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Of the Early Christian Monasteries in Palestine

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Of the Early Christian Monasteries in Palestine THE ECONOMY AND LIVELIHOODS OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN MONASTERIES IN PALESTINE NINA HEISKA UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI INSTITUTE FOR CULTURAL STUDIES, ARCHAEOLOGY MASTER OF ARTS THESIS NOVEMBER 2003 CONTENTS 1 SUBJECT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY........................................................................... 1 1.1 Subject Definition ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Previous Research on the subject....................................................................................... 3 1.3 Methodology......................................................................................................................... 6 2 SOCIO–ECONOMIC BACKGROUND............................................................................................ 10 2.1 Late Antique Economic Landscape in the Eastern Mediterranean............................. 10 2.2 Early Christian Monasticism ............................................................................................ 13 3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS .............................................................................................. 16 3.1 Climate................................................................................................................................. 17 3.2 Water Resources ................................................................................................................. 19 3.3 Communications ................................................................................................................ 20 4 WRITTEN SOURCES...................................................................................................................... 22 4.1 Imperial Legislation........................................................................................................... 22 4.2 Proceedings and Canons of the Ecumenical and Local Councils............................... 23 4.3 Monastic Rules.................................................................................................................... 24 4.4 Building and Funerary Inscriptions ................................................................................ 26 4.5 Hagiographic Literature.................................................................................................... 27 4.6 Documents .......................................................................................................................... 28 5 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES ..................................................................................................... 30 5.1 Artefacts............................................................................................................................... 31 5.2 Features................................................................................................................................ 33 5.3 Ecofacts ................................................................................................................................ 34 6 MONASTIC SUBSISTENCE – ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLOITATION ............................................. 36 6.1 Monastic Diet and Subsistence......................................................................................... 36 6.2 Agriculture.......................................................................................................................... 37 6.2.1 Cultivated Lands................................................................................................... 37 6.2.2 Agricultural Terraces and Cisterns .................................................................... 38 6.2.3 Cultivated Plants................................................................................................... 41 6.3 Animal Husbandry and Fishing ...................................................................................... 45 6.4 Gathering of Wild Plants................................................................................................... 47 7 MONASTIC WEALTH SOURCES................................................................................................... 50 7.1 Pilgrimage ........................................................................................................................... 50 7.2 Donations and Bequests.................................................................................................... 53 7.2.1 Imperial Family..................................................................................................... 54 7.2.2 Private Donors....................................................................................................... 56 7.2.3 Monks .....................................................................................................................58 7.3 Immovable Property..........................................................................................................60 7.3.1 Monastic Lands ..................................................................................................... 60 7.3.2 Rents, Leases and Sales ........................................................................................ 62 7.4 Handicrafts.......................................................................................................................... 64 7.5 Fines ..................................................................................................................................... 65 7.6 Wages................................................................................................................................... 66 8 MONASTIC WEALTH DISPOSITION ........................................................................................... 68 8.1 Food Supplies ..................................................................................................................... 69 8.2 Liturgical Fitments, Vessels, Tools and Books............................................................... 70 8.3 Charitable Institutions....................................................................................................... 73 8.4 Taxes .................................................................................................................................... 76 9 WEALTH SOURCES AND DISPOSITION − AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE .................. 78 9.1 Building Process and Materials........................................................................................ 79 9.2 Building Activity at the Monastic Sites........................................................................... 81 10 MONASTIC ECONOMY IN THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE ............................................. 87 10.1 Fourth Century ................................................................................................................. 87 10.2 Fifth Century..................................................................................................................... 89 10.3 Sixth Century .................................................................................................................... 90 10.4 Seventh Century............................................................................................................... 91 11 CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................................ 94 11.1 Economic Base of the Monasteries................................................................................. 94 11.2 Lifestyle of the Monks .....................................................................................................95 11.3 Impact of Natural and Social Environment.................................................................. 96 BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 100 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Byzantine Palestine and Arabia Appendix 2: Topography of Palestine Appendix 3: Vegetation Zones of Ancient Palestine Appendix 4: Climate of Palestine Appendix 5: Yearly Precipitation in Modern Palestine Appendix 6: Monasteries of Palestine Appendix 7: List of the Monasteries Cover illustration: The Byzantine Monastic Centre of St. Aaron at Jabal Harûn near Petra, Jordan (Nina Heiska) Heiska 1 “A considerable quantity of rubbish had been thrown over the wall of the monastery [St. Catherine’s monastery in Sinai], and we were hoping that some information might be obtained by digging over the pile. One day was enough, however, to show that there would be nothing, for the earth was moist right through the underlying rock, owing to the melting snow, which saturates the soil. Anything like papyrus or parchment must be destroyed. Besides, the rubbish pile was very small, and I found that everything had for generations been put into the garden.” C. T. Currelly, 1906 1 1 SUBJECT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 1.1 SUBJECT DEFINITION When we think of early Christian monasticism, our thoughts are easily dominated by images of later, mediaeval Catholic and Orthodox monasteries, which are more familiar to us. Yet when monasticism emerged at the early stages of Christianity, there were no preconceived ideas or forms on how to run such an establishment. Gradually, through successes and failures, unintended and planned actions, monastic institution, as we know it, emerged. Therefore, the evidence concerning monasteries should be evaluated with an open mind, as I have been attempting to do since 1998. It was the
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