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University Microfilms International 300 N. ZEEB RD., ANN ARBOR. Ml 48106 8207236
Norton, Lloyd Darrell
LOESS DISTRIBUTION AND PEDOGENESIS OF LOESS-DERIVED SOILS IN EAST-CENTRAL OHIO
The Ohio State University Ph.D. 1981
University Microfilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, M I 48106 Copyright by
Lloyd Darrell Norton
1981 LOESS DISTRIBUTION AND PEDOGENESIS
OF LOESS-DERIVED SOILS
IN EAST-CENTRAL OHIO
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfullment of the Requirements for
the Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of the Ohio State University
by
Lloyd Darrell Norton
*****
The Ohio State University
1981
Reading Committee: Approved by
Dr. G. F. Hall ______Adv'iser Dr. N. E. Smeck Department of Agronomy
Dr. J. M. Bigham ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people, too numerable to mention here, were
instrumental in the initiation, and the conduction of the
work which has led to the completion of this dissertation.
I sincerely thank members of the reading committee: Dr.
George F. Hall, advisor; Dr. J. M. Bigham, and Dr.
Neil E. Smeck for their effort in reviewing this
dissertation, and their constructive guidance through the
years. In addition I would also like to thank Dr. Ian
Whillans for serving along with the reading committee on my
graduate committee. I also thank the many people directly
involved in the soil survey program in Ohio for their help and suggestions, and especially the individuals involved in
the soil characterization, and mineralogy laboratories at
Ohio State University, whose labors afforded time to
concentrate efforts on other problems. Special thanks go to
Mickey Ransom, Martin Shipitalo, and William Jaynes for
their help in performing analyses, and their intellectual discussions.
I gratefully acknowledge financial support received to support this research from a Graduate School Alumni Research
Award, and from various projects to the Agronomy Department
ii from the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center.
I also appreciate the use of the computer facilities of the
Instructional and Research Computer Center at Ohio State
University.
Most of all I would like to thank my wife, Connie for her patience and understanding, without which this work would have been impossible.
iii VITA
October 20, 1953 ...... Born in Batesville, Indiana
1974...... Soil Surveyor, Indiana Department of Natural Resources
1975.*...... B. Sc. Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana
1975-197 6...... Graduate Research Associate Purdue Univeristy, West Lafayette, Indiana
1976...... M. Sc. Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana
1976-197 7...... Professional Associate Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana
1977-1981 ...... Technical Assistant Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center and Ohio State University
Publications
Norton, L. D., and A. L. Zachary. 1975. The classification of the soil developed from the Kope formation of Ordovician age soft calcareous shales in southeastern Indiana. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 85:367-368.
Norton, L. D., and D. P. Franzmeier. 1976. Toposequences of loessial soils in southwestern Indiana. Agron. Abst. p. 164.
Franzmeier, D. P., G. C. Steinhardt, J. R. Crum, and L. D. Norton. 1977. Soil characterization in Indiana I. field
iv and laboratory procedures. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. No. 943. 30pp.
Franzmeier, D. P., and L. D. Norton. 1978. Proposed changes in sandy textural class definitions. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 42:534.
Norton, L. D. and D. P. Franzmeier. 1978. Toposequences of loess-derived soils in southwestern Indiana. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 42:62 2-627.
Franzmeier, D. P., G. C. Steinhardt, and L. D. Norton. 1978. A model for the formation of fragipans in loess. Proc. of the 11th Congress International Soil Sci. Soc. Edmonton, Alberta. 1:82-83.
Steinhardt, G. C., and L D. Norton. 1979. Comparison of soil structure resulting from permanent pasture and continuous row crop. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 88:421-428.
Norton, L. D. 1979. Soils developed from the Kope geologic formation. Ohio J. Sci. 79:160-163.
Smeck, N. E ., L- D. Norton, G. F. Hall, and J. M. Bigham. 1980. Computerized processing and storing of soil characterization data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44:649-652.
Norton, L. D., and G. F. Hall. 1980. Pedogenesis of loess-derived soils in east-central Ohio and the differentiation of soil parent materials. Agron. Abst. p.184.
Rhoton, F. E., J. M. Bigham, L. D. Norton, and N. E. Smeck. 1981. Contribution of magnetite to acid ammonium oxalate extractable iron in soils and sediments. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 45:645-649.
Bone, S W., and L. D. Norton. 1981. Ohio soils as map units with yield data and productivity index. Ohio State University Cooperative Extension Bull. 685, 43pp.
v FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Pedology
Studies in Pedology: Professors George Hall, Neil Smeck, Jerry Bigham, and Kaye Everett.
Studies in Geology and Mineralogy: Professors Ian Whillans, Ernest Ehlers, and Gunter Faure.
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ii
VITA...... iv
LIST OF TABLES...... x
LIST OF FIGURES...... xii
INTRODUCTION...... 1
MATERIALS AND METHODS...... 3
Field Methods...... 3 Laboratory Methods...... 5 Physical Analyses...... 5 Bulk Density...... 5 Particle-s ize Distribution...... 5 Chemical Analyses...... 9 Carbonates...... 9 Cation Exchange Capacity...... 9 Extract able Bases...... 9 Extractable Acidity...... 10 Citrate-Bicarbonate-Dithionite Extractions...... 11 Elemental Analysis by X-ray Spectrography.13 Soil pH...... 18 Mineralogical Analyses...... 18 X-ray Diffraction...... 18 Differential Scanning Calorimetry...... 23 Infra-red spectroscopy...... 23 Scanning Electron Microscopy...... 25 Soil Thin Section Preparation and Analysis 27 Computer Processing...... 30 Vacuum Extractions...... 31
Chapter
1. LOESS DISTRIBUTION AND PLEISTOCENE STRATIGRAPHY IN EAST-CENTRAL OHIO...... 33
vii Literature Review...... 35 Loess Distribution...... 35 Loess and Pleistocene Stratigraphy...... 38 Peoria Loess...... 42 Farmdale Loess (Roxana Silt)...... 43 Sangamon Paleosols ...... 46 Results and Discussion...... 48 Loess Distribution...... 48 Loess and Pleistocene Stratigraphy...... 59 Summary and Conclusions...... 73
2. DIFFERENTIATION OF SOIL PARENTMATERIALS ...... 74
Literature Review...... 75 Results and Discussion...... 78 Summary and Conclusions...... 93
3. A MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTSEQUENCE IN MODERATELY THICK LOESS...... 95
Literature Review...... 96 Results and Discussion...... 102 Soil Classification and Description...... 102 CBD Extractable Oxides...... 105 Elemental Composition...... 114 Profile Reconstruction...... 121 Clay Mineralogy...... 125 Summary and Conclusions...... 131
4. FRAGIPAN FORMATION IN LOESS...... 136 Literature Review...... 137 Results and Discussion...... 142 Column Studies...... 143 Vacuum Extractions...... 150 Infrared Spectroscopy and Differential Scanning Calorimetry...... 157 SEM-EDS Analysis of Thin Sections...... 163 Summary and Conclusions . • ...... 173
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 175
viii APPENDICES...... 179
A. Data used in statistical analyses...... 180
B. Soil Morphological Descriptions and Data...... 188
C. Soil Micromorphological Descriptions for Selected Horizons...... 207
D. Radiocarbon Report...... 213
BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 2 15
ix LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Settling times for various temperatures and effective particle diameters used in the particle-size distribut ion analysis...... 7
2. Settings used in the atomic absorption analysis of CBD and various extracts...... 12
3. Scanning conditions used in the X-ray spectrograph analysis...... 17
4. Effect of various treatments on the d-spacings of the clay mineral species separated...... 21
5. Summary of calculations used to determine clay mineralogy...... 22
6. Summary of individual analyses of variance from the multivariate analysis of variance...... 81
7. Summary of the results from the multiple regression analys is...... 83
8. Amount of clay (<2micron) and colloidal clay (<•2 micron) gained in the sola on a carbonate included basis for the three soils...... 123
9. Means of rupture strength for thecolumn study...... 145
10. Groupings from Duncan's multiple range test (alpha=0.05 ) of like treatments from the column study by material...... 147
11. Groupings from Duncan's multiple range test (alpha=0.05) of like materials from the column study by treatment...... 148
12. Results from the vacuum extraction study...... 152
x 13. Key to abbreviations used in the SAS printouts in the order of appearance...... 181
14. Data used in the multivariate analysis of variance and multiple regression analysis...... ,183
15. Data used in the discriminant analysis of loess and siltstone residua...... 184
16. Data used in the discriminant analysis of loess, siltstone residua, and possible lacustrine silts....185
17. Data used in the analysis of variance from the column study...... 186
18. Data used in the discriminant analysis of loess, siltstone residua, and lacustrine materials...... 187
19. Tabular soil profile description for Sylvan...... 198
20. Physical, chemical, and mineralogical data for Sylvan...... 199
21. Tabular soil profile description for Alford...... 200
22. Physical, chemical, and mineralogical data for Alford...... 201
23. Tabular soil profile description for Hosmer...... 203
24. Physical, chemical, and mineralogical data for Hosmer...... 204
25. Tabular soil profile description for Ava...... 205
26. Physical, chemical, and mineralogical data for Ava...... 206
xi LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Location of pedons studied...... 4
2. Comparison of USDA grain-size separations with other systems...... 8
3. Changes in the stratigraphic classification of Wisconsinan deposits pertaining to loess by the Illinois Geological Survey (from Willman and Frye, 1970)...... 39
4. Comparison of time, rock, and soil stratigraphic classifications of Wisconsin age in the Lake Michigan lobe and the Scioto sublobe...... 41
5. Locations of study transects and the age of the bedrock. P=pennsylvanian, M=mississippian D = devonian, S=silurian, and O = ordovician...... 50
6. Loess thickness with distance from Jonathan Creek...... 51
7. Loess thickness with distance from Rush Creek...... 52
8. Morphometry of the two source valleys. Stippling in the Jonathan Creek valley represents ice contact or till deposits of Wisconsinan age. Arrows represent direction of drainage today...... 53
9-. Isarithmic map of Peoria loess thickness in the Perry County area. The countour interval is 10 inches...... 55
10. Site locations and loess thicknesses (in inches) used in constructing the isarthmic plot of loess thicknes ...... 56
11. Transect from Pr-10 to Pr-8 showing relations of soils soils to the landscape...... 60
xii 12. Cumulative grain-size distribution for parent materials in Pr-8...... 63
13. Weathered feldspar grain found in the intercalated zone at Pr-8. Frame width equals 2784 microns...... 67
14. Weathered composite igneous grain found in the intercalated zone at Pr-8. Frame width equals 2784 microns...... 68
15. Scatter plot of canonical variables derived from discriminant analysis. The large symbols represent the mean for each group...... 85
16. Scatter plot of canonical variables derived from the discriminant analysis of loess, siltstone residua, and lacustrine material. The large symbols represent the mean for each group...... 87
17. Discriminant function for differentiating loess and siltstone residua using the Zr and Ti content of the 5-50 micron fraction...... 90
18. Discriminant function plot illustrating separation of soils and parent materials...... 91
19. Generalized weathering sequence for the soils s tudied...... 104
20. Photomicrograph of the argillic horizon of Sylvan under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 2784 microns...... 106
21. Photomicrograph of the argillic horizon of Alford under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 2784 microns...... 107
22. Photomicrograph of the argillic horizon of Hosmer under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 2784 microns...... 108
23. CBD extractable oxides for Sylvan (Pr-8)...... 110
24. CBD extractable oxides for Alford (Pr-10)...... Ill
25. CBD extractable oxides for Hosmer (Fa-27)...... 112
26. CBD extractable oxides for Ava (Fa-28)...... 113
xiii 27. Calcium:zirconium ratios for the 5 50 micron silt fraction for Sylvan, Alford, Ava, and Hosmer...... 115
28. Elemental distribution of the 5 50 micron silt fraction for Sylvan. Dashed lines represent carbonate free data...... 116
29. Elemental distribution of the 5-50 micron silt fraction for Alford...... 117
30. Elemental distribution of the 5-50 micron silt fraction for Hosmer...... 118
31. Elemental distribution of the 5-50 micron silt fraction for Ava...... 119
32. Profile reconstruction for total clay for Sylvan, Alford, andHosmer ...... 124
33. X-ray diffraction patterns for the Mg-saturated ethylene glycol treated <2 micron fraction for Sylvan...... 126
34. X-ray diffraction patterns for the Mg-saturated ethylene glycol treated <2, micron fraction for Alford...... 127
35. X-ray diffraction patterns for the Mg-saturated ethylene glycol treated <2 micron fraction for Hosmer...... 128
36. X-ray diffraction patterns for the Mg-saturated ethylene glycol treated <2 micron fraction for Ava...... 129
37. Differential infrared spectra of CBD extracted material from clays of the maximum argillic (B22t) and fragipan (Bx2) horizons inHosmer ...... 159
38. Differential scanning calorimetry patterns for the CBD extracted material from the maximum argillic (B22t) and fragipan (Bx2) horizonsin Hosmer...... 162
39. Photomicrograph of the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer under plane-polarized light. Frame width equals 500 microns...... 164
40. Photomicrograph of the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 500 microns...... 165
xiv Photomicrograph of a soil thin section from the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer illustrating an argillan under cross-polarized light. Frame width 1645 microns...... 167
SEM image of the same argillan shown in Figure 41 from the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer. Frame width equals 4928 microns...... 168
SEM image of a silicate bridge between a quartz grain and a feldspar grain and corresponding EDS spectra at locations a, b, and c. Frame width equals 46 micron...... 170
SEM image of a silicate bridge in the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer (upper photo), and the corresponding EDS spectra (lower photo) illustrating the average A1 content observed at point a ...... 171
Narrative soil profile description for Sylvan...... 189
Narrative soil profile description for Alford...... 191
Narrative soil profile description for Hosmer...... 194
Narrative soil profile description for Ava...... 196
Micromorphological descriptions for selected horizons for Sylvan...... 208
Micromorphological descriptions for selected horizons for Alford...... 209
Micromorphological descriptions for selected horizons for Hosmer...... 210
Micromorphological descriptions for selected horizons for Ava...... 211
Radiocarbon report on the organic material below the loess near Pr-10...... 213 INTRODUCTION
Loess in east-central Ohio has been only recognized to a limited extent in the past. Since the work of Tight
(1903), who used the term "Minford silts" for the lacustrine materials deposited in pro-glacial lake Tight, silty soil parent materials found in terrace positions in southeastern
Ohio were assummed to be lacustrine. Another hypothesis for the occurrence of these silts on the uplands was that they were siltstone residua. Presently, some soil scientists in
Ohio attempt to map lacustrine soils on terrace levels of
Teays-age valleys in east-central Ohio. Problems occur because several levels exist, and the distinction between upland and terrace is often difficult to make without extensive field work. In many areas thick silt deposits are found on terraces; whereas, the adjacent uplands are nearly devoid of silts (Khangarot et al. 1971). Other areas have substantial amounts of silt on both the upland and terraces, with very morphologically similar soils on both. Finally, very contrasting soils developed in silty materials may occur on similar landscape positions. For example, soils shallow to carbonates ( fragipans. The objectives of this study were: 1) to relate the thickness of silty deposits occurring in the study area to plausible aeolian sources; 2) to develop criteria for differentiating lithologically similar soil parent materials; 3) to evaluate the difference in soil development observed in contrasting soils on similar landscape positions; and, 4) to study the nature and development of fragipans occurring in the soils. MATERIALS AND METHODS Field Methods The study area was chosen because thick silty soils were observed during soil survey activities in Perry County. The origin of these soil parent materials was in question. Since little research had been done in the area there was considerable knowledge to be gained from a detailed field and laboratory study of the soils Sites chosen to measure loess thickness were selected on the basis of landscape stability; only locations on stable summits were measured to relate loess thickness to distance from a source. Soils sampled for weathering and fragipan studies were selected on the basis of observed soil differences, and were sampled according to standard soil survey procedures (Soil Survey Staff, 1951). The locations of the study sites are shown in Figure 1. Detailed soil morphological descriptions of the studied soils were made from observations in pits and for deeper materials from undisturbed cores taken with a Giddings hydraulic sampler. Bulk samples and oriented thin section specimens were obtained likewise. Licking Musklngham Hosmer. • Ava Fa-28 Fo-27 Fairfield Perry Figure 1. Location of pedons studied. 5 Laboratory Methods Physical Analyses Bulk Density Natural soil clods were collected from selected soil horizons and coated at field moisture with Dow Saran F310 resin dissolved in acetone (1:6 1:8 by weight; Brasher, et al. , 1966). Duplicate or triplicate clods were coated at least three times in the field, and stored in pint containers. The samples were weighed in air and then in water to obtain the field moist bulk density. The volume in cubic centimeters was determined as the difference in weight in air and water. The clods were opened, oven-dried, recoated, and weighed by the same procedure to determine the oven-dry bulk density. Particle-size Distribution Particle-size separates were determined on the <2mm air-dried soil by a modified pipette method (Steel and Bradfield, 1934; Kilmer and Alexander, 1949; Soil Survey Staff, 1972). A lOg sample was dispersed overnight with Na-hexametaphosphate in 400ml sedimentation bottles. The samples were brought to 400ml volume by weighing and stirred prior to sedimentation. Depending on the temperature and 6 particle-size separation, an aliquot was taken with a calibrated pipette at the perscribed depth and time according to Stokes Law (Table 1), and transferred to a pre-weighed ceramic crucible. After removing an aliquot for the <2 micron determination, a 50ml aliquot was transferred to a 100ml centrifuge tube. Similarly, an aliquot for colloidal clay (<.2 micron) was taken after centrifuging by the method of Jackson (1975). The crucibles were then dried at 105 degress C, stored in a desicator, and weighed to the nearest O.lmg. Following sedimentation, the contents of the sedimentation bottles were passed through a 300 mesh seive and gently washed with water to capture the >50 micron material. This material was oven-dried and dry seived for 5 minutes on an oscillating shaker through a nest of seives: 18 mesh (lOOOum), 35 mesh (500um), 60 mesh (250um), 140 mesh (105um), 240 mesh (74um), and 300 mesh (50um). These seives closely approximate the USDA particle-size separations (Soil Survey Staff, 1951), with the additional separation at 74um to correspond to engineering scales. A comparison of the USDA grain-size separations with other systems is given in Figure 2. All measured weights were recorded for samples analyzed in duplicate on data sheets for calculation by computer. The values corrected for moisture content were expressed on an oven-dry basis. 7 Table 1> Settling times for various temperatures and effective particle diameters used in the particle-size distribution analysis. ♦ d C Jp t 1*1 y f raction 8 cm 5cm 5cm 2 cm Tempe rature < 2 Oum <5um < 2um < . 2um degrees C mi n:s ec mi n:sec hr :min min:sec-rpm 22 3:33 33:30 3 : 42 8:23 2200 24 3:23 33:51 3:32 8:00 2200 26 3:14 32:22 3 : 2 2 7:39 2200 28 3 :0 6 30:57 3:13 7:18 2200 8 "VERT FINE MEDIUM COARSE iT w r USDA CLAY SILT COARSE SAND SAND SAND SAND FINE COARSE ISSS CLAY SILT SAND SAND FINE MEDIUM COARSE FINE MEDIUM COARSE lay MIT C SILT SILT SILT SANO SAND SAND FINE MEDIUM UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION fines( s il t or c l a y ) SAND SAND F ir e COARSE AASHTO colloids CLAY SILT SANS) SAND F s e MEDIUM ASTM colloids CLAY SILT SAND SAND FINE COARSE FAA CLAY SILT SAND SANO MEDIUM COAPSE F l ic MEDIUM COARSE VERY c iu c hEDIUM COARSE VERY WENTWORTH FiNE i ' T t . COARSE CLAY CLAY llJJf SILT SILT SILT SAND SAN0 SAND SAND SAND VERY VERY FINE ME03JM COARSE FINE MEDIUM COARSE VERY ENGLAND clay FINE FINE COARSE SILT SILT SILT SILT SAND SANO SANO SANO SAND FINE COARSE FINE COARSE FRANCE clay SILT SILT SAND SAND MEDIUM COARSE FINE MEDIUM COARSE RUSSIA CLAY SILT SILT SAND SAND SAND i______i______i______i______i ■ 0.0001 0.00! 0.01 o.l 1.0 2.0 PARTICLE -SIZE IN mm ______i____i_____ I_____ I____ 1_____ I_____ I 1 i i_____I , I 109 8 7 6 5 43 2 I 0-1 PHI SCALE ____ I______I______i______1______i 4 3 2 1 0 ZETA SCALE Figure 2. Comparison of USDA grain-size separations wi th other systems• 9 Chemical Analyses a Carbonates The percent calcite, dolomite, and the total calcium carbonate equivalent was determined for soil samples with pH values >7.0 using a gasoraetric Chittick apparatus (Dreimanis, 1962). Modifications to his procedure include calculation of the table value correction factor by a regression equation to correct the volume of carbon dioxide released for standard temperature and pressure. This calculation closely approximates the table value at normal temperatures and pressures; however, it does not work well at extremely high or low temperatures or pressures. The calculations were performed by a computer program containing Dreimanis's original standard curves for calcite and dolomite in regression form. One additional modification included the addition of ferrous chloride to the acid to minimize release of carbon dioxide from organic matter (Allison and Moody, 1965). Cation Exchange Capacity Extractable Bases. IN ammonium acetate at pH 7.0 was used to extract basic cations from lOg of soil (Peech et al. , 1947, Soil Survey Staff, 1972). Forty ml of ammonium 10 acetate was added to the soil and the mixture allowed to stand overnight. The solution was then vacuum filtered into 100ml volumetric flasks.After several additional leachings with small aliquots of extraction solution, the flasks were brought to volume, and the contents were analyzed for Ca and Mg by atomic absorption spectrophotometry, and for K by emmision spectrophotometry. Each sample was analyzed in duplicate, and the average value calculated by computer and expressed in milliequivalents per lOOg oven-dry soil. Extractable Acidity. Barium chloride-triethanolamine (pH 8.0) was used to extract hydrogen ions (Peech, 1965). A leaching procedure similar to that used for the bases was employed, except that Buchner funnels were used, and the leachates were collected in 400ml beakers. The milliequivalents of extractable hydrogen was then determined by titration of the leachate to a brom-cresol green end point with standardized 0.2N HC1 and a blank for comparison. The value was input into the computer program to calculate bases, the total cation exchange capacity, and the base saturation. 11 Citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite (CBD) Extractions Contents of A1, Fe and Si in CBD extracts were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The extractions were performed on 5g of air-dry soil using the procedure of Mehra and Jackson (1960). The extracting solution was made by dissolving 176g of Na-citrate in 2 1 of doubly-deionized distilled water which was then mixed with 250ml of water containing 21g of Na-bicarbonate. The extraction procedure was performed in duplicate in 100ml plastic centrifuge tubes in a water bath heated to between 75-80 degrees C to prevent precipitation of ferrous sulfide (Franzmeier et al. 1977). Eight samples were extracted at a time by adding 40ml of the citrate-bicarbonate solution and placing them in a water bath. A blank containing a thermometer was used to monitor the temperature. When the temperature of the solution reached 75 degrees C, approximately lg of Na-dithionite was added by a calibrated spoon, and stirred constantly. Two more increments of Na-dithionite were added in 5 minute intervals. After the end of 15 minutes the samples were removed from the hot water bath, centrifuged at 1400rpm for 10 minutes and the supernatant decanted into 250ml volumetric flasks. The soils were then washed three times by adding 40ml of 0.5N NaCl, resuspending the soil, centrifuging, and decanting the supernatant into volumetries. Table 2 illustrates the 12 Table 2. Settings used in the atomic absorption analysis of CBD and various extracts. Variable Fe A1 Si wavelengt h(nm) 248 .3 309.3 251 .5 f ue 1 acetylene acetylene acetylene oxidant air nitrous oxide nitrous oxide slit width(A) 0.5 0.2 0.2 tube current(mA) 5 6 15 flame oxidiz ing reducing s trongly reducing range of standards 0-10 0-50 0-40 dilution 1/50 1/1 1/1 13 conditions used in analyzing for the elements on a Varion AA-6 atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Elemental Analysis by X-ray Spectrography X-ray spectrometry operates on the principle that each element has a characteristic electromagnetic spectrum. When a sample is bombarded by x-radiation it causes electrons to be excited to higher energy levels around the nucleus. The shifting of the electrons back to a more stable arrangement causes the emmision of secondary x-rays that are characteristic for that element. The wavelength of the radiation will vary with the element and the various orbital transitions that can occur. In x-ray spectrography, the flouresced radiation passes through a collimator after leaving the sample and strikes an analyzing crystal at the axis center of a goniometer. The analyzing crystal is usually either LiF or PET (pentaerythrito1). This crystal provides a known d value to use in the Bragg equation (nA=2dsin0). The angle theta is also known from the goniometer reading, and therefore both the wavelength and the corresponding emmiting element can be determined. A qualitative scan of the elemental composition of a specimen can be obtained by varying the degrees two theta and recording the intensity of detected radiation on a strip chart recorder. Quantitative measurements are made for an 14 element by preparing standards with known amounts of the element added and measuring the intensity of the secondary radiation at a given wavelength. Generally, K-alpha radiation is the most intense wavelength and gives more satisfactory results. The standard curve may be obtained by measuring the number of counts collected from the counter in a fixed time or the time required to collect a fixed number of counts. Statistically, the time required to collect a fixed number of counts is more satisfactory for low concentrations where variations in background radiation can affect results . Elemental contents of Ca, IC, Fe , Ti , and Zr were determined on the 5 50um silt fraction. The silt was fractionated using an automated fractionator described by Rutledge et al. (1967), and using sedimentation times of Tanner and Jackson (1947). Following oven drying at 105 degrees C the silt was mixed in a ratio of 70% silt to 30% boric acid by weight, and ground in a disk mill for three minutes. The silt/boric acid mixture was pressed into a 2.00g pellet at 3500kg/cc pressure. This procedure is esentially that described by Wilding et al. (1971), using standards developed by previous workers were used in the analysis (Khangarot, 1969; Rutledge, 1969). The standards were prepared by the additions method using reagent grade chemicals mixed with a standard soil silt and boric acid. 15 The standards and samples were analyzed for the time to collect a fixed number of counts, and the standard curve calculated in terms of 1/Time versus the percent of each element added. The inverse of time was plotted to obtain a positive slope, and equations for each standard curve were obtained using a program written on a small hand held calculator, which also performed a least squares regression analysis. The curves were linear with R-square values usually greater than 0.99. The intercept of the line with the percent added axis was taken to be the residual amount of that particular element present in the soil silt matrix used to produce the original standards. The residual amount added to the value calculatd for the percent added gave the total amount of that element present. Each sample was analyzed three times, and the average time taken as the reading. This method was altered slightly for Zr because of the unsymetrical background exhibited due to its low angle. The average background value was determined with the aid of a two theta scan of the Zr K-alpha peak to determine the background distribution. An average background value was then subtracted from both the standard and the sample readings. Before analyzing, the instrument was optimized for the particular element of interest. This was accomplished by first installing the proper x-ray tube (a Cr tube for Ti , 16 Ca, and K and a W tube for Fe, and Zr). Next, the goniometer was peaked for intensity of secondary . radiation with the highest standard of that element. The value from the standard degree two theta values (ASTM, 1965) was used as a starting point, except when using a PET crystal; then 30 degrees was added to the book value to account for the internal geometry of the spectrograph. The detector was then optimized by using the Pulse Height Analyzer (PHA) in integral mode. The optimum detector voltage was determine by varying the voltage to find an operating plateau in the counts, a voltage in which small fluctuations in line voltage will not affect the counts collected. Generally, that value is the inflection point at the lower voltage +100V. The lowest voltage required to remain on the plateau and keep the ratemeter on scale, and the gain setting required to operate at 50-70 percent deflection on the recorder was used. Next an automaticscan of the pulse height voltage from 5-0 eV was made to determine the proper baseline and window settings to use. The value for the baseline was taken as the lower voltage at 10 percent deflection of the peak and the window as the high voltage at .10 percent deflection minus the baseline. After the set up procedure, the PHA system was set to differential, and the standards and samples analyzed. The scan variables are given for each element analyzed in Table 3. 17 Table 3. Scanning conditions used in the X-ray spectrograph analys is. --Element— Variable Ca K Ti Zr Fe x-ray tube Cr Cr Cr W W Emmision 1 i ne K-alp ha K-alp ha K-alpha K-alpha K-alp ha Analyzing c rys tal LiF PET LiF LiF LiF Counter Prop Pr op Prop Scin Scin Path vacuum vacuum vacuum a ir air Collima tor coarse coarse coarse f ine fine Counts 100000 100000 100000 100000 100000 Range 25000 25000 25000 10000 100000 Generator kV 40 40 40 45 45 Generator raA 20 20 20 35 35 Degrees 20 113.21 21.04 86.28 57.38 22.29 Bas eline 3 .90 2 .26 2 .45 1 .90 1.94 Wi ndow 2.56 3.16 1.13 2.17 2.78 Gain 1 28 64 128 64 64 Typical R-square >0.98 >0.99 >0.999 >0.999 >0.9999 Prop=proportional, Scin=scintilation 18 Soil pH Soil pH was determined potentiometrically on both 1:1 soil/water, and 1:2 soil/O.05M calcium chloride suspensions. The average of two replications was reported. Mineralogical Analyses X-ray Diffraction The clay mineralogy of the <2 micron fraction of soils was determined semi-quant it atively using x-ray diffraction (XRD). XRD techniques are quite specific for identification of clay minerals in samples. However, the measured intensity of the diffracted radiation can vary for several reasons (i. e. crystallinity , particle-size , isomorphous substitution, and pretreatments), in addition to the amount of the mineral present. Therefore, the corresponding peak area associated with a certain mineral may or may not be indicative of the amount of that mineral present in the sample. The procedure used was a refinement of that developed by Johns et al. (1954); however, values are still only semi-quantitative. Clay mineral contents of illite, smectite, vermiculite, kaolinite, chlorite/aluminum hydroxyinterlayered vermiculite, quartz, and interstratified minerals were 19 determined on the <2 micron fractions. Samples for XRD were prepared by ultrasonically dispersing 0-3 g of Mg-saturated, freeze-dried clay in 20ml of water and transferring 2ml aliquots to 27 x 4 6mm petrographic microscope slides and air-drying. Various chemical and thermal treatments were employed to discriminate the type of clay mineral present. The Mg-saturated clay received four treatments: 1) air-dried room temperature, 2) exposure to ethylene glycol at 60 degrees C, 3) heated at 350 degrees C, and 4) heated at 550 degrees C. Table 4 presents a summary of the d-spacings of various clay minerals subjected to these treatments and also to K saturation. All samples were analyzed on a Philips x-ray diffractometer using Cu K-alpha radiation generated at 35kV and 20mA current. A theta compensating slit system, and a curved crystal graphite monochrometer were employed in scanning. A scintillation detector operated at 835V with a count rate of either 1000 or 2500 counts per second (cps), and a time constant of 2 or 1, respectively, were used in scanning each sample from 2 to 30 degrees two-theta at a speed of 2 degrees two-theta per minute. The theta compensating slit system is a mechanical device which stops down the x-ray beam at low angles, providing a uniformly irradiated area of the specimen. It does not filter out the 20 K-beta radiation; this is accomplished by the curved crystal graphite monochrometer. The theta compensating slit considerably alters the patterns of clays at low angles compared to conventional slit systems. This makes the use of peak area conversion factors employed by previous workers inappropriate, and in theory not needed. Therefore, calculations of percent clay mineral were based on one to one relationships of representative peak areas at various angular spacings. Peak areas were measured by planimeter for the representative peaks (marked by asterisk on Table 4). A differential method was used to remove the effect of overlaping peaks. This involved measuring the area under the peak to the baseline, and subtracting out the area of the tails as measured from one-half maximum intensity. The area attributed to the interstratified minerals was generally represented by broad shoulders or plateaus in the patterns. Measurement of this area was accomplished by drawing in symetrical tails on all distinguishable peaks, and measuring only the area above the tail and baseline. Calculations were then made using a computer program, which essentially considers the amount of the total area attributed to each component proportional to the percentage. Table 5 summarizes the area considered in calculation of each mineral species. 21 Table 4. Effect of various treatments on the d-spacings of the clay mineral species separated. Treatment------Mineral d(hkl) Mg-25 Mg-EG K-25 Mg-350 Mg-550 Smectite 001 10-14 17.7* 10 10 10 11li te 001 10 10* 10 10 10 Vermiculite 001 14 14* 10 10 10 Interlayered 2:1/Chlori te 001 14 14 14 10-14 10-14* Kaolinite 001 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2* Quartz 100 4.26 4.26* 4.26 4.26 '4.26 Interstrat ified --- 10-14* 10-14 10-14 10 10 14-17.7* >17.7* EG=ethylene glycol *=peaks used in calculation of clay mineral percentages 22 Table 5. Summary of calculations used to determine clay mi neralogy. Mineral Peak area used in Calculation Smect ite 17.7 angstrom Mg-ethylene glycol(EG) 11li te 10 angstrom Mg-ethylene glycol Vermiculite 14 angstrom Mg-EG - 14 angstrom Mg-550 Interlayered 2:1/ Chlorite 14 angstrom Mg-550 Quartz 4.26 Mg-ethylene glycol Interstratified 10-14, 14-17.7 , >17 . 7 angstrom Mg-EG 23 Differential Scanning Calorimetry Thermal characteristics of untreated clays and differential scans of CBD versus untreated clays were determined for temperatues to 500 degrees C by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). Scans for the untreated clay were accomplished by weighing 20.0 mg air-dry clay into the DSC sample pans and scanning on a DuPont 990 thermal analyzer with the sample placed on the sample thermalcouple and an emplty pan on the reference thermalcouple as a blank. Differential scans of CBD treated clay and untreated clay were accomplished by accurately weighing out 20.0 mg of desicated clay into sample pans and placing the untreated clay onto the sample thermalcouple and the treated clay onto the reference thermalcouple. The result was a scan for the material extracted by CBD. Infrared Spectroscopy Atoms in compounds are constantly in motion and vibrate with particular modes in relation to one another. Only modes which result in a change in the dipole moment of the molecule are observable in the infrared range of radiation. The frequency of many of the various vibrational modes occur in the IR range; the frequency depends on the mass of the atoms and the strength of the bonds. Only vibrations which 24 are not parallel to the incident IR beam can absorb IR energy of the same frequency. Therefore, a scan across various wavelengths from 2.5 to 50 microns (4000-200 waves per centimeter) will reveal absorptions characteristic of various molecular components. According to Beer's law the log of transmittance is proportional to the concentration of that component; therefore, relative amounts of the components can be approximated. The advantage of IR as opposed to X-ray diffraction for the study of soil colloids is that they need not be crystalline to be analyzed (Ahlrichs et al. 1965). Samples for analysis were prepared by plating out l.Omg soil clay (<2 micron) on silver chloride windows (White, 1970). The samples were scanned at a rate of 600 wavenumbers per minute, utilizing speed suppression, on a Beckman model 4250IR spectrophotometer. Samples for comparison of extracted versus nonextracted soil clay were prepared by weighing out 100.Omg clay, performing the extraction, washing the clay with water by centrifugation, and ultrasonically dispersing both the sample extracted and the nonextracted sample in 20ml of water. The clay was then plated on the silver chloride windows by carefully pipeting 0.2ml solution onto a controlled area of the window. The samples were then dried at 100 degrees C and stored in a desicator prior to analysis. Differential scanning of the 25 specimens was accomplished by placing the extracted sample in the reference beam of the instrument and the unextracted clay in the sample beam. The result was a scan of only the extracted material assumming a constant matrix of unextracted material was present in both samples. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Isolates of soil and soil thin sections were analyzed from selected soil horizons using SEM. SEM is an imaging technique that operates by bombarding an electrically conductive specimen, under vacuum, with a focused electron beam. (McKee and Brown, 1977). When the beam strikes the specimen, secondary electrons are emmitted in addition to primary electrons which are conducted or reflected off. The secondary electrons are of a lower energy, and can be collected, transformed to photons, and converted back into an amplified electronic signal by a photomultiplier. The electron beam can be deflected electromagnetically to various positions of the specimen, and the amount of secondary electrons collected from a point will depend on the conductance, relief, and the composition of the specimen at that point. The photomultiplier converts the collected photons into an electronic signal, which is then converted into a gray scale and displayed on a cathode ray tube. The resulting scan of a specimen produces a rastored image. The 26 primary advantage of the SEM over optical microscopy is the depth of field due to the small effective wavelength of an electron. A secondary advantage is that characteristic x-rays are produced by electron bombardment of the sample. These x-rays can be collected and analyzed on the basis of their energy, and an elemental spectrum obtained (for elements with Z greater than or equal to 9) for a specific point of interest. Soil fabric was prepared for SEM observation by dry fracturing a specimen of interest to a small enough size to fit onto a 14mm diameter aluminum mounting stub. The sample was then glued to the stub with graphite suspended in propanol. Grain specimens and thin sections were mounted to the stub with a double-sticky cellophane tape. A conductive coating was added by vacuum evaporating approximately 100 angstroms of pure carbon, and for some samples an additional coating of approximately 200 angstroms of Au. The gold produced a characteristic peak on the EDS spectra; however, it was located at a position that did not interfere with any peaks of interest. Selected areas of soil thin sections were also mounted for EDS study using a modified method similar to that described by Bisdom et al. ( 1975) and Mc'Keague and Wang (1980). The difference was that the thin sections were removed from the glass slides with a razor blade and etched 27 with methylene chloride before mounting to the SEM stub. The etching produced relief and improved the quality of the. the thin sections for viewing with secondary electrons on SEM. Advantages and limitations of SEM-EDS in soil analyses were described by Bisdom et al. (1976). Dunham and Wilkinson (1978) discuss the accuracy, precision and detection limits of EDS in the analysis of silicates. Samples were analyzed on a JEOL JXA-35 scanning electron microscope equipped with an EDAX-9100 EDS computerized multichannel analyzer. Soil Thin Section Preparation and Analysis Soil thin sections were prepared from selected horizons for micromorphological examination. Oriented clods were taken at the time of field sampling, air-dried, and stored prior to impregnation. Clods were impregnated using a procedure similar to that described by Innes and Pluth (1970). Scotchcast #3 resin was used as the casting media. Prior to vacuum impregnation, the soil and the two-parts epoxy were heated to95 degrees C. The soil was then placed in a vacuum impregnating unit, and evacuated to between 4 and 5mm Hg pressure. After approximately one half hour, the epoxy was removed from the oven, mixed in the manufacturer's recommended proportions by weight, and slowly added through 28 a separatory funnel so as not to disrupt the soil fabric. The vacuum was maintained until all bubbling had ceased; this signaled that the resin had displaced the air in the soil clod. The clods were then removed and placed in a oven at 95 degrees overnight. The impregnated soil was then ready for sectioning. Vertical and horizontal sections were prepared by sectioning the casted soil clods into blocks on a trim saw. One side was then polished and glued to a glass slide. A series of coarse to fine grinding powders were used to polish the blocks on a rotating lap wheel using kerosene as the lubricant. Finer polishing was performed on a glass plate. The blocks were then cleaned ultrasonically, dried and glued to the slide with epoxy cement. A Hilquist thin-section saw was used to cut the blocks from the slide, leaving approximately 1mm on the slide. A diamond embedded wheel was then used to abrade the section to near 50 microns. Final polishing was carried out by hand on a glass plate with 600 mesh grit in kerosine. Polishing was complete when most of the quartz grains in the section exhibited a first order gray interference color of the Michael-Levy chart when viewed under cross-polarizers on the petrographic microscope. The final thickness was approximately 30 microns. Some thin sections not used in the SEM-EDS study were covered with cover glasses using 29 Canada Balsam heated to 80 degrees C after removal of entrapped air. The sections were then analyzed on a Leitz ortholux microscope with polarizing accessories for various micromorphological features and described according to Brewer (1976). Descriptions of selected horizons of interest appear in Appendix C. One problem of particular importance was noted in the preparation of 50 x 7 5mm thin sections impregnated with Scotchcast #3 resin. Curing the epoxy cement used to adhere the casted soil block to the glass slide (microtec) severely cracks the glassor causes a warpingof the slide when heated to temperatures greater than 40 degrees C A more suitable procedure was to heat the epoxy to 60 degrees C to lower its viscosity and remove air bubbles, mount the block, and cure at room temperature. The cracking during curing at higher temperatures was believed to be due to differential thermal extensibility of the glass slide and the soil cast. Fewer problems were encountered in the preparation of 27 x 4 6mm slides . The ability of Scotchcast #3 resin to impregnate the soil was found to be far superior to that of Castolite (methylmethacrylate) thinned with styrene. Likewise, the optical quality of the finished sections prepared with Scotchcast #3 was greater than thatof Castolite. The 30 Castolite impregnated thin sections exhibited a microcracking pattern visible at powers greater than 35x, making the viewing of plasmic fabrics difficult; whereas, those impregnated with Scotchcast #3 were free of distortions to 250X. Computer Processing A Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) 20-20 timesharing computer system was used to calculate the particle-size distribution, cation exchange capacity, carbonate contents, and clay mineralogy. It was also used to store characterization, morphological, and mineralogical data, and to subsequently generate tables (Smeck et al., 1980). Narrative-type descriptions and descriptive tables were also generated from field coded description forms. The weighted average family particle-size of the control section was calculated from the stored data by inputing the appropriate upper and lower depths. Programs were also written to calculate the geometric mean particle-size and perform profile reconstruction from the stored data. Statistical analyses were performed using an Amdahl 470 system at the Instruction Research Computer Center at Ohio State University. The programs of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, 1979), and the Biomedical Data Programs (BMDP, 1979) were used to perform various 31 statistical analyses described later. Programs of the Surface II graphics system (Sampson, 1975) were utilized to produce isarithmic plots of loess thickness on the same sys tem. Vacuum Extractions Undisturbed specimens of fragipans taken at the time of sampling were used in a vacuum extraction experiment. The procedure was to evacuate a weighed air-dried ped from the fragipan of Hosmer to 4mm Hg pressure in a vacuum impregnating unit. This reduced pressure was sufficient to prevent slaking of the fragipan specimens upon addition of water. After one half hour under vacuum, various solutions were added to the peds. Immediately after the solution was added and the sample completely immersed the vacuum was released, the peds removed, and covered with a watch glass. At least two days were allowed before the extracting solutions were removed by washing with several aliquots of distilled water through a Buchner funnel. In some samples, the clay was dispersed and suction removal of the extracts was difficult; therefore, the solution was collected by centrifuging and washing. The extracts were diluted to the necessary volume to allow analysis for Fe, Al, and Si by atomic absorption spectrophotometry using standards with matched matrices. 32 The air-dried residue left after the extractions was tested by a pocket penetrometer to determine if the extractant had reduced the strength. Likewise, the residues were tested to determine if they retained their ability to slake by placing part of the residue into water. CHAPTER 1 LOESS DISTRIBUTION AND PLEISTOCENE STRATIGRAPHY IN EAST-CENTRAL OHIO Relatively thick silty deposits have recently been observed in east-central Ohio during soil surveys of Perry, Licking, Muskinghum, and Hocking counties. The thickest deposits were observed between the Muskinghum and Scioto rivers. These rivers have been shown by Rutledge et al. (1975a) to be sources of loess in the area. The Hocking River is the only major stream draining the study area, but the thickest silt deposits are not found in close proximity to it. Smalley (1975) discussed the classical theories on the origin of loess. The three main theories for the origin of loess have been used to explain the occurrence of silty soil parent ' materials in southeastern Ohio. Lessig (1961) attributed silty soil parent materials to lacustrine ponding from damming of the northward flowing Teays drainage system by the first glacier to invade the area. Others followed the ideas of Russell (1944) who believed that loess itself was the product of the process of loessification on fluvial 33 34 materials in the southern Mississippi valley. Other soil scientists have followed the ideaof Berg (1932) who believed that silty soil parent materials formed jin situ through the process of weathering and soil formation from various clastic sediments, especially siltstone residua. The aeolian origin of the silt was not ignored, but in the cases where a glacio-fluvial source was not apparent, the other two theories were sometimes invoked in southeastern Ohio. Also, Khangarot et al. (1971) recognized a silty zone below the Peoria loess that they termed "intercalated". During initial field observations it appeared that this zone occurred throughout southeastern Ohio. The relationship to Pleistocene stratigraphy was not readily apparent, except that it always occurred above a Sangamon paleosol, nor was the origin of the material from which it was derived clear. Therefore, the objectives of this study were: 1) to evaluate an eolian origin for the anomalously thick silty deposits, and 2) to study the Pleistocene stratigraphy of the area. / 35 Literature Review Loess Pistribution Chamberlin (1897) hypothesized that the silt load from glacial melt water was deposited on large alluvial flats during the summer when the glacier was melting. During winter periods the silts dried, and were picked up by strong winds, and subsequently deposited on the uplands. Since that time loess generally has been accepted as aeolian in origin. Prime evidence of the aeolian origin of loess is its deposition on paleo-landscapes over a wide range of elevations and physiographic positions (Ruhe, 1954; 1969). Beneath the loess usually are undisturbed buried soils that were formed prior to burial by the loess. Fluvial origin for the loess can not adequately explain this relationship. In Ohio, early investigators (Leverett, 1902; Coffey and Rice, 1915) recognized loess only in southwestern Ohio, and limited it to the pre-Wisconsinan age materials. Fenneman (1916) recognized loess as thick as 5m in the Cincinnati area. Other workers have since reported loess of varying extent in other areas of Ohio (Kempton and Goldthwait, 1959; Lessig, 1961; Goldthwait, 1968; Khangarot et al., 1971; Everett et al. , 1971; Hock et al. 1973; and, Rutledge et al. , 1975a). Wilding and Drees (1968) concluded that many of Ohios soils have had loess 36 addition, based on the occurrence of sponge spicules in their upper portion. Loess distribution has been studied in much detail in the midcontinental United States. The relationship of thickness to distance from a source has been documented by Krumbein (1937), Smith (1942), Hutton (1947), Wascher et al. (1947), Ulrich (1949), Simmonson and Hutton (1954), Caldwell and White (1956), Fehrenbacher et al. (1965a), Frazee et al. (1970), Barnhisel et al. (1971), Kleiss (1973) , Kleiss and Fehrenbacher (1973), Worchester (1973), Hall (1973), Rutledge et al. (1975a), and Harlan and Franzmeier (1977). These workers modeled loess distribution, and mathematically fit various equations to relate distance from the presumed source to the observed loess thickness. Various exponential, hyperbolic, logarithmic, and additive exponential equations have been used as models. Most workers have found the semilogarithmic relationship adequate for describing the loess thickness. Krumbein (1937) obtained a straight line plot of log (exponential) of thickness versus distance on a linear scale. Smith (1942), also obtained a linear plot of thickness versus log of distance. Hutton (1947) found in one of two transects that the distribution required a change in constants near the source to account for thicker loess. Simmonson and Hutton (1954) attributed a similar discrepancy 37 to encroachment of other sources. Caldwell and White (1956) found a deviation in the other direction in one of their transects, and attributed this overprediction of thickness to intermediate sources along the transect. Waggoner and Bingham (1961) used data from Smith and Hutton and employed logarithmic scales on both axes to explain a theory of thinning based on air turbulence. Ruhe (1969) used a hyperbolic equation to relate thickness to distance. Frazee et al. (1970) concluded that the additive exponential equation best described extraordinary loess thickness near the source, and related the coefficients obtained to sorting parameters. Handy (1976) gave a three dimensional treatment to loess distribution and concluded that winds of variable direction could account for this extraordinary thickness near the source. Rutledge et al. (1975a) used the expected thinning relationship to test several major rivers as source areas for loess in Ohio; he determined that the Muskingum and Scioto Rivers were, and that the Little Miami River was not a viable source. Hock et al. (1973) also concluded that the Little Miami River was not the source of loess in southwestern Ohio. 38 Loess Strat igraphy The recognized stratigraphic sequence of loess from the top down presently recognized in the Lake Michigan lobe is Peoria loess of. the Woodfordian (Tazewell) substage, Roxana silt (formerly called Farmdale Loess) of the Altonian substage, and Loveland loess of Illinoian age (Willman and Frye, 1970)* A summary of the changes in the stratigraphic nomenclature of Wisconsinan deposits in Illinois is given in Figure 3. The Farmdale substage now represents the intervening time period between deposition of the Peoria and Roxana loesses. Ruhe (1976) discussed the problems of loess stratigraphy in the midcontinental USA. In Ohio, loesses of all three ages have been reported. Goldthwait (1968) found two loess units throughout Ohio and considered them to be Peoria and Roxana. His basis for terming the lower unit Roxana was justified because he felt it was thicker nearer streams that carried Altonian age outwash, and that it had been found underneath the late Wisconsinan Caesar till. Khangarot et al. (1971) reported finding Peoria loess on terraces of both Wisconsinan and Illinoian ages, and an additional loess-like unit found stratigraphically between the Peoria and Sangamon paleosol, which they termed "intercalated". Rutledge et al. (1975a) reported the occurrence of Peoria loess, Farmdale loess, and Loveland loess. They also recognized this intercalated 39 TIME SCALE IN RAOIOCAR0ON YEARS BEFORE PRESENT EAST IOWAN FORMATION {OF N. I ll, o nd S .jw il. lowon Lo c k WISCONSIN Pcorion Loctt AlCo*> e*0 Lo.gMor, WISCONSIN I9 2 « WISCONSIN OUEBECAN LATE i SANCAMON Keif «*c u<««n 1931 t|>D i l‘ 25 Peo' OTTUMWAN SCRIES CLOOMAN SERIES WISCONSIN 193} K«f ««d LtigMon, LATE 1 SANCAMON 1933 W iS C O N sIN f a r m d a l e s u b s t a g e Pao>»cw io>t» WISCONSIN WISCONSINAN STAGE RECENT ALTONIAN .SUBSTAGE WOOOFOROlAN EU05TACE R 0iO»o S*M R.cMe«tf Lo««t WISCONS IN STAGE FARMDALE GLACIAL i9 6 0 WISCONSINAN STAGE HOLOCENE Fr**, W-Umon, « o o o f o * o ia n ALTONIAN SUBSTAGC Rufrn,en0 Oiock, s u b s t a g c 1966 • M tn .t 1970 « Figure 3. Changes in the stratigraphic classification of Wisconsinan deposits pertaining to loess by the Illinois Geological Survey (from Willman and Frye, 1970). 40 zone. Everett et al. (1971) reported that the intercalated zone formed involutions into the upper Peoria loess, which were attributed to cryoturbation. The relationship of the intercalated zone to Pleistocene stratigraphy will be treated later in the text. Dreimanis and Goldthwait (1973) published time and rock stratigraphic units for the Huron, Erie and Ontario lobes of Wisconsinan glaciation, and more importantly to this study for the Scioto sublobe. They departed from calling the loess above the Caesar till Peoria loess (viz. Goldthwait, 1968), but used the terra Upper Melvin loess. Since they were refering to the same unit previously termed Peoria loess in Ohio it will be assumed that a correlation exists between Peoria loess and the Upper Melvin loess. This correlation may only represent only part of the Peoria loess as recognized in Illinois, but for correlating with previous work on loess in Ohio the discussion in the text will assume their equivalence. Figure 4 was compiled from Willman and Frye (1970) and Dreimanis and Goldthwait (1973) and illustrates the relationship of time, rock and soil stratigraphic units as recognized in the Michigan lobe and the Scioto sublobe of Wisconsinan glaciation. 41 STRATIGRAPIC UNITS Lake Michigan lobe Scioto Sublobe yr B.P x IOOO Rock Soil Tlm o Rook S o il Valderon Rlohland 10. loose iBMraakan. 6 tn H iram TIM Woodfordlan Jules * Dorby T ill Mor ...CQMorTlil 2a ton Io o m Formdolo S Boston TIM Sidney Roboln 8llt Upper Melvin loooo 3a G a rflo ld Hto. loots 9 © Lower Melvin loess © • V)E CO W 40. E LL Pleooant c 5 CO O Grovo 0> c ©> c 2 o © © o s 50. c o © 0) X * O Gotaroe T ill cc Chopin o 60- 2 5 > * w © 70. U i Sonqomon Figure 4. Comparison of time, rock, and soil stratigraphic classification of Wisconsin age in the Lake Michigan lobe and the Scioto sub'lobe. 42 Peoria loess Peoria loess is the most extensive loess unit along the Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri river valleys. Peoria loess is divided into a lower subunit, the Morton, and an upper subunit, the Richland, north of the late Wisconsinan (Woodfordian) glacial boundary (Willman and Frye, 1970). Jones and Beavers (1964) used magnetic susceptibility to show differences within the Peoria loess in Illinois. They attributed these differences to variability in heavy mineral assemblages. They also concluded that magnetic susceptibility was a useful tool in distinguishing units within the Peoria loess. Frye and Willman (1968) found four distinct clay mineral zones within the Peoria loess that they attributed to changes in source areas. Kleiss and Fehrenbacher (1973) traced the distribution of these zones eastward from the Illinois River valley and found the uppermost zone was the thickest and most extensive. Daniels et al. (1960), and Ruhe et al. (1971) found similar results for Peoria loess in Iowa by radiocarbon dating dark-colored organic bands in the loess. Dreimanis and Goldthwait (1973) recognized two loess events in Ohio prior to deposition of the Caesar till. Their Upper Melvin loess stratigraphically occurs between the Caesar till and the early-late Wisconsinan Boston till. This unit possibly correlates with the Peoria loess of the 43 Lake Michigan lobe. Their Lower Melvin loess occurs below the Boston till and was arbitrarily placed in the mid-Wisconsinan time stratigraphy to correlate with tills found in the upper Erie and Ontario basin. Farmdale loess Farmdale loess has been recognized for many years; Leverett (1899), and Leighton (1926) recognized it at the Farm Creek exposure near Peoria, Illinois. Other workers have identified it throughout the Mississippi valley (Wascher et al., 1947; Leighton and Willman, 1950; Ruhe , 1956; Ray 1963, Fehrenbacher et al. 1965a, 1965b; Rutledge et al. 1975a; West et al., 1980). Differentiation of Farmdale from Peoria loess has been made on the basis of color and leaching of carbonates (Leighton and Willman, 1950; Ray, 1963). Ray (1963) reported that where the Peoria loess was unleached, Farmdale loess was readily distinguishable; compared to Peoria loess, the Farmdale was commonly more compact, darker in color (chocolate brown) and more leached. It was not unusual for the Farmdale to create a perched water table In the Peoria loess. He also noted a sharp contrast in silt:clay ratio between the two loesses. According to Willman and Frye (1970) the Farmdale loess was deposited between 28,000 and 22,000 y B. P. Evidence for Farmdale loess in Ohio is 44 scarce, only Rutledge et al. (1975a) recognized it at one site where they .had 2.6m of Peoria loess above, and 2m of Loveland loess containing a well developed Sangamon soil below. Possibly the lower Melvin loess reported by Dreimanis and Goldthwait (1973) correlates with Farmdale loess. Leverett (1902) reported finding a "mixed silty zone" on top of the Sangamon soil developed in shale residua in southwestern Ohio where no quartz sand sources were present. He discounted biological activity in producing this zone and believed it was eolian in nature. Obruchev (1945) recongized a sandier loess below a silty loess and called it altered loess. Sandier loess-like zones have been found in Ohio (Goldthwait, 1968; IChangarot et al. , 1971; Rutledge et al., 1975a), Indiana (Hall, 1973; Harlan and Franzmeier, 1977a; Norton and Franzmeier, 1978; and Steinhardt and Franzmeier, 1979), Kentucky (Barnhisel et al., 1971; Price et al. , 1975), and Illinois (Frye, 1962; Fehrenbacher et al. , 1965a, 1965b; Follmer, 1970). Barnhisel et al. (1971) found two loess deposits believed to be Wisconsinan age in Kentucky; the lower of which contained more sand. Silt on a clay-free basis was the best criterion to distinguish the a priori lithologic discontinuity between these loess units. Price et al. (1975) also found two deposits in southwestern Kentucky and 45 found particle size, quartz/feldspar ratio, and silt content were all clear indicators of breaks in loessial parent materials. Rutledge et al. (1975a) found that silt percentage expressed on a clay free basiswas the most useful criterion to differentiate breaks in parent material. Frye et al. (1968b) reported that in Illinois Roxana zone lb (immediately above zone la) is mainly loess and sandy loess and contains a weakly developed soil at its top. In Indiana Ruhe et al. (1974) reported a radiocarbon date for the mean residency time for organic matter at the top of this sandy unit of 16,540+110 years B. P. They noted the possiblility of contamination by modern carbon because of the shallow depth where the carbon was obtained. Hall (1973), and Harlan and Franzmeier (1977) found this sandy material to have most of the same relationships of thinning and grain size distribution as Peoria loess. They both thought the sand it contained was derived locally and transported by saltation. Hall (1973) found the mineralogy of the fine sands (100-250 microns) was different for sandy loess and Peoria loess. The sand grains in the sandy loess were mainly quartz, and Fe-Mn concretions in the Peoria. Norton and Franzmeier (1978) found that the mineralogy of the heavy minerals in the fine sand fraction was closely related to that of the underlying Sangamon paleosols. They also demonstrated that the sandy loess was more weathered 46 that the overlying C horizons in Peoria loess, but less weathered than the underlying Sangamon paleosols. They also demonstrated that sandy loess indeed had an eolian influence as measured by the heavy mineralogy of the 20-50 micron silt fraction. Sangamon Paleosols Leighton and Willman (1950) recognized three distinct loess strata in the upper Mississippi valley; Peoria, Farmdale and Loveland. The Loveland loess, where present, contains a well developed soil, the Sangamon. This soil developed during the interglacial period between the Illinoian glaciation and loess deposition during Wisconsinan age. The Sangamon soil is a "key bed" separating Illinoian age material from Wisconsinan loesses (Frye, et al. , 1968a). Ruhe (1968), Ruhe et al. (1971), Hall (1973), Ruhe et al. (1974), Ruhe (1975), and Rutledge et al. (1975a) found that Sangamon soils are usually redder in color, greater in clay and iron oxide contents, and have thicker sola than post Wisconsinan soils. Ruhe et al. (1974) concluded that the Sangamon interglacial was an event greater in soil forming magnitude than all of post-Peoria time. The term "pedisediment" was first used by Ruhe (1956) to describe the mixed upper portion of Sangamon paleosols in Iowa. This material was believed part of a pediment which 47 had undergone pedogenesis during late-Sangamon time. Ruhe also used the term "late Sangamon paleosol" to describe this zone. Hall (1973), and Harlan and Franzmeier (1977) found this material throughout southwestern Indiana. Frye et al. (1968a) concluded that Roxana zone la (the lower most Roxana unit) consisted of colluvium and contained a "strongly developed soil". They further concluded that this zone was equivalent to Ruhe's late Sangamon paleosol. Smith (1942), Caldwell and White (1956), Goldthwait (1968), and Follmer (1970) explained that this upper "loamy zone" may have been caused by bioturbation. In Ohio the term "intercalated" has been used to describe the upper part of the Sangamon paleosol (Khangarot, et al. , 1971). Based on the heavy mineral percentage of the 20-50 micron silt fraction their data showed a weathering profile in the intercalated and through the Sangamon soil. Therefore, this zone may be pedisediment and (or) the intact A horizon of the paleosol. 48 Results and Discussion The area of thick silty deposits observed in the study area appeared on Landsat channels 5 and 7 imagery as a "diffuse" zone near the glacial boundary with the Allegheny plateau due to landuse differences. This zone was beyond the presumed terminal Wisconsinan boundary and continued beyond the Illinoian boundary. On the same imagery the study area reflectance was in sharp contrast to other areas of southeastern Ohio, where the glacial boundary was easily distinguished. Loess Pis tribution In the belief that these silts were eolian in origin based on their morphology rather than lacustrine silts or the product of jLn situ weathering, secondary source areas were searched for to account for the extraordinary silt thickness since they were removed from the major glacial streams that have been shown to be loess sources in Ohio. Two relatively large valleys of Teays-age that now contain reversed drainage and underfit streams were the only secondary stream valleys containing outwash in the area. Both streams have undergone drainage reversals by blockage of their westward flow from the Allegheny plateau by Wisconsinan or Illinoian ice (Lamborn, 1932). As a result, 49 the valleys contain glacio-fluvlal deposits of both Wisconsinan and Illinoian ages. Traverses were made southeasterly from the two valleys to determine if the thickness of the silts could be related to distance from the valley walls. Only stable georaorphic positions were used to measure the thickness using a hand auger or hydraulic probe. The loess thickness was measured only as the depth to the "intercalated" zone, which in most cases was a silt loam in texture that ranged in thickness up to 0.8m. The transects were named for the streams presently flowing in the post-glacial valleys, and their locations are shown in Figure 5. Both transects exhibited well defined thinning patterns each with R-square values for the equations for thinning greater than 0.97. Therefore, it was concluded that the anoraolously thick silty material of the area was indeed eolian in origin, and the two valleys studied were sources of loess. The relationship between distance from the source and loess thickness for Jonathan Creek is given in Figure 6, and for Rush Creek in Figure 7. In the case of the Jonathan Creek transect only one semilogarithmic equation was required to explain the distribution. This fact may be due to the morphometry of the source valley; Jonathan Creek's valley is oriented west-northwest to east-southeast (Figure 8). The western 50 '— Jonathan Creek Tronsei Pe SR u s FT Creek Transect. Scale In Km Figure 5 Locations of study transects and the age of the bedrock. P=Pennsylvanian, M=Mississippian, D=Devonian, S=Silurian, and 0=0rdovician. iue . os tikes ih itne from distance with thickness Loess 6.Figure Thickness inE Creek. 45- .7 o X log 1.47 - Y 5 = .4 2 oahn Creek Jonathan itne n Km in Distance Transect Rutledge's T2SI 10 100 Jonathan 51 iue . os tikes ihdsac fromCreek.Rush distance thicknesswith Loess 7.Figure Thickness in m Y«2.0l-2.59logX Rush itne n Km in Distance Transect Creek • • • • • Y= l.62-0.53logX 10 100 52 53 JM.II... r.,r . M | Wisconsin Out wash v^l Figure 8. Morphometry of the two source valleys. Stippling in the Jonathan Creek valley represents the ice contact or till deposits of Wisconsinan age. Arrows represent direction of drainage today. 54 end of the valley was blocked by a late-Wisconsian moraine leaving the valley with a large widthrlength ratio. Effectively the dimensions and orientation of the valley have caused it to act as a "point source" for loess in the area. According to Handy (1976) variable winds were the cause for extraordinary loess thicknesses near source areas. This was not observed in the Jonathan Creek transect; however, it was noted in field investigations that the loess formed a halo around the valley. This effect was undoubtedly due to winds of different directions. Additional evidence for differing loess distributions was gained by plotting randomly measured Peoria loess thicknesses and contouring the thickness using programs of the Surface II graphic system (Sampson, 1975). Two areas of thicker loess can be readily identified (Figure 9). The site locations and thicknesses of loess used to create Figure 9 are shown in Figure 10. The distribution pattern observed around the two sources supports the previous findings. The loess at the Rush Creek source has been more widely dispersed, as opposed to the Jonathan Creek source where the loess was more concentrated in one area. Both sources exhibited thinning radially away from the valleys as would be expected from variable winds. The Rush Creek transect exhibited extraordinarily thick loess near the source similar to that found by previous 55 2 OS 210 21S 70 70 I*" 6S ■40 60 60 •<0 30 Perry Co km Figure 9. Isarithmic map of Peoria loess thickness in the Perry County area* The countour interval is 10 i nches. 56 205 210 215 25. 3 0 25 60. 75 70 70 70 48 .4 8 •• 60..4 8 52 72.'72 . .5 5 198 60 ,44' 46 72 ■40 50 25 30. 48 20 70 65 70 33' 52 30 .30 48 72 72. 30- 48* ;.9 6 49 « 116. 74 48 64. 80;956ei. . . [44 ^ 5 O " 50'44 I •45 j-32 .9 6 / 36 60 60 2429 Perry Co. 42 20 k m 25 24. 24 205 210 215 Figure 10. Site locations and loess thicknesses (in inches) used in constructing the isarithmic plot of loess thickness. 57 workers in loess distribution (Smith, 1942; Hutton, 1947; Simmonson and Hutton, 1954; Caldwell and White, 1956; Waggoner and Bingham, 1961; and Frazee et al., 1970). In this case two equations were sufficient to describe the observed loess thickness; one for a near the source component, and one for the distant component. Several explanations have been given to account for extraordinary loess thickness near the source: Caldwell and White (1956) attributed it to intermediate sources along the traverse; Waggoner and Bingham (1961) to air turbulence; Frazee et al. (1970) to particle-size sorting, and Handy ( 1976) to variable winds. Frazee et al. (1970) found three equations necessary to describe loess thinning in two of three traverses in Illinois. They attributed the first equation to the rapid decrease in particle size near the source, the second to variable winds and the third to the depletion of the loess cloud. Handy (1976) used a three dimensional mathematical treatment of loess distribution, and found that deposition by variable winds alone could account for the extraordinary loess thickness near the source. Indeed, in the case of the Rush Creek transect variable winds seem likely to be the cause of the increased thickness because of the wide area of the valley that contains outwash. The morphometry of the valley (Figure 8) lends itself to addition of loess from several areas of the valley. 58 Whereas, Jonathan Creek uplands could receive loess from only one direction and only one equation was found necessary to describe loess thickness. Resolving the distribution in the study area to more than two equations was unrealistic because the highly dissected terrain did not provide a large number of stable geomorphic positions where the loess could be measured with confidence. However, if a rapid decrease in particle-size near the source was a significant component in the loess thinning model then the geometric mean particle size should decline very rapidly near the source. In the case of the Jonathan Creek transect the average value for the geometric mean particle-size for calcareous loess horizons at the edge of the valley (Pr-10) was 51.1 microns; this value decreased to 40.3 microns in 1.8km (Pr-8). There was a considerable decrease in the particle-size near the source, but only one equation was needed to explain the observed decrease in thickness. From this it appears that the morphometry of the valley, either allowing or not allowing for addition of loess by variable winds was a more important factor in contributing to extraordinarily thick loess near the source than was the rapid decrease in particle-size. 59 Loess and Pleistocene Stratigraphy The loess blanketing the area was considered to be Peoria loess since it occurred over late-Wisconsinan till and outwash terraces in the area. However, the main stratigraphic problems in the study area were the relationship of the intercalated zone to the Quaternary stratigraphy, and the occurrence of possibly Wisconsinan till beyond the supposed terminal moraine. The recognition of Illinoian deposits in the area was based on the occurrence of a Sangamon soil formed in glacial deposits. Underlying the loess and always stratigraphically above the Sangamon soil was the intercalated zone; however, it was not observed when the loess was overlying Wisconsinan materials. Figure 11 shows the topographic and stratigraphic relationship of the loess and the intercalated zone in a transect from Pr-10 to Pr-8. The intercalated zone was identified in the field as a dense brittle zone commonly containing more sand and small pebbles than the loess above, with bleached colors indicative of eluvial horizons, but lacking the polygonal structure of fragipans. The brittleness was very similar to that observed for fragipans, but, the intercalated zone often occurred at depths much deeper than pedogenic fragipans, and could be detected at increasingly shallower depths along, the transects. When the depth to the intercalated zone iue 1 Tasc fo r1 t P- soig eain of relations showing toPr-8Pr-10 from Transect 11.Figure Ele vat ion (m) 260 280- 300 320 340 360' W i s c o n s i n t i l l a n d outwoth ol t te landscape. tothesoils Pr-10 iMIuviui NE Distance 1.0 ero loots Peorio ovtr rttlduo from palooioie roefct T h i n I l l i n o i a n t i l l (km) InUrcolattd 1.4 ion* 1.6 ' 60 61 approached lm; fragipan characteristics were observed, and this zone may be responsible in part for the genesis of many of the fragipans in the area. What is the intercalated zone was the first question to be answered. From field observations the intercalated zone was generally silt loam in texture, but it was also observed as a fine sandy loam when overlying Sangamon soils developed in residua from sandstone. Based on the field relationships, micromorphology, and its stratigraphic position in association with the Sangamon soil, as well as the intense weathering profile inferred from, the elemental ratios (Appendix B), the intercalated zone is likely the product of pedogenesis, and perhaps the A horizon of the pre-loess paleosol that had undergone eluviation and weathering prior to addition of the loess. Clay mineralogy revealed considerably more interlayered (intercalated) 2:1 clay minerals in this zone than in the calcareous loess above or the Sangamon soil below at Pr-8. However, the name intercalated was used by Khangarot et al. (1971) to represent its stratigraphic position between the Peoria loess and Sangamon soil. The particle-size distribution may provide some insight relative to the origin of the material comprising the intercalated zone. Smalley (1956) discussed the processes of loess formation from glacial deposits leading to the 62 sorted material, and Franzmeier (1970) demonstrated that glacially derived loess and dune sand had a mutually exclusive particle-size between 40-80um that was present in the parent glacial till, demonstrating an effective sorting mechanism. Cumulative particle-size distribution of loess has a characteristic shape due to the sorting. Swinford and Frye (1945) used the skewness of the cumulative curves to demonstrate that there was no difference between wind-blown silt and various loess. The cumulative frequency of material <7.5cm is given in Figure 12 for Pr-8. Note that only in the portion of the curve >50 micron does the intercalated differ from the loess; it is likely that the material <50 micron is wind-blown. The Sangamon soil formed from shale residua was considerably different from both the loess and the intercalated material. From thin section examination of the intercalated zone the sand grains present were identified mainly as quartz, but there was a considerable number of feldspars, weathered feldspar, and composite igneous grains (Figures 13 and 14). This suggests that there was a glacial influence either by addition of eolian sand or by mixing of detrital grains from underlying till. The s-matrix of the intercalated zone was very similar to that of the loess, but the loess above was completely devoid of quartz sand grains in thin section. The weathering of the intercalated zone was also iue 2 Cmltv gansz dsrbto fr parent for distribution grain-size Cumulative 12.Figure eo 20 Cumulative 40. to. . aeil inPr-8. materials T e - R p ril-io (um) article-sizo P .100 100010 I 10000 63 64 demonstrated by the elemental analysis of the 5 50 micron silt fraction. The higher Zr and Ti contents of the intercalated zone (IIC3 and IIIAb horizons, Table 20) suggest that it has undergone considerably more weathering than the loess above. Although the intercalated zone may have initially contained higher contents of Zr and Ti generally these elements concentrate with advanced weathering. The occurrence of the interlayered clay minerals suggest weathering; Brinkman (1976) suggested that ferrolysis is a dominant process in paddy soils, and that it can produce interlayering of clay minerals in surface horizons of these soils due to alternating oxidation and reduction from perched water tables. Since the intercalated zone contained increased amounts of interlayered 2:1 minerals, a similar process of acid weathering may have occurred supporting the surface horizon concept for the intercalated zone. Based on the weathering of the intercalated zone, there must have been a time that it was exposed to weathering prior to deposition of Peoria loess in late-Wisconsinan time. Since the Sangamon soil is always present and stratigraphically below it is possible that the material composing this zone may have been added during the late-Sangamon or early- to mid-Wisconsinan. Its occurrence on relatively unstable slopes and stable terraces, and the 65 lack of stone lines separating it from the loess above or the Sangamon soil below make it unlikely that this zone is the pedisediment of Ruhe (1956), which has been observed from southwestern Indiana, west through Iowa. Both units have the same stratigraphic relationships. Possibly the climatic conditions favorable to the formation of pedisediment did not exist in Ohio, and resulted in more landscape stability than further west. In any case, as a result of stratigraphic considerations the intercalated zone can be considered to be post-IIlinoian and pre- late-Wisconsinan in age. For pedologic considerations it seems to be the surficial horizon of the Sangamon soil, which has undergone eluviation and acid attack of clay minerals. The relationship of the intercalated zone to sandy loess described elsewhere (Goldthwait, 1968; Barnhisel et al. 1971; Price et al., 1975; Norton and Franzmeier, 1978) is unclear; however, the intercalated zone has many of the same properties , when silt loam in texture, as the sandy loess described in southwestern Indiana. It seems possible that the sandy loess described elsewhere is a pedologic relect and contemporaneous in origin to the intercalated zone. Morphologically the intercalated zone at Pr-8 consisted of two units. The upper unit was described in the field as a IIC3 horizon because of its noticable lack of development, 66 but the lower unit appeared more weathered, and was described as an Ab horizon. Both units appeared to be loess influenced from the cumulative frequency curves (Figure 12) and micromorphology (Figures 13 and 14); but there was a considerable difference in weatherable mineral elements (Fe, K, and Ca) and stable mineral elements (Ti and Zr) content the two units and from the overlying Peoria loess. The upper zone contained more weatherable mineral elements and less stable mineral elements than the lower zone; suggesting that the upper zone is less weathered and possibly younger. If both zones are loess influenced, they must represent two different ages of loess deposition, both of which would be pre-Peorian in age. The lower zone is possibly Illinoian in age, based on the extreme weathering, and the occurrence of weathered feldspars and other glacially derived igneous grains; therefore, the loess influence could be attributed to Loveland loess. This assumption is tenuous at best. The upper zone would then be post — Loveland and pre-Peorian, or Roxana loess. If the upper portion of the intercalated zone is Roxana in age at Pr-8, the intercalated zone then could be used as a stratigraphic marker for Peoria loess since everything above the intercalated zone would be younger than Roxana. In the field there was some question morphologically if there were multiple loesses present in the Ava soil (Fa-28) 67 Figure 13. Weathered feldspar grain found in the intercalated zone at Pr-8. Frame width equals 2784 microns. 68 Figure 14. Weathered composite igneous grain found in the intercalated zone at Pr-8. Frame width equals 2784 microns. 69 which could have contributed to its bisequal horizonation. A similar break in the Ca:Zr ratio occurred at the contact of the intercalated zone (2Bx3 horizon) as was observed in the Sylvan soil (Pr-8), but no difference in any of the weathering parameters was observed across the fragipan contact. Although this does not conclusively rule out the possibility of two loesses above the intercalated zone at Fa-28, a weathering break similar to that observed at Pr-8 would be expected if there were Roxana loess present. The simplest explanation is that all the loess above the intercalated zone is Peoria loess since it is compos itionally homogeneous. Little data are available on the elemental corapositon of Roxana or Farmdale loess, but published data from Fehrenbacher et al. (1965b), Barnhisel et al. (1971), Rutledge et al. (1975b), and West et al. (1980) showed Farmdale or Roxana loess to be compositionally different than Peoria loess, and more weathered. Although only one study was from Ohio, the data supports the conclusion that the compositionally uniform material at Fa-28 is Peoria loess. The late-Wisconsinan terminal moraine at the opening of the Jonathan Creek valley is shown in Figure 8 according to Goldthwait et al. (1965). The location of observed ice contact material consisting of glacial till, outwash and 70 lacustrine material is shown in shading on Figure 8. The question of the age of the material was a concern because the intercalated material was not found over these sediments. The material in question was observed at several deep bore holes along the landscape near Pr-10. The material immediately below the loess and outwash was very calcareous and did not contain any evidence of soil formation. Nowhere in the valley were these deposits observed to contain a Sangamon soil; even on stable constructional landscapes of coarse textured material. Whereas, upslope on the summits and shoulders, that are considerably less stable, well developed Sangamon soils occur in Illinoian till. The materials in the Jonathan Creek valley were in contrast to those in the Rush Creek valley, in that similar deposits in the Rush Creek valley contained well developed Sangamon soils, overlain by the intercalated zone, but those in the Jonathan Creek valley did not. Dreimanis and Goldthwait (1973) and Goldthwait et al. (1965b) placed the date of deposition of the loess covered Caesar till at about 18,200-19,900 y B. P., and the loess-devoid Darby till at 17,300+300 y B. P. Therefore, the loess event in Ohio appeared to be very short in duration. Since the deposits in the Jonathan Creek valley were all loess covered they must be pre-Darby or >17,300 y. 71 Again the complete lack of buried soil profiles which are found on mid- to early-Wisconsinan deposits in Ohio (i. e. the Sidney soil of Forsyth, 1965), suggest that these deposits maybe younger than mid-Wisconsinan. Based on these observations alone it might be concluded that these deposits were late-Wisconsinan; however, a radiocarbon data from stratigraphically below the loess near Pr-10 of 28,450+560 years places the material into the mid-Wisconsinan time. The material probably correlates with an advance of ice into the Jonathan Creek and its tributary valleys, possibly corresponding to the deposition of the Boston or older Wisconsinan tills in the Scioto sublobe. Evidently the ice must have been very plastic in order to flow into some of the extremely small tributary valleys where these deposits were observed. A dark silty organic rich zone containing wood and plant remains was found stratigraphically below the loess on the landscape near Pr-10 was the source of the material for the radiocarbon date. The zone apparently was a small bog deposit formed on the till surface prior to burial by the loess. Wood and plant material was radiocarbon dated, using carbon thirteen to carbon twelve correction, at 28,450+560 yr B. P. (Beta-3071, Figure 53); therefore, the loess is no older than this date, and the underlying till is at least that old. The plant remains were concentrated by gently wet 72 sieving with distilled water. The material was only slightly decomposed and still remained identifiable. Dr. Wes Cowan of the Ohio State University Anthropology Department identified several plant species from the material. Remains identified were: Hemlock Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. White Pine Pinus s trobus L. Red Pine Pinus resinosa Ait. Red Spruce Picea rubens Sarg. Sedges Carex spp. Rushes Juncus spp. Pond Weed Potamogetin spp. Buttercup Ranunculus spp. Wild Lettuce Lactuca canadensis L. Blackberry Rubus spp. The assemblage of plants indicates that the vegetation around the bog was an open canopy Boreal type forest prior to the loess event in the study area. The late-Wisconsinan loess event can be predated by the 28,450+560 yr B. P. radiocarbon date, and the second loess, which partly composes the intercalated zone at Pr-8, post-dated. Since the date is Farmdalian in age (Willman and Frye, 1970) and assuming it is contemporaneous with the underlying till, the second loess at Pr-8 could correspond to Robein silt or Roxana loess. In either case it is significant to note that it does differ morphologically, physically, and chemically (Appendix B) from the overlying Peoria loess . 73 Summary and Conclusions The thick silty deposits in the study area were eolian in origin and related in thickness to small source valleys. The shape of the source valleys was important in determining if the loess distribution was affected by variable winds. Variable winds appeared to be important in producing extraordinarily thick loess near the source. The intercalated zone appeared to be the product of pedogenesis in various materials deposited post-Sangamon and prior to the late-Wisconsinan loess event. At some sites this zone appeared to have had some eolian influence, but in some cases did not. Interlayering of clay minerals probably occurred through alteration and acid weathering of minerals when this zone was at the surface of the Sangamon soil. Ferrolysis or a similar process may have been an important process because of the moisture restriction imposed by the clayey Sangamon soil argillic horizon. Glacial deposits found in the Jonathan Creek valley beyond the presummed Wisconsinan terminal moraine were determined to be mid-Wisconsinan in age and may correlate with the deposition of the Boston or older tills in the Scioto sublobe. These deposits occurred up to 15 km beyond the previously described Wisconsinan terminal moraine, and should be noted in revisions to the glacial map of Ohio. C H A P T E R 2 DIFFERENTIATION OF SOIL PARENT MATERIALS In many soil genesis studies, the problem of differentiating soil parent materials has received much attention. Various investigators have tried to correlate soil parameters with a priori lithological discontinuities based on morphological evidence. Distribution profiles of rare earth elements obtained from x-ray spectrography or wet chemical methods, counts of resistent mineral species, and particle-size components of soil have been used primarily as supportive evidence for morphological discontinuities or uniformities in parent material. Often, even with morphological evidence, differences are not clear, especially when mixing of two or more materals occur, or the soils are intensively weathered. A knowledge of soil parent material discontinuities is of prime importance in the understanding of measurable soil parameters as related to various soil forming factors or relating these parameters to soil forming processes. In the past many authors have argued about the origin of the silty material called loess. Three main theories have been portrayed to explain its occurrence in various 74 75 areas: 1) aeolian; 2) water deposited; and 3) iji situ formation (Smalley, 1975). Likewise, in Ohio, silty soil parent materials have been attributed to all three processes. The objective of this study was to statistically evaluate various soil parameters and their utility in differentiating lithologically similar soil parent materials that were problematic in the soil surveys of the study area. Literature Review Since the work of Marshall and Haseman (1942) who stated: "the proof that a given profile was indeed derived from the assumed parent material is not easy to furnish and has seldom been throughly attempted"; soil genesis studies have often been concerned with establishing parent material uniformity (Calhoun, 1968; Chapman and Horn, 1968; Khangarot et al. , 1971; Wang and Arnold, 1973; Rutledge et al. , 1975b; Smeck and Wilding, 1980). Smeck and Wilding (1980) were concerned with profile reconstruction, and stated that criteria for reconstruction is that a pedon possess a reference base, include a stable index constituent, and be derived from uniform parent material. Generally, depth distribution of a "stable" index constituent that does not exhibit inflections or weathering trends implies parent material uniformity (Brewer, 1976). Ratios of index constituents may exemplify discontinuities, 76 or they may mask differences. Rutledge et al. (1975b) observed that both Zr and Ti depth distributions indicated a marked change in parent materials, but the Ti:Zr ratio did not, when the loess-till contact was crossed. Rostad et al. (1976) found similar trends for Ti:Zr ratios for loess and outwash. Depth distributions of resistent mineral species, or ratios of such, may be more reliable indicators of parent material uniformity than elemental contents; however, the number of grains to be counted in order to achieve any acceptable level of statistical significance is very difficult to obtain. Even then, grain counts are limited in accuracy due to the inexact identification of minerals by optical microscopy. Brewer (1976) calculated that for a mineral of which the soil contains very little (i. e. 0.5% of any appropriate size fraction) it would require counting greater than 75,000 grains to be significant to the 0.05 level. Therefore, elemental contents measured by x-ray spectrography or wet chemical methods have been used to approximate mineral species distribution in soils. Smeck and Wilding (1980) assumed that the only source of zirconium in Ohio soils was zircon based on many studies of Ohio soils. Smith and Wilding (1972) found weathering trends for Ti contents, and calculated gains and losses based on Zr, and Hutton (1977) discussed the mobility of Ti in soils, and the occurrence of secondary anatase in soils. Deer et al. 77 (1962) showed that primary micas may contain 3-6% Ti in their lattices; therefore, weathering of micas or other primary minerals containing substituted Ti to mobile clay size minerals could also affect the depth distribution of Ti . Geologic studies have used discriminant analysis with geochemical data to differentiate between enviornments of deposition of geologic materials (Greenwood, 1969; Upchurch, 1972) and to differentiate between rock units (Howarth, 1971; Hawkins and Rasmussen, 1973). Few soil genesis studies have used statistical analysis to establish differences in soil parent materials. Workers have used numerical methods to group similar soils (Norris, 1971), to determine if pedologic or geologic effects were dominant on hillslopes (Huddleston and Rieclcen, 1973; Huddleston et al., 1975), and to assess soil development in a time sequence of sand dunes (Berg, 1980). Kimura and Swindale (1967) developed a highly significant discriminant function for separating morphologically similar Hawaiian oxisols developed from different parent rocks. They used the elemental Ni and Zr content of the whole soil to develop their function. Paton and Little (1974) developed a discrimiant function that included twenty three chemical and physical attributes to distinguish between four morphologically separated strata of valley fill in 78 Australia. They used a stepwise discriminant procedure to determine which parameters were the most useful in differentiating among the units. Pavlik and Hole (1977) discriminated between soils developed on different ground moraines in Wisconsin. Results and Discussion The objective of this study was to statistically evaluate several soil parameters, measurable in the laboratory, that appeared to reflect differences in soil parent material, as to their ability to differentiate loess and siltstone residua, and to test the similarity of silty deposits occurring in possible lacustrine landscape positions. An assumption was made that if these were lacustrine silts, they would have been influenced both by glacial materials and siltstone residua occurring within the drainage watershed, and therefore, should not be grouped with either. Siltstone and loess were chosen because some soil scientists in the past have argued that the upper silty mantle of soils in the residual areas of Ohio was formed by residual weathering of the bedrock. If this hypothesis were true then statistical analysis using elemental data should 79 not be able to distinguish between the upper silty mantle and the lower siltstone residua. Data from soils known to contain both these materials were obtained from Amba (1980), and Rutledge (1969) in addition to data from this dissertation and other nonpublished data. The test statistic used was the F statistic, and discriminant analysis was performed using only those parameters that had highly significant differences and lacked appreciable covariance in an attempt to test if the two materials could be effectively separated with several parameters. The data used in the initial multiple regression included: /.zirconium (ZR), %titanium (TI), the zirconium:titanium ratio (ZR:TI) of the 5-50 micron silt fraction, the percent sand (TS), silt (SI), clay (TC), fine clay (FC) , and total silt expressed on a clay free basis (CLFRS1LT); and the mineralogical parameters of percent quartz (QTZ), and kaolinite (KAOL) in the <2 micron fraction. The data used in the initial analysis are presented in Table 14 and the key to the abbreviations in Table 13. The samples were a. priori termed loess or siltstone for various geographical areas of Ohio. Since complete data for many observations were not available, the experiment was unbalanced; more samples were available for loess than for siltstone. The multivariate analysis of variance was accomplished by modeling each parameter as the 80 dependant variable, and the material as the independant variable. The procedure essentially performed individual analysis of variance on each parameter; therefore, the parameters having the larger F values were the most different. The summary of the individual analysis of variance is given in Table 6. The question answered by each test was: were the two materials different for that parameter. Based on the data, several of the parameters were statistically different at a high level of significance. The F values fell into two groups; some values were large and some small. Generally the elemental parameters had the largest F values while total silt and clay also were fairly large. Clay free silt was found by Rutledge et al. (1975b) to be the best indicator of lithologic discontinuities of loess over residua; however, statistically it had one of the lowest F values. This suggests that silt on a clay free basis does not differentiate between lithologically similar materials. Solely on the multivariate analysis it was concluded that the elemental parameters (ZR, TI, K, and ZR:TI) are better for the differentiation of the materials than either the physical parameters (TS, SI, TC, or FC); or the mineralogical parameters (QTZ, KAOL). The differences between the parameters were then evaluated using multiple regression analysis by modeling the 81 Table 6. Summary of individual analyses of variance from the multivariate analysis of variance. Probability of Variable F exceeding F R-square Zr 22.16 0 .0001 0.39 Ti 13 34 0.0009 0.28 K 29 65 0.0001 0.46 Total Sand 3.39 0.0743 0.09 Total Silt 22.49 0.0001 0.39 Fine Clay 2.77 0.1051 0.08 Total Clay 15.76 0 .0004 0.31 Quartz 5.65 0.0232 0.14 Kaolinite 9 .19 0.0046 0.21 Zr :Ti ratio 10.48 0 .0027 0.23 Clay Free Silt 4.57 0.0397 0.11 c 82 material as the dependant variable and all the parameters as the independant variables. The total model had an R-square of 0.88 indicating that it accounted for 88 percent of the variability in the material. TheF values obtained for each parameter (Tabl-e 7) differed in order from the previous analysis, but except for the fact that ZR had the highest F value, the same conclusions were drawn. The next step was to test two pedons developed in thick silty deposits that occurred in possible terrace landscape positions in Teays age valleys that drained silstone residual areas. These pedons were included in the discriminant analysis to determine if they could be separated from the loess occurring on the upland and siltstone residua. These soils occurred in landscape positions that would be mapped as lacustrine soils in modern soil surveys of the area. The reasoning behind the analysis was the assumption that if these soils were indeed lacustrine in origin they would have had both a glacial and a non-glacial influence, and should group somewhere between loess and siltstone residua using discrimiant analysis. Stepwise discriminant analysis (BMDP, 1979) was performed after adding the elemental parameters (ZR, TI, and K) for pedons Pr-10, and Fa-27 (Table 16). These two soils were coded as another material to test the hypothesis that they differed from the loess on the upland and were possibly 83 Table 7. Summary of the results from the multiple regression analysis. Probability of Vari able F value exceeding F Zr 24.38 0 .0001 Ti 22.61 0.0001 K 20.33 0.0001 Total Sand 0.15 0.7056 Total Silt 1 .08 0 .3082 Fine Clay 3.69 0.0667 Total Clay 1.54 0 .2270 Quartz 2.52 0.1258 Kaolini te 1.84 0. 1875 Zr:Ti ratio 19.57 0 .0002 Clay Free Silt 1 .68 0 .2079 84 lacustrine. The stepwise procedure adds variables that account for the most variation or dispersion. The first variable added was Zr, the parameter with the highest F value; which accounted for >97% of the dispersion. The next parameter was K; both parameters together accounted for 100% of the dispersion so Ti was not required. The procedure then performed discriminant analysis and classified the observations accordingly. In this case all but three siltstone values were correctly classified; however, the discriminant function could not discriminate between the loess on the upland and thepresummed lacustrine silts (Pr-10, and Fa-27) occurring in the valleys. The procedure also performs canonical correlation which provides for a plot of canonical variables to visualize the separation. The canonical equations were developed by contrasting the groupings in regard to the given parameters and centering them on zero; Therefore, the sum of all the observations is zero. The equations were: Canonical Variable 1 = -0.668 + 58.719Zr - I.826K Canonical Variable 2 = 8.152 - 62.110Zr - 2.215K Figure 15 is a scatter plot of the groupings; the large symbols represent the mean for each group. It is easily seen that siltstone was separated effectively from o o d= pg --I.8 ■ n •Siltstone o o • «• ®loess on upland __30 □ foessIn valley —I------1------L. -4 -2 0 Canonica I Variabla I Figure 15. Scatter plot of canonical variables derived from discriminant analysis. The large symbols represent the mean for each group. iue 6 Satr lt f aoia aibe drvd from derived variables ofcanonical Scatterplot 16.Figure Canonical Variable 2 -3.6 .-1.8 ------1------1— .3.6 o r CD eiu, n lcsrn mtra. h large The material. lacustrine and residua, symbols represent the mean for each group. foreach the mean representsymbols h dsrmnn aayi o les siltstone loess, of analysis discriminant the • 1 ------...... B0 °B © a D a ^ B l^j d D D □ □ □ 8 d □ □ - D 1 o - p cf Q Q AV" V •iA ©© © ©© © © Canonical aibe I Variable 08 • © • © © © © • • © © i 1 ------ J” B ” BJ b « a / Loess “ •Siltstone a Lacustrine l 1 ..... B a ...... b V ... T “ 1 ... . 86 87 scatter plot in the form of canonical variables. The equations were: Canonical Variable 1 = 1.799 + 66.336Zr - 10.754T1 + 0.719K Canonical Variable 2 = 5.245 - 27.074Zr + 2.997Ti - 2.840K The assumption that the lacustrine materials of the Teays valley were intermediate in composition to the paleozoic siltstone residua and the glacially derived loess was discounted because the lacustrine material was actually more different in composition from the loess than the siltstone residua (Figure 16). Although the initial assumption was shown to be invalid, the same conclusion that the silts occurring in the valley were compositionally more similar to the loess than siltstone residua or lacustrine deposits of the Teays valley can be made. Discriminant analysis (Rao, 1970) was performed using the parameters that had the highest F values in the multiple regression analysis (ZR, TI, and K). The question answered by the discriminant function was: can the materials be classified adequately based on the given data (Snedecor and Cochran, 1967). The three parameters together, and each parameter paired with another were evaluated in their ability to differentiate the parent materials correctly. Using Zr, Ti and K to develop the discriminant function the procedure missclassified 3 of 51 observations (Table 15); 88 likewise, Zr and K missclassified three. Ti and K were not as effective in differentiating the two materials, missing eight. The fifty one observations were all correctly classified using Zr and Ti together (Figure 17); demonstrating that they were the best two parameters in differentiating between loess and siltstone. A multivariate transformation of theMahalanobis D-square to the F statistic was performed on the separation, and for the Zr and Ti discriminant function with 2 and 49 degrees of freedom the F value was 25.4. This indicated a very highly significant separation, greater than the 0.01 level of significance. Three complete pedons were included in the discriminant analysis (Pr-8, Pr-2, and Ro-91); two were developed in thick loess and one with shallow loess over siltstone residua. The discriminant function based on Zr and Ti plotted against the Zr content shows the uniformity in the two loess soils as evidenced by the close grouping of data points from the same soil (Figure 18) even though there were great differences in the amount of weathering of the various soil horizons. The Wellston profile (Pr-2) contained a field identified lithologic discontinuity that was supported by the discriminant analysis. Again the data for each parent material plot close together with good separation between the materials. 89 8 -1 Dlacrlmlnant Function - Zr - .1155 TI 6 - CM • • O 4- Loess c ° 2 . o c 3 , • 0- ,Sc° B O E -2 o -4- Siltstone residua - 6 - ~r T T T ~ r 2 4 6 8 10 -2 % Zr x 10 Figure 17. Discriminant function for differentiating loess and siltstone residua using the Zr and Ti content of the 5-50 micron fraction. 90 8- 6- %> « 2-1 c Wellston VTCIIOIUII • • Sylvan 0- Alford c o 0° — - 2- E g a Wellston siltstone 5 -4- - 6- - 8- — 1 i ■ i 4 6 8 10 % Zr xio'2 Figure 18. Discriminant function plot ilustrating separation of soils and parent materials. 91 Discriminant analysis was found to be an effective tool in differentiating lithologically similar soil parent materials. This technique would be very useful in soil genesis studies where a knowledge of parent material uniformity or lithologic discontinuities requires quantification. The computer can develop the discriminant function very quickly and efficiently, but to visualize the procedure used it is advantageous to provide a simple example of the calculation. In the case of developing the discriminant function based on the Zr and Ti contents, the function can be obtained by calculating the covariance matrix, and solving the matrix equations. The covariance matrix is developed by simply summing the squared deviations from the means of the matrix elements and dividing by the degrees of freedom. In the case of like positions in the matrix this value is the variance (s-squared). From the data (Table A2) the covariance matrix was: Zr Ti Zr 1.8365 2.2245 Ti 2.2245 129.80 (all values are times ten to the minus four) The Matrix equations were then constructed as such 92 1 .83 65b1 + 2.2245b2 = dl dl = 0. 02401 2.2 245b1 + 12 9.8 Ob 2 = d2 d2 = 0.37610 where dl is the difference in the soil parent material for the first variable means (Zr), and d2 isthe difference in the TJ. means for the two materials. Solving the two equations with two unknowns simultaneously: bl=152.012 and b2=-17.563, the discriminant function can then be cons true ted: Discriminant Function (D.F.) = 1.52.012Zr -17.563Ti or by simplifying: D.F. = Zr -0.1155Ti The Mahalanobis D-square was then calculated for use in calculating the F statistic for the separation by the formula: D-square = bldl +b2d2 The F statistic was then calculated by the formula: N1N2(N-P-1) F(p>P“ n-l) = PN(N-2) *D-square where N=total number of samples, Nl=number of observations for loess, and N2=number of observations for siltstone, 93 P=number of variables fitted (2). Summary and Conclusions The various statistical analyses performed lead to the conclusion that loess and siltstone residua can be separated as evidenced by the success of the statistical tool discriminant analysis in differentiating the materials, and the F values from the multiple regression analysis. Therefore, the hypothesis that the upper silty mantle in the residual areas is a product of weathering of siltstone is rejected. Likewise, the lacustrine origin for the silts occurring on terrace positions in the valleys is rejected based on the canonical correlation and stepwise discriminant analysis. The greatest differences between the materials were in the elemental parameters (mainly Zr and K ) , with the physical parameters of secondary importance. Several of the parameters were statistically significant to the 0.0001 level. In practical significance Zr and Ti contents could be used to determine the probability of an unknown sample belonging to one material or another when a question occurs. Also, lithological discontinuities or uniformities in soils could be tested, thus avoiding many costly and time consuming supportive analyses after data from known materials are obtained. The application of the technique to soil genesis studies is that this procedure can be used to 94 show parent material uniformity, and to construct confidence limits and intervals; therefore, giving some degree of quantification to a priori separations made solely on field morphology. Discriminant analysis seems to be a very useful tool for the soil scientists who wish to add quantification to subjective separations of parent material or to demonstrate parent material uniformity for soil genesis s tudies. C H A P T E R 3 A MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT SEQUENCE IN MODERATELY THICK LOESS Soils developed in moderately thick Peoria loess (>2m) in east-central Ohio vary in development from Typic Hapludalfs that are calcareous at lm to Typic Fragiudalfs leached of carbonates to greater than 3m. These soils occupy similar landscape positions and are similar in distance from their loess source; however, the underlying material is quite variable. The Sylvan soil had a high base status shale derived paleosol below; the Alford, calcareous mid-Wisconsinan till; and the Hosmer and Ava soils had low pH shale derived paleosols underlying. Recognition of the different underlying material is difficult in conventional soil mapping because it is often greater than 2m in depth. Although, the difference in soil development is difficult to determine using geomorphic relationships, the variance in soil development provides a unique sequence to study soil development where time relief, parent material, climate, and vegetation are assumed to have been similar. 95 96 The sequence of soils studied include Sylvan (fine-silty, mixed, mesic, Typic Hapludalf); Alford (fine-silty, mixed, mesic Ultic Hapludalf), and Hosmer (fine-silty, mixed, mesic Typic Fragiudalf) (Soil Survey Staff, 1979). All three soils were developed in loess of Peorian age, but varied considerably in sola development and weathering. A thinner loess soil (<1.5m) was also sampled for comparison, and was classified as an Ava soil (fine-silty, mixed, mesic Typic Fragiudalf). Literature Review Norton (1930) was the first to recognize differences in soil development with distance from a loess source. He noted the increase in horizon expression of a claypan in thinner loess soils away from the Mississippi river. Later Norton (1933) described belts of soil associations which paralleled major river valleys and described how the degree of soil formation increased with distance from these valleys. Bray (1937) noted that, with increasing distance from the loess source, the Illinoian gumbotil (Sangamon paleosol) was nearer to the surface and soil development increased. Ulrich (1949) discussed some of the changes in soil development sequences in Peoria loess in Iowa. Smith (1942) proposed the "effective age" concept to account for the increasing soil development away from the loess source. 97 His basic as sumption was that loess was deposited at a constant rate. In thinner loess areas, weathering could keep pace with deposition; whereas, in thick loess areas it could not. Daniels et al. (1960), Ruhe (1969), Ruhe et al. (1971), Kleiss (1973), Kleiss and Fehrenbacher (1973), and Worchester (1973) have shown that the rate of loess deposition was not constant and that the youngest increment was the most extensive. Therefore, another mechanism must be the cause of the soil development differences. Caldwell and White ( 1956) used the quartz : feldspar ratio as a measure of weathering and found that the feldspar content of loessial soils in southwestern Indiana decreased away from the source. White et al. (1960) compared the clay mineralogy of two loessial soils; Hosmer with a fragipan and Muren without a fragipan. They found kaolinite throughout the Hosmer profile, but it was virtually absent in the Muren; they attributed this to increased weathering in Hosmer. Grossman et al. (1959) also working with a Hosmer found that the fragipan was developed within Peoria loess and that the underlying Farmdale loess was sandier and redder in color than the overlying Peoria. They found the 20-50 micron heavy mineral assemblages were similar in both the Peoria and Farmdale, and that both were different from the underlying Illinoian till. There have been several recent studies dealing with 98 soil formation in loess materials and related topographies [Walker (1966), Kleiss (1970), Vreeken (1968), Huddleston and Riecken (1973), and Malo et al. (1974)], These workers determined that slope position as affected by erosion and sedimentation processes greatly affect the observed soil development. Hall (1973) compared loess soils on similar topographic positions and found an increase in development away from the source as measured by the maximum percent clay content in the argillic horizon. In a companion study Harlan and Franzmeier (1977) observed an increase in the expression of a fragipan horizon away from the source. The degree of development of the fragipan was related to the depth of the underlying paleosols, but its upper boundary transgressed boundaries between loess deposits. Compared with the overlying horizons and with horizons of similar depth in non-fragipan soils, they found increased amorphous silica in the fragipan. They postulated that silica was an amorphous precipitate acting as a binding agent for the fragipans. Shipitalo (1980) noted that the material underlying the loess had a significant affect on the weathering of shallow Peoria loess in Ohio; especially in the ratio of resistant mineral elements (Zr and Ti) to weatherable mineral elements (K and Ca) in the 2-20 and 20-50 micron silt fractions. He attributed the differences to basal weathering of loess influenced by the underlying 99 Sangamon soil. Ruhe (1973) gives a review of much of the previous literature on soil formation in loess. In areas of thin loess over Illinoian till in southeastern Indiana, Steinhardt and Franzmeier (1978) studied both Pgoria loess overlying another loess, or ablation till, but the expression of a fragipan did not coincide with any lithologic unit. They also found an increase in amorphous silica extracted by citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite and 0.5N NaOH, in the fragipan and concluded that it was a critical binding agent of the fragipan. Hallmark and Sraeck (1979a) compared several different extractants on fragipan and non-fragipan soils from northeastern Ohio and concluded that 0.1N HC1 + 2% acetylacetone extractable Al was the most diagnostic element for the amorphous component binding fragipans. Further research has shown that this extractant may not be indicative of fragipans in other parts of Ohio (Thompson, 1980; Shipitalo, 1980). Norton and Franzmeier (1978) studied the occurrence of fragipans in toposequences of thick Peoria loess in southwestern Indiana and found that fragipans developed at the characteristic depth in uniform loess after complete removal of carbonates. The key factor was the occurrence of an impermeable layer below the sola that could perch water in the loess on the flatter summit and shoulder positions. They also observed profile maxima 100 of CBD-extractable silica associated with the Bx horizon; / which did not coincide with the clay maximum of the argillic horizon. In the soils studied lithologic discontinuities were not a problem. The proposed mechanism was that the fragipan occurred at the characteristic depth that corresponded with the zone of maximum wetting and drying, and probably was a result of extraction of water by tree roots, and the precipitation of a silica rich cement. Buntley et al. (1977) claimed the depth occurrence of the fragipans in west Tennessee was determined by the thickness of the Peoria loess overlying the Roxana loess. The expression of the fragipan (and its degradation) increased with thinning of the Peoria loess. Their finding would invoke a mechanism by which the Peoria loess would thin more rapidly than Roxana; since at the bluff of Mississippi river (presumably the loess source) the Peoria was about twice the thickness of the Roxana. This contradicts the findings of all the loess distribution studies discussed earlier. Ruhe et al. (1975) suggested that climatic patterns since the Pleistocene affected the distribution of forest and grassland, and likewise the formation of bisequal (fragipan) soils. They proposed that fluctuations in the climate from moist to dry back to moist again accounted for the bisequum, the depth of which, they assumed, did not 101 correspond to lithologic discontinuities between the loess and the underlying paleosols. Thompson (1980) worked with thin loess overlying various alluvial/colluvial materials containing fragipans in the main trunk of the abandoned Teays valley in Jackson County Ohio. He found that the fragipan horizon occurred below the loess and concluded that close packing of skeletal grains, clay bridging, and amorphous cements were all important in fragipan bonding. He also hypothesized that ' the addition of calcareous loess to an acid paleosol changed the pH below and caused precipitation of amorphous materials. If this were the case fragipan horizons would be found at many depths controlled only by the thickness of the loess, and conditions similar to that reportedly observed by Buntley et al. (1977) found. 102 Results and Discussion Soil Classlfication and Description The soils studied were all located on similar topographic positions, but on different geomorphic landforms, and different underlying materials. The Sylvan soil was located on a broad upland residual summit overlying a Sangamon soil of high base status developed from shale. The Alford soil was located on the ridge of a presumed Wisconsinan moraine with calcareous Wisconsinan loess and till below. The Hosmer soil was located on a narrow summit that may have been influence by Illinoian kame terrace deposits and contained a low base status Sangamon soil developed in residua from clastic rocks below. The Ava soil occurred on a broad residual ridge and was underlain by an acid paleosol developed in siltstone and shale. Detailed morphological descriptions, both in tabular and narrative form, appear in Appendix B. The thickness of the loess varied for each soil, but most of the modern soil formation occurred within the loess. The age of the loess was considered Peorian based on the conclusions from Chapter 1 and 2. Dreimanis and Goldthwait (1973) have dated a late-Wisconsinan loess event in Ohio as occurring since depostion of the Caesar till and prior to deposition of the Darby till. These tills have been 103 radiocarbon dated at 18,000-18,500 and 17,300-18,100 years B. P. respectively. This would bracket the time of deposition for all three soils parent materials, and the maximum time for soil development on the oldest material would be 18,500 years if indeed the soils are composed of Peoria loess and Dreimanis and Goldthwait are correct. The radiocarbon date of 28,450+560 years reported in Chapter 1 may support an earlier date for the loess event in Ohio. Therefore, the differences in soil development must have occurred in less than the time of the radiocarbon date, but it is assumed that time was a constant for all the soils. Differences in soil development are dramatic in the depth of leaching of carbonates and the extent of argillic horizon development. The Sylvan soil was calcareous at a depth of lm; whereas, the Hosmer was leached of carbonates to a depth of >3m throughout the loess The extent of argillic development increases with depth of leaching. Both the weighted average clay content of the control section and the depth of clay accumulation increased with increasing depth of leaching. Figure 19 illustrates the relationship between depth of leaching, argillic horizon development and the formation of fragipans. Micromorphology also substantiates the increase in argillic development from Sylvan-Alford-Hosmer. The most striking differences between the soils micromorphologically was the amount of oriented iue 9 Gnrlzd weathering Generalized 19.Figure DEPTH (m) s tudied. Sylvan 0 0 30 20 10 %oloy NCREASED WEATHERING D E S A E R C IN l f r n r i ■ i %eioy eune o te soils the for sequence Alford 0 30 20 oo to o o o b r s C V h t to th p o D 104 105 illuvial clay in the argillic horizons. Figures 20, 21, and 22 represent typical distributions of illuvial clay for the three soils. Estimates of the oriented clay corresponded well with the increase in the weighted average clay values for the upper 50cm of the argillic horizon (Sylvan 19.6, Alford 21.7, Hosmer 25.2). The micromorphologic descriptions of selected horizons were described according to Brewer (1976), and appear in Appendix C. CBD Ext rac table Oxides Bloomfield (1952) reported that mottling in soils is simply a rearrangement of the iron within a soil horizon. This process would require the mobilization of iron in the ferrous state and would allow for removal from the soil. These differences in drainage could affect the extractable oxide content of the soil; but since all three soils contained no mottling, their drainage was considered the same, and comparisons of the extractable iron and other oxides should represent differences in soil formation. The data for the CBD extractable "free" iron and aluminum oxides parallel the data for the clay accumulation in the argillic horizon very closely. This seems resonable since both oxides have pH dependant charges, which at acid soil pH's have a net positive charge that can coordinate to the permanent net negative charge on the clay minerals. In Figure 20. Photomicrograph of the argillic horizon of Sylvan under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 2784 microns. 107 Figure 21. Photomicrograph of the argillic horizon of Alford under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 2 7 84 microns. 108 Figure 22. Photomicrograph of the argillic horizon of Hosmer under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 2 784 microns . 109 all three soils the maxima for the iron and aluminum oxides are nearly coincident, but the depth of accumulation increases in the sequence Sylvan-Alford-Hosmer (Figures 23, 24, and 25). The oxiderclay ratios are very uniform within the loess, demonstrating that the oxides are associated with the clay, probably as coatings on the negatively charged clay surfaces. Extractable silica shows no trend in the Sylvan profile, and a small buldge within the standard error of measurement, that corresponded to the argillic horizon in the Alford. In contrast, a silica maxima in the Hosmer and Ava soils occur at the depths of maximum fragipan expression and do not coincide with the clay maxima of the argillic horizon (Figures 25 and 26). The silica:clay ratios show a very poor relationship, suggesting that it is not associated with the clay. This observation supports the findings of previous work on similar soils in Indiana by Harlan et al. (1977) and Norton and Franzmeier (1978). Although the silica content can vary considerably between parent materials; within the loess only fragipan horizons contain anomolously high CBD extractable values. Additional discussion related to the bonding in fragipans appears in Chapter 4. 110 C8D Eitractobla OxIdas IK) J______?______5______! A* IS" B2lt BZZt 8231 B3t Cl 1. Cl e A Sylvan (PR-8) a • o A/ SC9 2 . m X Ak 3ZB2tb AlsOs xlO FSfO j SIOt *10 S Figure 23. CBD extractable oxides for Sylvan (Pr-8). Ill CBD Extractable Oxides (%) E JC Alford (PR-10) ;XlO Figure 24. CBD extractable oxides for Alford (Pr-10). 112 CBO Extractable Oxides (%) 2 3 4 0 *» I€ E Z m u O il 1 . 2 B i t A e B»S O Hosmer (FA-27) 2 - BS xIO BIO 3- Figure 25. CBD extractable oxides for Hosmer (Fa-27). 113 CBD Oxides (%) SBIb S IO ^llO *',o, >10 Awo (FA-28) Figure 26. CBD extractable oxides for Ava (Fa-28). 114 Elemental Composition Elemental contents of Zr, Ti, K, Ca and Fe in the 5-50 micron fraction were measured by X-ray spectrophotometry. Chapter 2 demonstrated that elemental contents were good indicators of parent material differences between loess and other morphologically and texturally similar materials. Elemental contents also can be used to evaluate the extent of soil formation. Generally Zr and Ti occur in minerals that are stable under conditions incurred in the soil. They may occur in primary minerals or as microinclusions in other minerals (Wilding and Drees, 1978), as well as in secondary minerals, especially in the case of Ti. Generally Fe, K and Ca occur in minerals that are less stable in the soil enviornment, and can weather much more rapidly, allowing for their removal from the soil or precipitation in other forms. Therefore, ratios of stable mineral associated elements to less stable mineral associated elements in a homogeneous parent material (i. e. loess) allows one to make comparisons of weathering. Data for the elemental contents appear in Appendix B, and in graphical form in Figures 28, 29, 30, and 31. In all soils the Ti and Zr contents parallel each other and decrease with depth. Both F e , and K are more variable. but show only small weathering trends. The variability may be because these elements also occur In secondary compounds that coat silt grains. Wilding and iue 7 Climzroim ais o te -0mco silt the5-50 micron for ratios Calcium:zirconium 27.Figure Depth (m) rcin o Sla, lod Aa ad Hosmer. and Ava, Alford, Sylvan, for fraction ) V Ca/Zr Homcr otm •H o Alford aSylvan 115 116 % Element i.o 1.5 2.0 Ti-' 'Ca Sylvan (PR-8) Figure 28. Elemental distribution of the 5-50 micron silt fraction for Sylvan. Dashed lines represent carbonate free data. iue 9 Eeetl itiuin f h 55 mco silt micron 5-50 the of distribution Elemental 29.Figure Depth (m) rcin forAlford.fraction Ca Zr Zr Ca 1 10 lod (PR-10) Alford Element % Fa 2.0 117 iue 0 Eeetl itiuino te -0 irn silt micron 5-50 theof distribution Elemental 30.Figure Depth(m ) rcin forHosmer.fraction Ca omr (FA-27) Hosmer Z 10x Zr * Element % 1.0 118 iue 1 Eeetl itiuino te -0 irn silt micron 5-50 theof distribution Elemental 31.Figure 2 Depth (m) 3 Ca rcin forAva. fraction Zr Zr * 10 Element % v (FA-28) Ava 1.0 2.0 2.5 119 120 Drees (1978) reported that 40-60% of the iron in silt fractions occurred as secondary coatings. The samples were not pretreated to remove coatings; therefore, the variation is probably the result of coatings. The most distinct elemental differences occurred in the Ca content. The Sylvan soil exhibited a well pronounced weathering profile, which was expected since it was calcareous at lm. However, even after removal of carbonates with dilute HC1 (Rutledge, 1969), a well pronounced weathering profile occurred (Figure 28). After carbonate removal the Ca was probably associatd with plagioclase feldspars. The trends are similar for the Alford and Hosmer soils, but much less pronounced than in the Sylvan. This suggests that those two soils are more weathered than the Sylvan. The Ca:Zr ratio should be lower for more weathered horizons since Zr contents increase at the expense of Ca content with weathering. Figure 27 is a plot of the Ca :Zr ratios for the soils. The Sylvan soil again has the most pronounced trend (expressed on a carbonate free basis), showing that the upper solum i>s more weathered than Hosmer or Alford, but weathered to a much shallower depth. The difference in weathering between the Alford and Hosmer soils are minimal, with Hosmer being slightly more weathered. However, the increase is very slight, and it is unlikely that this small amount of weathering would lead to the 121 development of a fragipan. Therefore, something other than increased weathering must have contributed to the fragipan formation in the Hosmer. At this point it is interesting to note that the Ca:Zr ratio in the fragipan is higher in both the Hosmer and Ava soils (Figure.27) inferring that they are less weathered than the horizons above. Profile Reconstruction Parent material uniformity for the Sylvan, Alford and Hosmer soils was demonstrated using discriminant analysis in Chapter 2, therefore profile reconstruction could be employed to access differences in argillic horizon development between the soils. Zr content of the 5-50 micron fraction was used as the stable index constituent because Ti may exhibit weathering trends (Smith and Wilding, 1972). Smeck and Wilding (1980) reviewed much of the work on profile reconstruction in Ohio and state the problems and limitations of its use. Gains and losses of clay and colloidal clay were calculated using a method similar to that of Marshall and Haseman (1942) except that Zr content of the 5-50 micron silt fraction determined by X-ray spectrography was used rather than the percent zircon from grain counts. A computer program was written that converted the thickness of the horizon to weight of the horizon in a 1cm square column 122 by the thickness of the horizon in height. Gains and losses based on the Zr content, and parameter values of the referencehorizon were calculated to obtain both the percentage change and the weight change relative to the reference horizon. The reference horizon was chosen as the first horizon in the loess that appeared to be unaltered, usually the lowest horizon. Results of this analysis support the sequence of weathering found earlier for both total clay and colloidal clay. When calculated using the calcareous horizons of Sylvan and Alford and an average of both for the Hosmer as reference horizons; the amounts of total clay and colloidal clay in the sola decrease considerably from Hosmer to Alford to Sylvan (Table 8). Also, corresponding decreases in depth distributions of gains of total clay were observed (Figure 32). Similar results were found for the soils when calculating gains on a carbonate-free basis, but the magnitude was much less. Observations of silt grains by optical microscopy revealed that silt sized shale fragments either did not occur or were present only in trace amounts; therefore, corrections for shale attrition were not made. From the profile reconstruction analysis it was concluded that the Hosmer soil had undergone more weathering than the Alford, and Alford was more weathered than the Sylvan, substantiating the findings of the other analyses. 123 Table 8. Amount of clay (<2 micron) and colloidal clay (<.2 micron) gained in the sola on a carbonate included basis for the three soils. Soil------Fraction Sylvan Alford Hosmer g------ Clay Gained* 7.6 10.6 21.2 Colloidal Clay Gained 5.3 9.1 12.0 *Units are in grams of the fraction gained in a 1 cm square column of soil to the index horizon. iue 2 Poie eosrcin o ttl ly o Sylvan, for clay total for reconstruction Profile 32. Figure Depth(cm ) 40J 0 I4 160 I20J 100 I 0 6 j 0 8 J 0 4 J lod ad Hosmer. and Alford, 40 -4 % Change in Total Total in Change % -20 Alford Sylvan Tot 20 a Hosmer Clay 0 4 0 6 124 125 Clay Mineralogy The clay mineral composition of the <2 microti fractions from the Sylvan, Alford, Hosmer, and Ava soils was very similar for the phylosilicates, although weathering trends were observed with depth. Generally, the surface horizons contained more aluminum-hydroxy interlayered 2:1 clay minerals and quartz than other horizons. This trend was also observed in the buried A horizons of the underlying Sangamon soils. Brinkman (1979) used the term ferrolysis for the process of seasonal waterlogging of paddy * soil surfaces and the resulting oxidation/reduct ion reactions that subsequently produce intercalation of clay minerals. A similar process along with acid weathering could account for the observation of more intercalated clay minerals in surface horizons of both the modern soils, and paleosols which formed in humid enviornments. Small amounts of clay-sized feldspars identified by X-ray diffraction peaks occurring in the 3.0-3.3 angstrom range occurred in most of the loessial horizons of Sylvan and Alford, especially the calcareous horizons (Figures 33 and 34). However, they were absent in the Hosmer and Ava (Figures 35 and 36). It is possible that they were never present in the clay fraction of the Hosmer and Ava, but since the loess was derived from the same regional area, the original composition probably included feldspars in the clay fraction. Therefore, 126 Mg — Q I /c o lo tt d Sjrfvan PR-8 3 . 3 3.3 4 . 2 3 . 0 7.1 1 0 1 4 17.7 Ap Bt Ct .Ct C2 JZC3 , |\ n rA 6 il r T T T T T T T T 1 *• U M tl 10 10 18 14 S 10 S • 4 S •SO Figure 33. X-ray diffraction patterns for the Mg-saturated ethylene glycol treated <2 micron fraction for Sylvan. 127 Alford P ff'fO 4.2 5 0 14 17 B it B22t B 3 lt Cl C2 C 3 I "I ”T“ T- -i r T" *T ~r T "I a 2« 14 22 i4 t t 10 0 4 2 Figure 34. X-ray diffraction patterns for the Mg-saturated ethylene glycol treated <2 micron fraction for Alford. 128 AfV-Gfjrcofafetf Hotmtr FAST 3.3 3.5 4 .2 5 .0 7.1 10 14 17 I------1------1------1------1------1------1------1------1------1------1------1------1---- p 80 SO 24 t t 80 10 10 14 B 10 0 0 4 2 •20 Figure 35. X-ray diffraction patterns for the Mg-saturated ethylene glycol treated <2 micron fraction for Hosme r. 129 Mg-GlyeoloUd Avo F A -2 6 4.2 6.0 14 17 AB Btl Bt/E E/BI Bsl SBtb T “ r T T T T T T 22 20 •26 Figure 36. X-ray diffraction patterns for the Mg-saturated ethylene glycol treated <2 micron fraction for Ava. 130 weathering in the Hosmer and Ava has progressed to the extent that feldspars were removed from the clay fraction. The predominant clay mineral components were illite and kaolinite with lesser amounts of vermiculite accompanied with a substantial amount of randomly interstratified 2:1 minerals and smectite (Appendix B). Some diffraction patterns exhibited small poorly defined 4.8 X peaks for goethite. The clay mineralogy of the Sangamon soil B horizon underlying the Sylvan profile contained a considerable amount of well crystalized smectite and kaolinite (Figure 33), an unusual combination since both minerals are "stable" under different thermodynamic conditions. It also contained regular interstratified illite and smectite as evidenced by a 12 X peak with the Mg-25 treatment, and a 27 X peak upon glycolation. The large percentage of smectite in the Sangamon soil probably resulted in the shallow depth of leaching of the loess in the Sylvan soil. Although the overlying loess was freely drained and porous, the water could not infiltrate the Sangamon soil and remove the products of weathering. Evidence for this was the occurrence of many secondary concretions (loess "kindchin"), and crystic plasmic fabric composed of secondary calcium carbonate observed in thin sections of the C horizons (Appendix C). 131 Summary and Conclusions The three soils studied ranged from Sylvan (Typlc Hapludalf) calcareous at lm to Hosmer (Typlc Fragiudalf) leached of carbonates to greater than 3m and contained a well developed fragipan. The Alford soil (Ultic Hapludalf) was intermediate in leaching, but had base saturation low enough to classify in the Ultic subgroup. Differences in weathering based on micromorphology, depth distributions of clay, and profile reconstruction demonstrated that Hosmer was more weathered than Alford, and that both were more weathered than Sylvan. Although all soils were assumed to have formed from the same age loess, were located near their source area, and were located on similar landscape positions. differences in weathering occurred Such variation in profile development and weathering near the loess source may demonstrate that the. underlying material has had a considerable influence on the weathering of the overlying loess and may account for as much variability in soils as observed by other workers with distance from the source. Previous workers studying differences in soil development with distance from the loess source may have to some extent been describing differences in the underlying materials that were reflected in the overlying loess. The Alford soil was similar in weathering to the Hosmer and Ava soils based on the Ca:Zr ratio, and actually had a 132 lower base saturation at the critical depth to classify in an Ultic subgroup. However, the Hosmer and Ava soils contained well developed fragipans. This demonstrates that some mechanism other than intensity of weathering has resulted in the development of the fragipan. Since the only differing factor in the soils was the underlying material, the development of fragipans within the loess might have been affected by hydraulic or chemical constraints imposed by the underlying materials. This would support the hypothesis of Norton and Franzmeier (1978) who proposed that to form a fragipan in loess the underlying material must restrict the downward movement of water, to allow desiccation and cause precipitation of a compound rich in silica. This could be accomplished by removal of the water by tree roots after the soil was completely removed of carbonates. One would then have expected the Sylvan soil to have developed a fragipan since it had an extremely impermeable high smectite paleosol below. However, the layer was so impermeable it did not allow for even the removal of carbonates. Therefore, some intermediate restriction of water downward which allows weathering beyond the calcareous stage seems to be required for fragipan formation. Likewise, the hypothesis should be modified to state that the formation of a fragipan in loess requires an impermeable layer below, but not so impermeable to restrict 133 weathering. The intercalated zone discussed in Chapter 1 commonly has many of the characteristics of a fragipan; however, it lacks the polygonal structure associated with fragipans when buried by thick loess. When observed in thinner loess (i. e. the Ava soil) this zone develops the polygonal structure, and produces a fragipan. The intercalated zone beneath the calcareous loess at Pr-8, beneath leached loess at Fa-27, and within the fragipan horizon at Fa-28 were as restrictive as many fragipans, but were too deep to be taxonomically diagnostic except in the case of Fa-28. The occurrence of these brittle zones support the hypothesis of Thompson (1980). that addition of initially calcareous loess to an old paleosol surface causes the pH of the upper part of the paleosol to increase and precipitate weathering products from the loess. This zone develops the polygonal fragipan structure, and degradation, and becomes restrictive only if the thickness of the loess corresponds to the characteristic depth (approximately lm). This situation closely resembles the findings of Buntley et al. (1977) who found fragipan like horizons in Roxana loess beneath Peoria loess at a depth too deep to be diagnostic in classification of the soils. However, the occurrence of a well developed fragipan in the Hosmer, formed in uniform parent material overlying this intercalated zone demonstrates that dense 134 brittle zones can develop in different ways. A similar process may account for the conclusion of Buntley et al. (1977), who used this fragipan horizon as a stratigraphic marker for Roxana silt, which inferred that the Peoria loess thinned more rapidly away from the source than did the Roxana loess. This conclusion contradicts all the previous studies on loess distribution. It was likely that there was a similar discontinutity between Peoria and Roxana as with Peoria loess and the intercalated zone in Ohio. This discontinuity could have produced a fragipan like horizon at depth. As the Peoria loess thinned at a slower rate than Roxana, a pedogenic fragipan developed similar to the one in Fa-27 and those reported by Norton and Franzmeier (1978). Therefore, the Peoria loess could have thinned in the usual manner and the observations of Buntley et al. (1977) still produced. The bisequal nature of the Hosmer and Ava soils could be explained by a discontinuity between Roxana and Peoria loess as reported by Buntley et al. (1977). However, this would mean that the Peoria loess was the same thickness at the edge of the loess source (Fa-27) as it was 1.8km away at Fa-28. Since Alford soils, without bisequal horizonation or any morphological breaks, occur in close proximity to both soils it seem unlikely that such a condition exists. Likewise, if the second loess below the Sylvan soil is Roxana then the bisequal soils should exhibit similar weathering breaks. They do not, and in fact the fragipans are less weathered than the upper sola. Therefore, the fragipans in loess from this study are genetic horizons that developed through pedogenesis rather than being relict horizons as the intercalated zone. CHAPTER 4 FRAGIPAN FORMATION IN LOESS The word "Fragipan", derived from the latin word fragilis (brittle), is used to describe a dense, characteristically brittle subsurface horizon that restricts root penetration, water movement and various uses of the soil and is a diagnostic horizon in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). The nature of fragipans was described by Grossman and Carlisle (1969), and their impact on soil classification in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Several theories have been promoted to explain the genesis of fragipans in soils. Generally the theories fall into one of the following catagories: 1) physical packing of skeletal grains, 2) bridging of skeletal grains by clay or, 3) chemical cementation (Grossman and Carlisle, 1969). The objective of this study was to further elucidate the factors contributing to the fragipan phenomena by studying the occurrence of fragipans developed in loess of the study area. 136 137 Literature Review Various processes have been invoked to account for the formation of fragipans. Fitzpatrick (1956) believed that freezing of wet soil in a periglacial environment could produce some of the features associated with fragipans. Nikiforoff (1955) postulated that the upper boundary of the fragipan may be controlled by the depth of obliteration of soil formation due to periglacial processes. Romans (1962) discounted periglacial formation of fragipans after finding that the thickness of a fragipan in a polypedon buried in 200 A.D. was much thinner than the non-buried counterpart. Recently permafrost has again been promoted for the cause of fragipans in late-Wisconsinan loess soils in Belgium and northern France (Van Vliet and Langohr, 1981). Ruhe et al. (1975) proposed that cool moist conditions that favored boreal pine forests prevailed during the post-Wisconsinan period in the midwest until approximately 10,000 y B. P.; such conditions favored argillic horizon development. The shift of the climate to warmer and dryer during the later hypsithermal halted or slowed the eluviat ion/illuviation process, which began again as the climate reverted to warm and moist. The theorized result was a bisequal soil with horizon sequences similar to that found in fragipan soils. Many workers have promoted the importance of clay in adding to the physical strength of fragipans. Knox (1957) treated fragipan clods with solutions to remove amorphous materials, but found no difference in binding; whereas, a clay dispersant readily destroyed the peds. Anderson and White (1958) studying a Hosmer soil containing a fragipan in Indiana found that peds of fragipan horizons did not slake when water was added under vacuum. By the addition of various solutions that would disperse clay, or remove amorphous materials, they were able to ascertain that the solutions that would extract amorphous material destroyed the structure; whereas, those that would disperse clay did not. Examination of the extracts indicated a small accumulation of silica in the fragipan horizon. Grossman and Cline (1957) proposed the "brick and mortar" theory; that clay acted as the bonding agent at contact points of larger particles in fragipans. Wang et al. (1974) used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to contrast non-fragipan and fragipan horizons of Nova Scotia soils and found that clay in argillic horizons formed bands around grains, but bridged grains together in fragipan horizons. Bull and Bridges (1978) used SEM in the study of soil fabric from a fragipan like horizon and suggested that secondary ^silica was the cementing agent. Grossman and Carlisle (1969) noted that fragipan soils occur only is areas where there in an excess of precipitation over evapotranspiration, and are absent from 139 the humid prairies. Norton and Franzmeier (1978) proposed that fragipan formation in loess occurs where there is a more impermeable stratum within 3m of the surface which slowed the downward movement of soil solutions. As the forest vegetation utilized the soil water the dissolved materials became concentrated, and precipitated in a zone corresponding to the zone of maximum water extraction (approximately 1 m). These workers also found profile maxima of CBD extractable silica associated with the fragipans and concluded that a silica-rich cement was responsible for fragipan bonding. In Ohio, Hallmark and Sraeck (1979a) studied the fragipans formed in low lime Wisconsinan glacial till and concluded that A l , F e , and Si are released during weathering of the upper sola and are precipitated in lower horizons because of a chemical discontinuity, which in their case may have been related to increased pH. They also concluded that amorphous Al extractable by 0.1N HC1 + 2% acetlyacetone solution was the most diagnostic element for fragipans. Their data demonstrated increases in amorphous Si in the Bx and underlying B3 horizons. Thompson (1980) studied fragipans in the main trunk of the abandoned Teays River valley in Jackson County Ohio. The sequence of weathered material was reversed from that of Hallmark (1977) in that the upper sola was fresh, relatively unweathered loess, while the fragipan and underlying horizons were the weathered profile of a Sangamon paleosol formed in various materials. He was unable to conclude that any amorphous component was indicative of the fragipan, but hypothesized that the addition of loess and the subsequent leaching of soil solutions high in Ca into the weathered Sangamon soil caused a precipitation of amorphous materials contributing to the fragipan formation. Thompson concluded that in addition to an amorphous cement both clay bridging and close packing of skeletal grains were important in the formation of the fragipan. The hypothesis concerning the cause of precipitation is essentially the same as that of Hallmark and Smeck (1979a); both involve precipitation of amorphous weathering products induced by a chemical change in the soil solution environment. Additional evidence supportive of the chemical cement was provided by Jones and Uehara (1973) who used transmission electron microscopy to show the binding of soil particles by silica and Fe-oxyhydroxides. McKeague and Wang (1980) utilized scanning electron microscopy accompanied by energy dispersive X-ray analysis to successfully determine that aluminum complexed with organic matter was the bonding agents in Orstein horizons of New Brunswick, and similar methodology was used to determine that silica was important in the binding agent in duric horizons (McKeague and Protz, 141 1980). McKeague and Protz (1980) were also able to simulate duripan consistency by titration of a soil mixture containing Fe and Al salts with sodium silicate. McKeague and Sprout (1975) inferred that there was a continuum between duric horizons and fragipan like horizons from the study of duripan soils in British Columbia and hypothesized that the cementing agent was the same in both types of soil horizons. Daniels et al. (1966) reported that fragipan material that slaked at exposure became brittle again after drying. Jones and Uehara (1973) suggested that oxyhydroxides of Fe and Al lose their viscosity when dehydrated, but that silica gels appear to reversibly hydrate and dehydrate without loosing elasticity. Several workers have noted the increase in silica in fragipan horizons but have generally discounted it as the chemical bonding agent (Jha and Cline, 1963; Lozet and Herbillon, 1971; DeKimpe, 1970; and DeKimpe et al., 1972). Yassaglou and Whiteside (1960) believed that the amounts of aluminum and silica found in fragipan horizons were minor to account for the observed bonding. Likewise, DeKimpe et al. (1972) demonstrated an increase in CBD extractable silica in the fragipan, but considered the amount too small for it to be an important binding agent. Results and Discussion Fragipan formation related to field relationships and extractable oxides was discussed in Chapter 3. Because no direct conclusions could be drawn concerning the bonding agent of the fragipan, additional study was warranted. Three approaches were attempted to study the formation and bonding causing the brittle consistency of the fragipan in loess. The first approach was to test the hypothesis that either Si, Al or Fe compounds could add physical rigidity to undisturbed non-pan loessial material, and that chemical discontinuities (i. e. calcareous loess over acidic loess or acidic loess over calcareous loess), were important to the bonding strength. The test criterion used was the rupture strength measured by a technique similar to that developed by Hallmark and Smeck (1979b). The next approach was to study the breakdown of fragipan peds under . vacuum with various chemical solutions representing extractants for a wide range of amorphous and crystalline materials and to determine the composition of the solutions that effectively destroy the fragipan. The third approach was to study soil thin sections of fragipan, and non-pan horizons using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and to try to determine the chemical composition of the binding material by Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDXRA). 143 Column S tudv Five centimeter soil cores from a Giddings hydraulic sampler were air-dried, cut into 7.5cm lengths, and encased in a heat shrinkable polyolefin tubing (Gephart, 1979; Thompson, 1980). Samples of calcareous loess were taken from the Cl horizon of the Sylvan soil (Pr-8) and acid loess from the B3 horizon of Hosmer (Fa-27). The experiment was designed to test the effect of adding solutions containing Fe, Al and Si on consistency as measured by the rupture strength. Also, the hypothesis that a chemical discontinuity affects the formation of brittle consistency was tested by including both physically stratified calcareous loess over acid loess and acid loess over calcareous loess. A 2-way balanced experimental design was used to allow statistical analyses for both differences between materials, and differences between the leachates. The leachates used were 0.01m ferrous nitrate with 0.1m ammonium oxalate as a chelate to avoid precipitation at pH 5.7; 0.01m aluminum chloride with 0.1m ammonium oxalate at pH 5.7; 0.01m sodium silicate at pH 6.0, and distilled water. The pH of the solutions were adjusted with HC1 to avoid extreme pH values that occur by simply dissolving the salts in water. Sodium silicate at pH <8, and a low sodium concentration form sols at concentrations of Si greater than approximately 120 ppm (Her, 1973). The total Si 144 concentration used was 280 ppm; therefore the Si in solution existed as a sol with a very small particle size. A total of 500ml leachate was added to each column in 20ml aliquots over a period of 3 months. Afterwards, excess salt was removed by washing with several leachings of water. The columns were then air-dried and sawed into 1.25cm disks on a diamond trim saw, and the polyolefin casing removed. The rupture strength was then determined using the procedure of Hallmark and Smeck (1979b). Multiple disks were taken from the same core and the same disk ruptured more than once where possible. Results of the rupture test demonstrated that the consistency was highly variable (Table 17), both vertically in a column and horizontally within a disk. Therefore, as many observations as possible were made in an effort to obtain representative results. The data obtained, and used in the statistical analysis appear in Table 17 and the means in Table 9. A two-way analysis of variance was performed on the data which gave significant differences to the 0.01 level for the materials, and to the 0.002 level for the treatments. Duncan's multiple range test was then applied to determine where the differences occurred. This analysis demonstrated that all the materials responded similarly except that the calcareous loess with acid loess overlying it had a rupture strength significantly different at the 145 Table 9. Means of rupture strength for the column study. Treatment Material Fe Al Si water ------g------ Leached loess 2663 3889 4475 4042 Calcareous loess 3017 3948 3945 3345 Leached loess over Calcareous loess* 2807 3160 3050 3030 Calcareous loess over leached loess* 2505 4630 4370 3786 *Values are from the lower half of the column. 146 0.05 level from the acid loess, but not different from the calcareous loess. The only difference in the treatments was that Fe was significantly lower in rupture strength than the other treatments. To further elucidate where the differences occurred, Duncans's multiple range was performed separately by material and treatment. Table 10 shows the groupings obtained from the analysis by material. For the acid loess the groupings by treatment show that Si, Al and water (the control) are not significantly different at the 0.05 level, and the A l , Fe, and water treatments are also not signifcantly different. Likewise, the acid loess that had calcarous loess overlying it grouped Si, A l , and water together with only Fe and water into the other group (Table 10). The calcareous loess, and the calcareous loess with acid loess overlying it showed no differences at the 0.05 level. The materials were not significantly different for the Fe, Si and water treatments; however, the Al treated calcareous loess with acid loess overlying it, and the acid loess with calcarous loess overlying were significantly different from each other (Table 11), but not different from there non-strat ified counterparts, suggesting a possible interaction of the stratification of the materials with Al. Although the treatments were not significantly different statistically, the results of acid loess are interesting. The Si treatment had the highest rupture 147 Table 10. Groupings from Duncan's multiple range test (alpha=0.05) of like treatments from the column study by material. ■"*— ---i r e acme ni Material Fe Al Si wa ter Leached loess B AB A AB Calcareous loess A A A A Leached loess over Calcareous loess A A A A Calcareous loess over Leached loess BA A AB Treatments with like letters are not significantly different within a given material. 148 Table 11. Grouping from Duncan's multiple range test (alpha=0.05) of like materials from the column study by treatment. Material Fe Al Si water Leached loess A AB A A Calcareous loess A AB A A Leached loess over Calcareous loess AB A A Calcareous loess over Leached loess A AA A Materials with like letters are not significantly different within a given treatment. 149 strength, followed by Al, with Fe the lowest. The acid loess used in the study contained considerable amounts of CBD extractable Fe and Al (2.00% Fe, and 0.13% Al) prior to treatment. The addition of sodium-silicate to soil containing Fe and Al was found by McKeague and Protz (1980) to effectively increase the strength of soils as measured by penetrometer over soil that received only addition of Fe and Al. They attributed the cementation to formation of a mixed Fe Al, and Si hydrous oxide, which was supported by elemental data obtained by energy-dispersive X-ray analysis of cutans linking grains together in thin sections of duripans. The data from this study, although not significant at the 0.05 level, support their findings, that addition of sodiura-silicate to soil containing Fe and Al increases the strength (Table 10). The observation that the Fe treatment was statistically lower in rupture strength than even the control was repeated for all of the materials. A possible explanation is that the Fe added as ferrous ion in solution was oxidized to the ferric ion which polymerized to iron oxyhydroxides . Through polymerization the iron could consume other ions, such as Al and Si, that provide strength and therefore, lowering the strength. 150 Vacuum Extractions Fragipan clods slake in water; their slaking is a criterion used to differentiate fragipans from duripans which do not slake in water (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). Anderson and White (1958) demonstrated that fragipan clods do not slake in water when they are first placed in a vacuum, and Steinhardt and Franzmeier (1979) used this fact to attempt to determine the bonding agent by adding extracting solutions under vacuum and measuring the contents of Fe, A l , and Si brought into solution. They concluded that Fe and Al were not important in bonding because solutions that did not break down the structure extracted them. Some of the solutions that did break down the fragipan extracted much Si, but others did not. Therefore the experiment was inconclusive as to the bonding agent. The solutions they used that broke down the fragipan were either solutions containing carbonate or bicarbonate ions, or those with a pH greater than 8.6 which also dispersed clay. Therefore, additional vacuum extraction study was conducted to add information on the bonding of fragipan material and to what causes the physical breakdown under vacuum. Specimens from the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer (Fa-27) were extracted with various extractants for amorphous materials after evacuating to 4mm Hg pressure for 30 minutes. 151 Extractants used are given in Table 12. Pyrophosphate is an extractant used to remove elements complexed with organic matter (Bascomb, 1968). McKeague and Day (1966) used ammonium-oxalate to extract amorphous iron oxides, however, Rhoton et al. (1981) demonstrated that extractions with oxalate conducted under light could dissolve considerable Fe from crystalline oxides particularly magnetite. Citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite (CBD) extracts both X-ray amorphous and crystalline oxides of Al and Fe, and X-ray amorphous silicates, but not elements in crystalline silicates (Mehra and Jackson, 1960). Borgard (1976) found that EDTA over a wide range of concentrations and pH complexed only X-ray amorphous Fe and did not extract crystalline species. Acetylacetone with 0.1N HC1 was used by Hallmark and Smeck (1979a) to extract amorphous materials from soils. They found that it extracted considerable amounts of Al from fragipans; although the compounds from which the elements were extracted were unknown. Giovannini and Sequi (1976) used acetylacetone in water and benzene to extract organically bound and poorly crystalline iron and aluminum, while Bascomb and Thanigasalam (1978) determined that acetylacetone extracted both amorphous and crystalline Fe-oxyhydroxides. The extent of dissolution depended on the surface area of the compounds rather than the crystallinity. The above extractants were chosen to selectively dissolve Table 12. Results from the vacuum extraction study. Moist Slaking Des truct Extract Cons is tency Af ter ion Unconfined Oxides* ion Af ter Extract under Compr es s ive -Ext rac ted--- Solut ion pH time Extraction ion vacuum Strength Fe Al Si hr kg/cc ----%--- Distilled water 6.5 48 friable yes none 4.3 0.1m Na-pyrophos- phate 9.6 48 yes total 6.5 0.04 0.08 0 .028 0.2m Ammonium oxalate 3.2 48 f r i ab 1 e yes none 5 .0 0.03 0.05 0.024 0.1m EDTA 4.8 48 f r i able yes none 5.0 0.09 0.08 0.039 Citrate Dithionite 6.0 168 - no s ome 4.0 0.92 0.16 0.104 CBD 7.5 48 - no total 3.6 0.59 0.12 0.028 C BD-degas sed 7.5 48 - no total 3.4 0.50 0.10 0.026 0.1N HCl+2% Acetyl acetone 0.8 48 f irm yes none 6.5 0.27 0.23 0.064 0.1m NaCl 1 .5 168 f r i ab 1 e yes none - 0.00 0.08 0 .042 0.1m NaCl 11.5 168 f riable yes none - 0.02 0.02 0.008 *Oxides are expressed as Fe^ 0^ , Al^ 0^ , and SiO^ . 153 the bonding agent(s) and partition the form that the bonding agent(s) occurred in. The results of the study support the findings of Steinhardt and Franzmeier (1979) except that silica apparently is not the sole bonding agent. The 0.1 N HC1 + 2% Acetylacetone extracted considerable Fe and Al with lesser amounts of Si, but did not affect the structure of the fragipan at all. In fact, the clod was more stable and firmer after extraction than with any other solution, even distilled water. Sodium-pyrophosphate, CD, and CBD were the only extractants to break down the clods. The CBD solution immediately destroyed the ped, whereas, the phyrophosphate slowly slaked the ped and completely destroyed it within two days. The CBD destroyed the fragipan without dispersing the clay, while the pyrophosphate completely dispersed the clay. After extraction with pyrophosphate and air-drying the soil residue retained its ability to slake, and recemented to penetrometer readings comparable to the untreated fragipan, and acetlyacetone treatment; whereas, the CBD and CD treated soil did not slake, and exhibited reduced strength after extraction (Table 12). Upon addition of CBD to the ped the solution violently gased. In an effort to evaluate if gas evolution was physically breaking down the soil, the CBD solution was evacuated to the same pressure as the soil and allowed to de-gas before addition. The result 154 was the same with comparble amounts of Fe, Al and Si extracted. Addition of citrate-dithionite at the same concentrations without the bicarbonate was also used to determine the effect of carbon dioxide gasing from bicarbonate in disrupting the fragipan. Citrate-dithionite alone was partially able to break down the fragipan although it turned the residue gray. Sodium-pyrophosphate extracted only trace amounts of Fe, A l , and Si (Table 12), but completly destroyed the structure. CBD extracted large amounts of Fe, and lesser amounts of Al and Si. Since high pH solutions appeared (Steinhardt and Franzmeier, 1979) to break down the fragipan without extracting much Fe, Al, or Si a 0.1m NaCl solution was added to the fragipan under vacuum to approximate a similar ionic strength, and the pH raised to 11.5 with NaOH after removal from the vacuum. The fragipan did not slake at this high pH, and retained its ability to slake after drying. Results of this study indicated that an amorphous cement of Si, Al, or Fe, alone was not responsible for bonding the fragipan together as evidenced by the ability of HCl-acetylacetone and other extractants to extract considerable amounts of all three elements without breaking apart the fragipan, and the ability of sodium-pyrophosphate to break down the fragipan without extracting either. Likewise, solutions containing carbonate or bicarbonate ions 155 break apart the fragipan without extracting these elements. The mechanism is probably the release of carbon dioxide gas when the bicarbonate comes into contact with the acid soil particles of the fragipan. Clay seems to be coassociated with the binding material because solutions that will disperse clay can break apart the fragipan. The hypothesis of close packing of skeletal grains was discounted, because the bulk density of the fragipan horizon was not greater than that of horizons of similar depth in non-fragipan loess soils or the upper argillic horizon in the Hosmer soil (Appendix B). Also, the hypothesis of hydrogen bonding between soil particles (Nettleton et al., 1968) was discounted by the 0.1m NaCl treatment raised to pH 11.5 with NaOH. If H bonding was indeed holding the fragipan together this treatment should have broken down the specimen by consuming the hydrogen ions. Likewise, a specimen was evacuated, 0.1m NaCl added and the pH lowered with HC1 to a pH of 1.5 in an effort to increase the consistency in solution as had occurred with the HCl-acetylacetone extraction. Again this treatment did not break down the ped, and the consistency was similar to that of the control (distilled water). Results of this experiment demonstrated that no single element alone was responsible for the bonding of the fragipan, since Fe, Al and Si could all be extracted in considerable amounts 156 without destroying the structure. The fast and complete destruction by CBD appears to be due only to release of carbon dioxide gas since CD gave incomplete destruction of the fragipan but extracted as much Fe, Al, and Si as CBD. The ability of sodium-pyrophosphate to destoy the fragipan at first seemed puzzling because only trace amounts of F e , A l , and Si were extracted (presumably that complexed with organic matter). Other extractants that also extract organically bound and amorphous components (EDTA, oxalate, acelyacetone , and citrate-dithionite) were unable to destroy the structure; therefore, it is unlikely that this extractant removed the bonding material. Although the pyrophosphate dispersed the clay, clay alone does not appear to be the bonding agent. Following extraction with pyrophosphate the air-dired residue rehardened to a greater strength as measured by penetrometer than the original fragipan, and also retained its ability to slake in water, which was not the case with the CBD residue. A possible mechanism for the disruption of the fragipan by pyrophosphate was dispersion of the clay around skeletal grains that was coassociated with the binding agent thus allowing the structure to decompose without removal of any binding agent. Upon drying the original bonding materials remained, and could recement the skeletal grains and account for the high unconfined compressive strength and the 157 retention of the slaking characteristic. The CBD treatment however, initially physically destroyed the structure and once destroyed, the cementing agent could be dissolved and complexed by the citrate. This would account for the lower unconfined compressive strength values, and the lack of slaking of the residue. If these observations are correct then the cementing agent must possibly involve a mixed hydrous oxide associated with clays in the plasma of the fragipans rather than clay bridging alone, hydrogen bonding, or close packing of skeletal grains. Since Fe and Al hydrous oxides are generally associated with clays, because of charge characteristics, both in fragipan and argillic horizons; the added consistency of the fragipan might involve silica bonding Fe and Al oxyhydroxides coating clay surfaces. Infrared Spectroscopy and Differential Scanning Calorimetry Infrared spectroscopy (IR) was utilized to characterize the <2 micron clay from the three soils studied. IR had the advantage over X-ray diffraction in that it can analyze "amorphous" materials as well as crystalline (Ahlrichs et al., 1965). Various workers have used IR successfully to study amorphous components in soil clays and synthetic materials (i. e. Leonard et al., 1964; Mejia et al., 1968; Russell et al., 1969; Wada and Greenland, 1969). Wada and 158 Greenland (1969) used differential IR spectroscopy to study the amorphous components extracted by several selective dissolution techniques. Such a method was utilized to study the composition of the amorphous material extracted by CBD since it was effective in breaking down the fragipan structure under vacuum, and the dried residue lost its ability to slake and recement. Samples of clay from the argillic horizon of all three soils and the fragipan from Hosmer were scanned by placing the extracted clay in the reference beam and the untreated clay in the sample beam. Before extraction, each sample contained exactly the same amount of clay which was plated out on a uniform area of silver chloride windows. The result was a scan for only the material extracted by CBD. Results of the IR analysis revealed an absorption band at 975 wavenumbers and increased stretching and bending bands for water in the fragipan (Figure 37). The band at 975 wavenumbers is not observed in scans of either the untreated clay or the extracted clay from any of the non-fragipan soils. Differential scans of both fragipan and non-fragipan horizons were conducted using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The differential CBD patterns obtained for the Hosmer profiles BX2 and B22t horizons appear in Figure 38, and are characterized by an increase in the 159 Bx2 o u e o B 2 2 t £ n c D bending 0 -H S I- 0 V S I- 0 bending 4000 3000 2000 1500 1000 500 250 Wavelength cm”* Figure 37. Differential infrared spectra of CBD extracted material from clays of the maximum argillic (B22t) and fragipan (BX2) horizons in Hosmer. 160 endotherra for water in the fragipan horizon over the argillic horizon. Also, a noticeable exotherra appears in the fragipan horizon after the water endotherm, probably due to recrystallization of the removed component to a more stable state. This data supports the findings of the differential IR spectra, which demonstrated increased structural water in the fragipan. The data from these two types of analyses demonstrated that the material being removed by the CBD extraction was different in the fragipan than the argillic horizons in two ways. First, there is considerably more structural water in the removed material in the fragipan than in the argillic horizons; also, a sharp absorption band at 975 wavenumbers between the Si-0 stretching bands and the Al-O-Si stretching band. The only clay mineral according to Van der Marel and Beutelspacher (1976) that exhibits an absorption band in this region is imogolite, a poorly crystalline hydrous alumnosilicate that has a fibrous morphology. The position of this band would suggest that it is due to the dipole change associated with a mixed silica-alumna hydrous oxide with a Si:Al ratio greater than one. In true imogolite the Si:Al ratio is equal to one (Wada, 1977). However, Moenke (1974) reports that the 950 wavenumber band in freshly precipitated silica gel, (which he attributes to Si-OH stretching) shifts to 970 wavenumbers on aging due to 161 condensation of the silica groups to form Si-O-Si bonds. He also states the position can be affected by impurities (i. e. aluminum), and is very common in opaline silicas. DSC patterns substantiated the increase in structural water, but also demonstrated a recrystallization exotherm at 180 degress C. Such thermal instability is uncharacteristic of imogolite, but similar to that of allophane (Russell et al., 1969). The information obtained from both analyses suggest that there is a mixed amorphous silicate that was removed by the CBD extraction only in the fragipan. The sharpness of the absorption band at 975 wavenumbers would indicate the material is somewhat crystalline, because more poorly crystalline materials give diffuse bands in IR. The anoraolous material being removed from the fragipan appears to be an intermediate between allophane and imogolite. 162 B22t + Bx2 285180 AT I 100 200 300 4 0 0 5 0 0 F i g u r e 38. Differential scanning calorimetry patterns for the CBD extracted material from the maximum argillic (B22t) and fragipan (Bx2) horizons in Hosmer. r 163 SEM-EDS Analysis of Thin Sections Thin sections from both fragipan and non-fragipan horizons were observed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and various micromorphological features analyzed by Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS). The objective of this study was to compare the micromorphological properties of fragipan, non-fragipan argillic, and C horizons of loess soils at magnifications beyond the limits of conventional light microscopy, and to analyze the composition of possible bonding materials. Micromorphological examination with a conventional petrographic light microscope of the fragipan horizon of the Hosmer soil revealed isotic to highly birefringent plasma at contact points of silt grains at magnifications greater than 250x (Figures 39 and 40). The material was too small to obtain an interference figure or identify with optical techniques. These features were not observed in the argillic horizon above the fragipan or in any horizons of the non-pan loess soils eventhough, the amount of banded illuvial clay was actually greater in the Bx than the overlying B2t. Since the material could not be identified by conventional light microscopy, SEM-EDS analysis was used 164 Figure 39. Photomicrograph of the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer under plane-polarized light. Frame width equals 500 microns. 165 w ^ h . *» Figure 40. Photomicrograph of the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 5 00 microns. 166 to locate and determine the composition of the material. Problems were initially encountered in differentiating the soil material from the impregnating media during SEM observation. Surficial impregnating material was then removed by etching the thin section, after removal from the slide, in methylene chloride to create relief and facilitate recognition of mineral grains. After etching, mineral grains and other micromorphological features were more readily seen. Composition of mineral grains and micromorphological features were easily determined by EDS. Plasma separations of clay occurred mainly around skeletal grains , which was reasonable since it was determined that the horizon had skel-insepic plasmic fabric from optical techniques (Figure 40). The plasma separations were characterized by small desiccation cracks and the EDS spectra that exhibited a 2:1 ratio of Si:Al with substantial amounts of K, Ca and Fe. The spectra were identical to those from large argillians and papules that could be differentiated on the basis of texture and conductance under SEM. Figure 41 shows argillans under cross-polarized light and the same feature with SEM (Figure 42). After etching, mineral grains were readily recognized at magnifications >200x; at magnifications of 250-2000x small features forming bridges between silt grains could be seen in the fragipan. These 167 Figure 41. Photomicrograph of a soil thin section from the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer illustrating an argillan under cross-polarized light. Frame width equals 1645 microns. 168 Figure 42. SEM image of the same argillan shown in Figure 39 from the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer. Frame width equals 4928 mirons. 169 bridges were conspicuous in that they did not appear to be cracked due to desiccation as were the argillans and plasma separations. These features contained considerably more Si than any other element. The bridges were seen between grains of differing composition, and were composed of material different than either of the grains. Figure 43 is a SEM image of such a feature; the upper grain is quartz while the lower grain is a feldspar as interpreted from the EDS spectra at points a, b, and c. The EDS spectra of the bridging material was very characteristic for the material bridging grains in the fragipan. These features always contained a large Si peak with lesser amounts of A 1 , K and Fe. The spectra, if the Si peak was not so large, would resemble closely that of clay. Apparently the bridges do have some clay incorporated in them. This would explain why extractants that disperse clay were able to break down the fragipan structure in the vacuum extraction study. The bridges always contained a high Si content; however, the A1 content was somewhat variable. The variability may be due to differing amounts of exchangable A1 associated with the clay, but considering the data from the IR study, some of the A1 probably occurs in the structure of the material. Figure 44 is an SEM image (upper photo) of the bridging material in the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer with the EDS spectra (lower photo) at point (a) '0 , 5 si Fa 0 -A- 0 2 4 6 e 10 10 kaV kaV e Fa 0 6 e 10 Figure 43. SEM image of a silicate bridge between a quartz grain and a feldspar grain and corresponding EDS spectra at locations a, b, and c. Frame width equals 46 micron. 171 Figure 44. SEM image of a silicate bridge in the Bx2 horizon of Hosmer (upper photo), and the corresponding EDS spectra (lower photo) illustrating the average A1 content observed at point a. 172 illustrating the average A1 content observed. Therefore, some of the A1 variability could be due to different amounts of A1 incorporated in the hydrous oxide. The Si, however, is the diagnostic component in these micromorphological features . Summary and Conclusions The three experiments and the supportive analyses all point to a hydrous silicate associated with a minor amount of clay as the cementing agent in pedologic fragipans. The column study demonstrated that the addition of sodium silicate to non-pan loessial material could increase the rupture strength over the control, especially when the loess contained a considerable amount of free Fe and A1 oxides before addition. The vacuum extractions demonstrated that the form of the cement was a "free" oxide extractable with CBD, and that it was probably associated with clay. The infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry showed that the material removed from the fragipan by CBD differed from the material removed from the argillic horizon of the same soil and in other non-fragipan loess soils. The material was a hydrous alumnosilicate that was compositionally intermediate between allophane and immogolite based on the IR data, but similar to allophane in the thermal properties. The micromorphological and subseqent SEM study demonstrated that bridges between silt grains occurred in the fragipan, but not in other non-pan horizons. These bridges were composed primarily of Si, but 174 also contained evidence of associated clay. The bridges contained a variable amount of A1, but always a lesser amount than Si. The key bonding agent in the fragipan appears to be a hydrous silicate of secondary origin that has grown at the contact points of skeletal grains incorporating varying amounts of A1 and lesser amounts of clay minerals. The accumulation of the material in fragipans appears not to be due to increased weathering in the soils, but I speculate that it is due to different hyrological conditions imposed by the material underlying the loess. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The silty soil parent materials occurring in the study area were related in thickness to two source valleys and determined to be loess based on their distribution patterns. These valleys were Teays-age valleys that had been blocked by Wisconsinan glaciation and subsequently carried outwash. The age of the loess was considered to be Peorian based on its stratigraphic position above the late-Wisconsin tills in the area, and its deposition predated by a radiocarbon date of 28,450+560yr B. P. at the base of the loess. This date post-dates the deposition and genesis of the "intercalated" zone, which was determined to be a relict of an eluvial horizon of the Sangamon soil. The intercalated zone also had a loess influence and may have been affected by ferrolysis. The age of the intercalated zone was considered to be pre-late Wisconsinan, and post Sangamon based on its state of weathering and stratigraphic position. Glacial deposits found beyond the presumed terminal Wisconsin boundary in the Jonathan Creek valley were determined to be mid-Wisconsin in age based on the radiocarbon date. Discriminant analysis was very effective in differentiation of Peoria loess and siltstone residua. Soils occurring on possible terrace positions in the Teays-age valleys were tested by discriminant analysis to determine if they could be differentiated from loess and 175 176 siltstone residua, both of which occurred in the drainage watershed, and could have contributed to the formation of the parent materials if these soils were lacustrine. The soils were very similar in composition to the loess occurring on upland positions, and could not be discriminated from it. Known lacustrine deposits of the main trunk of the adandoned Teays River valley in southern Ohio were easily discriminated from loess and siltstone residua. The soils occurring on terrace landscape positons were determined also to be loess. Discriminant analysis was an effective means of demonstrating parent material uniformity or discontinuities in the soils studied as well as to demonstrate the origin of their parent materials. Differences in weathering and soil formation of near the source loess soils were studied where time, relief, parent material, climate and vegetation were constants. Soils varied considerably in the depth of leaching and argillic horizon development. The most weathered soil (Hosmer) contained a well developed fragipan. Various weathering parameters substantiated the morphological and argillic development sequence in the soils studied. However, the Ca:Zr ratio was not different for the Alford soil lacking a fragipan, and the Hosmer soil with a fragipan. Therefore, another mechanism than increased intensity of weathering must have been responsible for 177 fragipan development in these soils. The occurrence of a fragipan in uniform soil parent material provided a unique opportunity to study fragipan bonding, where the fragipan could be contrasted to similar loessial horizons of non-fragipan soils that developed under similar conditions. The fragipan was found to contain an increase in CBD extractable silicon compared to non-fragipan soils and horizons above or below the fragipan. Various experiments conducted to study fragipan bonding revealed that the addition of Na-silicate to undisturburbed non-pan loess material could increase the rupture strength. The selective dissolution extractants that destroyed the fragipan under vacuum removed a "free" oxide from the fragipan. Differential infrared spectroscopy revealed that the material being removed by CBD was a hydrous silicate occurring only in .the fragipan horizons. This material was thermally unstable and was destroyed by heating to 200 degrees C. Micromorphological study of soil thin sections revealed an isotic to highly birefringent (opalescent) plasma at the contact point of skeletal grains only in the fragipan. SEM-EDS examination of these features revealed that they were composed primarily of Si with lesser amounts of A1, and Fe, and elements associated with clay. The various experiments conducted to study the 178 fragipans in these soils supported the conclusion that the induration of the fragipan was due to a secondary "free" hydrous silicate occurring at the contact points of skeletal grains. The cause of the precipitation is not totally due to increased soil weathering intensity, but is possibly due to hydrologic differences in the loess soils imposed by the material underneath. APPENDICES 179 180 Appendix A Data used in statistical analyses 181 Table 13. Key to abbreviations used in the SAS printouts in the order of their appearance. Abbreviation MATERIAL 0=Loess, l=Siltstone residua 2=Possible lacustrine silt ZR Zirconium content of the 5-50 micron fraction TI Titanium content of the 5 50 micron fraction K Potassium content of the 5 -50 micron fraction FE Iron content of the 5-50 micron fraction TS Total sand SI Total silt FC Fine clay (<.2 micron) TC Total clay QTZ Quartz content of the clay KAOL Kaolinite content of the clay ID Pedon identifier ZRTI The Zr:Ti ratio of the 5-50 micron fraction CLFRSILT Silt expressed on a clay free basis/100 MAT Materials used in the column study: l=leached loess, 2=calcareous loess, 3=leached over calcareous loess, and 4=calcareous loess over leached loess TRT Treatments used in the column study: l=Fe 2=A1, 3 = Si, and 4=water Table 13. (continued). RS Rupture strength of disks in g . Table 14. Data used in the multivariate analysis of variance and multiple regression analysis. T18T1CAL ANALYSIS SYS TEH CBS HATCH! A t za TI C re TO SI rc TC oo 10 184 Table 15. Data used in the discriminant analysis of loess and siltstone residua. S T A T IS T IC A L ANALYSIS SYSTEM OBS MATERIAL zn T1 K ID 1 • 9 .9 0 9 9 .7 4 0 2 .1 3 9 JF 4 2 • 9 .9 0 9 9 .7 2 9 1 .9 0 9 JF 4 S 1 0 .0 6 9 9 . BOO 9 .9 9 9 JF 4 4 1 9 .9 6 0 9 .7 6 0 9 .9 2 9 JF 4 8 9 9.979 9.630 2 .1 9 6 JF5 6 9 9 .0 7 9 9 .6 4 0 2 .2 4 9 JF5 7 1 9.950 9.730 9.619 JF5 a 1 9 .9 6 0 9 .7 3 9 1 .9 4 0 JF 5 9 1 9 .9 4 0 9 .6 9 9 9 .9 9 0 JF5 te 9 9 .0 0 0 9 .7 1 0 1 .9 3 0 JF 3 i i 9 9.070 9.700 2.399 JF3 12 1 9.030 0.010 9.200 JF 3 13 1 9 .9 6 0 9 .7 7 0 2 .7 0 9 JF 3 14 1 9.950 9.750 2.019 JF3 IB 9 9.901 9.502 1.502 PR2 16 9 9 .0 0 9 0 .5 0 2 1 .7 1 1 PR2 17 9 9.972 9.562 1.052 PR2 10 9 9.973 9.579 1.939 PR2 19 9 9 .0 7 1 9 .5 0 2 1 .9 4 9 PR2 29 1 9 .0 5 0 9 .6 0 4 2 .9 3 7 PR2 21 1 0 .9 4 0 9 .7 3 5 2 .2 7 2 PR2 22 1 9 .9 4 5 9 .7 2 9 2 .4 6 7 PR2 23 9 9 .9 9 9 9 .3 9 9 1 .4 9 0 PBS 2 4 9 9.603 9.299 1.556 PRO 25 9 9.003 9.290 1 .6 9 0 PRO 26 9 9.901 9.319 1.576 PRO 27 9 6 .9 7 7 9 .2 0 0 t .5 6 9 PRO 20 9 9.930 9.499 1.699 TIS2 29 9 9 .9 5 1 9 .4 9 0 1 .6 6 9 T161 39 9 9 .0 4 2 9 .4 0 0 1 .6 1 9 T IS 1 31 9 9.930 9.390 1.609 T161 32 9 9.934 9.490 1 .6 0 6 T161 33 9 9 .9 3 3 0 .5 0 9 1 .6 5 0 T IS 1 34 9 9 .9 3 7 9 .4 B 9 1 .6 2 0 T1S1 35 9 9.953 6.499 1.696 T181 36 9 9.932 9.319 1 .6 4 0 TISI 37 9 9 .9 4 6 9 .5 9 0 1 .7 6 9 T IS 1 30 9 9.934 9.800 1 .7 0 0 T1S1 39 9 9.951 9.490 1.699 T1S1 49 1 9 .9 4 4 9 .6 6 0 1 .6 6 0 TISI 41 1 9 .9 3 0 9 .7 0 0 2 .6 9 6 TISI 42 1 9.923 9.649 2.776 TISI 4 3 1 9.032 0.719 2.569 T281 4 4 1 9 .9 4 3 9 .5 5 9 2 .9 3 9 T2S3 45 1 9.920 9.576 2.329 T2S3 46 1 9 .0 3 1 9 .7 0 0 1 .0 3 9 1 2 S3 47 1 9.923 9.549 2.509 T2S3 40 9 9.901 9.559 1 .4 2 9 PRO 49 9 9 .9 7 9 9 .6 1 9 1 .3 5 9 PRO 59 9 9 .9 7 0 6 .6 5 9 1 .4 6 0 PRO 81 9 9 .9 0 2 9 .6 8 6 1 .4 6 9 PRO 185 Table 16. Data used in the discriminant analysis of loess, siltstone residua, and possible lacustrine silts. OB0 HATER1AL a TI K 1 8 8.8088 0.748 a. iso a 8 8.8888 0.728 1.988 8 1 8.8688 6.066 8.866 4 1 8.8688 6.786 8.626 8 8 8.8788 6.630 2. 186 6 6 0.8788 0.648 2.246 7 1 0.8388 6.730 8.016 a 1 8.8688 6.730 1.946 4 1 6.8488 0.690 9.696 18 6 6.8888 0.718 1.930 II 8 6.8788 6.766 2.386 12 1 6.8388 0.816 3.268 19 1 6.8688 0.776 2.786 14 1 6.9386 6.780 2.816 IB 8 6.8818 6.082 1.082 14 8 6.8888 6.382 1.711 17 6 6.9726 0.962 1.682 Sfi 8 6.6738 6.870 1.938 19 8 6.6718 0.082 1.949 28 1 8.8388 0.684 2.037 21 1 8.6489 6.733 2.272 22 1 6.6438 6.729 2.487 29 8 0.6988 0.366 1.466 24 8 6.6838 6.290 1.006 28 8 0.0838 0.290 1.666 26 8 6.6818 6.316 1.076 27 8 6.6770 0.286 1.066 28 8 0.0308 0.490 1.666 29 8 6.0310 6.498 1.660 88 8 6.0420 0.480 1.610 81 8 6.0360 0.386 1.688 82 8 6.0548 6.498 1.680 88 8 6.0330 6.366 1.680 84 8 0.0378 0.486 1.620 88 8 6.8338 0.490 1.690 84 8 0.8320 6.016 1.640 87 8 0.6460 6.068 1.766 8 8 8 6.0340 6.566 1.786 89 8 8.8510 0.490 1.698 48 1 0.8440 8.660 1.660 41 1 6.0360 6.786 2.696 4a 1 6.0230 0.846 2.776 49 1 6.6328 6.710 2.066 44 1 6.0430 6.306 2.606 48 1 6.6288 6.070 2.326 44 1 0.0318 6.766 1.836 47 t 0.6236 0.046 2.006 48 8 0.6816 0.300 1.420 49 8 6.6790 6.610 1.386 88 8 6.6780 0.686 1.468 81 8 0.0820 6.656 1.406 82 8 0.0837 0.340 1.147 63 8 0.0029 0.318 1.219 84 8 8.6769 0.322 1.229 88 8 0.6789 0.827 1.289 86 8 0.6739 0.285 1.166 87 8 0.6848 0.421 0.822 8B 8 6.6813 0.412 0.428 89 B 0.6931 0.843 1.953 68 6.6963 8.802 1.476 61 0.6884 0.036 1.646 62 2 0.0881 6.012 1.882 68 2 6.0861 6.064 1.493 64 2 6.6812 6.090 1.499 68 a 8.6760 0.034 1.609 66 0.8625 0.032 1.667 67 6.6819 0.037 1.616 6S 8 8.6818 0.018 1.888 69 a 0.6790 0.823 1.418 78 0.6875 0.062 1.488 71 a 0.0874 0.024 1.616 6.6843 0.823 1.668 Vs a 6.0790 6.498 1.698 74 0.8813 0.863 1.886 78 a 6.6782 0.826 1.688 76 a 0.8767 0.811 1.683 77 a 0.8803 0.041 1.434 78 a 0.6799 0.026 1.482 186 Table 17. Data used in the analysis of variance from the column s tudy . IGIL AHALT8I0 0B8 HAT TOT ns 1 S 2 0 9 6 a 1 2 6 6 6 9 1 2 74 6 4 2 4 79 6 0 a 3 76 0 6 1 2 4 86 6 7 2 8 69 6 a 2 8666 9 8 8 88 6 16 8 4 21 8 11 9 3336 12 4 6 02 6 13 4 2 88 6 14 4 9 76 6 10 4 4 28 6 16 4 8 83 6 17 2 1 8646 IB 2 1 2976 19 2 1 271 6 2 6 2 1 270 6 21 2 2 4 6 0 2 22 2 2 499 6 23 2 2 8 93 6 2 4 2 2 8 00 6 20 2 2 2 62 6 26 2 3 4 66 6 27 2 3 8 83 6 2B 2 4 8406 29 2 4 8 24 6 86 9 1 298 6 91 8 1 293 6 9 2 8 1 296 6 93 3 1 236 6 9 4 3 2 268 6 80 8 2 432 6 86 9 2 3 1 6 6 87 8 2 248 6 88 8 8 2700 89 3 9 8 08 6 46 8 3 2 8 0 0 41 8 4 200 6 42 8 4 843 6 4 3 3 4 8 11 6 44 4 1 2 3 2 6 40 4 1 2 6 9 6 46 4 2 4 74 6 47 4 2 4 30 6 4 8 4 2 4 86 6 49 4 3 6 82 6 86 4 9 8 64 6 81 4 8 8 90 6 82 4 4 8 6 7 6 03 4 4 4 4 BO 64 4 4 8 2 1 6 Table 18. Data used in the discriminant analysis of loess, siltstone residua, and lacustrine materials. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS SYSTEM ous MATERIAL 711 TI K ID 1 0 e.onoe 0 .7 4 0 2. mo JF4 34 0 0.0769 e.ar»2 1.229 11A4 107 0 0.0700 0 .5 3 4 1.639 FlllO o O 0 .0200 0 .7 2 0 1.900 JF4 55 0 0.0729 0 .237 1.239 IIA4 10(1 0 0.0225 0 .532 1.567 FlllO a 1 0 .0 0 0 0 0 .200 2 .000 .IF4 56 0 0.0739 0 .225 1. 100 IIA4 109 0 0 .0219 0 .537 1. 5 (to FRIO 4 ( 0.04*00 0 .7 2 0 2 .0 2 0 «!K4 57 0 0.0242 0.421 0 .2 2 2 IIA4 1 10 0 0 .0210 0 . 5 III 1.522 FRIO 5 0 0 .0700 0.620 2. loo .11'5 52 0 0.0213 *0.412 0 .9 2 2 IIA4 1 11 0 0.0790 0 .523 1.412 FA 2V 6 0 0.0700 0 .640 2 .2 4 0 JF5 59 2 0.0420 0 .290 1.290 PK5-7 112 0 0 .0275 0 .5 6 2 1.420 Fa 27 7 1 0.0500 0.750 2.010 JF5 60«* 2 0.0(60 0.290 1.210 PK5-2 1 13 0 0.0274 0.524 1.510 FA27 U 1 0.04*00 0 .720 1.940 JF5 61 0 .0400 0 .9 0 0 1.920 FK5-9 114 0 0.0243 0 .523 1.50(1 FA27 9 I 0.0(00 0.690 2 .0 9 0 JK5 62 2 0.04)0 0.910 1.930 1*1.5-10 115 0 0 .0790 0 .4 9 2 1.592 FA27 10 0.0200 0 .7 1 0 1.920 JF3 62 o 0.0270 0 .2 2 0 2 . 170 PK5- 11 116 0 0.0213 0 .503 1.526 FA27 t l 0 0.0700 0.700 2.200 JF3 64 2 0.0 3 30 0 .2 2 0 2 .0 9 0 P K 3-I2 117 0 0.0722 0 .520 1.5511 FA27 12 1 0.0500 0.210 0 .2 0 0 JF3 63 2 0.0270 0.220 2.360 IT.5-13 HU 0 0.0767 0.511 1.523 FA27 12 1 0.0600 0 .7 7 0 2 .7 2 0 JF3 66 2 0.0290 0.260 2.200 F K 5 -I4 J 19 0 0.0203 0.541 1.424 FA27 !4 i 0.0500 0 .7 5 0 2 .210 JF3 67 2 0.0220 0.260 2.260 PK5-I3 120 0 0.0799 0 .520 1.452 FA27 13 0 0.01)10 0.522 1.522 1*22 62 2 0.0500 0 .9 2 0 1.220 PK6-I1 121 1 0.0520 0.620 2 .040 1*112-6 10 0 0.0200 0.522 1.711 1*22 69 o 0.0 5 20 0 .910 1.250 FK6-9 122 1 0.0420 0.740 2.270 IMLi-7 17 0 0.0720 0 .5 6 2 1.252 1*22 70 2 0.0390 0.930 1.250 PK6-I0 123 1 0.0450 0 .7 3 0 2 .4 9 0 1*112-2 in 0 0.0720 0.570 1.920 1*22 71 2 0.0460 0 .9 0 0 2 .240 F K 6 -I2 124 1 0 .0490 0 .7 6 2 2 .3 2 0 1*113-5 19 0 0.0710 0.522 1.949 1*22 72 2 0.0560 0 .2 9 0 1.020 SC2-9 123 1 0.0450 0.757 2.366 1*113-6 20 1 0 .0320 0.624 2.027 1*22 73 2 0.0540 0.930 1. 170 S C 2-10 126 1 0.0420 0.761 2.410 FII3-7 21 1 0.0420 0.725 2 .2 7 2 1*22 74 2 0.0520 0.920 1.240 SCO-11 127 1 0.0600 0 .7 1 2 2 . 120 1*24-3 22 t 0.0)50 0.729 2.’ 427 1*22 75 2 0.0410 0.920 1.940 sen-i:i 121) 0.06MI 0.70(1 2.260 1*114-4 22 0 0 .0900 0.24)0 1.400 I'tU I 76 2 0.0 1 70 0 .2 6 0 2 . 170 SCO-13 129 1 0.0610 0.696 2 . 120 1*24-3 24 0 o.onao 0 .2 9 0 1.550 P irn 77 2 0.0520 0 .2 0 0 1.700 SC9-4 120 0.0210 0.739 2.260 FR4-6 23 0 o .oaao 0.290 1.600 1*22 72 2 0.0260 0.220 1 .600 SC9-5 131 0.0310 0 .7 4 4 2 .220 1*114-7 20 0 0 .0210 0 .2 1 0 1.570 1*22 79 2 0 .0190 0 .2 5 0 2 . mo SIM-9 132 0.0560 0.707 2.270 1*115-5 27 0 0 .0770 0 .2 2 0 1.560 P iu i 20 a 0.0 1 90 0 .2 2 0 2 .0 3 0 809-10 123 0.0520 0 .7 5 4 2 .2 5 0 1*115-6 2(1 0 0.0500 0.490 1.600 T1S2 21 2 0.0120 0 .2 4 0 2.020 SCO-11 134 0.0420 0 .7 3 2 2 .300 FR5-7 29 0 0 .0310 0 .490 1.660 T IS I 22 o 0.0190 0.220 2 .290 SCO-12 125 0.0420 0 .725 2 .5 0 0 FR5-2 20 0 0.0420 0.420 1.6 10 TISI 23 2 0.0120 0 .790 2 . 120 S IM -12 136 0.0440 0.733 2.430 FR3-9 at 0 0.0500 0.54)0 1.620 TISI 24 2 0.0400 0 .770 1.220 SCI 1-4 137 0.0450 0.75(1 2 .510 1*115-10 22 0 0.0540 0.490 1.620 TISI 23 2 0.0390 0.220 1.220 SCI 1-5 132 0.0710 0.629 1.520 FRO- 1 aa 0 0.0520 0.500 1.650 TISI 26 2 0 .0370 0 .230 1.920 SCI 1-6 139 0.0520 0.730 2.200 FRO-4 24 0 0.0370 0.420 1.620 TISI 27 2 0.0350 0.250 1.920 SCI 1-7 140 0.0 5 60 0 .7 4 2 2 .270 1*26-5 as 0 0.0550 0.490 1.690 TISI 22 2 0.0220 0.230 2 .7 1 0 SCI I- I I 141 0.0520 0.791 2 .5 2 0 1*116-0 20 0 0.0520 0.310 1.640 TISI 29 2 0 .0150 0 .270 2 . 130 SCI 1-9 142 0.0420 0.751 2 .260 1*116—7 27 0 0 . 044*0 0 .5 0 0 1.760 TISI 90 2 0.0140 0 .230 3 .2 4 0 SCI 1-10 143 0 .0320 0.711 2 .330 I’R o-ll 21) 0 0 .0540 0 .5 0 0 1.720 TISI 91 «> 0.0260 0.220 2.920 SCIl-l1 144 0.0510 0.6113 2 . 140 FI17-0 29 0 0 .0510 0 .4 9 0 1.690 TISI 92 0 0 .0220 0 .550 1.610 KA22-I 143 0.0450 0.690 2 .6 1 0 FR7-7 40 1 0 .0440 0.660 1.660 TISI 93 0 0.0200 0 .520 1.700 FA22-2 146 0.0440 0.733 2.400 1*117-11 41 1 0 .0200 0 .7 2 0 2 .0 9 0 TISI 94 0 0.0210 0.340 1.220 F A 2 U -3 147 0.0460 0 .7 5 0 2 .510 1*117-9 42 1 0 .0250 0 .2 4 0 2 .7 7 0 TISI 93 0 0.0770 0.520 1.220 FA22-4 42 1 0 .0220 0 .7 1 0 2 .5 6 0 T2S1 96 0 0.0770 0.520 1.290 FA23-R 44 1 0.4(420 0.550 2.050 T2NU 97 0 0.0730 0.520 1.290 FA22-6 43 1 0 .0220 0 .5 7 0 2 .2 2 0 T2S2 911 0 0 .0700 0.510 1.940 FA22-7 40 1 0.0210 0.700 1.220 T2S2 99 0 0.0710 0.320 1.220 FA22-2 47 1 0 .0220 0 .5 4 0 2 .5 0 0 T2S3 too 0 0.0750 0.570 1.760 FA2II-9 4(1 0 0.0210 0.550 1.420 1*22 lO I 0 0.0921 0 .5 4 3 1.353 FRIO 49 0 0.0790 0.610 1.250 1*22 102 0 0 .0902 0 .5 5 2 1.476 FUIO UO 0 0.0720 0.650 1.400 1*22 103 0 0 .0224 0 .526 1.540 l*IUO 51 0 0.0220 0.650 1.400 rim 104 0 0.0221 0 .3 1 2 1.552 FUIO 52 0 0 .0257 0 .243 I . 147 IIA4 103 0 0.0261 0 .504 1.495 1*210 H-* 52 0 0.0U29 0.21U 1.219 UA4 106 0 0.0212 0.303 1.499 FlllO 00 188 Appendix B Soil Morphological Descriptions and Data 189 Figure 45. Narrative soil profile description for Sylvan. SOIL TYPE: SYLVAN SILT LOAM COUNTY: PERRY SITE: PR-8 PEDON CLASSIFICATION: FINE-SILTY.MIXED.MESIC.TYPIC.HAPLUDALF. LOCATION: 2100.FT.N.&.800.FT.E.SW.CORNER SEC. 10 T.17N R.16W PHYSIOGRAPHY: SUMMIT ELEVATION: 1070' TOPOGRAPHY: NEARLY LEVEL % SLOPE: 1-2 ASPECT: NORTHEAST DRAINAGE: WELL VEGETATION: HAY COLLECTORS: NORTON/HALL/SMECK/RANSOM DATE: 9/12/79 PARENT MATERIALS: WISCONSINAN LOESS, LOESS, SHALE HORIZON DEPTH IN Ap 0 -9 10YR4/3-SILT LOAM; WEAK FINE GRANULAR STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON FINE ROOTS; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; ABRUPT SMOOTH BOUNDARY. B1 9 -12 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; WEAK MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; FEW FINE ROOTS; THIN CONTINUOUS 10YR5/4 COATINGS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR SMOOTH BOUNDARY. B2It * 12-17 10YR5/6-LIGHT SILTY CLAY LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; FEW FINE ROOTS; MEDIUM PATCHY 10YR4/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN VERY PATCHY 10YR5/4 SILTANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR WAVY BOUNDARY. B22t 17-22 10YR5/6-HEAVY SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; FEW FINE ROOTS; MEDIUM PATCHY 10YR4/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN VERY PATCHY 10YR5/4 COATINGS ON FACES; COMMON 10YR2/1 FERRO-MANGANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR WAVY BOUNDARY. B23t 22-28 10YR4/4-SILT LOAM; FEW FINE FAINT 10YR5/6 AND FEW FINE FAINT 10YR5/3 MOTTLES; WEAK MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; FEW FINE ROOTS; THICK VERY PATCHY 10YR4/3 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR WAVY BOUNDARY. B3t 28-34 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM; COMMON MEDIUM FAINT 10YR5/6 AND COMMON MEDIUM FAINT 10YR5/3 MOTTLES; WEAK COARSE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; THIN VERY PATCHY 10YR4/3 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; SLIGHT EFFERVESCENCE; GRADUAL WAVY BOUNDARY. 190 Figure 45. (continued). Cl 34-50 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM; COMMON COARSE FAINT 10YR5/6 AND COMMON COARSE FAINT 10YR5/2 MOTTLES; MASSIVE; FRIABLE; 2% COARSE FRAGMENTS; STRONG EFFERVESCENCE; CLEAR WAVY BOUNDARY. C2 50-59 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM; MANY COARSE FAINT 10YR5/6 AND MANY COARSE FAINT 10YR5/2 MOTTLES; MASSIVE; FRIABLE; 5% COARSE FRAGMENTS; STRONG EFFERVESCENCE; CLEAR SMOOTH BOUNDARY. IIC3 59-80 10YR6/4-GRITTY SILT LOAM; FEW FINE FAINT 10YR5/6 MOTTLES; MASSIVE; VERY FIRM; 7% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR SMOOTH BOUNDARY. IIIAb 80-98 10YR6/3-SILT LOAM; WEAK MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; 5% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL WAVY BOUNDARY. IVB2tb 98-108 7.5YR5/8-CLAY; MANY COARSE DISTINCT 10YR6/1 MOTTLES; MODERATE MEDIUM ANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; VERY FIRM; THIN CONTINUOUS 7.5YR5/6 ARGILLANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; NOTE: THE Cl HORIZON CONTAINED COMMON VERTICAL PIPESTEMS. 191 Figure 4 6. Narrative soil profile description for Alford. SOIL TYPE: ALFORD SILT LOAM COUNTY: PERRY SITE: PR-10 PEDON CLASSIFICATION: FINE-SILTY MIXED MESIC TYPIC HAPLUDALF LOCATION: 1500 FT E AND 1280 FT S OF THE NW CORNER SEC. 16 T.17N R.16W PHYSIOGRAPHY: SUMMIT ELEVATION: 885 TOPOGRAPHY: NEARLY LEVEL % SLOPE: 1 ASPECT: DRAINAGE: WELL VEGETATION: HAY COLLECTORS: NORTON DATE: 6/18/80 PARENT MATERIALS: WISCONSINAN LOESS, ALLUVIUM, WISCONSINAN TILL HORIZON DEPTH IN AP 0 -12 10YR4/2-SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM GRANULAR STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON FINE.ROOTS; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; ABRUPT SMOOTH BOUNDARY. BIT 12-18 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON FINE ROOTS; THIN VERY PATCHY 10YR5/6 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN VERY PATCHY 10YR6/4 SILTANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR SMOOTH BOUNDARY. B21T 18-25 7.5YR5/4-HEAVY SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY' STRUCTURE; FIRM; COMMON FINE ROOTS; THIN PATCHY 7.5YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH, BOUNDARY. B22T 25-33 10YR5/4-HEAVY SILT LOAM; WEAK MEDIUM PRISMATIC PARTING TO MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; FEW FINE ROOTS; THIN PATCHY 7.5YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN VERY PATCHY 10YR6/4 SILTANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. B23T 33-41 10YR5/4-HEAVY SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; FEW FINE ROOTS; THIN PATCHY 7.5YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THICK PATCHY 7.5YR5/4 ARGILLANS IN CHANNELS; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. B31T 41-49 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM; WEAK COARSE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; FEW FINE ROOTS; THIN VERY PATCHY 7.5YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. 192 Figure 46. (continued). B32T 49-57 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM; WEAK COARSE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; THIN VERY PATCHY 7.5YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. Cl 57-77 10YR6/6-SILT LOAM; COMMON MEDIUM FAINT 10YR5/4 MOTTLES; MASSIVE; VERY FRIABLE; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. C2 77-91 10YR6/6-SILT LOAM; MASSIVE; VERY FRIABLE; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. C3 91-156 10YR6/4-SILT LOAM; MASSIVE; VERY FRIABLE; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; STRONG EFFERVESCENCE; ABRUPT SMOOTH BOUNDARY. C4 156-162 10YR6/4-SILT LOAM; MASSIVE; FRIABLE; STRATIFICATION IN THE MATRIX; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; VIOLENT EFFERVESCENCE; GRADUAL WAVY BOUNDARY. C5 162-184 10YR6/4-SILT LOAM; MASSIVE; VERY FRIABLE; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; VIOLENT EFFERVESCENCE; GRADUAL WAVY BOUNDARY. C6 184-196 10YR6/2-SILT LOAM; FEW COARSE DISTINCT 7.5YR5/6 MOTTLES; MASSIVE; VERY FRIABLE; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; VIOLENT EFFERVESCENCE; GRADUAL WAVY BOUNDARY. C7 196-205 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM; MANY MEDIUM DISTINCT 7.5YR5/6 MOTTLES; MASSIVE; FRIABLE; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; VIOLENT EFFERVESCENCE; GRADUAL WAVY BOUNDARY. C8 205-210 10YR6/3-VERY FINE SANDY LOAM; MASSIVE; FRIABLE; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; VIOLENT EFFERVESCENCE; ABRUPT SMOOTH BOUNDARY. IIC9 210-222 7.5YR5/6-GRAVELLY SANDY LOAM; SINGLE GRAIN; FRIABLE; STRATIFICATION IN THE MATRIX; 30% COARSE FRAGMENTS; ABRUPT WAVY BOUNDARY. IIIC10 222-230 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; MASSIVE; VERY FIRM; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; VIOLENT EFFERVESCENCE; ABRUPT WAVY BOUNDARY. 193 Figure 46. (continued). IVC11 230-0 10YR6/4-LOAM; MASSIVE; 5% COARSE FRAGMENTS; NOTE: THE C3 HORIZON CONTAINED SOME LENSES OF VERY FINE AEOLIAN SAND. 194 Figure 47. Narrative soil profile description for Hosmer. SOIL TYPE: HOSMER SILT LOAM COUNTY: FAIRFIELD SITE: FA-27 PEDON CLASSIFICATION: FINE-SILTY MIXED MESIC TYPIC FRAGIUDALF LOCATION: 2600' E AND 20' S OF THE NW CORNER OF SEC. 16 T.14N R.17W PHYSIOGRAPHY: SIDESLOPE, SHOULDER ELEVATION: 885' TOPOGRAPHY: GENTLY SLOPING % SLOPE: 3 ASPECT: NORTHEAST DRAINAGE: WELL VEGETATION: CULTIVATED FIELD COLLECTORS: NORTON/SHIPITALO DATE: 9/12/80 PARENT MATERIALS: WISCONSINAN LOESS HORIZON DEPTH IN AP 0 -12 10YR4/4-SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM GRANULAR STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON FINE ROOTS; ABRUPT SMOOTH BOUNDARY. BIT 12-15 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; WEAK MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON FINE ROOTS; FEW 10YR4/4 ORGANIC COATINGS ON VERTICAL FACES; THIN VERY PATCHY 10YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; . CLEAR SMOOTH BOUNDARY. B21T 15-24 7.5YR4/6-HEAVY SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; FEW FINE ROOTS; THIN CONTINUOUS 10YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. B22T 24-29 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; FEW FINE ROOTS; THIN CONTINUOUS 10YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR6/6 SILTANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY N2/ FERRO-MANGANS ON FACES; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. A'2/BT 29-34 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; WEAK COARSE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; FEW FINE ROOTS; THICK CONTINUOUS 10YR6/6 SILTANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 7.5YR5/6 ARGILLANS ON FACES; GRADUAL WAVY BOUNDARY. BX1 34-45 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM; MODERATE COARSE PRISMATIC PARTING TO WEAK COARSE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; BRITTLE; THICK CONTINUOUS 10YR6/4 SILTANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THIN CONTINUOUS 7.5YR5/6 IRON RICH ZONES SUBCUTANEOUSLY; THIN CONTINUOUS 10YR5/6 ARGILLANS ON FACES; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. 195 Figure 47. (continued). BX2 45-56 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM; COMMON MEDIUM DISTINCT 10YR6/3 MOTTLES; MODERATE VERY COARSE PRISMATIC PARTING TO WEAK COARSE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; BRITTLE; THICK CONTINUOUS 10YR6/2 SILTANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THICK CONTINUOUS 10YR6/3 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THICK CONTINUOUS 7.5YR5/6 IRON RICH ZONES SUBCUTANEOUSLY; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. BX3 56-67 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; COMMON MEDIUM DISTINCT 10YR6/3 AND COMMON MEDIUM DISTINCT N2/ MOTTLES; MODERATE VERY COARSE PRISMATIC PARTING TO WEAK COARSE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; BRITTLE; THICK CONTINUOUS 10YR6/2 SILTANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THICK CONTINUOUS 10YR6/3 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THICK CONTINUOUS 7.5YR5/6 IRON RICH ZONES SUBCUTANEOUSLY; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. B3T 67-82 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; COMMON MEDIUM DISTINCT 10YR6/3 AND FEW MEDIUM DISTINCT N2/ MOTTLES; WEAK VERY COARSE PRISMATIC STRUCTURE; FIRM; THIN CONTINUOUS 10YR6/2 SILTANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THIN CONTINUOUS 10YR5/2 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THICK CONTINUOUS 7.5YR5/6 IRON RICH ZONES SUBCUTANEOUSLY; 196 Figure 48. Narrative soil profile description for Ava. SOIL TYPE: AVA SILT LOAM COUNTY: FAIRFIELD SITE: FA-28 PEDON CLASSIFICATION FINE-SILTY MIXED MESIC TYPIC FRAGIUDALF LOCATION: 1800'E AND 2000' S OF THE NW CORNER OF SEC. 23 T.16N R.17W PHYSIOGRAPHY: SUMMIT ELEVATION: 965' TOPOGRAPHY: NEARLY LEVEL % SLOPE: 2 ASPECT: NORTH DRAINAGE: WELL VEGETATION: CULTIVATED FIELD COLLECTORS: NORTON/BIGHAM/RANSOM/JAYNES DATE: 8/18/81 PARENT MATERIALS LATE WISCONSINAN (PEORIAN) LOESS, SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE, HORIZON DEPTH IN AP 0 -8 10YR4/3-SILT LOAM; WEAK FINE GRANULAR STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON MEDIUM ROOTS; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; ABRUPT SMOOTH BOUNDARY. BA 8 -12 10YR5/6 -HEAVY SILT LOAM; WEAK FINE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON MEDIUM ROOTS; THIN PATCHY 10YR4/3 COATINGS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR6/3 SILTANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR SMOOTH BOUNDARY. Btl 12-19 10YR5/6 -HEAVY SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE, COMMON MEDIUM ROOTS; THIN PATCHY 10YR4/3 COATINGS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR6/4 SILTANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR4/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. Bt2 19-25 10YR5/6 -HEAVY SILT LOAM; MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON MEDIUM ROOTS; MEDIUM PATCHY 10YR6/4 SILTANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR4/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR2/1 FERRO-MANGANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR SMOOTH BOUNDARY. Bt/E 25-30 10YR5/6 HEAVY SILT LOAM; COMMON MEDIUM DISTINCT 7.5YR4/6 MOTTLES; WEAK MEDIUM PRISMATIC PARTING TO MODERATE MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FRIABLE; COMMON MEDIUM ROOTS; MEDIUM CONTINUOUS 10YR6/4 SILTANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR4/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR2/1 FERRO-MANGANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL WAVY BOUNDARY. 197 Figure 48. (continued). E/Bt 30-35 10YR5/6-SILT LOAM; WEAK MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; VERY FRIABLE; COMMON MEDIUM ROOTS; THICK CONTINUOUS 10YR6/4 SILTANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR4/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES THIN PATCHY 10YR2/1 FERRO-MANGANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; CLEAR WAVY BOUNDARY. BX1 35-42 10YR5/4-SILT LOAM, COMMON MEDIUM FAINT I0YR5/6 MOTTLES; WEAK COARSE PRISMATIC PARTING TO WEAK MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; BRITTLE; MEDIUM PATCHY 10YR5/2 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR4/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR2/L FERRO-MANGANS ON FACES' 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; GRADUAL SMOOTH BOUNDARY. BX2 42-54 10YR5/6-HEAVY SILT LOAM; WEAK COARSE PRISMATIC PARTING TO WEAK MEDIUM SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; BRITTLE; MEDIUM PATCHY 10YR5/2 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR4/4 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THIN PATCHY 10YR2/1 FERRO-MANGANS ON FACES; 0% COARSE FRAGMENTS; ABRUPT IRREGULAR BOUNDARY. 2BX3 54-61 10YR6/6 LIGHT SILT LOAM; WEAK COARSE PRISMATIC STRUCTURE; BRITTLE; MEDIUM PATCHY 10YR5/4 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; MEDIUM PATCHY 10YR5/2 ARGILLANS ON VERTICAL FACES; 4% COARSE FRAGMENTS; ABRUPT IRREGULAR BOUNDARY. 3Btlb 61-74 10YR5/4-LIGHT CLAY; MODERATE FINE SUBANGULAR BLOCKY STRUCTURE; FIRM; MEDIUM CONTINUOUS 7.5YR5/6 ARGILLANS ON FACES; MEDIUM PATCHY 10YR5/3 ARGILLANS ON FACES; THICK PATCHY 10YR5/2 ARGILLANS IN CLEAVAGES; 10% COARSE FRAGMENTS; NOTE: 198 Table 19. Tabular soil profile description for Sylvan. SOIL TYPE: SYLVAN SILT LOAM CODHTY PERRY SITE: PR-6 PEDON CLASSIFICATION: PINE-SILTY.MIXED.MESIC.TYPIC.BAPLDDALF. LOCATION: 2100.PT.N.4.BOO.FT.E.SU.CORNER SEC. 10 T.17N R.16U PHYSIOGRAPHY: SUMHIT ELEVATION: 1070' TOPOCRAPHY: NEARLY LEVEL X SLOPE: 1-2 ASPECT: NORTHEAST DRAINAGE: HELL VEGETATION: HAY COLLECTORS: NORTON/HALL/SMECK/RANSOM DATE: 9/12/79 PARENT MATERIALS: WISCONSINAN LOESS, LOESS, SHALE BOUND MATRIX------MOTTLES------— TEXTURE- CO PRIMARY SECONDARY DEPTH HORIZONARY COLOR 4k !S C COLOR AS CCOLORHODCLASS FRAG G S TYP CB vol,X 0- 23 Ap AS 10YR4/3 SIL 0 1 F GR 23- 30 B1 cs 10YR5/6 S XL01H SBK 30- 43 B211 cu 10YR5/6 LT SXCL 0 2 H SBK 43- 56 B22t cu 10YR5/6 HV SIL 0 2 H SBK 56- 71 B23t cu 10YR4/4 F 1 F 10YR5/6 F 1 F 10YRS/3 SIL 0 1 H SBK 71- 86 B3t cu 10YR5/4 C 2 F 10YR5/6 C 2 F 10YRS/3 SIL 0 1 C SBK 86-127 Cl cu 10YR5/4 C 3 F 10YR5/6 C 3 F 10YR5/2 SIL 2 K 127-150 C2 cs 10YR5/4 H 3 F 10YR5/6 M 3 F 10YR5/2 SIL 5 M 150-203 I1C3 cs 10YR6/4 F 1 F 10YR5/6 GT SIL 7 M 203-249 lllAb GU 10YR6/3 SIL 5 1 H SBK 249-274 IVB2tb 7.5YR5/8 H 3 D 10YR6/1 C 0 2 H ABK MOIST CON- REACTION ------SURFACE AND MATRIX ELEHENTS------ROOTS--- DEPTH S1STENCY pH EFP END LOC AMT COLOR END LOC AMT COLOR END LOC AMT COLOR ABUND. SIZE 0- 23 FS C F 23- 30 FR CT PE TC 10YR5/4 F F 30- 43 FI CL PE HP 10YR4/4 SI PE TV10TR5/4 F F 43- 56 FI CL PE HP 10YR4/4 CT PE TV 10TR5/4 HN PE C 10YR2/1 F F 56- 71 FI CL VP THV 10YR4/3 FF 71- 86 FR B CL VP TV 10YR4/3 86-127 FR ES 127-150 FR ES 150-203 VPI 203-249 FI 249-274 VFI CL PE TC 7.5TR5/6 199 Table 20. Physical, chemical and mineralogical data for Sylvan. SOIL SERIES: SYLVAN SITE: PR-8 CO. ------PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (Z<2mm)- DEPTH HORIZON FRAG.------SAND------SILT(um)----- — CLAY(um) TEXT. >2mm VC C H F VF TOTAL 50-20 20-5 5-2 TOTAL 2-.2 <.2 TOTAL CLASS 0- 23 Ap 0.0 0.2 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.7 5.1 35.2 39.7 9.6 84.5 8.1 2.3 10.4 SI 23- 30 B1 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.5 1.4 2.7 34.6 33.3 7.3 75.2 13.5 8.6 22.1 SIL 30- 43 B21t 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.4 1.7 2.5 34.9 31.0 6.8 72.7 13.2 11.6 24.8 SIL 43- 56 B22t 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.5 1.9 2.8 35.6 30.4 5.9 71.9 12.1 13.2 25.3 SIL 56- 71 B23t 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.4 3.0 3.6 37.2 32.6 6.1 75.9 11.5 9.0 20.5 SIL 71- 86 B3t 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 2.7 3.3 45.0 35.6 4.7 85.3 7.4 4.0 11.4 SI 86-107 Cl 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.4 3.0 4.2 49.0 33.1 3.8 85.9 5.7 4.2 9.9 SI 107-127 Cl 0.0 1.0 0.9 0.3 0.4 2.3 4.9 44.4 36.4 4.2 85.0 7.0 3.1 10.1 SI 127-150 C2 0.0 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.6 2.2 4.8 44.0 35.9 5.0 84.9 7.2 3.1 10.3 SI 150-203 IIC3 0.0 1.4 1.9 2.5 5.6 5.6 17.0 29.8 33.3 7.2 70.3 9.3 3.4 12.7 SIL 203-249 IILAb 0.0 0.7 1.4 2.7 7.3 9.0 21.1 27.1 25.7 10.5 63.3 11.3 4.3 15.6 SIL 249-274 IVB2tb 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.6 2.0 6.6 16.7 25.2 48.5 40.4 9.1 49.5 SIC 1:1 ■ 01M ORG. CAL- DOLO CARB -- EXTRACTABLE CATIONS— BASE CBD EXTRACTABLE BULK DEPTH HATER CaC12 C CITE MITE ONATE H Ca Mg K Sum SAT. Fe A1 Si DENSITY cm --- pH-- X — Eq.Z- --- — —— Eleq/lOOg------Z -Z--- g/cc 0- 23 5.3 4.9 1.13 6.7 4.7 0.6 0.10 12.1 45 0.87 0.13 0.09 23- 30 5.7 5.2 0.34 5.1 6.7 1.2 0.18 13.2 61 1.65 0.17 0.06 30- 43 5.6 5.2 0.31 5.6 8.2 1.9 0.23 15.9 65 2.25 0.20 0.07 43- 56 5.4 5.0 0.26 6.0 8.2 3.1 0.25 17.5 66 2.30 0.23 0.07 1.56 56- 71 6.7 6.5 0.52 3.2 9.7 5.3 0.19 18.4 83 2.40 0.22 0.09 71- 86 7.9 7.4 2.9 21.6 26.4 83 1.70 0.13 0.08 86-107 8.1 7.5 4.2 21.6 27.5 83 1.63 0.09 0.09 1.61 107-127 8.1 7.6 5.2 19.7 26.6 83 1.60 0.08 0.11 1.61 127-150 8.1 7.6 5.8 13.9 21.0 83 1.55 0.08 0.08 150-203 8.0 7.5 0.8 3.8 4.9 1.0 9.5 3.1 0.10 13.7 93 1.23 0.09 0.07 1.78 203-249 7.5 7.1 0.9 5.0 3.3 0.06 9.3 90 1.06 0.10 0.11 249-274 7.5 7.2 0.7 10.2 11.5 0.36 22.8 97 1.10 0.05 0.12 ------CLAY MINERALOGY (<2 microns)------ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION- DEPTH ILLITE VERMIC- SMECTITE QUARTZ INTER- KAOL- CHLORITE/ 50-5 micron fraction ULITE STRATIFIED INITE INTERLAYERED Fe K Co Ti Zr cm ------Z- 0- 23 20 7 3 8 34 ‘ 15 13 0.92 1.40 0.22 0.30 0.090 23- 30 14 35 9 4 24 9 5 1.16 1.55 0.24 0.29 0.085 30- 43 16 21 17 2 23 13 8 1.27 1.60 0.24 0.29 0.083 43- 56 15 18 19 2 27 10 9 1.41 1.57 0.26 0.31 0.081 56- 71 24 17 17 3 20 13 6 1.54 1.56 1.09 0.28 0.077 71- 86 19 16 17 4 23 14 7 1.21 1.20 1.93 0.12 0.060 86-107 24 12 15 6 20 14 9 0.13 1.15 1.88 0.11 0.059 107-127 28 9 11 7 20 15 10 1.33 1.15 1.84 0.11 0.057 127-150 16 11 24 5 27 12 5 0.14 1.13 2.02 0.35 0.064 15(H203 12 4 22 6 13 13 30 1.11 1.16 1.89 0.58 0.088 203-249 7 0 1 2 39 39 12 0.70 0.80 0.10 0.71 0.098 249-274 8 0 30 3 16 36 7 1.12 1.12 0.13 0.70 0.057 200 Table 21. Tabular soil profile description for Alford. SOIL TYPE: ALFORD SILT LOAM COUNTY: PEEET SITE: PE-10 PEDON CLASSIFICATION: FINE-SILTY MIXED MESIC TYPIC BAPLODALP LOCATION: 1500 PT E AND 1280 PT 8 OP TBE Ntf COINER SEC. 16 T.17H B.16W PHYSIOGRAPHY: SUHHIT ELEVATION: 885 TOPOGRAPHY: NEARLY LEVEL X SLOPE: 1 ASPECT: DRAINAGE: VELL VEGETATION: HAY COLLECTORS: NORTON DATE: 6/18/80 PARENT MATERIALS: WISCONSINAN LOESS, ALLUVIUM, WISCONSINAN TILL BOUND- -MATRIX------MOTTLES------— TEXTURE- CO PRIMARY 8ECONDARY DEPTHHORZZONARY COLOR A S C COLOR A S C COLOR MOD CLASS PRAG C S TYP CB vol ,X 0- 30 AP AS 10YR4/2 SIL 0 2 M CR 30- 46 BIT CS 10YR5/6 SIL 0 2 H SBK 46- 64 B21T GS 7.SYR5/4 BV SIL 0 2 H SBK 64- 84 B22T GS 10YR5/4 BV SIL 0 1 H PR 84-104 B23T GS 10YR5/4 HV SIL 0 2 H SBK 104-124 B31T GS 10YR5/4 SIL 0 1 C SBK 124-145 B32T GS 10YRS/4 SIL 0 1 C SBK 145-196 Cl GS 10YR6/6 C 2 F 10YR5/4 SIL 0 H 196-231 C2 GS 10YR6/6 SIL 0 H 231-396 C3 AS 10YR6/4 SIL 0 H 396-411 C4 GW 10YR6/4 SIL 0 H 411-467 CS GW 10YR6/4 SIL0 H 467-498 C6 GW 10YR6/2 P 3 D 7.5YR5/6 SIL 0 M 498-521 C7 GW 10YR5/4 M 2 D 7.5YR5/6 SIL0 H 521-533 C8 AS 10YR6/3 VPSL 0 M 533-564 IIC9 AW 7.5YR5/6 CR SL 30 SC 564-584 I11C10 AW 10YR5/6 SIL 0 M 584- IVCU 10YR6/4 L 5 H HOIST CON- REACTION ------SURPACE AND MATRIX ELEMENTS— ------ROOTS--- DEPTH S1STENCY pH EPP END LOC AMT COLOR KND LOC AMT COLOR KND LOC AMT COLOR ABUND. si: 0- 30 PR C p 30- 46 PR CL PE TV 10YR5/6 SI PE TV 10YR6/4 C p 46- 64 FI CL PE TP 7.SYR5/4 C p 64- 64 PI CL PE TP 7.5YR5/4 SI PE TV 10YR6/4 P p 84-104 PI CL PE TP 7.5YR5/4 CL CB THP 7.5YR5/4 P p 104-124 PR CL PE TV 7.5YR5/4 P p 124-145 PR CL VP TV 7.5YR5/4 145-196 VP R 196-231 VFR 231-396 VPR ES 396-411 PR EV BP HA 411-467 VPR EV 467-498 VPR EV 498-521 PR EV 521-533 PR EV 533-564 PR SP HA 564-584 VP I EV 584- 201 Table 22. Physical, chemical and mineralogical data for Alford. SOIL SERIES: ALFORD COUNTY: PERRY SITE: PR-10 DATE: 6/18/80 CO. ------PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (X<2mm)- DEPTH HORIZON FRAG.------SAND------SILT(um)------CLAY(um)-- TEXT. >2mm VC C M F VF TOTAL 50-20 20-5 5-2 TOTAL 2-.2 <.2 TOTAL CLASS 0- 30 AP 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 4.6 8.4 16.0 36.0 28.5 7.1 71.6 10.1 2.3 12.4 SIL 30- 46 BIT 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.8 4.1 9.1 14.4 34.2 26.0 5.5 65.7 11.0 8.9 19.9 SIL 46- 64 B21T 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.7 3.9 9.4 14.2 35.4 23.5 4.1 63.0 10.8 12.0 22.8 SIL 64- 84 B22T 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.6 3.8 10.0 14.7 35.8 24.5 4.3 64.6 11.2 9.5 20.7 SIL 84-104 B23T 0.0 0.1 0.3 1.2 5.8 11.6 19.0 35.0 24.1 3.9 63.0 9.6 8.4 18.0 SIL 104-124 B31T 0.0 0.0 0.3 1.1 4.8 10.2 16.4 37.9 27.3 4.1 69.3 8.2 6.1 14.3 SIL 124-145 B32T 0.0 0.0 0.4 1.1 5.3 11.3 18.1 36.6 26.8 4.8 68.2 8.5 5.2 13.7 SIL 145-170 Cl 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 2.6 10.8 14.2 40.1 27.2 6.1 73.4 7.7 4.7 12.4 SIL 170-196 Cl 0.0 0.0 0.2 1.0 4.5 10.3 16.0 38.5 28.4 5.2 72.1 6.8 5.1 11.9 SIL 196-231 C2 0.0 0.3 0.9 1.9 6.0 10.0 19.1 35.3 27.3 5.2 67.8 8.4 4.7 13.1 SIL 231-257 C3 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 1.3 7.0 8.8 44.7 33.8 4.4 82.9 5.8 2.5 8.3 SI 257-284 C3 0.0 0.3 0.3 0.6 2.8 8.0 12.0 43.7 32.4 4.0 80.1 5.0 2.9 7.9 SI 284-335 C3 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.5 2.6 10.3 13.9 47.3 26.8 3.4 77.5 5.2 3.4 8.6 SIL 335-396 C3 0.0 0.2 0.7 1.4 6.7 15.9 24.9 35.7 25.8 4.6 66.1 6.1 2.9 9.0 SIL 396-411 C4 0.0 0.1 0.7 1.4 5.9 14.6 22.7 43.9 22.5 3.3 69.7 4.6 3.0 7.6 SIL 411-437 C5 0.0 0.2 1.3 2.9 12.2 19.6 36.2 34.1 18.1 3.6 55.8 5.9 2.1 8.0 SIL 437-467 C5 0.0 0.2 1.5 3.2 13.2 19.6 37.7 30.5 18.5 4.3 53.3 6.1 2.9 9.0 SIL 467-498 C6 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.9 5.4 16.2 23.2 38.0 25.4 4.5 67.9 6.1 2.8 8.9 SIL 498-521 C7 0.0 0.8 1.9 3.5 15.0 18.3 39.5 30.0 17.4 3.4 50.8 6.9 2.8 9.7 SIL 521-533 C8 0.0 1.4 3.1 4.1 15.1 17.5 41.2 29.2 17.0 3.2 49.4 5.8 3.6 9.4 L 533-564 IIC9 30.9 10.9 13.5 11.6 17.3 10.6 63.9 17.1 8.0 4.1 29.2 4.4 2.5 6.9 SL 564-584 IIIC10 0.0 2.7 4.6 3.1 4.2 4.2 18.8 43.7 26.0 3.8 73.5 6.2 1.5 7.7 SIL 1:1 .01M ORG. CAL- DOLO- CA R B - --- EXTRACTABLE CATIONS— BASE CBD EXTRACTABLE BULK 1 3 DEPTH HATER 1 U 1 S C CITE MITE ONATE H Ca Mg K Sum SAT. Fe A1 SI cm --- pH-- Z -Eq.Z- — — tneq /1 OOg----- Z -Z--- 0- 30 6.8 6.1 1.15 3.2 6.5 1.2 0.15 11.1 71 1.10 0.15 0.06 30- 46 6.8 6.2 0.25 3.4 8.9 1.0 0.19 13.5 75 1.90 0.19 0.07 46- 64 6.9 6.3 0.25 3.6 9.0 1.7 0.23 14.5 75 2.26 0.22 0.07 64- 84 6.4 5.9 0.27 4.0 7.4 1.8 0.19 13.4 70 2.05 0.20 0.07 84-104 5.9 5.3 0.24 4.4 5.0 1.8 0.22 11.4 61 1.93 0.20 0.06 104-124 6.3 5.9 0.55 3.4 6.5 3.8 0.15 13.9 75 1.83 0.16 0.06 124-145 5.8 5.2 0.14 4.1 4.6 2.1 0.13 10.9 62 1.73 0.16 0.06 145-170 5.4 4.8 0.11 4.5 3.6 2.2 0.14 10.4 57 1.73 0.16 0.06 170-196 5.2 4.5 0.12 4.9 2.8 2.0 0.10 9.8 50 1.66 0.14 0.06 196-231 5.4 4.7 0.11 4.1 3.5 3.1 0.13 10.8 62 1.53 0.13 0.06 231-257 8.3 7.9 0.14 3.2 22.7 27.8 62 1.18 0.07 0.07 257-284 8.5 7.9 3.4 19.1 24.1 62 1.23 0.07 0.07 284-335 B.4 7.9 2.1 16.7 20.2 62 335-396 8.4 7.9 1.7 18.2 21.4 62 396-411 8.3 7.7 1.5 18.8 21.9 62 411-437 8.5 7.8 1.2 13.7 16.1 62 437-467 8.4 7.8 1.1 11.1 13.1 62 467-498 8.4 7.8 1.6 14.3 17.0 62 498-521 8.3 7.7 2.5 5.9 8.9 62 521-533 8.3 7.7 1.3 8.3 10.3 62 533-564 8.1 7.5 0.8 3.7 4.8 62 564-584 8.1 7.5 0.4 0.3 0.7 62 Table 22. (continued). ------CLAY MINERALOGY (<2 microns)------ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION-- DEPTH ILLITE VERMIC- SMECTITE QUARTZ INTER- KAOL- CHLORITE/ 50-5 micron fraction ULITE STRATIFIED INITE INTERLAYERED Fe K Ca Ti Zr C1B * 0- 30 12 29 0 5 23 28 3 1.44 1.35 0.31 0.54 0.093 30- 46 11 31 28 3 6 22 0 1.82 1.48 0.29 0.55 0.090 46- 64 16 31 25 2 5 21 0 1.87 1.54 0.30 0.54 0.088 64- 84 15 33 18 3 12 18 1 1.87 1.55 0.32 0.51 0.088 84-104 16 28 24 2 12 19 0 1.64 1.50 0.33 0.50 0.086 104-124 19 21 23 3 12 22 0 1.70 1.50 0.39 0.51 0.081 124-145 21 16 23 3 13 25 0 1.73 1.66 0.31 0.53 0.078 145-170 23 21 25 3 11 18 0 1.74 1.57 0.31 0.53 0.083 170-196 18 21 36 3 11 12 0 1.71 1.52 0.32 0.54 0.082 196-231 20 26 29 2 12 12 0 1.75 1.59 0.43 0.52 0.081 231-257 28 20 20 6 11 16 0 1.23 1.12 2.50 0.34 0.057 257-284 32 21 13 6 9 20 0 284-335 24 13 27 8 11 17 0 335-396 25 11 27 8 12 18 0 396-411 20 14 36 4 12 15 0 411-437 38 6 24 4 15 15 0 437-467 33 12 12 4 13 25 1 467-498 27 19 14 4 8 29 0 498 521 32 13 14 2 5 34 0 521-533 24 17 12 3 7 37 0 533-564 37 10 7 13 7 27 0 564-584 58 3 3 12 3 21 0 Table 23. Tabular soil profile description for Hosmer SOIL TYPE: HOSMER SILT LOAM COUNTY! FAIRFIELD SITE: FA-27 REDON CLASSIFICATION: FINE-SILTY MIXED HESIC TYPIC FRACIUDALP LOCATION: 2600' E AND 20' S OF THE NV CORNER OF SEC. 16 I.16N R.17U PHYSIOCRAPHY: SIDESLOPE, SHOULDER ELEVATION: BBS' TOPOGRAPHY: CENTLY SLOPING X SLOPE: 3 ASPECT: NORTHEAST DRA1NACE: HELL VEGETATION: CULTIVATED FIELD COLLECTORS: NORTON/SHIPITALO DATE: 9/12/80 PARENT MATERIALS: WISCONSINAN LOESS, . MOIST ----STRUCTURE---- BOUND---MATRIX------—MOTTLES------T E X TURE- CO PRIMARY SECONDARY DEPTHHORIZON ARY COLOR As c COLOR A s C COLOR MOD CLASS FRAG C S TYP C S TYP CB T O l . X 0- 30 AP AS 10YR4/4 SIL 2 H CR 30- 38 BIT CS 10YR5/6 SIL 1 H SBK 38- 61 82 IT CS 7.5YR4/6 HV SIL 2 H SBK 61- 74 B22T GS 10YR5/6 SIL 2 M SBK 74- 86 A ’2/BT CW 10YR5/6 SIL 1 C SBK 86-114 BX1 GS 10YR5/4 SIL 2 C PR 1 C SBK 114-142 BX2 GS 10YR5/4 C 2 D 10TR6/3 8IL 2 VC PR 1 C SBK 142-170 BX3 GS 10YR5/6 C 2 D 10YR6/3 C 2 D 82/ SIL 2 VC PR 1 C SBK 170-206 B3T 10YR5/6 c 2 D 10YR6/3 F 2 D 82/ SIL 1 VC PR HOIST CON- REACTION ------______-----SURFACE AND MATRIX ELEHENTS- ______— -ROOTS--- DEPTHSISTENCY PH EFP KND LOC AHT COLORKND LOC AMT COLOR KND LOC AMT COLOR ABUND. SIZE CB 0- 30 FR CF 30- 38 FR OH VP F 10YR4/4 CL PE TV 10YR5/4 C F 38- 61 FI CL PE TC 10YR5/4 F F 61- 74 FI CL PE TC 10YR5/4 SI PE TP 10YR6/6 MNPETP H2/ F F 74- 86 FR SI PE TBC 10YR6/6 CL PE TP 7.3YR5/6 F F 86-114 BR SI VP THC 10YR6/4 IZ SU TC 7.5YR5/6 CL PE TC 10YR5/6 114-142 BR SI VP THC 10YR6/2 CL VP THC 10YR6/3 IZ SU THC 7•5YR5/6 142-170 BR SI VP THC 10YR6/2 CL VP THC 10YR6/3 IZ SU THC 7.SYR5/6 170-208 FI SI VP TC 10YR6/2 CL VP TC 10YR5/2 IZ SU THC 7.SYR5/6 204 Table 24. Physical, chemical, and mineralogical data for Hosmer. SOIL SERIES: HOSMER COUNTY: FAIRFIELD SITE: FA-27 DATE: 9/12/80 CO. ------PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (X<2mm)----- DEPTH HORIZON FRAG.------SAND------SILT(um)----- — CLAY(um) TEXT. >2mm VC C M F VF TOTAL 50-20 20-5 5-2 TOTAL 2-.2 <.2 TOTAL CLASS cm — ------— — ■ ---- — %• 0- 30 AP 0.0 0.4 1.1 0.8 1.3 2.2 5.8 30.4 39.6 10.5 80.5 11.0 2.7 13.7 SIL 30- 38 BIT 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.6 1.5 3.3 30.6 36.5 8.0 75.1 16.8 4.8 21.6 SIL 38- 51 B21T 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.4 1.6 2.8 31.6 33.9 6.5 72.0 15.9 9.3 25.2 SIL 51- 61 B21T 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.5 1.9 3.2 33.6 30.3 5.6 69.5 14.9 12.4 27.3 SICL 61- 74 B22T 0.0 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.5 2.1 3.5 36.6 29.5 4.2 70.3 14.2 12.0 26.2 SIL 74- 86 A'2/BT 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.6 2.4 4.2 36.3 30.8 4.8 71.9 12.1 11.8 23.9 SIL 86-114 BX1 0.0 0.5 0.6 0.4’ 0.7 2.5 4.7 42.0 25.1 4.7 71.8 11.9 11.6 23.5 SIL 114-142 BX2 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.7 3.0 4.7 35.8 33.9 4.3 74.0 11.9 9.4 21.3 SIL 142-170 BX3 0.0 1.9 1.4 1.2 2.0 3.5 10.0 33.3 34.0 5.8 73.1 11.1 5.8 16.9 SIL 170-208 B3T 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.6 1.1 2.8 5.3 35.5 36.0 5.9 77.4 11.2 6.1 17.3 SIL 1:1 .0111 ORG. CAL- DOLO- CARB- EXTRACTABLE CATIONS— BASE CBD EXTRACTABLE BULK DEPTH WATER CaC12 C CITE MITE ONATE H Ca Mg K Sum SAT. Fe A1 . Si DENSITY ------cm ------pH-- X . ----- Eq.X----- — raeq /1 OOg— — — X ------X------g/cc 0- 30 6.0 5.4 0.98 5.5 4.3 0.7 0.17 10.7 48 1.11 0.19 0.08 30- 38 5.5 4.9 0.36 5.4 4.3 1.0 0.19 10.9 50 1.54 0.19 0.06 38- 51 5.2 4.5 0.30 6.8 4.9 1.6 0.23 13.5 50 1.85 0.21 0.07 1.55 51- 61 5.1 4.5 0.27 7.7 5.4 3.2 0.26 16.6 54 2.19 0.23 0.08 1.55 61- 74 5.2 4.6 0.22 7.6 4.1 3.3 0.25 15.3 50 2.25 0.22 0.08 74- 86 5.1 4.5 0.18 7.1 4.3 4.6 0.24 16.2 56 2.21 0.21 0.08 86-114 5.1 4.5 0.16 7.3 4.0 5.0 0.25 16.6 56 2.36 0.20 0.09 1.62 114-142 5.2 4.6 0.13 6.3 5.7 4.4 0.22 16.6 62 2.10 0.15 0.10 1.62 142-170 5.4 4.7 0.13 5.3 5.9 3.9 0.17 15.3 65 1.95 0.14 0.09 170-208 5.5 4.9 0.14 4.6 5.2 5.1 0.18 15.1 69 2.00 0.13 0.08 1.59 ------CLAY MINERALOGY (<2 microns)------ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION-- DEPTH ILLITE VERMIC- SMECTITE QUARTZ INTER- KAOL- CHLORITE/ 50-5 micron fraction ULITE STRATIFIED INITE INTERLAYERED Fe K Ca T1 Zr cm n 0- 30 19 17 8 5 • 5 26 20 1.00 1.42 0.24 0.52 0.079 30- 38 10 13 21 3 17 22 14 1.16 1.48 0.25 0.56 0.088 38- 51 11 11 19 3 11 31 14 1.34 1.51 0.25 0.52 0.087 51- 61 19 11 26 3 7 21 13 1.38 1.51 0.24 0.52 0.084 61- 74 12 9 29 3 6 26 13 1.51 1.60 0.26 0.50 0.079 74- 86 16 7 26 3 7 21 20 1.58 1.59 0.27 0.50 0.081 86-114 14 7 32 3 9 18 17 1.56 1.56 0.26 0.52 0.078 114-142 15 23 29 3 8 15 7 1.66 1.58 0.30 0.51 0.077 142-170 14 30 25 3 9 14 5 1.69 1.45 0.33 0.54 0.080 170-208 19 31- 23 3 6 11 7 1.61 1.45 0.45 0.52 0.080 The control section was considered to be between 30 and 60 centimeters. Weighted average SAND: 1.5 SILT: 73.3 CLAY: 25.2 Table 25. Tabular soil profile description for Ava. SOIL TYPE! AVA SILT LOAM COUNTY: FAIRFIELD SITE: FA-28 PEDON CLASSIFICATION: FINE-SILTY MIXED HESIC TYPIC FRAC1UDALF LOCATION: 1800'E AND 2000' S 07 THE NU CORNER OF SEC. 23 T.16H R.17U PHYSIOGRAPHY: SUMMIT ELEVATION: 965' TOPOGRAPHY: NEARLY LEVEL X SLOPE: 2 ASPECT: NORTH DRAINAGE: HELL VEGETATION: CULTIVATED FIELD COLLECTORS: NORTON/BIGHAM/RANSOM/JAYNES DATE: 6/18/81 PARENT MATERIALS: HISCONSINAN LOESS, SANDSTONE AND SILTSTONE, MOIST ----STRUCTURE---- BOUND - -MATRIX------MOTTLES------— TEXTURE- CO PRIMARY SECONDARY DEPTH HORIZON ARY COLOR A S C COLOR A S C COLOR MOD CLASS FRAG G S TYP C S TYP CB v o l ,Z 0- 20 AP AS 10YR4/3 SIL 0 1 P CR 20- 30 BA CS 10YR5/6 HV SIL 0 1 F SBK 30- 48 Btl CS 10YR5/6 HV SIL 0 2 M SBK 48- 64 Bt2 CS 10YR5/6 HV SIL 0 2 M SBK 64- 76 Bt/E GU 10YR5/6 C 2 D 7.5YR4/6 BV SIL 0 1 H PR 2 H SBK 76- 89 E^Bt CH 10YR5/6 SIL 0 1 K SBK 69-107 BX1 GS 10YR5/4 C 2 F 10YR5/6 SIL 0 1 C PR 1 M SBK 107-137 BX2 AX 10YR5/6 BV SIL 0 1 C PR 1 H SBK 137-155 2BX3 AI 10YR6/6 LT SIL 4 1 C PR 155-188 3Btlb 10YR5/4 LTC 10 2 F SBK MOIST CON- REACTION ______-----SURFACE AND MATRIX ELEMENTB- ______. __-ROOTS--- DEPTH SISTENCY pH EFF KND LOC AMT COLOR KND LOC AMT COLOR KND LOC AMT COLORABUND.SIZE CB 0- 20 FR CH 20- 30 FR CT PE TP 10YR4/3 SI PE TP 10YR6/3 C M 30- 48 FR CT PE TP 10YR4/3 SI PE TP 10YR6/4 CL PE TP 10YR4/4 CM 48- 64 FR SI PE HP 10YR6/4 CL PE TP 10YR4/4 MN PE TP 10YR2/1 CM 64- 76 FR SI PE HC 10YR6/4 CL PE TP 10YR4/4 MN PE TP 10YR2/1 C M 76- 89 VFR 81 PE THC 10YR6/4 CL PE TP 10YR4/4 MN PE TP 10YR2/1 c M 89-107 BR CL VP MP 10YR5/2 CL PE TP 10YR4/4 MN PE TP 10YR2/1 107-137 BR CL VP HP 10YR5/2 CL PE TP 10YR4/4 MN PE TP 10YR2/1 137-155 BR CL VP MP 10YR5/4 CL VP MP 10YR5/2 155-188 FI CL PE HC 7.5YR5/6 CL PE MP 10YR5/3 CL CV THP 10YR5/2 206 Table 26. Physical, chemical, and mineralogical data for Ava. SOIL SERIES: AVA COUNTY: FAIRFIELD SITE: FA-28 DATE: 8/18/B1 CO. 2>l£CiC T *7 X? visiniDuiiun DEPTH HORIZON PRAG. ---- SAND------SILT(um)- — ICLAY(um) ---- TEXT. >2mm VC C M F VF TOTAL 50-20 20-5 5-2 TOTAL 2-.2 <.2 TOTAL CLASS cm 0- 20 Ap 0.0 0.1 0 . 6 0 . 6 1.2 2.7 5.2 32.7 40.4 9.6 82.7 10.2 1.9 12.1 SIL 20- 30 BA 0.0 0 . 1 0.4 0 . 2 0.5 2.4 3.6 30.8 35.9 9.4 76.1 13.0 7.3 20.3 SIL 30- 48 Btl 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.4 2.1 2.9 33.9 33.1 8.5 75.5 12.7 6.9 21.6 SIL 48- 64 Bt2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.4 2.8 3.6 34.1 33.1 7.1 74.3 11.5 10.6 22.1 SIL 64- 76 Bt/E 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.5 2.9 4.0 37.2 32.0 6.3 75.5 12.1 6.4 20.5 SIL 76- 89 E/Bt 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.8 2.7 4.5 33.7 36.3 7.1 77.1 11.1 7.3 18.4 SIL 89-107 Bxl 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.4 G.9 2.6 4.6 34.3 33.2 6.6 74.1 11.6 9.7 21.3 SIL 107-122 Bx2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.7 2.4 4.0 31.4 34.7 6.1 72.2 11.9 11.9 23.8 SIL 122-137 Bx2 0.0 0.6 0.6 0.5 1.4 3.1 6.2 25.0 35.5 8.7 69.2 13.7 10.9 24.6 SIL 137-155 2Bx3 2.7 1.5 1.1 1.1 3.9 6.3 15.9 23.3 30.0 10.6 63.9 15.5 4.7 20.2 SIL 155-170 3Bt 1 b O.G 0.2 0.3 0.5 3.0 6.3 10.3 17.5 19.2 8.3 45.0 32.0 12.7 44.7 SIC 170-188 3Btlb 0.0 0.6 1.2 2.0 11.4 8.9 24.1 10.8 9.4 5.3 25.5 29.4 21.0 50.4 C 1:1 • 01M ORG. CAL- D0L0- CARB- ---EXTRACTABLE CATIONS— BASE CBD EXTRACTABLE BULK DEPTH WATER CaC12 C CITE MITE ONATE H Ca Hg K Suo SAT. Fe A1 SI DENSITY CD -- pH— X --Eq, X------— -iaeq/1OOg- - — X ---- -X------g/cc 0- 20 5.6 5.0 0.92 5.9 4.3 0.5 0.39 11.1 47 0.76 0.16 0.07 20- 30 4.9 4.4 0.29 6.0 3.7 0.7 0.36 10.8 44 1.18 0.17 0.05 30- 48 4.8 4.5 0.23 6.1 4.7 1.2 0.34 12.3 51 1.41 0.19 0.05 46- 64 5.0 4.5 0.20 6.3 4.9 2.1 0.29 13.6 54 1.59 0.19 0.05 1.65 64- 76 5.0 4.6 0.20 6.3 4.8 2.5 0.29 13.9 55 1.75 0.17 0.05 76- 89 5.0 4.4 0.19 6.7 3.9 2.8 0.22 13.6 51 1.96 0.17 0.07 89-107 4.9 4.5 0.16 6.8 4.4 4.4 0.23 15.8 57 1.68 0.15 0.08 1.63 107-122 5.2 4.8 0.13 6.4 5.8 6.0 0.25 18.5 65 1.78 0.13 0.09 122-137 5.3 5.0 0.13 5.0 6.2 6.4 0.24 17.8 72 1.53 0.13 0.10 137-155 5.8 5.3 0.11 3.9 4.2 4.3 0.11 12.5 69 0.70 0.10 0.05 155-170 5.8 5.4 0.13 4.5 10.2 9.4 0.21 24.3 81 1.91 0.25 0.06 170-188 6.0 5.6 0.14 4.5 11.4 10.6 0.23 26.7 83 2.73 0.32 0.06 ------CLAY HINERALOGY (<2 Bicrons)------ELEMEN 0- 20 15 31 0 9 7 19 19 0.82 1.61 0.19 0.55 0.088 20- 30 14 11 21 5 3 22 24 1.09 1.70 0.19 0.53 0.080 30- 48 9 9 23 3 11 26 19 1.19 1.82 0.20 0.54 0.081 46- 64 12 6 27 3 17 16 19 1.62 1.88 0.25 0.52 0.077 64- 76 15 13 23 3 6 24 16 1.53 1.89 0.24 0.53 0.077 76- 89 14 15 29 2 15 13 12 1.78 1.89 0.23 0.52 0.073 89-107 15 26 31 2 10 8 6 1.75 1.94 0.25 0.51 0.070 107-122 10 25 28 2 17 11 7 1.88 1.83 0.32 0.52 0.071 122-137 12 33 27 1 14 8 5 1.76 1.76 0.36 0.57 0.075 137-155 6 9 24 3 9 32 17 1.04 1.20 0.17 0.70 0.091 155-170 4 0 68 1 0 27 0 2.82 1.11 0.19 0.66 0.067 170-188 207 Appendix C Soil Micromorphological Descriptions for Selected Horizons 208 Figure 49. Micromorphologica1 descriptions for selected horizons for Sylvan. Sylvan (PR-8) Bit The porous fabric contains very uniform closelypacked very thinly coated uniform silt grains. Very few (<.57„) of the matrix Is very thin (<10pm) nrglllans lining vughs and vesicles. Common discrete regular and diffuse irregular sesquioxidic nodules ranging from 20-70pm are present. The Interior of the nodules contain some grains of similar size to those of the neighboring s-matrix with dark-brown isotropic material filling the voids. In-silasepic fabric. BZlt The fabric consists of very uniform closely packed silt grains with numerous vughs and vesicles. Anisotropic normal void argillans and compound ferriorgillans 5-50 pm thick occur in vughs, vesslcles and skew planes, and make up 2 % of the area. Few diffuse Irregular 20-50pm sesquioxidic nodules occur throughout the s-matrix. In-skelsepic fabric. B22t The porous s-matrix is a very uniform closely pocked thinly coated coarse silt containing very few grains >50pm is diameter. The fabric contains £2% thin (<50pm) anisotropic striated argillans located in vughs and channels. Some arglllan are compound ferriargillans usually as papules and filling channels. Common diffuse Irregular ■sesquioxidic nodules 20-40ptn in diameter occur throughout. In-skelsepic fabric. B3t The fabric consists of very uniform closely packed very thinnly coated silt grains with fewer vughs and vesicles than the horizons above . There are also muc fewer very thin (<10pm) argillans than the B22t located in voids and skew planes. Few discrete regular and diffuse irregular sequioxidic nodules nodules (10-50pm) occur throughout. Some anisotropic clay occurs as diffuse Irregular papules associated with the nodules. Silasepic fabric. Cl The fabric consists of very uniform closely packed silt grains with very few vughs or vesicles. Highly birefrlngent calcium carbonate nodules occur up to 100pm in diameter, and calcltans (<20pm) occur as verticle filaments. Few 20-50pm regular discrete and diffuse irregular nodules occur. Approximately half the area is stained with iron and has skelasepic fabric; the unstained fabric is silasepic. IIC3 The fabric consist dominantly of closely packed uniform silt grains with substantial amounts of sand size quartz and feldspar and composite igneous derived grains. The s-matrix contains very few voids and vesicles and argillans are entirely absent. Common regular and Irregular discrete sesquioxidic nodules 50-2000pm are present. Many of the grains are weathered along clevage planes, and some composite grains have the more weatherable components altered to an isotropic mass. Few <10pm filaments and nodules of highly birefrlngent (crystic) calcium carbonate are present. The predominant fabric is silasepic. 209 Figure 50. Micromorphological descriptions for selected horizons for Alford. Alford (PR-10) B21t The fabric is uniform thinly coated silt grains with a few sand sized quartz grains. Thin (20-60pm) compound illuviation argillans and ferri- ' argillans occur lining vughs, vesicles, and skew planes. Neo-arglllans siltans, and mangans occur along ped surfaces. The total area of llluvial argillans is 2*3%. Mo-skelsepic fabric. B22t The fabric is uniform thinly coated silt grains with common quartz sand grains with common vughs and vesicles. Medium thin (50-100pm) anisotropic compound argillans-ferriargillans line vughs and vesicles and channels; and make up 2-3% of the total area. Mo-skelsepic fabric. B32t The fabric is similar to the B22t horizon except that the cutans are thinner and predominantly ferriargillans. Few 100pm diffuse Irregular sesquioxidic nodules are present. In-skelsepic fabric. Cl The fabric is predominately very thinnly coated coarse silt and very-fine sand. Coninon larger sand grains include quartz, albite, microcline, perthite, hornblende, and mica. All appear fresh and unweathered. A few very thin (<10pm) argillans are present in vugh6, and a few irregular diffuse sesquioxidic nodules are present. In-silasepic fabric. C3 The fabric is essentially like that of the Cl horizon except that there are no plasma seperations and there are small areas of crystic fabric believed to be secondary calcium carbonate grains. Silasepic fabric. C5 The s-matrix is identical to the C3 horizon however the areas of crystic fabric are more prevalent and nodules of calcium carbonate are present. Silasepic fabric. C6 The fabric is the same as the C5 horizon but the s-matrix is slightly more reduced in color. There are also some pipestems present with crystic fabric in the center and skelseplc fabric in the iron bands surrounding it. The predominant fabric is silasepic. 210 Figure 51. Micrcmorphological descriptions for selected horizons for Hosmer. Hosmer (FA-27) B21t The dominant s-matrix is thinly coated uniform silt grains. Thin 20-100pm compound anisotropic ferriargillans and mangans occur'in vughs, vesicles and channels. The total ares of illuvial argillans is <27.. A few discrete regular sesquioxidic nodules >50pm are present. Very few sand sice grains are present. Mo-skelsepic fabric. Bxl The fraglpan interior fabric is predominantly composed of closely packed silt grains with skel-lnsepic fabric. Some of the grains are connected together by highly birefrlngent plasma. Within the fraglpan prism argillans occur in voids and fill channels; a few argillaceous glaebules (papules) are present; 3-4% of the total area is illuvial clay. Between the major fraglpan prisms are l-2cm "clay flows" or slltans; these pedologic features are predominantly fine silt with skel-lattisepic fabric. There are common argillans and papules; the argillans ere both associated with present voids and occur as discrete entities in the s-matrlx. The interface between the siltan and the prism is very abrupt, and at the contact there is a .5-lcm subcutaneous iron rich zone. This zone is characterized as having mo-skelsepic fabric and most of the cutans are feriargillans. A few discrete opaque-isotropic lithorelics of fine grained sandstone are present in the prism interiors. B3t The s-matrix is very similar to the Bxl prism interiors, but the illuvial argillans make up only 2% of the area. There are conmon diffuse irregular sesquioxidic nodules and a few compound siltan-argillan-mnngans occur along ped faces. Skel-insepic fabric. 211 Figure 52. Micromorphological descriptions for selected horizons for Ava. Ava (Fa-28) Btl The fabric is composed of uniform silt grains with a noticable lack of sand sized grains. There are a few (20-50 micron) opaquesesquioxidic nodules. Thin (10-20 micron) argillans, ferriargillans occur on some ped surfaces, vughs, andvesicles in simple to complex arrangement. There are several striated papules 20-200 micron in diameter. The total area of illuvial clay is less than 2%. The dominant feature is a strongly developed skelmasepic plasraic fabric. Bt/E The Bt material is very similar to that of the Btl, but it contains more illuvial clay, and more complex neoargillans/ferriargillans. The total area of illuvial clay in the Bt material is 2-3%. The plasraic fabric of the Bt is skelmasepic. The Ematerial is composed of clean uncoated skeletal grainsthat are slightly finer than those in the Bt. The elluvial material is dominantly silinsepic. The E material has thin simple illuviation argillans lining vughs and vesicles ranging to more complex striated strongly oriented argillian neoferriargillans embedded in bodies of Bt material that appear to be dislocated. The amount of illuvial clay is <2% in the E material. Both the Bt and E materials contain sesquioxidic nodules varying in size up to 500 microns. The proportion of area of each material is about equal. Bxl The fragipan interior is composed of closely packed silt grains with well developed skelmasepic plasmic fabric. Within the interiors, complex argillans, ferriargillans, and neoalbans occur in vughs, vesicles and on ped faces. The total area of illuvial clay is 3-4%. The plasmic fabric of the E material is silinsepic with the grains slightly smaller than the interiors. Argillans, ferriargillans and neoalbans occur within the E material, but to a lesser extent than in the Bx. The Bx contains a highly birefrlngent plasma at the contacts of skeletal grains, and around some grains that is more opalexcent than the illuvial clay which also is present. These areas did not impregnate as well as the rest of the horizon. Sesquioxidic nodules are present in the same proportion as above. The area of Bx interior appears to be less than 60%. 212 Figure 52. (continued). Bx2 This horizon is very similar to the Bxl, however, there is less area (2-3%) of illuvial clay and less well developed plasmic fabric. 2Bx3 The horizon contains several large (up to 2cm) lithorelics of sandstone cemented by an iron rich plasma. The dominant mass of the horizon is composed of silt grains with many sand sized grains of quartz, feldspar and composite igneous grains. Less than 1% of the area is simple illuviation argillans occuring around pores and skewplanes, and occurring in thick siltans (>lmm) and lithorelics. Bodies of the underlying paleosol argillic horizon occur within the groundmass. The dominant plasmic fabric is weakly developed skelsepic with condiderably less clay around the grains as above. There is also less of the highly birefrlngent material, but areas where they are more prevalent did not impregnate well. 213 Appendix D Radiocarbon Report 214 Figure 53. Radiocarbon report on the organic material below the loess near Pr-10. t • * e t a 'a n a l y t ic (^UNIVERSITY BRANCH ORAL GABLES, FLA. 33124 f e REPORT OF RADIOCARBON DATING ANALYSES Ffip. L. Darrell Norton______DATE RECEIVED: August 10, 1981 ______Hie Ohio State University______DATE REPORTED- August 31, 19S1 ______BILLED TO SUBMITTER’S INVOICE NUMBER ______ OURLABNUMBER YOUR SAMPLE NUMBER C-14 AGE YEARS B.P.l 1 o C13/C12 Rad]ccarto<1ge Beta-3071 COTS., CH 43210 peat 28470 ± 560 B.P. -26.02 0/00 28450 ± 560 B.P. In agreement with international conventions, radiocarbon dates are calculated using the Libby half-life of 5568 years and 95% of the activity of the NBS Oxalic Acid as the modem standard. Hie quoted errors are one standard deviation based on the random nature of the radioactive disintegration process. B.P. stands for years before 1950 A.D. Stable carbon is measured relative to the PEB-1 international standard; the adjusted age was normalized to -25 per mil carbon 13. 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