MASON - - - - . Maryland was not among the four states that that states . Maryland four among the was not Roe Maryland’s Democratic advantage on its own probably could could probably on its own advantage Democratic Maryland’s The statewide victory for Question 6 was further strengthened strengthened 6 was further Question victoryThe for statewide Second, Democratic dominance in Marylandin dominance an is politics Democratic Second, have carried the victory, but it was the additional successes in Mary successes additional the was it but carried victory, the have win. Senator overwhelming the ensured that rural counties land’s Hoffman (D-BaltimoreCity), the original of importance the explained wins: additional these sponsor SB 162, of other 19 smaller counties, which all supported Bush in the presi Bush in the all supported which counties, 19 smaller other where County, Frederick 6. In Question for voted election, dential Bush won 59 percent of Question votes, 6 won with 53 percent of nearly Bush won counties, Anne’s and Queen In Talbot vote. the of60 percent 6 (“1992 Presidential Question — and so did vote the n.p.). Results” Election 6 scored huge wins: 70.1 percent of wins: 70.1 percent huge 6 scored in Montgomery County voters City, and Baltimore counties other 6, and in the Question for voted of 60 percent least at scored cause pro-choice the (“1992 vote the n.p.). Results” Election Presidential A majority of counties. Republican wins in Maryland’s some by the lation lies in Baltimore City and four central counties: Baltimore, Baltimore, counties: central four and City Baltimore in lies lation voters The Democratic George’s. and Prince Montgomery, Howard, ofresult the elec control statewide largely jurisdictions five these in while because, coalition pro-choice the for boded well which tions, and Democratic between correlation is a strong there perfect, not Question jurisdictions, major five these In identification. pro-choice 4). While this policy would ultimately be criticized needed state the reason 1990s as the in the advocates pro-choice and cited by if embrace limited, early, Maryland’s protections, abortion stronger of of is worthy abortion rights note. The of majority accepted popu and persistent reality. Maryland’s on abortion policy. Maryland ofwas one laws policy. on abortion have to 18 states of level some supporting Supreme the before access abortion in ruling Court’s repealed all restrictions to abortion, but it was among the 14 states of in cases abortion a or allowed that deformity, fetal incest, rape, (Seegers health and Byrnesor physical mental woman’s the risk to POLITICAL CULTURE OF MARYLAND OF POLITICAL CULTURE of main aspects to Two relevant are culture political Maryland’s of politics abortion the history First state’s is the 1990s. early the
- County was a dead heat!…Unless you [the opponents] opponents] [the you heat!…Unless dead was a County you areas, rural the in votes huge up rack to going were And so win. to able be to going not were opponents] [the kind of the actually was it in order was needed victory that [of question this have to up again. come not abortion] I think it’s [the Question 6 victory] fascinating because because 6 victory] Question [the fascinating it’s I think Calvert like surprised that counties some in me, even Coun against. than Caroline for was more there County, more…Cecil bit was a little County was split. Carroll ty Despite the anti-Question 6 campaign spending roughly three three roughly 6 campaign spending anti-Question the Despite clear clear whether Catholic voters, who make up a significant portion (Carney 59-60). the side, pro-choice the than a full million more million dollars, already divisions among the overcome to enough was not money of small numbers comparatively in Maryland. voters anti-abortion is less it leadership, Catholic by campaign was funded the And while to extreme, pro-abortion advocates. Perhaps because of because Perhaps advocates. pro-abortion nuance, this extreme, to from was disconnected Church, Catholic the by funded coalition, the extreme Maryland the both more and the Committee Life to Right (CARAL). The Against to Right Laws Abortion Radical Citizens reelection on Bush’s focusing too busy be to claimed Committee Life itself distanced intentionally kNOw Vote CARAL from and efforts, DISJOINTED OPPOSITION of disorganization 6 win was the Question the to Contributing the campaign kNOw Vote the glance, first At campaign. 6 anti-Question gained among Maryland traction voters. could have it like seemed anti- as staunchly themselves The present did not opposition alternative reasonable as the sold themselves they Instead, abortion. being put on the ballot do not have Maryland’s advantage. While While advantage. Maryland’s have not do ballot the on put being be in Maryland, successful been would it have 6 may Question in most tool as a pro-choice suggest to referendum the irresponsible states. other Because Because the Question 6 win ofquestion ended which in Maryland, rights abortion referendum, the up benefiting up effectively ended actually settling activists, anti-abortion by the initiated was Maryland’s later, 20 years Over movement. pro-choice Maryland’s abortion policy has not been significantly challenged. However, are rights abortion where states many climate, political in today’s
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- - - - - The other thing I really remember was the commercial commercial the was remember Thereally I thing other was it because it Carson Ben did…I remembered that of He, surprising. of hero a is course, American African commer simple was a very It in Baltimore. achievement “I’ve did the, it know you but on a stool, sitting cial, him just on newbornoperated is wrong.” this and…I know babies are the same ones that call me at midnight when their their when midnight at call me that ones same the are know, said, “You he So granddaughter in trouble.” gets some put should government the that think don’t I just was what that So law.” into philosophy religious body’s issue, this look at to tended people is that was so interesting mean would it what as it look at to tended certainly women of and a lot me, to daughterstheir and their at looked men had either and they experiences life own and their wives for or understanding or empathy compassion or sympathy did — I have And they didn’t. or they decisions women’s most of say to did. them I served in the legislature with…a very good Catholic and and good Catholic very with…a legislature in the I served the what know said, “Look, I He vote! he was a pro-choice grandmas same the that that and I know me, tells church sermon the at cheering no abortion about in church are Dr. Carole McCann, a volunteer with the Maryland the with FOR McCann, a volunteer Carole Dr. Another example ofexample Another opposi the among disjointedness the more City, in which Carson, dressed in scrubs, encouraged voters voters encouraged in scrubs, Carson, dressed in which City, more a tagline 6” with on Question vote they when duped’ be “‘not to Against 6” Question of bottom the at “Vote read that screen the (Banisky n.p.). advertisement: television memorable the campaign, described Choice separated from other anti-abortion organizations with greater greater with organizations anti-abortion other from separated reach. grassroots tion came in October 1992. kNOw The campaign Vote filmed an Carson. Ben The adver Dr. surgeon renowned with advertisement in Balti voters African-American to appeal was an obvious tisement The opposition campaign rejected the coalition approach that that approach coalition the The opposition campaign rejected Instead, embraced. 6 campaign successfully pro-Question the and money kNOw dependedon Catholic solely almost Vote of Maryland voters, were similarly supportive. Senator Hoffman Assembly: General in the debate initial the in this observed
- Roe Roe The Roe v. Wade Roe v. Webster v. Reproduc v. Webster in the near future. future. near in the added to this growing growing this to added Roe v. Wade Roe v. altogether. The legislative sponsors The legislative altogether. Planned Parenthood v. Casey v. Parenthood Planned Roe v. Wade Roe v. and that there was this unease that the Supreme Supreme the that unease was this there and that and , adding that he simply wanted to encourage citizens citizens encourage to simply he wanted that , adding and we would be stuck with our 1968 law that was pretty was pretty that our 1968 law with stuck be would and we What motivated me and Senator Hollinger was a really was a really Hollinger and Senator me motivated What women was providing that only thing the that fear strong was time in Maryland in reasonable abortion to access Wade v. Court would in effect come back and alter Regardless of was Regardless advertisement the beliefs, actual Carson’s a host ofa host eliminate or completely could delay that restrictions new began Activists an abortion. get ability to worry to that a woman’s the revoked that way in a decided be might case abortion next the in rights established of sponsor as lead realization this by action to catalyzed 162 were SB explains: City) (D-Baltimore Hoffman Senator Court was poised to overturn overturn to was poised Court in rulings the review, literature the in explored As tiveServices Health concern. to right the guaranteed had previously Court The Supreme during exceptions some with and trimester first the during abortion was permitting it rulings, new these With trimester. second the look strong. CONTEXT HISTORICAL abortion protected for battles and electoral legislative Maryland’s Supreme the that thought many when time a at place took rights “a major embarrassment for the Vote kNOw coalition” (Carney coalition” kNOw Vote the “a major embarrassment for of example 62), a highly visible disorganized best, at campaign’s, the smaller their with Combined operation. deceitful worst, at and, of numbers in, came results the before even supporters, potential of success for prospects the did not 6 campaign anti-Question the Against Question 6’ would be included in the ad,” Carsonthe in included be Against told Question 6’ would Sun Baltimore Campaign kNOw The Vote voting. before issue the research to back,fired alleging Carsonthat knewthe intent ofthe commerical to pressured” “greatly been have and must process the throughout n.p.). (Banisky recant Yet shortly after, Carson appeared at a press conference with with conference a press at Carson appeared after, shortly Yet of support apparent his Maryland recant to Choice FOR the a campaign make was not to “My intention campaign. anti-choice ‘Vote line tag the understand not did I fact, in And, that commercial.
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- - -
]. Roe v. Wade Roe v. overturned, with 33 percent wanting the
Roe v. Wade Roe v. dreadful…My sense was that we had [a] really strong pro- strong had [a] really we that was sense dreadful…My was worth it and and Senate House in the majority choice trying of rights codify [the to The ofalignment 1992 the with campaign referendum this fer nor the powerful Senate President Thomas V. “Mike” Miller, Miller, “Mike” Thomas V. President Senate powerful nor the fer FROM THE DEMOCRATIC ESTABLISHMENT THE DEMOCRATIC FROM believed Hollinger Paula Senator co-sponsor and Hoffman Senator pass to Senate and the House in the votes had the they that And techni session. 1990 legislative in the legislation pro-choice of support the asset: key one lacked they did. However, cally they Donald Schae William Governor Neither leadership. Democratic and feminist lobbyists and activists were significant. While they legislation, doom the ultimately did not relationships strained these efforts. frustrate and complicate did SUPPORT WARY ESTABLISHMENT AND FEMINIST LEADERSHIP ESTABLISHMENT leaders and activists pro-choice the succeeding, ultimately Despite in Maryland still faced challenges during their fight for anti-abortion the from not came obstacles these codifica Surprisingly, tion. internal Tensions from struggles allies. but ostensible with movement senators, female pro-choice leadership, political Maryland’s among The increased turnout in 1992 is important because in heavily turnoutTheincreased in heavily because in 1992 is important turnout Maryland, voter a greater Democratic a greater means coalition. pro-choice the turnout, for was important Democratic which TENSION BETWEEN THE SPOILERS: POLITICAL presidential presidential election led to a significantincrease two voter 1992, nearly In in years. non-presidential-election with compared turnout a turnoutmillion Marylanders polls, the to of went 81 percent. about 1.2 million voters barely earlier, years two just election in the However, n.p.). a turnout ballot, a cast of (“Abortion” 55 percent about only This fear was also reflected in public opinion polling from the time. time. the from polling opinion public in reflected also was This fear of 61 percent that reported In 1989, Gallup did not surveyed those see to want 1980s late no opinion. In the with and six percent decision reversed Court Supreme the that was worried public the 1990s, and early popular decision. this reverse would
- - - (Carney 56-57). Roe v. Wade Roe v. an aborted fetus to the death camps, to the gas the to cham camps, death the to fetus an aborted on and got went it pale…as the beyond That’s bers. uglier and uglier…. it [the filibuster] was personally so the and have names called be to and so awful wounding all that. know, you killer, imageryHolocaust baby and the tough. was It It was personal… I came in one day, and there was a was a and there It was personal…day, in one I came flier on everybody’s desk withphotographs comparing However, the initial neutrality of neutrality initial the leadership political the had However, the leadership’s neutrality and later reluctant support. reluctant and later neutrality leadership’s the come out in support of support in out come the how not sure “I’m explained, bill. She the conceded be that powers the that felt I just about. came referendum wouldn’t they and … ofthemselves off heat the get to referendum the of cost in the implicated be (McCann). rights” abortion supporting citi and aware an involved that fact the scenario, a likely While not by communicated ambivalence a palpable implies way this felt zen passage. By the end of end By the passage. and 162 has passed 1991, SB February of gainedhad Marylandregardless abortion an to right the women on verdict national the skepti feeling remembers and McCann year, a for success delayed of motivation true the cal about had they once even leadership, the bill had changed. Senators Hoffman and Hollingerwere taken off of After process. the leadership over took Senate the and bill the especially — man neither filibuster, ofyear’s embarrassment last the performance a repeat see to — wanted by President Senate the of support The opposition. the strong Miller President Senate ensured Senate, new the with combined Schaefer, and Governor Eventually Eventually the filibuster ended andthe bill Maryland and other NARAL 1990 elections, During the year. next tabled was the until anti-abortion four that ensure to hard worked activists pro-choice a supermajority securing seats, their lost Senators of pro-choice the strategy for legislative 1991, the January by Additionally, votes. what what would become one of the longest Maryland’s and Senator legislative history. Hoffmanrecalls ugliest one of filibustersin the offilibuster: days the worst Jr. took a public stance on the issue. Their attempt at neutrality neutrality at Their attempt issue. the on stance a public took Jr. a legislative for way the “paved issue women’s important on this Senate the in opposition support, their Without 55). (Carney fiasco” in days eight bill for up the held gained and Republicans traction
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There was a funny scene that happened in the lounge lounge in the happened that scene was a funny There name her and I know NARAL, from a lobbyist when through halfway already It’s it… telling I’m not but [the filibuster], and she was saying our strategy was all and I looked at and this do this to needed and we wrong run then ifher and said, “Listen policy, make to want you middle the in ones the we’re now right Because office. for of useful something have you unless So not. and you’re this add, go away.” to McCann McCann also recalled Democratic officialsactively trying change in strategy from 1990 to 1991. 1990 to in strategy from change the the bill away from Hoffman andthey Hollinger, also gave into minors for a notification parental required that provision compromise (Carney provider medical the by waived abortion unless an seeking law, notification weak fairly a be to understood generally While 57). about concern some was still community feminist the there from the with problem a larger represented compromise the whether The conflict was not justover political strategybut also about the of substance leadership took Democratic the when bill. In 1991, the the 1992 campaign, they came into conflict with the sponsors of sponsors the the with conflict into came they campaign, 1992 the of Part process. leadership political bill and the legislative in the this conflict came from a disconnect —the perspective from inside the system is differentthan the perspective ofthose pushing from the well: tension this remembers Hoffman outside. DISCONNECT BETWEEN DISCONNECT BETWEEN POLITICAL LEADERS AND FEMINIST ACTIVISTS facil in instrumental were operatives and lobbyists pro-choice While of defeat the itating election 1990 the in senators anti-abortion key of bulk the and did 1991 success the led to that in organizing the people…and then actively discourage me from participating,” she she participating,” from me discourage actively then people…and explained. Combined with the hands-offby approach Democratic leaders sincer the about questions raises anecdote this in 1990, ofity they that a cause for establishment political the support by favored. ostensibly to to interfere with her poll work for NARAL Maryland on Election things, two do to tried Committeeman “The Democratic Day. to things handing be so I wouldn’t engageconversation in me - - - - entitled “The Proper “The entitled Proper Washington Post Washington notification clause made a difference. Or if it was more I remember being at a meeting where Maryland NARAL Maryland NARAL where a meeting at being I remember parental the or not whether about talking were people we have more women than in typical state legislatures and and legislatures state in typical than women more have we this quiet should be common wisdom is women the now men…Of the irritate don’t so they year feel course we strongly about it [the parental notification clause]. We grace the for of but that know 17 or us at goes God there that. feel can’t 18. Men It’s a matter of a matter It’s of rights the negotiating men and women decision the be to it want they said have The citizens girls. of In Maryland Men. on this? vote to gets who So women. Ultimately, the pro-choice feminist establishment supported supported establishment feminist pro-choice the Ultimately, In an opinion piece in the in the piece opinion In an the the Senate leadership and the bill, even with the parental they when meeting a NARAL McCann remembers clause. cation notifi decision: this about talking were bill, saying that “[The abortion debate] got to be a macho, male-fe a macho, to be got “[The debate] abortion that bill, saying n.p.). again” (Tapscott that need don’t and we year, last thing male Maryland agreed, President the NARAL conceding “It’s that Even General and the there, out world a man’s still it’s but unfortunate n.p.). of (Tapscott reflective that” very is Assembly lady to go away, I didn’t care who the sponsor was. Did it make make Did it sponsor was. the who care I didn’t go away, to lady any difference? It didn’t. It signaled thatthe leadership was going The Chair was a good thing.” and this on this, hard push really to Mary (D-Montgomery Boergers Senator Caucus, of Women’s the that arguing time, the at press in the similarly responded County), the and for involved women the strategy in shift this for was better However, the women in the Senate and the leadership at NARAL NARAL leadership and the at Senate in the women the However, grateful that even and were clause the to strongly less responded Senator leadership the year. this by championed bill was being the explain by others and Smeal by critique the to responded Hoffman NARAL the I told Like help. don’t friends your “Sometimes ing, parental notification clause (Mann n.p.). She is quoted responding to to responding quoted is She n.p.). (Mann clause notification parental events: political the Role of Founda Majority Role Feminist Debate,” Abortion in the Men that move of the critical incredibly was Smeal Eleanor president tion this added and that Senate in the women from leadershiptook away
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- - We made ourselves annoying by also arguing for Medicaid Medicaid for also arguing by annoying ourselves made We at So agenda]. [the it on not was totally which coverage around was politics whole the students, the UMBC with it radical enough, isn’t this because participate should we full access. support doesn’t it because far enough go doesn’t show and less teeth, you know that it was worth it to get get to it worth was it that know you teeth, less and show — notification mild fairly a was it of because rest in the it if exempted personnelmedical were was it thought they interest. best in the not Across the country, abortion policies are being petitioned to the to petitioned being policies are abortion country, the Across ballot. Over 20 years later, the same tensions explored in this paperthis in explored tensions same the later, years 20 Over ballot. groups and between state-level feminist organizers and the national national and the organizers feminist state-level and between groups because destructive never These divisions were establishment. feminist deep too assured was practically success and because never were they in Maryland. states, In other advantage political on Democrats’ based damaging. more much could be rifts these however, state since 1992. However, upon further examination, the success is success the examination, upon further 1992. However, since state political male the when only passed Thebittersweet. legislation initial made only bill the and effort, the behind weight its put establishment it into law with a parental notification clauseattached,even though Maryland of is one Divisions country. in the states liberal most the interest feminist and officials elected between relationships threatened CONCLUSION 6 was a victory Question that is no question there sense, In a political win the explained, Hoffman Senator As movement. pro-choice the for Maryland for issue abortion the settled effectively it that large so was in our rights abortion to challenge serious had another not have We ers. bill during the 1991 legislative session and when it was brought to to brought was it and when session 1991 legislative bill during the were did arise in 1992. The that and tensions criticisms referendum representative of the larger conflictbetween the perspective that perspec and the change for system the inside working from comes oftive outside. the pushing from those The Feminist Student Union at UMBC along with the many other other many the UMBC along with Union at Student TheFeminist in Maryland activists new the up supporting ended pro-choice In fact, the most skepticism that McCann came across was from was from across McCann came skepticism most the In fact, that her students: - 2
15 Feb. 15 Feb.
Baltimore Sun Baltimore Abortion Politics Politics Abortion 91.305 (2011): (2011): 91.305
Ballot Initiative Ballot Initiative Guttmacher Guttmacher .” .” . Maryland.gov, n.d. Maryland.gov, . Washington Post Washington Roe 84.1 (March 2003): 15-32. 2003): (March 84.1 Roe v. Wade Roe v. 2.4 (2002): 372-387. (2002): 2.4 . Ed. Segers, Mary C. C. Mary Segers, Ed. . The History Oral 7 Feb 1991: D04. 1991: Feb 7 “All Politics is Not Local: National Local: National is Not Politics “All Boston University Law Review University Boston “Introduction: Abortion Politics Politics Abortion “Introduction: The of State Board Elections
Social Science Quarterly Social Washington Post Washington 27 October 1992. 27 October “Maryland: A Law Codifying “Maryland: A Law State Politics and Policy Quarterly Policy and Politics State Abortion Politics in American States in American Politics Abortion Baltimore Sun Baltimore Timothy A. Byrnes. Personal interview. 3 April 2014. April 3 interview. Personal “Male Senators in Md. Push Abortion Rights; Women Play Play Women Rights; Abortion in Md. Push Senators “Male . Ed. Segers, Mary C. and Timothy A. Byrnes. New York: M.E. M.E. York: New Byrnes. A. Timothy and C. Mary Segers, Ed. . “Direct Democracy and the Link Between Public Opinion and Opinion and Public Link Between and the Democracy “Direct n.p. Web. May 2014. May Web. n.p. Personal interview. 1 April 2014. April 1 interview. Personal Donald P. Haider-Markel. P. Donald and “The Voice of the Past: Oral History.” of“The Oral History.” Voice Past: the “Regulating Abortion Through Direct Democracy: The Democracy: of Liberty Direct Through Abortion “Regulating “Hopkins Doctor Disavows Ad Against Abortion Law.” Ad Against Law.” Abortion Disavows “Hopkins Doctor “Abortion Referendum Campaigns Heat Up Blacks Organize on Both on Both Up Blacks Organize Campaigns Heat Referendum “Abortion and Gallup,
“The Proper Role of Role “The Proper Debate.” Abortion in the Men . Ed. Perks, Robert, and Alistair Thomson. New York: Routledge, 2006. 2006. Routledge, York: New Thomson. Alistair and Robert, Perks, Ed. . and Timothy A. Byrnes. New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1995. 1-14. Print. 1-14. 1995. Inc., Sharpe, M.E. York: New Byrnes. A. Timothy and in American States in American Print. Inc., 1995. 51-68. Sharpe, of Moral Code the All Versus a Majority. State Abortion Policy.” Abortion Policy.” State ofSides issue.” the Web. 2 April 2014. April 2 Web. 25-31. Print. 25-31. Institute. New York: 1 March 2014. March 1 York: New Institute. Tension.” Ease to Role Quieter Reader 1991: B03. 1991: Initiatives.” Abortion in State Forces States.” in American Strategy Center. Washington D.C.: July 2012. July D.C.: Washington Strategy Center. 305-346. October 1992. October “State Policies in Brief: Abortion Policy in the Absence of Policy in Brief: Abortion Policies “State Carter, Molly E. Molly Carter, Arceneaux, Kevin. Arceneaux, Sandy. Banisky, Sandy. Banisky, BIBLIOGRAPHY Results.” Election Presidential “1992 “Abortion.” of abortion access is too important to their cause to let these differ should not and cannot Feminists action. paralyze and tensions ences in and field the in both tension this negotiating and recognizing stop tensions, living in the comfortable more become must but academia ways finding and ofperspectives, limitations both the acknowledging pursuit divisions in their the bridge to of policy. public best the still exist. These tensions are understandable — there is a difference difference a is there — understandable are These tensions exist. still theand system existing an to change bring to is done that work in the However, outside. the from change to system push that to done work issue the that recognize should feminists that illustrates study case this Tapscott, Richard. Tapscott, Paul. Thomson, Hoffman, Barbara. Hoffman, Mann, Judy. Carole. McCann, Johgho, Roh, Mary C., Segers, Carney, Elizabeth Newlin. Elizabeth Carney, “Brief History ofReferenda.” and Initiatives Related Abortion
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for their contributions their for to her research encouraging Forestiere for Carolyn and Dr. science.her research interests in political the Sondheim Public Affairs Scholars the Sondheim Public Program and the Honors College before She currently graduating 2014. in May works state politics and plans in local and in political science to pursue a Ph.D. American politics. in on women focusing her faculty adviser, to thank like She would her instruction for and support Bhatt, Amy Dr. she thanks Additionally, in GWST 495. Jodi Kelber-Kaye Carole McCann and Dr. Dr. Caitlyn Leiter-Mason studied both Political both Political studied Leiter-Mason Caitlyn Studies Women’s and Gender + Science of she was a member where at UMBC, AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR THE ROLE OF RpS9 IN RIBOSOME ASSEMBLY AND rRNA PROCESSING IN SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE
ALANA LESCURE Upon transferring to UMBC in fall 2012, I quickly determined that I wanted to participate in undergraduate research in the biology depart- ment. Shortly after I contacted and met with Dr. Lindahl, he agreed to mentor me. Dr. Lindahl introduced me to the project of graduate student Brian Gregory, who was studying ribosomal pro- teins in yeast. I collaborated with Dr. Lindahl and Brian Gregory to design a project that related to the lab’s interests. This paper was written as part of my Honors Capstone Course thesis require- ment, and it describes the research that I conduct- ed on ribosomal protein S9 (RpS9). Ribosomes are molecular machines that translate mRNA sequences into proteins. The yeast ribosome is composed of four ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and 79 ribosomal proteins. Repression of individual ribosomal protein expression has been shown to inhibit ribosome biogenesis, and the focus of my research has been to determine the role of RpS9 in ribosome biogenesis. Using various molecular biology techniques including western blot, north- ern blot, and sucrose gradient fractioning on yeast strains in which RpS9 expression is repressed, I have been able to identify the need for RpS9 in rRNA processing and ribosome subunit formation.
- Saccharomyces , is one of 33 ribosomal RPS9 ) leads to a buildup of a buildup to ) leads as precursors as well rRNA . Some 200 proteins and small RNAs that do not become become do not that and small RNAs proteins 200 . Some S. cerevisiae ( Research over the last several decades has provided significant significant provided has decades several last the over Research ongoing research. into mature rRNA, assembling ribosome structures, and transport structures, ribosome assembling rRNA, into mature precursorsing ribosome of out and Tollervey, (Fatica nucleus the 2002; Fromont-Racine et al., 2003; Henras, 2008; Woolford and Baserga, 2013). The complexity and number of ribosomal factors, of 79 r-proteins additional including the make ribosome, mature the and warrant fully understanding multifaceted, biogenesis ribosome of forming the in peptide the chain protein. of biogenesis the into insight recent more and bacteria, in ribosomes of process the describe to begun have studies in biogenesis ribosome S. cerevisiae pre-rRNA ofpart in converting involved are ribosome mature the the the small 40S subunit (SSU), composed of one rRNA and 33 the r-proteins, large 60S subunit (LSU), (18S) composed of and three and assemble to 25S) form5.8S, and (5S, 46 r-proteins, rRNAs the the decoding for The is responsible SSU molecule. 80S complete together, and tRNAs transcripts bringing mRNA by code genetic peptide bond formation catalyzes LSU the extension and the while to a loss of a loss to rate. formation in growth decrease and a subunit small INTRODUCTION sequences mRNA translate that machines molecular Ribosomes are of composed and are into proteins In eukaryotes, subunits. two assembly remains incomplete. This study shows through northern through shows This study incomplete. remains assembly staining of blue and methylene analysis blot transferred RNA total depletion the of that membranes to yeast in the RpS9 cerevisiae gradientprofiling sucrose ofloss Additionally, a rRNA. 18S mature depletion RpS9 leads that show characterization curve and growth RpS9, which is encoded by the gene gene the by is encoded which RpS9, of subunit small in the proteins studies Previous ribosome. yeast the when inhibited severely is biogenesis ribosome that shown have or small large the on either (r-proteins) individual ribosomal proteins of characterization the exact the depleted. However, are subunit roles of the differentr-proteins in rRNA processing and ribosome ABSTRACT
212 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 213 ALANA LESCURE - - - Ribosome biogenesis is highly conserved in eukaryotes in eukaryotes is biogenesis Ribosome conserved highly hairpinof structure Interestingly, 2011). al., et (Granneman ITS2 while another step enables processing one that show studies some later for required not steps are early some that show studies other al., et (Lamanna and Karbstein, 2011; Vos proceed to processing 2000). Denmat, Hermann-Le and Torchet 2004; the the early processing step of creating the 3′ end of the 35S (Kufel Rnt1p III endonuclease RNase the by is completed precursor rRNA the trimming for is responsible Rat1 The al., 1999). et exonuclease rRNA of 25S end 5′ formmature to the precursor rRNA 25.5S the been Nop15 and Cic1 have al., 2000). The et proteins (Geerlings formation of premature in preventing important be to shown the sequences include the 5′ external transcribed spacer (5′ ETS), inter ETS), (5′ spacer transcribed external 5′ the include sequences nal transcribed spacers 1 and 2 (ITS1 and ITS2), and the 3′ exter nal transcribed spacer (3′ ETS) (Figure 1) and (Woolford Baserga, 2013). Theof roles the factors200 non-ribosomal involved protein ofmany and studied, been have processing in rRNA functions their have been identified (Woolford and Baserga, 2013).For example, spacers. The 5S rRNA precursor is transcribed separately by RNA RNA by separately is transcribed precursor The rRNA 5S spacers. of III. Most polymerase steps the of in the occur maturation rRNA ofnucleolus and occurs nucleoplasm in the processing Further cells. occurs The cytoplasm. in the maturation processing subsequent a series of involves process cuts in the the 35S precursor to remove part of not are spacerstranscribed that These rRNAs. mature the (Tafforeau et (Tafforeau al.,2013). Itbegins withtranscription by RNA poly merase I of a 35S precursor molecule that includes the sequences as transcribed as well rRNA and 25S 5.8S, 18S, mature the for
- RNA
(MODIFIED FROM FROM (MODIFIED S. CEREVISIAE RNA PROCESSING IN PROCESSING RNA r the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. Sites of Sites cytoplasm. and the nucleoplasm the top in the indicated are processing with Arrows B2. and C1, C2, E, B1S, B1L, A3, A2, D, A1, A0, include and row cleavage endonucleolytic through occur that sites processing denote solid heads cleavage. exonucleolytic denote heads open with al., 2006). Arrows et (Faber nomenclature. standard with labeled are sites Processing SCHEME OF SCHEME AL., 2009). ET LINDAHL 1999; TOLLERVEY, AND VENEMA will what contains that unit transcriptional 35S the transcribes I polymerase III transcribes polymerase RNA 25S rRNA. and 5.8S, 18S, mature the become of Much direction. opposite in the separately precursor 5S the mat rRNA the of occurs nucleolus the in uration occurring in processing further with cell the and Baserga, 2013). Baserga, and et et al. (2013) found that after individually repressing 54 r-proteins, and 18 resulted 22 60S in arrest 40S r-proteins cell r-proteins cycle abnormal cases, and, in some morphogenesis. cell Additionally, of production the upsetting ribosomal factors and other r-proteins alters formation the of of or both one as well subunits ribosome the of processing proper the as prevents precursors (Woolford rRNA (2012), 64 of the 79 r-proteins are essential for cell growth. Based on on Based growth. cell for essential are r-proteins of79 64 the (2012), rRNA for important are information, this r-proteins that likely is it of transport assembly, ribosome precursors, ribosome processing, ofstabilization Various function. ribosome and proper subunits, the of expression the repressed have studies and r-proteins or more one the effectobserved on ribosome biogenesis and cell Thapa growth. As with non-ribosomal protein factors, research on the role of role on the research factors, protein non-ribosomal As with 79 the Steffen to According incomplete. is biogenesis ribosome in r-proteins FIGURE 1.
214 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 215 ALANA LESCURE - - - - - as a model organism may provide insight into the the into insight provide may organism as a model S. cerevisiae It is important to understand the role of understand to is important It role the and other r-proteins Repression ofRepression RpL10 that revealed RpL10 r-protein the Research Research on ribosome biogenesis and specific r-protein function using of and treatment propagation, causes, linked and diseases disorders a provides paper in this described The study defects. ribosome to understandingbetter of of role the by biogenesis RpS9 in ribosome 16 hours. for cells yeast depleting from RpS9 with defects in ribosome biogenesis. Additionally, cardiovascular cardiovascular Additionally, biogenesis. in ribosome defects with Diamond-Black as such disorders human genetic and rare disease all (SDS) syndrome and Shwachman-Diamond (DBA) fan Anemia associations with have and rDNA ribosome deficiencies (Leeet al., 2014; Hallgren et et al., al., 2014; 2014; Tsoi Hariharan and Suss man, 2014; Parlato and Liss, 2014; and Woolford Baserga, 2013). factors of because biogenesis in ribosome of importance the both of importance and the survival cell for ribosomefunction under defects ribosome from resulting human diseases various the standing and deficiencies.Neurological ataxias disorders and spinocerebellar (PD), disease (HD), Parkinson’s disease such Huntington’s as associated are aging, with associated as disorders (SCAs), as well play important roles in ribosome biogenesis in addition to mature mature to in addition ribosome biogenesis in roles important play as what to remain still Questions and stability. ribosome function partici studied, already those to in addition additional r-proteins, at a role play they and whether maturation precursor in rRNA pate process. stepsdistinct maturation in the more, RpS15 was found to be required for late maturation steps in maturation late for required be to was found RpS15 more, export nuclear precursors SSU make for competent that nucleus the of been Repression also 2004). has al., et r-proteins (Leger-Silvestre are suggesting r-proteins buildup, precursor rRNA with associated of al., 2005). processing et in the involved (Ferreira-Cerca rRNA of r-proteins many that hypothesized is it Thus, and LSU SSU the is required for the export of export the for is required nucleus the from subunit large the as a way in such interact RpL5 and RpL11 al., 2002). et (Johnson Further 1997). al., et Mager 1994; al., et (Tsay rRNA 5S stabilize to - - - - and and 600 of ~0.8- 600 gene expressed expressed gene RPS9 by transferring 0.714- of (as measured ~0.1 600 600 ofOD an to 30ºC at grown and 0.2 600 of 10-mL hours. 16 for them incubating 0.2 and of ~0.05 as measured with a 20+ SPECTRONIC 600 600 was measured with a Hitachi U-1100 spectrophotometer. spectrophotometer. U-1100 Hitachi a with was measured of ~0.35. Aliquots of 5.0 mL of 2% YEP-Gal as well as 600 600 readings taken every 2 hours. At the 8-hour time point, the the point, time 8-hour the At 2 hours. every taken readings Cultures Cultures for growth curves were grown for 16 hours at 30ºC Cultures for northern blots, western blots, and sucrose gradient and sucrose western northern for blots, Cultures blots, 600 plied by the dilution factor of factor dilution the by plied 7. OD controls (YEP-Gal cultures) had absorbances of ~0.7 OD of absorbances to diluted were OD ~0.1 mL aliquots of each culture to new tubes containing 4.286 mL of the analysis, statistical during this for account To medium. YEP-Gal of each for absorbance 8 hours after was multi readings control the in YEP-Gal medium, diluted to an OD with a Hitachi U-1100 spectrophotometer), and grown at 30ºC to an OD of aliquots 5.0-mL a to cultures yeast with inoculated were YPD OD starting 16 hours with for grown were The cultures spectrophotometer. 4ºC for use in RNA preparation. The remaining volume of 4ºC. at minutes 10 rpmeach for 8,000 at ice with down spun was culture 10 mL of with washed were pellets The resulting water, cold, sterile 8,000 rpm and spun at for tube, Falcon a new 15-mL to transferred -20ºC. at stored were cells pelleted All 4ºC. at minutes 10 diluted to an OD to diluted 1.0. OD Depletions of of each shifting by achieved were RpS9 cultures the 2% glucose) with 2% peptone, extract, (1% yeast medium a YPD to OD a starting ofaliquots 8,000 rpm at spun at 10 minutes for were culture each fication of the DNA between the galactose promoter and the r-pro the and of promoter galactose fication the between DNA the was performed gene tein Lindahl, and Lasse (Md. Shamsuzzaman results). unpublished analysis were grown overnight at 30ºC in a YEP-Gal medium (1% then galactose).2% were These cultures peptone, 2% extract, yeast The yeast strain Y259, as described by Ferreira-Cerca et al. (2005), al. (2005), et Ferreira-Cerca by as described Y259, strain The yeast (Carnegie Univer Mellon Woolford John Dr. by donated was kindly were RpS9 encoding genes chromosomal both In Y259, sity). a plasmid-borne with and replaced deleted of expression that verify was gene this To a galactose promoter. from of ampli PCR control the under promoter, galactose-inducible the MATERIALS AND AND METHODS MATERIALS CONDITIONS AND GROWTH YEAST STRAINS
216 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 217 ALANA LESCURE , 2 Cl, 12 Cl, 12 4 units as as units 260 OAc and 5.0 mL ofOAc 4 trace was collected using using collected was trace 260 O) under 2.5-mL layers of 40%, 2 H 2 , 1 mM DTT, d DTT, , 1 mM 2 EtOH EtOH and storing the solution at -20ºC, overnight or for 1 hour at Tris HCl pH Tris 7.4, 200 mM NaCl, 40 pH mM 8.0, Na-EDTA 10 g of 2.0% SDS) (Lindahl, 1992) times preheated to 3 90ºC. speed The highest tubes were the at vortexed and bath oil 90ºC a in reheated for 30 seconds each time. The top ~1.5-mL layer was transferred were acids Nucleic precipitation. EtOH for tube Falcon 15-mL a to adding by precipitated 400 μL of 10.5 M NH of at 5 minutes for centrifugation by cells the pelleting culture, rotor, JA-17 a with centrifuge J2-21 Beckman a in 4ºC at rpm 8,000 liquid supernatant, the decanting pelleted the and resuspending a to added in 1 mL ofcells were in water resuspended Cells water. 1.5 g of containing tube 2.0 glass acid-washed 0.5-mm Sigma beads, mL of phenol, water-saturated and 1.0 mL of TSEI-SDS (20 mM a flow colorimeter set to 260 nm. The A The nm. 260 to set colorimeter flow a software. PeakTrak AND ANALYSIS RNA NORTHERN PREPARATIONS mL 5 harvesting by prepared was cultures yeast from RNA Total JA-17 rotor. An aliquot of An aliquot rotor. 20 A to corresponding lysate JA-17 on was pipetted spectrophotometer Lite a NanoDrop by measured oftop of each The gradients. gradients sucrose 10-50% the were Optima Beckman a in 4ºC at hours 4 for rpm 40,000 at centrifuged XL-100 K ultracentrifuge with a SW 40 Ti Fractions rotor. were gradient an ISCO using collected with equipped system collection 100 mM NaCl, 50 μg/mL cycloheximide [in EtOH], 200 μg/mL lysed then ofμL were 62.5 Cells containing heparin) VRC. mM 10 by vortexing the cell suspension at maximum speed with 3.0 g of further were The lysates glass acid-washed 0.5-mm Sigma beads. diluted with another 1.25 mL of lysis buffer and centrifugedfor 5 minutes at 4ºC at 6,500 rpm in a Beckman J2-21 centrifuge with a mM MgCl Beckman in solution, gradient in each sucrose, 10% and 20%, 30%, stored were tubes the of addition the After tubes. SW40 layer, each at -20ºC for 15 minutes prior to application of the following layer. in cells pelleted resuspending by prepared were polysomes Yeast 1.25 mL of lysis buffer (50Tris mM HCl pH 7.5, 30 mM MgCl SUCROSE GRADIENTS SUCROSE 1.9 mL of layering by prepared gradients were Sucrose 50% sucrose 7, 50 mM NH pH acetate in gradient (50 mM Tris solution - - OAc and 1 mL of EtOH. The tube was stored overnight overnight stored was tube The ofEtOH. mL 1 and OAc 4 After crosslinking, the membrane was washed with ~20 mL mL ~20 with was washed membrane the crosslinking, After RNA was transferred under vacuum from the gel to an Amer to gel the from vacuum under was transferred RNA water until the water was no longer blue after rinsing. Following Following rinsing. after blue was no longer water the until water transfer. Crosslinking ofCrosslinking Amersham the onto Hybond-N transfer. RNA the (model UV Crosslinker Biotech in a Fisher was done membrane setting. crosslink” “optimal the on minutes 2 for FB-UVXL-1000) sodium M 0.3 blue, methylene of(0.02% mixture blue methylene a acetate pH 5.5) for 3 to 5 minutes and then rinsed with deionized minutes. The reactions were loaded and run on a 1% agarose gel for for gel and run on a 1% agarose loaded were The reactions minutes. 250 V. at minutes ~20 2 hours Appligene using a Boekel for membrane sham Hybond-N Blotter and Vacuum kept moist by pipetting 20x SSC (3 M NaCl, 300 mM trisodium citrate, HCl pH 7.0) onto the gel during the was done on samples using a NanoDrop Lite spectrophotometer. spectrophotometer. Lite using a NanoDrop on samples was done 20-μL samples containing 3.0 μg of purified RNA,the volume of ofμL 2 reading, spectrophotometer the using calculated was which in placed were μL) 20 to up reaction bring (to water and dye, loading reactions the thermal incubate to cycler C1000 Touch BIO-RAD a for 10 minutes at 95ºC. The samples then were cooled on ice for 5 liquid supernatant was removed, and the pellet was washed with 400 400 with washed was pellet the and removed, was supernatant liquid μL of 70% EtOH. The tube was then centrifuged for 15 minutes at 13,000 rpm at 4ºC in a Heraeus centrifuge. The Biofuge Fresco dried was vacuum pellet remaining and the liquid was decanted, The pellet concentrator. SpeedVac in a Savant minutes ~15 for was resuspended in 50 μL of A water. spectrophotometer reading speed and spun at room temperature for 5 minutes in a Heraeus in a Heraeus 5 minutes for temperature room and spun at speed the RNA, the precipitate further To microcentrifuge. Pico Biofuge of μL 80 with mixed and tube 1.5-mL a to transferred was layer top NH M 10.5 minutes 20 for centrifuged then and -80ºC, in hour 1 for or -20ºC, at at 13,000 rpm at 4ºC in a Heraeus centrifuge. The Biofuge Fresco 400 μL of a mixture of phenol, chloroform, and iso-amyl alcohol 20 seconds for vortexed was This mixture RNA. resuspended the to in 5 minutes for temperature room at and centrifuged high speed at was trans The layer top microcentrifuge. Pico Biofuge a Heraeus ferred to a 2-mL tube with 400 μL of a chloroform and iso-amyl high at 20 seconds for The was vortexed solution alcohol mixture. -80ºC. The precipitate was collected by centrifugation at 4ºC for 20 20 for 4ºC at centrifugation by collected was precipitate The -80ºC. rpm 8,000 at minutes a JA-17 with centrifuge J2-21 Beckman in a Theliquid supernatant was pellet and the was decanted, rotor. resuspended in 400 μL of The was RNA bypurified adding water.
218 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 219 ALANA LESCURE
- Kinase, and and Kinase, 4
O), resuspending the cells in 200 μL μL 200 in cells the resuspending O), 2 pH 6.8, 2.5x Denhardt’s Solution, 10% PEG PEG 10% Solution, Denhardt’s 2.5x 6.8, pH 4 O), which had been warmed for ~3 minutes in in minutes ~3 warmedfor been had which O), 2 H 2 P ATP, 12 μL of water, 1 μL of 30 units/mg T units/mg of30 μL 1 ofwater, μL 12 ATP, P 32 pH 6.8, 0.5% SDS) for 10 minutes in a hybridization oven oven in a hybridization 10 minutes for pH 6.8, 0.5% SDS) 4 O, lower Tris [4X], 30% acrylamide, 0.2% bisacrylamide, 10% 10% bisacrylamide, 0.2% acrylamide, 30% [4X], Tris lower O, 2 H 2 (d liquid supernatant was transferred to a new tube and spun for 20 liquid supernatant 20 and spun for tube a new to was transferred minutes at 13,000 rpm. 22.5 μL of protein extract was combined with 7.5 μL of 1.6x sample buffer (20 mL of 100% 5 glycerol, mL ofofmL 30 2-mercaptoethanol, ofmL 12.5 SDS, 10% Tris upper [4X]) in an Eppendorf tube and heated for 10 minutes 30 μL at of 95ºC. each sample was run on a 12% polyacrylamide lower gel The pelleted cells that had been stored at 80ºC mL 1 with twice cells washing by was extracted protein were Yeast ice. thawed on of Buffer A (20Tris mM HCl, 150KCl, mM 5 mM NaCl, 0.1% H glycerol, 10% X-100, Triton of Buffer A,vortexingthem and with glass beadsfor 15 at minutes the and minutes, 2 for rpm 13,000 at spun then was lysate The 4ºC. plastic bag, the membrane was exposed to a phosphor screen for for a phosphor screen to was exposed membrane the bag, plastic ofhours. minimum 4 a EXTRACTION YEAST PROTEIN AND WESTERN ANALYSIS BLOT by a Beckman LS Analyzer) was added to the hybridization tube tube hybridization the to was added Analyzer) LS a Beckman by and returned membrane the with Hybaid hybridization the to 37ºC. at Theto overnight probe membrane was oven then washed 20 mL of with twice wash (0.05 M NaCl, 0.02 M oligonucleotide NaPO sealed a in placed and wrap plastic in wrapped being After 37ºC. at at 37ºC and for 2 minutes at 68ºC. 30 μL of 1x TME STE was then then was ofμL STE 30 TME 68ºC. 1x at minutes 2 for and 37ºC at for reserved was mix of μL reaction 1 the mix. reaction the to added a radioactivity The reading. remaining 49 μL of the reaction mix spin column and spun G-25 MicroSpin an illustra onto was layered centrifuge. 2.8 rpm at 2 minutes Fresco Biofuge in a Heraeus for ofAbout 5 million CPM measured (radioactivity probe radioactive a 60ºC water bath. The probe was made by combining 2 μL ofμL 2 combining by made 10x was probe The bath. water 60ºC a TME, 1 μL of 20 mM spermidine, 1 μL of 2 μL (50 50 mM DTT, ofγ μCi) ofμL 1 that probes The oligonucleotide oligonucleotide. ng/μL 80 O1660, O1663, 6B). and TheO1680 (Figure used were reac were minutes 30 for thermal Genius cycler Techne a in run was mix tion methylene blue staining, the membrane was incubated for 1 hour at at hour 1 for incubated was membrane the staining, blue methylene 37ºC in a Hybaid with oven 10 mL of bufferhybridization (0.3 M mM NaPO NaCl, 20 d SDS, 6000, 1%
O, upper upper O, 2 H 2 S9 EXPRESSION S9 EXPRESSION p 16 hours (Figure 3). (Figure hours 16 the the effects of galactose-negative medium onthe growth of in galactose Cultures curve. a growth constructing by was done Y259 entire 2 hours the 1.5 to for every doublings regular showed medium from shifted were that cultures In contrast, experiment. 16-hour hours ~2.5 first the after once doubled medium glucose to galactose of rest the over rate growth in the had a decrease and then the of a galactose promoter. In order to characterize the growth growth the of characterize to In order a galactose promoter. formationand ribosome of onto Y259 was streaked strain, this galactose either containing agar or glucose plates as a carbon source. The plates were incubated at 30ºC for 48 hours. formed colonies there As expected, galactose the on but medium, was analysis of 2). Further (Figure glucose on the plate was no growth RESULTS OF R CONTROL GAL-PROMOTER THE PRESENCE OF GLUCOSE IN Y259 GROWTH DISRUPTS deleted, were RpS9 for genes chromosomal Y259, the strain In the control the on a plasmid under was placed RpS9A for and a gene with TBS. CDP-Star substrate was applied to the membrane, which which membrane, the to was applied substrate CDP-Star TBS. with was then incubated for 3 to 5 minutes. The blot was exposed to a phosphor screen for at least 4 hours and scanned using a STORM software. Control Scanner STORM and 860 phosphorimager 20, and 5% dry milk for 1 hour on a rocker followed by incubation incubation by followed hour on a rocker 1 20, and 5% dry for milk and TBST in or RpL5 primary RpS9 either with (rabbit) antibodies for was twice washed membrane the Next, 1 hour. 5% dry milk for 20 mL of with 10 minutes secondary the with and incubated TBS 20, and 0.1% Tween hour in TBS, 1 for anti-rabbit) (goat antibody minutes 20 for times 4 washed then was membrane The milk. dry 5% PVDF PVDF membrane at 4ºC for 1 hour at 400 mA in transfer buffer (25 base, mM 190 Tris mM 20% glycine, methanol) in a PAGEgel in methanol was rinsed membrane the transfer, After cell. transfer followed by 5 five-minute washes with 20 mL of TBST (137 mM 20, HCl pH 0.1% Tween base, 19 mM Tris NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, Tween 0.1% of mL TBS, 20 using blocked was membrane The 7.4). ammonium ammonium persulfate, TEMED) and stacking gel (d [4X], 30% Tris acrylamide, 0.8% bisacrylamide, 10% ammonium TEMED) Tris190 persulfate, in base, mM running (25buffer mM glycine, 0.1% SDS) at 30 mA. The gel was then transferred to a
220 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 221 ALANA LESCURE -
of OD was the 2 measurements of measurements plotted points 600
STRAINS WITH GALACTOSE GALACTOSE WITH STRAINS Y259 cultures were grown in either a a in either grown were Y259 cultures
S9. p of 0.1. The OD S. CEREVISIAE 600 S9 EXPRESSION INHIBITS COLONY GROWTH. COLONY INHIBITS EXPRESSION S9 p S9 ALTERS THE THE S9 ALTERS p of an OD ~0.7 to 600 GROWTH CURVE OF CURVE GROWTH R OF CONTROL PROMOTER was (OD) density Optical hours. 16 for medium YEP-galactose a or YPD of a wavelength 2 hours at every measured 600 nm. The log an 8 hours after diluted from were cultures Galactose y-axis. along the plotted OD DISRUPTION OF R OF DISRUPTION of control the under expression RpS9 with Strains were galactose the promoter medium (glucose) YPD a or (A) medium YEP-galactose a on either cultured carbon a as glucose with plate a on streaked Cells (B) 30ºC. at hours 48 for (B) colonies. grow did not source Time 0 on the x-axis is the time of time is the x-axis 0 on the Time glucose into dilution medium. after 8 hours for galactose cultures were multiplied by the dilution factor of factor dilution the by multiplied were galactose 8 hoursafter cultures for 7 to of trials. OD three average the represents point data Each data. the normalize FIGURE 3. FIGURE 2. were switched to a glucose medium for 16 hours, and the contents contents and the hours, 16 a glucose to for medium switched were REPRESSION OF R Y259 OF PROFILE SEDIMENTATION of absence the that wasIt hypothesized a disrup cause would RpS9 the disrupt therefore would and subunits of 40S formation the in tion formation of the effects of examine To the 80S ribosome complex. ofinhibition ofcultures RpS9, in galactose medium Y259 growing -
Whole-cell lysates from cells grown in in grown cells from lysates Whole-cell
S9 DEPLETION ON RIBOSOME SUBUNIT SUBUNIT RIBOSOME ON DEPLETION S9 p are indicated. (B) Asterisks denote fractions that require further study because because study further require that fractions denote (B) Asterisks indicated. are of (galactose) cultures. control in the peaks seen the from variability their EFFECTS OF R OF EFFECTS Y259 STRAINS.IN FORMATION 50% sucrose in 10% to sedimented galactoseeither (A) or glucose (B) were represent that (A) Peaks gradients analysis. sedimentation to and subjected polysomes and ribosome, 80S subunits, 60S and 40S the containing fractions FIGURE 4. Further analysis ofFurther gradient the characterize to is needed fractions peak. this sion of16 hours in glucose cells for growing by expression RpS9 resulted in an unusual profile (Figure 4B) comparedto the control There wasprofile. an apparentloss of 40S and production subunit in the a peak of buildup a possible Interestingly, subunits. 60S free corresponding region density in the RpS9-depleted appeared cells profile. control the in subunits 60S and 40S the between area the to of sucrose a on displayed were sample each from particles ribosome gradient (Figure 4). Extracts of Y259 grown and in 40S galactose the for medium peaks distinct with profile sedimentation a produced 60S subunits, 80S ribosome, and polysomes (Figure 4A). Repres
222 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 223 ALANA LESCURE - - - 25S 18S 10 Glu 9 Gal
8 Glu 7 Gal S9-DEPLETED CELLS S9-DEPLETED p Y259 strains were cultured in either galactose in either cultured Y259 strains were 6
Glu 5 RNA. Gal r 4 Glu 3 Gal METHYLENE BLUE STAINING OF TOTAL RNA EXTRACTS REVEALS REVEALS EXTRACTS RNA TOTAL OF STAINING METHYLENE BLUE 18S THE OF LOSS A and total 16 hours, for lanes) or glucose lanes) (even-numbered (odd-numbered transferred and vacuum gel was run on an agarose RNA was extracted. RNA with was stained membrane the northern Prior to analysis, blot a membrane. to transcription rRNA that revealed staining blue Methylene blue. methylene was depleted rRNA 18S the also that but is repressed, RpS9 when continues lanes). (even-numbered RNA PRECURSORS IN R IN PRECURSORS RNA r 2 Glu FIGURE 5. transcript (Figure 6B) (Lindahl, 2009). All three probes revealed a a revealed probes three 6B) (Lindahl, 2009). All (Figure transcript loss of repressed having after in Y259 cultures processing rRNA of expression loss a 2 showed 6A). Lane 16 hours (Figure for RpS9 of ofas a result precursor rRNA 7S the depletion. RpS9 Similarly, of a loss 6 lacked and lane 4 showed lane precursor, rRNA 20S the precursor. 27S the even-numbered lanes show total RNA levels from cells cultured in in cells cultured from levels RNA total show lanes even-numbered of Cultures YPD. a loss of show lanes) Y259 in glucose (even medium remains transcription rRNA that also show they but rRNA, 18S the precursors rRNA remain. rRNA 25S the bands for because active oligo radiolabeled with membrane the probing by detected were nucleotides complementary to differentnucleotides withinthe 35S from cells grown in either a galactose in either or a glucose grown cells was medium from Prior to a membrane. onto and transferred gel agarose run on an oligonucle radiolabeled with membrane cross-linked the incubating character to blue methylene with washed was membrane the otides, lanes 5). Odd-numbered (Figure levels transcription RNA total ize show total RNA levels from Y259 cultured in YEP-galactose, and NORTHERN ANALYSIS A REVEALS ANALYSIS BUILD-UP NORTHERN OF the effects of further investigate To RpS9 depletion, the total RNA 1 Gal 25S 18S Lane
-
RNA r Northern
S9 IN THE CELL S9 IN p RNA INTERMEDIATES. RNA r S9 PRODUCTION LEADS TO A LOSS IN A LOSS IN TO LEADS S9 PRODUCTION RNA INTERMEDIATES REVEALS A LOSS OF LOSS A REVEALS INTERMEDIATES RNA r p (odd-numbered lanes) or YPD (even-numbered lanes) for 16 hours, and total and total 16 hours, for lanes) (even-numbered or YPD lanes) (odd-numbered 4 lane precursor, rRNA of 7S loss the a shows 2 Lane analyzed. was RNA a loss of precursor. 27S shows 6 lacks the and lane precursor, rRNA 20S the less be to bands the causes it and apparent, is noise background Significant be will steps and optimal, not were used buffers the that possible is It clear. clarity of the improve trials to in future taken (B) A map of bands. the the 35S the on probes of oligonucleotide sites the binding complementary 2009). Lindahl, by (as presented transcript pre-rRNA PROBING FOR PROBING OF BUILDUP A AND PROCESSING analysis of was performed Y259 strains oligonucleotides using radiolabeled complementary of segments to nucleo the to precursors according rRNA YEP-galactose either in grown were cultures Y259 (A) (B). in indicated tides cultures grown in YPD after probing with anti-RpS9 antibodies antibodies anti-RpS9 with probing after in YPD grown cultures did not however, antibodies, anti-RpL5 with 7B). Probing (Figure of amount the in decrease any reveal extracts cell the in RpL5 7A). (Figure REPRESSION OF R EXISTING R OF AVAILABILITY OVERALL blot analysis Western was performed on the proteins purified from YEP-galactose or YPD of either in lysates cultured whole-cell Y259 in signal was observed in RpS9 7). A decrease 16 hours (Figure for FIGURE 6.
224 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 225 ALANA LESCURE
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S. cerevisiae S. 2 4 Glu Glu Cultures ofCultures in either grown were Y259 1 3 Gal Gal Lane Lane RpL5 RpS9 A. B. (Figure 2B). Growth in liquid YPD was monitored over over was monitored in liquid YPD Growth 2B). (Figure YPD (lanes 2 and 4) or YEP-galactose (lanes 1 and 3) for 16 hours. Anti-rab hours. 16 for 3) and 1 (lanes YEP-galactose or 4) and 2 (lanes YPD (A) used. (B) primary RpS9 were antibodies RpL5 (A) and anti-rabbit bit antibody. the by detection RpL5 on effect no had expression RpS9 Repressing of(B) Repression in a decrease to led galactose the promoter through RPS9 non-specific be to thought is 3 lane in band lower The 4). (lane protein RpS9 epitope S9 with the N-terminal (the cross-reaction to due 20 amino acids). WHOLE-CELL LYSATES OF Y259. OF LYSATES WHOLE-CELL WESTERN BLOT ANALYSIS OF PROTEIN EXTRACTS FROM FROM EXTRACTS PROTEIN OF ANALYSIS BLOT WESTERN
In Y259, the gene for RpS9 is under the control of control the is under RpS9 for gene In Y259, the galac the S. cerevisiae growth, ribosome assembly, and rRNA processing. and rRNA assembly, ribosome growth, done prior to confirmedthe current study and work tose promoter, of expression that of absence in the ceases RpS9 galactose (Thapa et al., 2013). Y259 colonies did not form on a solid YPD medium after 48 hours, revealing that RpS9 is essential for the growth of are reportedly dispensable, but the majority of majority the but are proteins dispensable, 40S reportedly the are ofand maturation processing the for required as well rRNA 18S the of transport nuclear and assembly ribosome for as ribosome the Baserga, and Woolford 2005; (Ferreira-Cerca, particles precursor 2013). The current study provides evidence that the small subunit cell for required r-proteins eukaryotic is among the RpS9 protein DISCUSSION of survival and growth in the role important an play R-proteins cells in r-proteins subunit small of 33 few the A 2012). (Steffen, FIGURE 7. - - - - intermediates occurred less frequently, which which intermediates frequently, less occurred 2 Using probes mapped to nucleotides on the 35S pre-rRNA Methylene blue staining and northern staining blue analysis of blot Methylene RNA The results presented here agree of those with here presented Theresults studies previous 7S, 20S, and 27SA 20S, 7S, that rRNA transcription remained on and that rRNA processing processing rRNA on and that remained transcription rRNA that was inhibited. was determined 6B), it (Figure transcript depletion of that RpS9 in a loss ofresults 6A). When steps (Figure processing rRNA several ofexpression of processing 16 hours, for down was shut RpS9 the ylene blue staining revealed a consistent loss of a consistent revealed staining blue ylene in rRNA 18S the all of lanes). 5, even-numbered (Figure in YPD grown cultures the of is in agreementThis results with result in which studies previous in a decrease to led r-proteins knocking out individual small subunit did levels al., 2005). The et rRNA 25S (Ferreira-Cerca rRNA 18S suggests which YPD, to shifted were cultures the when change not not undergo complete processing without RpS9. Future experiments experiments Future RpS9. without processing complete undergo not cytometricflow analysis and probing gradient fractions will involve structures. these identify to components and protein rRNA for repressed had been expression RpS9 in which cells from extracted permittedof study of Meth effects the processing. rRNA on RpS9 glucose an abnormal yielded fraction the to corresponded that peak by (denoted profile control the in subunits 60S and 40S the between a contains also 4B Figure in peak 60S The 4B). Figure in asterisk an ofis that “shoulder” ofanalysis Further 80S*). by (denoted interest is possible It composition. classify their to is needed fractions these that contain they an unidentified small precursor subunit that does ribosome (Pérez-Fernandez, 2007; Woolford and Baserga, 2013). yield YEP-galactose of in profiling cultured gradient Y259 Sucrose ed distinct peaks for the 40S and 60S complete subunits, 80S ribo YPD in grown Y259 contrast, In 4A). (Figure polysomes and some, ofloss ofa buildup showed hoursa 16 and for subunit 40S the free 60S subunits (Figure 4B). Furthermore, extracts of Y259 grown in doubling and continued growth of growth and continued doubling likely was due cultures YPD the of presence the to shift the before synthesized were that ribosomes glucose. to of importance the demonstrate they in that r-proteins, subunit small formation in the RpS9, ofparticularly and mature small subunit the the coursethe of liquid from shifted 16 hours were colonies the after galactose medium. While the number of Y259 cells in YEP-galac of rate growth the hours, 1.5-2 every double to continued tose Y259 decreased gradually after the shift to YPD (Figure 3). The initial
226 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 227 ALANA LESCURE
- - goes down, while the the while down, goes 2 , by changing either the pathway or the kinetics of kinetics or the pathway the either changing , by the 3 In summary, these In findingssummary, confirm the importance of RpS9 Western blotting for RpS9 revealed a loss of RpS9 revealed for blotting Western in RpS9 the stable and A 2 particles described here (Figure 4B). (Figure here described particles elucidate the exact function of function exact the elucidate Future biogenesis. in ribosome RpS9 regions other for RpS9-depleted cultures probing involve will work sites processing which precursors exactly identify to rRNA within are affectedby the absence ofwest RpS9 (Figure 1). Additionally, ern and northern of analyses blot gradient will be fractions sucrose performeddetermine to of composition protein the abnormalthe and its continued expression for rRNA processing, small subunit small subunit processing, rRNA for expression continued and its expression RpS9 Discontinuing formation, proliferation. and cell of abundance in the a decrease causes interruption RpS9; existing ofof loss the processing; rRNA 27S and 20S, 7S, in or change the 40S subunit; and cell death. Further studies will be necessary to because of previous studies finding RpL5 linked to pathways other as the apoptosis pathway such than ribosome biosynthesis pathways, other with associate to known is RpL5 Because 2012). al., et (Bursać not decrease would its levels that was expected it cell, in the pathways ofupon repression were RpL5 levels As expected, expression. RpS9 7). (Figure media YEP-galactose and YPD in same the form a reserve of formreserve a immediately not are that ribosomal proteins free hypothesis, this to According ribosome. with an active associated as loss of such stress, undergoes cell the when the expression, RpS9 use of to make better reserves degradescell its r-protein amino the for explanation possible a is This 2012). al., et (Bursać elsewhere acids RpL5, was chosen The r-protein, second 7B. in Figure seen results the (Woolford and Baserga, 2013). In this study, the loss ofsynthe loss newly the study, this In 2013). Baserga, and (Woolford sized RpS9 appears to affectthe cleaving of ITS1, possiblyat sites A canonical pathway. cells healthy 7B). It has been suggestedthat (Figure Y259 cultures RpS9 repression. Comparison with the processing scheme in in scheme processing the Comparison with repression. RpS9 ofabundance the that 1 shows Figure 27SA abundance of 27SB does not. This finding associate agrees r-proteins SSU and other RpS9 suggest that that studies with previous with the 18S region of the 35S pre-rRNA transcript and help the in ITS1 conformation, particularly proper the into fold rRNA suggests that RpS9 has more than one role in rRNA processing and and processing in rRNA role one than has more RpS9 suggests that transcript 27S The 6). and 4, 2, lanes 6A, (Figure assembly ribosome is repressed, synthesis RpS9 when O1660 is unchanged with probed under reduced O1680 is strongly by visualized band 27S the while -
2005. 2005.
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to thank Dr. Laurie introducing her Host for to thank Dr. to research and encouraging her to pursue it further. this project, and Drs. Richard Wolf and Thomas Thomas and Wolf Richard Drs. and this project, their criticalCronin for document. reading of this Wagner Cynthia to thank Dr. also like She would excellent advising and support her for during like Alana would Finally, her time at UMBC. Maryland. Alana thanks Dr. John Woolford Woolford John thanks Dr. Alana Maryland. at Carnegie Mellon University donating for Lasse Lindahl and Dr. Y259, strainthe yeast Brian Gregory their mentorship for throughout over the past year and a half. She graduated and a half. the past year over 2014 with a Bachelor from UMBC in December She is currently Sciences. of Science in Biological Associate at the Lieber as a Research employed Brain in Baltimore, Institute for Development her sophomore year from Harford Community Community from Harford year her sophomore workingAlana began 2013, In May College. under the guidance Lasse Lindahl in the lab of Dr. both of whom candidate Brian Gregory, of Ph.D. their trainingshe thanks for and mentorship Alana Lescure transferredAlana Lescure during to UMBC AUTHOR BIO AUTHOR
230 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 EDITORS AND DESIGNER BIOGRAPHIES
BENJAMIN WOODWORTH CAMERON RHODE DANIEL GROVE
233 BENJAMIN WOODWORTH , - UMBC Review to thank the editors’ faculty mentor, Dr. Susan McDonough, whose whose McDonough, Susan Dr. editors’ the thank to mentor, faculty and great problems out working was crucial to and guidance advice process. editorial during the arose small that in general, and will continue to pursue these along with his research pursue to his research along with these will continue and in general, Janet thank to like would 2015. Benjamin graduatingafter May in McGlynn, Fick Devon and the entire staff ofthe Office Under of graduate Education for their Cameron STEM, in co-editor His process. editorial the throughout technical support and like would he Finally, aspects. in all helpful very has also been Rhode, guidance Benjamin Woodworth is a member of is a member Woodworth Benjamin Honors the at College department the in a student UMBC and of Modern Languages, the on focuses he where Communication & Intercultural Linguistics arts, the for editor As the of languages. study and French Russian the of16 Volume in sciences social and humanities the and publishing process editorial in the an interest he has developed BENJAMIN WOODWORTH BENJAMIN EDITOR
- UMBC Review , he has worked for two federal government agencies: agencies: government federal two for has worked , he technician technician for OUE. Michael’s hard work on the of creation the facilitated greatly website and is very volume this much appreciated. Cameron looks forward to working as STEM year. next again Editor to to the Office of Undergraduate Education (OUE) for itstremen McGlynn, whose This Janet includes publication. in this dous pride mastery of of aspects and technical logistic the publication the during editing insight substantial and valuable — including process Cameron whom to colleague Another welcome. — was always website as the works who Mower, his gratitude is Michael extends first year as STEMEditor. of knowledge her thorough for McDonough, Susan Dr. the He first thanks his advisor, also He it. throughout support faculty eagerly-given and process entire editor fellow to, and is thankful alongside, working enjoyed greatly to led and diligence amiability whose Woodworth, Benjamin a natural, effective collaboration. Cameron extremely is thankful Cameron Rhode is a junior biological sciences major, Spanish Spanish major, sciences is a junior biological Rhode Cameron of and member minor, the to In addition Honors the College. UMBC Review of Institutes National the Safety Product Consumer the and Health capable, a more for asked have could not Commission. Cameron during his work to which with team and enthusiastic dedicated, CAMERON RHODE CAMERON EDITOR
234 UMBC REVIEW 2015 vol.16 235 BENJAMIN WOODWORTH
UMBC UMBC , and that students will continue to to will continue students , and that UMBC Review , and is grateful for the opportunity of opportunity the , and is grateful for student year’s being this for all offor his thanks extend to also like would He work. hard their and persistence, dedication, her Abraham for Guenet mentor to learn further to chance as giving him the well as and guidance, this will enjoy readers that hopes He skills. his design strengthen ofedition the come. to editions future for work submit their Daniel Grove is graduating in May 2015 with a Bachelor of a Bachelor 2015 with is graduating in May Grove Daniel Fine Arts in graphic design of edition previous the for assistant design was the Daniel and the a certificate in webReview development. experience. rewarding yet a challenging, has been as it designer, of creation in the involved everyone thank to wishes He edition this DANIEL GROVE DANIEL DESIGNER
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