ASM Handbook, Volume 14A: Metalworking: Bulk Forming Copyright © 2005 ASM International® S.L. Semiatin, editor, p405-418 All rights reserved. DOI: 10.1361/asmhba0004005 www.asminternational.org Cold Extrusion Revised by Murali Bhupatiraju, Metaldyne and Robert Greczanik, American Axle and Manufacturing COLD EXTRUSION is a push-through com- hardening (strengthening), and grain flow or Backward extrusion: pressive forming process with the starting directional strengthening. Compared to other n R material (billet/slug) at room temperature. Dur- forging operations cold extrusion is particularly Pb=0:4[sys+K( ln R) ](ab+bb ln R) ing the process, however, the deforming material attractive for the following reasons: dimensional R71 undergoes deformation heating (conversion of precision, superior surface finish, net-shaped where deformation work to heat) to several hundred features, lower energy consumption, higher degrees. Typically, a punch is used to apply production rates, and cleaner work environment. a af=1:15 7 cot a +4my pressure to the billet enclosed, partially or com- Drawbacks of cold extrusion are higher loads, 57:3 sin2 a pletely, in a stationary die. Aluminum and alu- lubrication cost, limited deformation, and lim- minum alloys, copper and copper alloys, carbon ited shape complexity. and steels, alloy steels, and stainless steels can be b : : R cold extruded. f ¼ 1 1 þ mð1 þ 0 5 ln Þ cot a Based on the punch and die design and the resulting material flow, cold extrusion can be Extrusion Pressure where ab =0.28; bb =2.36; s is the 0.2% yield classified into three primary processes: forward strength, psi; K is the true flow strength at unit extrusion, backward extrusion, and lateral The punch pressure in extrusion depends on strain, psi; R is the extrusion ratio; n is the strain- extrusion. In forward extrusion, the material the flow stress of the material being extruded, the hardening exponent; m is the coefficient of fric- flows in the same direction as the punch dis- degree of deformation (strain), billet geometry, tion; Z is the ratio of preform length to die bore placement. In forward extrusion, the diameter billet/die interface friction, and die design. diameter at entry; a is the die half angle, degrees; of a rod or tube is reduced by forcing it through Punch speed available in conventional presses and y is the ratio of length to diameter for the an orifice in a die (Fig. 1a). In backward extru- has little effect on extrusion pressure. Punch extrusion die land. sion, the material flows in the opposite direction speed, however, affects the extrusion process in Nomograms and empirical equations have of the punch displacement. The billet is enclosed other ways: tool heating, lubricant deterioration, traditionally been used to calculate extrusion in a die and is forced to flow backward through and dynamic loading. Hardness of the material is pressure; more recently, however, finite-element the annular region between the punch and the representative of its flow stress, and conse- analysis has provided another method for esti- die (Fig. 1b). Backward extrusion is differ- quently softer materials require lower extrusion mation of extrusion pressure especially for entiated from impact extrusion where typically a pressure. Thermal softening processes of complex shapes. Figure 3 shows that extrusion nonferrous material is extruded backward by a annealing and normalizing also reduce extrusion pressure increases with extrusion ratio. It also rapidly moving punch and a shallow die with pressure. Apart from hardness, the degree of shows that extrusion ratio has a larger effect on minimal material contact. Forward and back- deformation has the greatest impact on extrusion ram pressure in the forward extrusion of carbon ward extrusion can also be simultaneously pressure and is expressed as either extrusion ratio steel than either carbon content or type of achieved through die design (Fig. 1c). In lateral R or reduction ratio r: annealing treatment. Figure 4 illustrates the extrusion, the material flows perpendicular to the effect of tensile strength on extrudability in terms direction of punch displacement. The material is A0 of ram pressure for both the backward and for- R= enclosed by the die and the punch and is forced Af ward extrusion of low-carbon and medium- through radially placed orifices (Fig. 1d). Hooker carbon steels of the 1000, 1100, and 1500 series extrusion is a variation of the forward extrusion A07Af at different extrusion ratios. r= ·100 process where a tubular billet is forced through a A0 forward extrusion die with a punch that acts as a pusher and a mandrel to reduce the outer dia- where A0 is the initial cross-sectional area and Af Steel for Cold Extrusion meter and elongate the tubular portion (Fig. 1e). is the final cross-sectional area. Although not strictly a compressive forming Billet geometry factors such as length- Carbon steels up to 0.3% C can be easily cold operation, draw wiping or ironing is also com- to-diameter ratio are significant in forward extruded. Higher-carbon steels up to 0.5% C can monly used as a cold extrusion process. In iron- extrusion. Die design aspects such as die entry also be extruded, but the extrusion ratios are ing, the wall thickness of a tubular billet is angle (forward extrusion) and punch geometry limited and spheroidize annealing may be reduced by forcing it under tension (and or (backward extrusion) also affect extrusion pres- required. Backward extrusion generally requires compression) through a die similar to a forward sure. Bethlehem Steel developed the following spheroidize annealing for both low- and high- extrusion die (Fig. 1f). Figure 2 shows various equations for extrusion pressure: carbon steels. Alloy steels are harder than parts made by these cold forging operations. Forward extrusion: their carbon steel counterparts and hence Cold extrusion, being a forging operation, has require higher pressures for extrusion. They also n 4mZ the typical advantages of material savings, work Pf ¼ 0:5½sys þ Kðln RÞ ðaf þ bf ln RÞðe Þ work harden more rapidly, thus limiting their 406 / Cold Heading and Cold Extrusion extrudability and intermediate annealing is often desirable for cold extrusion. Free-cutting resul- (chevrons). Killed steels are specified for cold required to restore extrudability. Alloying ele- furized steels also have lower forgeability than forging to ensure homogeneous structure. Alu- ments differ in their effects on strength and their carbon steel counterparts, as they are more minum-killed steel is preferred over silicon-kil- hardenability. If possible, it is desirable to susceptible to rupture during cold forging due to led steel for difficult extrusions due to the choose alloying elements so as to minimize their higher occurrence of sulfide inclusions. reduction in strain hardening and reduction in strengthening while achieving the required Sulfur is typically limited to 0.02%. Low-carbon strain aging achieved. Silicon is kept in the low hardenability: for example, boron increases resulfurized steels can be extruded if care is range of 0.2%. Silicon-killed steels, however, hardenability with minimal strengthening. Steels taken to keep metal in compression throughout have better surface quality, which might be cri- in the AISI 4000, 4100, 5000, 5100, 8600, and the process. Internal purity of steel is critical in tical in any postextrusion operations. Seams, 8700 series can be cold extruded without diffi- cold extrusion especially at high extrusion ratios. laps, and scratches on steel surface can be tol- culty up to 0.35% C. The AISI 4300, 4600, and Central segregations increase the tendency for erated up to 1% of the bar diameter if cold 4800 steels are more difficult to extrude and less internal fracture along the axis of the extrusion extrusions are machined at the surface. However, if net-shaped features are being cold extruded, then the seams and laps have to be removed prior to forging by peeling or turning the steel bars. Although cold extrusion is a compressive pro- cess, it is typically preceded or followed by processes of cold heading and heat treatments, which require defect-free surfaces. The steel manufacturer often certifies steels meeting the cold extrusion requirements as “cold extrusion quality” or “cold working quality.” To ensure surface quality of steel hot-scarfing during semifinshed state (blooms) and eddy-current testing in the finished state (bars) is sometimes required. Steel bars are available as normal hot rolled, precision hot rolled and cold finished. Normal hot-rolled bar is made to standard AISI toler- ances and is the least costly form of steel for making slugs. It is also likely to have deeper surface seams and greater depth of decarburized layers. In addition, the variation in the outside diameter of hot-rolled bars will cause consider- able variation in weight or volume of the (a) (b) (c) slug, despite close control in cutting to length. Whether or not the surface seams and decarbur- ization can be tolerated depends largely on the severity of extrusion and the quality require- ments of the extruded part. In many applications, acceptable extrusions can be produced with slugs cut from hot-rolled bars. Precision hot-rolled bars have 50% better tolerances on size than normal hot-rolled bars and smaller decarburiza- tion layer. These bars are made by performing a special precision-sizing operation during hot rolling. Cold-finished bars are made by taking the hot- rolled bar through a costly series of cold-drawing steps to give them tighter dimensional tolerances (25% of normal hot-rolled bar tolerances). Therefore, the size variation in cold-finished bars is considerably less than that in hot-finished bars. However, some seams and decarburization will also be present in cold-finished bar stock unless removed by grinding, turning, or other means. Some users gain the advantage of cold-drawn bars by passing hot-rolled bars or rods through a (d) (e) (f) cold-drawing attachment directly ahead of the slug-cutting operation.