Notes

1 Racial Caribbeanization: Origins and Development

1. See document at http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/ elsi/humanmigration.shtml. 2. See Hilary Beckle’s lecture to launch the book of this name at http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=kmRBq0oh7q8.

4 Whiteness and the Contemporary Caribbean

1. In Jamaica, for example, the last census in 2011 stated that 0.16% of the population were white, 92.11% were black, 6.06% were mixed, 0.75% were East Indian, 0.19% were Chinese, ‘other’ were 0.07% and those who did not respond were 0.65% (Digital Information The Gleaner). In the Trinidad and Tobago 2011 census out of a total population of 1, 328, 019, some 35.4% were East Indian, 34.2% were African, 22.8% were mixed which was further disaggregated as African/East Indian 7.7% and other mixed 15.16%, Portuguese were 0.6%, Syrian/Lebanese 0.08%, Caucasian 0.59%, Chinese 0.30%, indigenous 0.11%. All other ethnic groups were 0.14% and those who did not state their ethnicity were 6.2% (Central Statistical Office). In Barbados, information from the census of 2000 showed that of a 250, 010 population the ethnic breakdown was black 93%, white 3.19%, Chinese 0.05%, East Indian 1.03%, Arab 0.03%, mixed 2.62% and other 0.08% (CARICOM Capacity Development Programme, 2009). 2. O Sable Queen! Thy mild Domain I seek and court thy gentle reign So soothing, soft and sweet. Where meeting love, sincere delight Fond pleasures, ready joys invite, And unbrought raptures meet. Do thou in gentle Phibia smile, In artful Benneba beguile, In wanton Mimba pout In sprightly Cuba’s eyes look gay Or grave in sober Quasheba I still find thee out

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abjection, 100–1, 106, 114, descent, 18, 20, 28, 34, 51, 56, 59, 123–4, 159 71–2, 76–7, 79–80, 83–4, 87, abolition, 13, 16, 19, 22, 28–9, 34, 88, 117, 119, 126–8, 137, 139, 94, 143–4 141, 144–5, 149–51, 153 Abu Bakr, Imam Yassin, 151 and Europeans, 11–12, 74 accent, 109 free, 13, 20 acceptance, 2, 33, 60, 72, 82, 84, genetic study, 1–2, 8, 33 110, 146 Iberian intermarriage with, 11–12 advertisements, 115, 145, 155–6 and Indians, 28, 72–80, 88, 106, aesthetics 111–12, 116–24, 125–52, 160 anti-racist, 84–5 in Jamaica, 51, 79, 83–4, 115 black, 122–3, 128 languages, 55 browning/mixed, 50–1, 59, 61, 63, in Puerto Rico, 33–5, 40–1 79, 83, 87, 89, 111, 115, 119, racialized hierarchy, 70–1 120–3, 159 religious practices, 41, 43, 46–7 creole ideology, 73, 84 slavery, 2, 17–22, 59, 61, 91–2, 94, diasporic, 48, 158 100, 102, 113 privilege, 86 sub-Saharan, 7, 19 white, 11, 63, 89–90, 96, 98–9, tribes, 14–15 101–3, 108, 110–24, 126, 159 Afro-Caribbean, 18, 62 Africa, 22, 54, 63–4, 83, 88, Afrocentricity, 83, 137, 144 122, 143 Afro-creole, 76–7, 132, 138, 149 anti-racial myths about, 34 Afro-Cuban, 13–15, 36–7, 39 cultural turn to, 28, 51, 61, 83, 100 Afro-Curaçaoan, 17 non-Western racism in, 3 Afro-European, 17 and white supremacy, 24 Afro-Jamaican, 78, 115 African Association, 145 Afro-Saxon hegemony, 127, 130, African(s) 132, 138–9, 141, 152, 160 ancestry/heritage, 1–2, 12–13, 15, Afro-Trinidadian, 69, 72–3, 75, 121, 21, 33–4, 41, 44, 61, 63, 65, 132, 141, 148, 150–1, 160 100, 150 agriculture, 8, 24, 30, 32, 79, 91–2, black-on-black racism, 133, 105, 135 147, 150 Ahmed, Sara, 109 collectivism, 14 albino, 12 and crime, 150–1 alcohol, 13, 150 in Cuba, 13–15, 18, 24–5, 31–2, Allah, 151 36–41 Altamont, 97 cultural identities, 33–4, ambiguity, 52, 62, 69–70, 90–2, 143–5 102, 110 cultures, 59–61, 69 American Civil War, 23

180 Index 181

American colonial racialization, 16, Arabs, 7, 25, 163 22, 157 Arango y Parreño, Francisco de, 13 Americanization, 2, 15, 23, 46–7, Arará, 13–14 161 Arawaks, 1, 71 American mass culture, 32–3 Archaic peoples, 4 Amerindians ‘archipelic, the,’ 53 in Barbados, 91–2 architecture, pre-colonial, 4 colonial violence against Arima, 71 women, 11 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, 47–8 conquest and genocide of, 2, armed insurrection, 29, 162 8–9, 20 army, 32, 42, 45, 128, 130 and creole culture, 55 Arrizón, Alicia, 59, 60, 61, DNA analysis, 33 64, 122 English racial discourse about, art, 5, 82, 112–13, 141–2, 149 19–20 artefacts, 4, 6, 114 in Haiti, 45 Aruba, 13, 18, 32 population collapse, 8, 157 Aryans, 74, 116, 120, 149 skin bleaching, practice of, 11, 44 Ashkenazi Jews, 18 sodomy as ‘abominable sin,’ 10 Asians, 6, 21, 69, 76, 127 symbolic, cosmological universes, aspirational whiteness, 12, 27, 33, 4, 156 41, 45, 161 transracial relationships, 11–12, 64 assimilation, 21–2, 47, 73, 78–9, in Trinidad and Tobago, 70–1, 132, 93–4, 103, 108–9, 143, 160 143 ‘assimilation law’ of 1946, 22–3 women, 111, 114 Association of Women ancestors, 21, 65, 98, 132, 144, 145 Communicators (MAGIN), 31 Anglicans, 93 asymmetrical economic Anglophone Caribbean, 28–9, 61, development, 35 64, 78, 89, 92, 100, 102, 122, atheism, 37 126 Atlantic history, 3, 7 Anglo-US American racial purity, 106 Atlantic islanders, 7 Angola, 17, 54, 113 Atlantic islands, 7 Anguilla, 20, 32 Atlantic slavery, 8–9, 16–17, 57, anti-African racism, 64, 146–7 75, 157 anticolonialism, 27, 36, 133, 161 autonomy, 78, 115, 136, 148 Antigua, 19–20, 35 Avril, Brigadier General, 47 anti-imperialism, 27, 36, 47 Azores, 13 Antillean créolité, 53, 134 Aztec population, 10 anti-miscegenation law, 68, 100 anti-miscegenation regimes, 99–100 Back to Africa movement, 28, 83 anti-Oriental attitudes, 6 Bahadur, Gaiutra, 117, 118 anxiety, racial, 110, 123–4, 159 Bahamas Anzieu, Didier, 103, 123 independence of, in 1973, 35 Aponte, José Antonio, 14 leading financial centre, 154 Aponte Rebellion, 14 Portuguese migration to, 13 Arabic writing, pre-modern period, 6 Bailey, Alison, 100 182 Index

Bajan white, 98 Bhojpuri, 74 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 102 Bickley, George, 23 Balaguer, Joaquín, 41 biopolitics, 99–100 Bala Jobhan (Bollywood film), 119 biracialization, 52–3, 73 Bales, Kevin, 30 Bishop, Maurice, 29 Ballinceaux concentration camp, 20 Bissessar, Anne Marie, 131, 137, Barbados 138, 139 African and Amerindian slaves, Bissessar, Kamala, 139 91–2 black music, 34, 50 blackness/Indianness/mixedness, black nationalism, 28, 36, 122, 135 124 blackness British colonial racialization in, aesthetic value, 110 19, 91–2 Dominican anti-blackness, 41–5 Caribbean whiteness in, 89, 91–3, forms of, 34 98, 159 in Haiti, 27, 41, 45–8 census data, 163 in Jamaica, 83–4, 86–7 independence of, in 1966, 35 in Mediterranean racial Irish slaves in, 19, 91–2 discourse, 6 Portuguese settlers, 13 modern, 83–4 tobacco and sugar plantations, ‘post-modern,’ 28 19–20 in Puerto Rico, 34–5 white indentureship, 19, 91–2 whiteness and mixedness, 2, 53, Barbados Servant Code, 1661, 91 56–7, 67, 69, 73, 81, 98, 101, Barbuda, 35 116, 122–3, 159 Bari, 8 black-on-black racism, 133, 147, 150 Barnes, Natasha, 115 ‘black Other,’ 147 Bartlett, Roger, 6 Black Power, 70, 83, 98, 110–11, 115, Bay Islands, 12 127, 136–9, 151, 160 beauty pageants/contests, 115, 120 black proletariat, 94, 97, 130 Beckles, Hilary, 9, 19, 20, 21, 29, 91, black revolution, 29, 42 92, 157 black unity, 133 Beddoes, Dr Thomas, 82 blanqueamiento, 15, 32–3, 59–60, 64 Beetham Estates, 150–1, 153 blood quantum calculations, 65, Belize, 4 67, 100 Bell, Vicky, 104 Bollywood, 119 Benitez-Rojo, Antonio, 50 Bonaire, 18, 32 Benton, Gregor, 39, 40 bongo, 142, 149 Berlin Wall, fall of (1989), 40 Boucher, Philip, 9, 18 Bermuda, 13, 20, 32 Bourdieu, Pierre, 109 Bernabé, Jean, 134 Brahmins, 73, 80, 116, 119 Best, Lloyd, 54 Braithwaite, Edward Kamau, 54, 61 Bettez, Sylvia, 79 Brakespeare, Cindy Lou, 115 Bhabha, Homi, 55, 56, 57, Brazil, 13, 17, 23, 102 58, 107 Brearton, Bridget, 76, 92, 93, 94, 105 Bharatiyadesh/Industan, 135 bribes, 90 Bhattacharya, Gargi, 155 bride price, 75, 118 Index 183

‘brisure,’ 56 capitalism Britain, 22, 82, 97, 106, 122, 137 international, 155, 162 ‘Black Debt,’ 19 pawns of, 134 colonial racialization in the transnational, 45, 47, 49, 154, 158 Caribbean, 19–21, 24, 32, 35, Carbonnell, Walterio, 14 49, 68, 75, 78, 82–3, 92–6, 99, Caribbean Community (CARICOM), 105, 111, 132, 134, 157–8 4, 9, 77, 154 empire, 28 Caribbean culture, 4–5, 13 involvement in slave trade, 92 see also under specific entries racism in, 107–8, 126 Caribbean history, 1–26 British Caribbean, 75 Caribbean islands, 8, 18, 92 British creoles, 93 Caribbean Netherlands, 18 brotherhood, 14 Caribbean Sea, 4, 161 Brown, Yvonne, 19 Caribbean whiteness, 80–1, 88–124, Brown-Claude, Winnifred, 83, 85, 159, 161–2 86, 87, 159 defining, 97–104 browning, 51, 61–2, 67, 69–70, 78, elite whites, 104–10 82–7, 89, 94, 96, 98, 111, 115, local invisibility and 121–4, 127, 129, 137, 159 marginalization, 110–24 Brunias, Agostino, 113 settlement, creolization and Bryan, Patrick, 94, 95, 96, domination, 89–97 97, 113 white aesthetic failure and racial Buffon, Comte de, 21 anxiety, 110–24 bureaucracy, 34, 97, 152 Carib revolt, 21 Bush, Barbara, 113 Caribs, 1, 9–10, 21, 51, 71, 129, 144, Bush, George W., 48 160 Butler, Judith, 107 carnival, 119, 142, 149–50 Caroni plantation, 138–9, 152 Carter, Marina, 134, 135 cabildos, 13 cashew nut oil (as a cosmetic), 81–2 caciques,9,11 Castillian, 18 calaloo nation, 71, 74, 77, 136, 142, castizos, 12, 15, 59 146, 160 castration, 82 calypsos, 118–19, 142, 149–50 Castro, Fidel, 29, 37, 38, 47 cambujos, 15, 59 Catholic Church/Catholicism, 21, campesinos, 12 41–3, 47, 71, 91, 93–4 Canada Catholic Inquisition, 13 migrations to, 105, 125, 139 Caucasian, 88, 110, 116, 130, 141, Presbyterians, 73 163 sex tourists from, 30–1, 106 caustic oil (as a cosmetic), 81 Canary Islands, 7 Cayenne, 93 Candelario, Ginetta, 42, 44, 59, 61, Cayman Islands 63, 89 British colonialism, 20, 32 Candid Reflections (Long; 2010), 81 leading offshore financial centre, cannibalism, 1, 9–10 154 Cape Verde Islands, 13, 17 Spanish colonialism, 12 184 Index

Célestine, Audrey, 23 Church of England, 21 cemeteries, 25, 95 chutney soca, 119–20, 149–50 census, 26, 33, 38–9, 75, 77–8, 88, cimarróns, 13 129–30, 139–40, 163 cinemas, 35 Central Bank, 128 citizenship, 15, 22, 28, 32–3, 41, ceremonial artefacts, 4 44–5, 58–9, 61, 66, 94, 105, Césaire, Aimé, 122 132, 152 Chaguanas West, 139–40 citizenship rights, 41, 66 Chanderbally, Priya, 120 civil rights, 94 Chapkis, Wendy, 111 clash of cultures, 138, 141 Chaplin, Joyce E, 3, 7, 19 class, 28, 79, 83–4, 87, 89 charitable associations, 96 abject status, 101–2 chattel slavery, 21, 68, 91 elite, see elites Cheng, Anne Anlin, 104 gender and, 32–3, 141–2 children lower, 93, 160–1 abuse of, 17, 25, 31, 34 middle, 89, 126, 128 Amerindian, 11–12 mulatto, 62, 66 desire for brownness, 89–90, privilege, 83, 101–2, 110, 159 111, 123 race and, 15, 86, 96, 98, 127, 134, forced labour and sex trafficking, 136, 152 30–1, 157 ruling/political, 35–6, 96, 124, 130 genocide, 46 underclass, 101, 108 illegitimate, 19, 117 upper, 86, 93, 111, 130 ‘mixed,’ 11–12, 26, 76, 78, 82, working, 84, 100, 120–1, 148 117, 146 Clealand, Danielle P, 40 racial discrimination in schools, Clinton, Bill, 47–8 43, 70, 89–90, 111 Cloud, Dana L, 48 Childs, M. D, 14 clubs, 25, 44, 95–6 China, 3–4, 22, 24, 39–40, 57, 132, cocaine, 150 136, 156 cocoa panyols, 93–4, 132 Chinese, 24, 55, 70 cohabitation, 76–7, 117, 153 in Barbados, 163 Cold War, 47 in Cuba, 15, 25, 39–40 Coleman, Deirdre, 80, 81, 82 in Jamaica, 83, 89, 163 collective identity, 6, 15, 57, 74, slaves, 136 138, 140 transracial relationships, 76 Collins, Patricia Hill, 121 in Trinidad and Tobago, 126, Colombia, 4, 8 129–30, 134–5, 139, 141, 163 colour-coding, 100, 127 Chinese Creole, 129 colour symbolism, 4, 156 cholera, 48 ‘Columbian exchange,’ 10 Christian kingdoms, 7 Columbus, 5–9, 70, 157 Christians, 11 commerce, 23–4, 32, 93, 95, Christians/ Christianity, 7, 11, 41, 105, 152 43, 65, 71–3, 77–9, 94, 116, Commissiong, Jannelle, 119 128, 149 Committee for the Defence of the Christmas, 71, 142 Revolution, 37 Index 185

commodification, 34, 64, 155 coup, 47, 151 commonwealth, 33, 134, 154 coyote, 12 communism, 3, 27, 36, 38–9, Craig, Maxine Leeds, 121 59, 161 Crawford, Carol Joan, 115 Compagnie des Isles d’Amérique, 21 creole cultures, 12, 54, 73, 79, 120, complexion, 81–2 132, 149–50 comportment, 65, 104, 106, 109 creole elite, 93 concubinage, 64–6, 68–9, 82, 97 creole (language), 46, 78–9 Congo, 13, 17 creole whiteness, 82, 90, 93, 102–4, Congress of the People(COP), 106–7, 110 125–6, 139 créolité, 54, 133–5 constitution, 142 creolization, 4, 51–62, 64, 69, 72–3, constitutionality of laws, 32 78–80, 89–97, 101, 103, 109, constitutionalized segregation, 23 116, 119–20, 124, 133, 153, 156, constitutional referendum, 33 158–9 construction sector, 30, 152 crime/criminal activities, 20, 30, 37, consumerism/consumer culture, 91, 146, 150–1 45, 77 ‘criollo,’ 12, 25, 33 consumption, 9, 13, 25, 37, 86, 161 critical race theory, 3, 156 containment, 156 Crosby, Alfred W, 10 contamination, 147, 149 Crown, the, 7 contestation, 75, 84, 92, 102, 108, Cuales, Sonia Magdalena, 18 110, 115, 150 Cuba conviviality, 127, 147, 148–53 active state racisms, 36–41 ‘coolie’/coolitude, 19, 39, 133–5, Africans in, 13–15 137–8, 140–1, 143, 147 American racial segregation, 23–5 Cornielle, Carlos, 43 anti-African racism, 64 corporate income, 154–5 blanqueamiento policies, 59 corporeal representations, 107, 114, Chinese in, 15, 25, 39–40 124, 160 cholera epidemic, 48 corrales,12 contemporary racist attitudes, corruption, 35, 66 36–41 Corsican creoles, 93 economy of, 37, 39–40, 49, 59 corvée system, 24 forms of contemporary slavery, 29, cosmetics, 81–2, 144 31–2 ‘cosmic race,’ 59 French colonial racialization, 8 cosmological universes, 4–5, 10, genetic study, 8 156–7 independence of, in 1898, 35 cosmopolitan whiteness, 100, 107, mestizaje, ideology of, 59, 62 122 multiculturalism, 64 cosmovision, 5 mutual aid societies, 13–14 Costa Rica, 4 Portuguese settlers, 13 costumes, ethnic, 144 racial Caribbeanization, 13–16 Coulander colonization, 16, 157 racism in, 24–5, 36–41 Council for Afro-Jamaican Affairs, Representación of 1811, 13 115 sexual exploitation, 29, 31–2, 64 186 Index

Cuba – continued decolonization, 28, 49, 127, 135–6, Spanish colonial racialization, 153, 158 12–14 de facto racial hierarchy, 98 and USA, 15, 23–4, 37 de Limas, 93 Cuban Revolution, 14, 24, 29, 31 De Mercado, Charles E., 95 cuisine, 50, 139 Democratic Labour Party (DLP), cultural activism, 141 133–4, 136 cultural capital, 86, 109 democratic socialism, 36 cultural diversity, 4, 15, 43, 56–7, 60, Denean, Tracey, 115 61, 131, 143 Denis, Lorimer, 46 cultural dynamics, 4, 9 deportations, 41–2, 45, 51 cultural heritage, 1, 7, 77 deracialization, 26, 126, 155–6, cultural identity, 9, 33–4, 53, 58, 60, 160–2 73, 78, 82, 143–5 deregulation, 48 ‘cultural mosaic,’ 4 Derrida, Jacques, 56 cultures De Vere Brody, Jennifer, 68 hybridity/creolization of, 51–62 diaspora ‘of marginality,’ 37 aesthetic, 48, 158 race and, 69, 79, 90, 97, 129, 133, African, 115 138, 142, 144, 152, 160 consciousness, 57 see also under specific countries identities, 57, 133–5 Curaçao Indian, 72–3, 135 Dutch colonial racialization, Jamaican, 84 17–18, 32 nation as, 133 ethnoracial hierarchy, 18 Diène, Doudou, 44 Portuguese settlers, 13 Dikötter, Frank, 3, 4 slave-based plantations, 17–18 Diptee, Audra, 75, 76, 77 as a transit slave port, 17 disavowal, 56, 82, 109, 120, 122 Curet, L. Antonio, 4 Discours Antillais (Glissant), 53 currency, 32 discrimination, 15, 33–4, 36–8, 40, customs, 13, 78, 132 44, 47, 95, 125, 127, 130–1–132, administration, 32 134–5, 142, 162 disease, 8, 10, 43 D. S. Gideon and Nephew, 95 disenfranchisement, political, 24 Daily Gleaner (newspaper), 95 dismemberment, 82 Dalleo, Ralph, 161 displacements, 10, 48, 56 dance, 5, 43, 84, 116, 121 dispossession, 28, 86, 100, 124, 137, Danish colonization, 16, 19, 157 145, 150–1, 153, 159 Dantas, Beatriz Góis, 112 Diwali, 121, 143, 144–5, 149, 160 database of genomic variation, 8 DNA analysis, 33 Dávila, Arlene M, 33 dollar economy, 31, 36–7 death, 9, 14, 20–1, 48, 66–7, 75, 82, domestic violence, 150 111, 117, 157 Domínguez, Esteban Morales, debt crisis, 19, 48, 154 38–9, 39 declaration of war, 32 Dominica, 20–1, 35 Index 187

Dominican Republic Easter, 142 American racial segregation, 24 Eastern Caribbean, 30, 154 anti-black/anti-Haitian discourse, Eastern European Jews, 25 27, 30, 41–5, 59, 63 East Indians, see Indian(s) blanqueamiento policies, 59 East Indies, 8, 17 cholera epidemic, 48 East–West Corridor (Trinidad), 124 contemporary racist attitudes, Eckstein, Susan, 37 41–8 ecological imperialism, 10 genocide, 1937, 42–3 economy, 31, 33, 36, 39, 45, 54, 77, human trafficking, 30 83, 86, 98–9, 101–2, 104–5, 109, independence of, in 1844, 35 111, 124, 126–7, 130, 132, mestizaje, ideology of, 59, 61, 63 136–7, 139, 141, 148, 153–5, pre-colonial history, 4 158–9, 162 race and racism in, 41–5, 49 see also under specific countries Spanish colonization and rule, 12 education, 15, 22, 36–8, 43, 45, 53, Tainos, 59, 61 86, 109, 136, 139, 152, 162 Trujillo regime, 41–3, 63 Edwards, Bryan, 113 ego, 103–4, 123 whiteness in, 61, 89 Egyptian civilization, 6 Dorsainvil, J. C., 46 Eid Ul Fittr, 138, 143, 145, 160 double consciousness, 57 elections, 65, 67, 141 dougla/douglarization, 51, 72–8, 87, electronic media, 152 117, 139, 145–6, 153, 160 elites, 5, 9, 13, 15, 23, 25, 29, 31–2, ‘dougla poetics,’ 72 42, 44–7, 54, 69, 88–90, 92–7, ‘dougla republic,’ 139, 153 104–24, 126, 128, 148–50, 152 Douglas, Dr Lincoln, 125 Elizabeth I, 81 dreadlocks, 115 emancipation, 22, 27–49, 58, 87, 94, dress, 78, 139, 143–4 97, 105, 142–5, 160, 162 drugs, 30, 150 Emancipation Day (1 August), 142–4 dual citizenship, 105 emigration, 32 Duany, Jorge, 33, 34 employment, 15–16, 29, 36–7, Dubois, Laurent, 22 39–40, 47, 83, 86, 91, 93, 127–8, Du Bois, W. E. B, 16, 24, 157 152 Duchess of Queensbury, 81 empowerment, 14, 36, 61, 121 Dunn, Richard S, 20 endocannibalism, 9 Dupuy, Alex, 128, 148 endogamy, 94, 118 Dutch colonial racialization, 16–18, enfranchisement, 64–5 32, 49, 55, 157–8 England, 22, 91 Dutch East Indies Company England, Sarah, 71, 73 (VOC), 17 English creoles, 93, 105, 108 Dutch Guiana, 13, 91 English law, 20 Portuguese settlers, 13 English plantocracy, 66, 102–3 Dutch West Indies Company English rose, 81–2, 111–12, 114, 116 (WIC), 17 Enlightenment, 16, 100 Duvalier, François (Pap Doc), 46–7 equality, 36–7, 54, 126–7, 133, 135, Dyer, Richard, 105 141, 148, 150, 152 188 Index

Equality Editorial Committee, February Revolution, 138 135, 142 Federation of Cuban Women, 31 essentialism, 53–4, 56, 90 female beauty estancios,12 basic necessity for, 114 Ethiopia, 6 ideal, 110 ethnoracial mixing, 1–2, 11, 13, 18, representations of, 62–3, 116 35, 42, 61 female body Euro-memesis, 15–16 as abnormal fetish object, 112 Europe exoticized, 112–15 Caribbean population living in, historical process, 111 48, 158 ‘mixed’/ hypersexualized, 62–9, human trafficking, 30 73, 76, 80–7 persecution in, 102 naked/nude binary, 113–14 race and racism in, 3–4, 14, representations of, 62–3, 111–16 16, 95 transformations of, 86, 159 racialized nationalisms in, 14, 16, white/black binary, 88–124 157 femininity, 119–21 white migration from, 92–3 feminism, 118–19, 121 European colonialism, 2, 8, 100 Ferrer, A., 13, 14 Europeanization, 2 Festival of Sipari Mai, 77 Europeans, 1, 5, 7–8, 74, 84–5, 99, festivals, 71, 77, 138, 142–4, 142, 148, 157 149, 160 exchange, 4, 10, 19, 60, 95, Figueria, Daurius, 133, 147 135, 156 exclusion, 5, 15, 36, 40, 44–5, 49, fixity, 52, 57, 80, 86, 110 102, 110, 129, 138, 155, 157–8, folklore, 34, 46 161–2 food, 31, 37, 78–9, 144, 145 execution, 29, 82 forced labour regimes, 10–11, 19, 24, exile, 42, 54 29–30, 45, 91, 157 exocannibalism, 9 foreign capital, 39, 45–7 exoticism, 112–14, 116, 119 foreign relations, 24, 32 expansionism, 6–7, 17, 23, 60 Forte, Maximilian, 70, 71 expatriates, 89–90, 93, 98 Foucault, Michel, 99, 106 exploitation, 1–2, 16, 29–31, 45, 99, France, 19, 21–3, 42 128, 136, 156–7 La Traite des Noirs,21 eyes, shape/colour, 6, 104, 108 Francis, D, 96, 111 fraternity, 14 face powder, 42 freedom, 13, 28, 62, 65–7, 71, 80–2, facial features, 13, 106, 108, 146 86, 101, 114, 121, 127, 131 see also physical features free market, 155 family, 11–12, 23, 25, 31, 37, 39, 68, freemasonry, 96 71–2, 75, 80, 89, 93, 111, 116, free people, 13–15, 19–20, 31, 57, 64, 118, 136, 140, 146, 160 75, 91–2, 127, 145 Fanon, Frantz, 58, 96, 101, 106, 107, free speech, 29 120, 121, 123, 147 free trade, 48 farming, 152 French Caribbean, 18, 21 Index 189

French colonial racialization, 16–19, globalization, 20, 36, 52, 54, 83, 21–3, 26, 32, 45–7, 49, 52, 55, 155, 161 90, 92–3, 104–6, 108, 122, 129, global race theory, 156 133–4, 136, 149–50, 157–8 Godfried, Eugéne, 18 French Creoles, 93, 104–6, 108, 129, Godreau, Isar, 33, 34 133–4, 136, 149 gods, 5, 138, 149, 156 French Guiana, 22 Goldberg, D. T, 12, 14, 15, 23, 155 French Revolution, 21–2 Gold Coast, 17 Freud, Sigmund, 103 Gopalkrishnan, N, 155 Freudian melancholia, 103–4, 106, governance, 6, 11–12, 20–1, 29, 40, 124, 159 45, 47, 81, 155 fuzzy relations, 74 Grainger, James, 81 Grainger, William, 113 Granada, 7 Gambia, 54 Great Depression, 25 gambling, 96 Greater Antilles, 4 Ganga, 13–14 indigenous genocide, 10 gangs, 30, 150–1 Great Lakes, 10 Garifuna, 51, 71 Grenada Garvey, Marcus, 28 American invasion, Operation gated communities, 104 Urgent Fury, 29 Gates, Henry Louis, 42, 44 Bishop government, 29 gender independence of, in 1974, 35 and class, 32 New Jewel Movement, 29 inequalities, 35, 48 Grenadines, 35 and race, 10–12, 68, 82, 96, 99, Grosfoguel, Ramon, 32 107, 141–2 Guadeloupe and sexuality, 3, 63–4, 118 French colonialism, 21–3, 32 see also women guajiros, 12–13, 25, 63 genealogy, 67–8, 92, 117 Guanche (aboriginal Berbers), 7 Genetic Anthropology, Ancestry and Guatemala, 4 Human Migration, 1–2 guns, 46, 150 genocide, 2, 8, 10, 20, 42, 45, 68, Guyana 157, 162 Indian/African mix, 76, 78, 80, gente de razón vs. gente sin razón 126, 128, 134, 148 system, 11 Indian cultural identity, 80 German creoles, 93, 97 Portuguese settlers, 13 Germany, 97 Guyane, 22–3, 128, 140, 148 Ghana, 54, 143 ghettoes, 152, 160–1 hair, 44, 70, 73, 82, 89, 98, 106, 108, gifts, 11, 154 114, 146 Gilman, Sander, 114 Haiti Gilroy, Paul, 57, 79, 142, 153 American racial segregation, 24–5, Glissant, Édouard, 53, 54, 57, 58, 45–6 134 blackness, 45–8 global financial crisis, 154 black republic, 14 190 Index

Haiti – continued History of Jamaica (Long; 1774), 20 contemporary racial conditions, History of the People of Trinidad and 45–8 Tobago (Williams), 131–2 contemporary slavery, forms Hobson, Janelle, 112, 115, 121 of, 30 Hofman, Corinne L., 4, 5, 8 Dominican anti-blackness, 41–5 Holland, Sharon Patricia, 99, 100 economy of, 45, 48 Holquist, Michael, 102 forced labour and human Homer, 6 trafficking, 30 Honduras, 4, 8, 51, 71 independence of, in 1804, 35 Hope, Donna, 84, 86, 159 migrant workers, 25, 44 Hosay, 77, 145, 149 natural disasters/cholera Hosein, Gabrielle Jamala, 119, epidemic, 48 120, 121 out-migration to Cuba, 24 hostility, 6, 15, 34, 37, 42, 46, 78, ‘plan of death,’ 48 128, 138 prostitution in, 30 ‘Hour of Decision’ (Singh), 134 Spanish colonization and rule, 12 housing, 25, 37, 86 Haitian Revolution, 22, 45, 92 Howard, David, 41, 44 Hall, Stuart, 35, 49, 50, 57, 58, 79, Howard, P. A, 14 98, 134, 153, 155 Hulme, Peter, 1, 3, 6, 9 Hannaford, Ivan, 3 human development, 48 harassment, 32, 40, 90 Human Genome Project 2007, 1 hatos,12 Humanitarian Action Plan for Haiti, Hauser, Mark, W, 4 UN, 48 Havana, 13, 31, 36, 39–40, 62 humanity, 10, 41, 43, 74 healthy sexuality, 68, 96 human rights, 142, 162 hegemony, 23–5, 29, 36, 39, 44, 49, see also rights and liberties 59, 74, 81, 83, 105, 127, 130, human trafficking, 29–30 132–3, 138–9, 146, 152, 158, human value and need, 156 160–1 humiliation/mockery, 34, 155 Heinl, N. G, 46, 47 Hunter, Margaret, 121 Heinl, R. D, 46, 47 hybridity, 49, 51–63, 74, 83, 87, 121, Helg, Aline, 14, 15 134, 137, 158, 161 Helms, Mary, 5 hypersexuality, 34, 64, 113–14, 121 Henry, Paget, 36, 161 Herrera, Georgina, 31 Iberian Peninsula, 11 heterorepronormativity, 67–8 Iberian racial Caribbeanization, heterosexuality, 64–8, 79–80, 96, 8–16 106, 113 ‘Columbian exchange,’ 10 highways, 32, 48 Cuban case, 13–16 Higüey, 5 erasure of pre-Columbian cultural Hindi, 78–9, 139–40, 150 identities, 9–10 Hinduism, 72–3, 75–7, 133, 138, ethnoracial mixtures, 11–13 141, 145, 149 and gender, 10–12 Hispanic, 11, 13, 33–5, 41–4, 59 genetic study, 8 Hispaniola, 5, 8–10, 21, 26 Maroon camps, 10 Index 191

NEXUS 1492 research, 8 Indianness, 72–3, 110–11, 119–21, Portuguese role, 13 123, 135, 137–8, 148–9, 159 Spanish conquest and violence, Indian Ocean, 22–3 9–13 Indian Review Committee, 135 identity Indian(s) black, 39–40, 79, 126, 133 and African mixing, 72–80 collective, 138 and African prejudices, 127–8 cultural, 9, 33–4, 53, 58, 60, 73, Atlantic slaves, 75 78, 82, 143–5 caste system, 75–6, 118 diasporic, 57, 84, 134 celebrations and festivals, 121, national, 34, 39–40, 45, 115, 142, 138, 142, 144–5, 149, 160 161 and crime, 150–1 racial, 44, 50, 63, 73, 108, 136 cultural identity, 138–9 white, 102, 107, 114; see also indigenization of culture, 149–50 Caribbean whiteness inferiority, 74 Ifekwunigwe, Jayne, 52, 53, 55, 115 in Jamaica, 78–80, 89, 163 illegal migration, 30, 34, 41 transracial relationships, 75–8 illegitimacy, 12, 19, 66, 68–9, 88, in Trinidad and Tobago, 72–3, 77, 97, 111 120, 125–53, 160 illiteracy, 25, 45, 47, 146, 152 women, 75–7, 79, 111–12, 116–21 immigration, 18, 32–3, 97 ‘indio,’ 12, 41–2, 63 immorality, 68, 113, 121 Indochina, 22 imperialism, 6, 10, 12, 17, 23–4, Indo-Spanish unions, 12 26–8, 32, 35–6, 47, 60, 87, 116, inequality, 126 126–7 ‘infeartainment,’ 155 Inca population, 10 inferiorization, 6, 9–11, 39, 74–5, incarceration, 37, 126, 153 126 inclusion, 40, 56, 89, 129, 138, infidelity, 117–18 161–2 inheritance, 62, 67, 69, 74, 125, 154 income tax, 154 Institute of Social and Economic Indentured Ordinance Act, 117 Research, 147 indentureship, 2, 13, 19, 22–3, 27, institutional racism, 20, 22–3, 34, 57, 60–2, 73, 75–8, 88, 91–4, 97, 38, 44–5, 60, 67, 100, 117, 128, 100–2, 107–9, 111, 116–20, 127, 135, 142 131, 134, 136, 138, 143, 147–8 Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, independence movements, 14, 126 33 Independent Liberal Party, 139 integration, 3, 18, 23, 78, 121, 134, India, 2, 24, 55, 116 149, 154 beauty pageant, 120 interaction, 2–6, 8–9, 25–6, 69, 72, colonialism, 120 76, 96, 109, 120, 153, 156 indentured labourers, 22, 73, intermarriage, 11–12, 72–3, 146, 160 78, 136 international capitalism, 155, 162 independence, 1947, 132 International Monetary Fund (IMF), Indian Arrival Committee, 135 48, 154 Indian Arrival Day, 138, 142–3, 160 investment, 48, 79, 123, 155, 159 192 Index

Ireland James, Winston, 24 English colonization of, 18–19 Jane Eyre (Bronte), 112 indentured servants, 90–2, 97, 101 Japan, 24 Isabella, 9 Jaragua, 5 Iskrova, Iskra, 23 Java, 55, 57, 112 Islamism, 6–7, 77, 149 Jermott, Ena Trotman, 30 Jews, 13, 17–18, 25, 55, 83, 88–9, Jacobs, Bart, 17 93–5, 102, 112 Jahoda, G, 6 jhandi controversy, 138, 142 Jamaat al Muslimeen (JAM), 151 jíbaros, 12–13, 33, 63 Jamaica Jim-Crowism, 24 Act of Assembly, 64–5 Jones, Adele D, 30 beauty pageants and national jurisdictions and legal procedures, identity, 115, 120 32, 154 Black Power period, 1970s, 98, juveniles, 91 115, 136 British colonialism, 19–20, 94 kala pani, 75, 118, 135 census data, 88, 163 Karifuna, 20 Chinese in, 89 Karras, Alan, 18 class structure, 83–4 Katzew, I, 12 defining whiteness in, 98 Keith, Robert J, 10 economy of, 83–6, 89, 95–9 Kempadoo, Kamala, 30, 115 food/diet, 78–9 Kente cloth, 144 forced labour and sex trafficking, Khan, Aisha, 59, 61, 70, 73, 74, 75, 19, 27–8, 300 76, 77, 116, 129, 130, 131, 132, independence of, in 1962, 35, 136 133, 136, 143, 149, 160 Indian/African mix, 64–7, 77–80 Khanna, Ranjana, 103 Indian cultural identity, 78–80 kidnapping, 91 Irish slaves in, 19 Kingston Cricket Club, 95 Jewish community, 88, 94–5 Kinsbruner, Jay, 33 Middle Eastern community, 88, kinship, 69, 116 94–5 Knights of the Golden Circle, 23 Ministry of Health, 85 Konetzke, R, 11 modern blackness heritage, 83–4 kuli (labourers), 140 national motto, 28, 87, 126 new indigenous practices, 61 labelling, 9–10, 12, 20, 38, 69, 71, political leadership, 95–6 111, 149 poverty, 126, 154 Lagarde, Christine, 154 race law, 66–9 La Guerre, John Gaffar, 129, 130, reverse racism, 89–90 131, 137, 138 skin bleaching, 51, 80–7, 158–9 Lakshmi Mata (Hindu goddess of slavery and colonialism, 64–7 wealth), 138 Spanish colonization, 12, 94 language, 13, 18, 22, 45–6, 55, 58, white population, 89–90, 94–8 78, 90, 133, 138, 150 Jamaica Club, 95 La Raza Cosmica (Vasconcelos), 59 Jamaican creole, 79, 97 las Casas, Fray Bartolomé de, 7, 10 Index 193

Lascelles of New York, 95 Maharaj, Devant, 128 Latin America, 23, 26, 95 Maharaj, Valene, 119 hybridity/mestizaje,52 Maha Sabha, 73, 128–9, 145 independence movements, 14 Malecon riots, 31 mestizaje, ideology of, 52, 60–1 Malfert, Augustus, 21 racial categorizations, 14–15 malnutrition, 48 Laventille, 18, 124, 150–1 managerialism, 40, 85, 155 Law, I, 3, 5, 25, 36, 40, 157 Manchester cricket club, 96 Lebanese, 55, 83, 88–9, 94–5, 105, Mandinga, 13–14 112, 129–30, 133, 139, 141, 163 mandirs (Hindu temples), 133 Lebanon, 95, 132 manifestos, 44 Lee, Shayne, 118 Marable, Manning, 29 Leeward Islands, 20 ‘Marajhin’ (Mighty Sparrow song), Leiris, Michel, 23 119 leisure activities, 86, 96, 104 Marco Polo, 7 Lentin, Alana, 129 Margat de Tilly, Jean Baptiste, 21 Les Griots (1937), 46 marginalization, 33, 37, 39, 74, 78, Lesser Antilles, 4 83, 88, 95, 104–10, 123–4, Levitt, Kari Polanyi, 54 146–7, 160 Leyburn, James, 46–7 Marién, 5 liberation, 29, 76, 118, 135, 137, marijuana, 150 142–3, 160, 162 maritime laws, 32 ‘Lick down mi naany’ (Ramgoonai), markets, 7, 27, 30, 36, 39, 44, 64, 85, 119–20 105, 155–6 limbo, 142, 149 Maroon camps, 10, 17 liminality, 56–7, 101, 114 marriage, 11–13, 47, 66, 72–3, 77–8, liming, 142 93, 96, 116–17, 146, 149, 160 lineage and descent, 4–5, 19, 33, see also see intermarriage 92, 156 Martí, José, 18, 126 literary and debating societies, 96 Martin, Tony, 5, 17, 19 literature, 3, 5–6, 41, 62–3 Martínez-Fernández, Luis, 24 Long, Edward (1774), 20 Martinique, 53, 120 Long, Edward (2010), 66, 81 French colonial racialization in, ‘Look a Negro’? (Fanon), 121 21–3, 32 Los Culíos Chinos en Cuba (Pérez de Indian cultural identity, 80 Riva), 39–40 masculinity, 113, 119 Louis XVIII, 21 masjids (Muslim schools), 133 Loveman, Mara, 25 Massa Day Done, 136 Lucumí, 14 mass murder, 9–10, 46 lynching, 24 see also genocide Mastana Bahar, 120–1 Madagascar, 54 material culture, 4 Madeira, 7, 13, 93 Mauritius, 134, 135 Madrid, 10 May, Robert, 23, 80 Maguá, 5 Mbembe, Achilles, 66 Maguana, 5 McCrea, Rosemary S, 113 194 Index

McDougall, Gay, 44 Miss Trinidad and Tobago media, 40, 43, 47, 152 World/Universe pageants, Mediterranean racisms, 5–7, 24, 157 119–20 melancholia, white, 103–4, 106, Miss Universe/Miss World pageant, 124, 159 115, 119 Merchant Exchange, 95 mixed marriage, see intermarriage merengue, 43 mixing complexities, 50–87 mesoamerican civilization, 2, 5 as a national ideal, 69–80 Mesoamerican migrations, 2 post-independence, 69–80 mestizos, 12, 14–15, 37–8, 55–6, 59, post-racial, 125–53 62, 87 skin bleaching as a social problem, métissage and mestizaje, 51–62 80–7 métisse, 52–3, 55–6, 87 during slavery and colonialism, metropolitan power, 32, 54 62–9 metropolitan whiteness, 66, 89–92, of theorizing, 51–62 107–8, 121, 124, 159 of whiteness, 88–124 Mexican castas, 69 modern blackness, 28, 83–4 Mexican revolution (1910–1924), 59 modern state, 155 Mexico, 24, 48 Mohammed, Nasma, 119 Middle East, 25, 30, 57, 94–5, 129 Mohammed, Patricia Jan, 64, 75, 76, ‘middle passage,’ 17 111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, Mighty Sparrow, 119 119 Mignolo, Walter, 99 Monahan, Michael J, 62, 90, 91, 92, migration, 2–4, 13, 18, 24, 27, 32–4, 98, 102 42, 45, 48, 93–4, 139, 156, 158 Mongols, 6–7 military power, 3, 5, 7, 9–11, 20–4, monoculturalism, 153 26, 32, 47, 93, 155 monogamy, 118 Miller, Marilyn Grace, 62, 63 monteros, 12 Mills, Charles W, 99, 100, 147 Montserrat, 19–20, 32 mimicry, 56, 60, 122 Moore, Carlos, 24, 25 Mina, 13–14 mining, 10, 24, 32 morality, 53, 64, 68, 90, 99, 103, 112–13, 127, 136, 148, 155 Ministry of Culture, 128 Ministry of Health, 85 Moravian Upward, 96 minorities, 83, 89, 92–4, 96, 105, Moreno-Estrada, A., 2, 8, 157 115, 124, 133, 135, 141 moriscos, 12, 15, 59 miscegenation, 19, 55, 62–9, 74, 76, Morner, Magnus, 11, 12 80–1, 99–100, 109, 121 Morvant, 124, 150–1, 153 Miss Divali Nagar pageant, 121 Moscow, 40 Miss India Trinidad and Tobago, 121 mosque, 151 missionaries, 78 movement, 4, 44, 46, 101, 151, Mission of San Francisco, 71 155–6 Miss Jamaica pageant, 115, 119 Moya Pons, Frank, 41 Miss Mastana Bahar Pageant, 120 Moyne Commission, 78 Miss Naturally Fair Mastana Bahar Mozambique, 54 Pageant, 120 Mucurapo, West Port of Spain, 151 Index 195

mulattos, 12–13, 15, 18–19, 24–5, neoliberalism, 45, 85, 100, 154–6, 32–3, 36–7, 39, 41, 45, 59, 62–8, 159, 161 80–1, 84, 114, 127 Nepal, 48 multiculturalism, 28, 52, 60, 64, 74, Netherlands, 16–18, 32 127, 139, 141–5, 150, 160 Netherlands Antilles, 18 Munasinghe, Viranjini, 73, 74, 75, Nevis, 19–20, 35 98, 116, 117 ‘new ethnicities,’ 153 Muniz, Jeronimo, 25 newspapers, 95, 140, 143, 145 Munroe, James, 23 New World, 7, 12, 62 Munroe Doctrine, 23 New World order, 149 Murdoch, H. Adlai, 53, 54 NEXUS 1492, 8 museums, 42, 44, 52, 143, 160 Nicaragua, 4 music, 34, 50, 71, 149–50, 152 Nicholls, David G, 137 Muslims, 6–7, 11, 73, 77, 133, 141, Nigeria, 54, 143 144, 151, 160 ‘nigger,’ 25, 112, 133, 140, 147 ‘mustee,’ 65 nightclubs, 44 myths, 1, 4–5, 64, 141, 156 Nimako, K, 16 Niranjana, Tejaswini, 119, 120, 121 non-discrimination, 136, 142 Nation, The,46 non-Western racism, 3 National Alliance for Reconstruction norm, 5, 11, 45, 67, 85, 89, 98, 100, (NAR), 125, 130–1, 141, 150 107–11, 157 national identity, 34, 39–40, 45, 115, North America 142, 161 Caribbean population living in, nationality, 32, 41 48, 158 national symbols, 128–9 migration from, 93 nation-building, 59, 99, 132 wars for independence, 14 nation states, 16, 35, 64, 84, 105, see also USA 122, 148, 161 nostalgia, 104, 155 natural disasters, 154 Núñez, Manuel, 43–4 natural resources, 31, 154 Nuñez Harrell, Elizabeth, 112 navy, 32 nursing, 130 necropolitics, 66–7 Nuttall, Sarah, 114 necropower, 66 Negrismo, 59, 122 Obama, Barack, 48 Negrista Movement, 63 Ochún, 64 negrito, 25 O’Connell Davidson, Julia, 31 negritude, 47, 122, 137–8 ‘octaroon,’ 68 ‘negro,’ 12–13, 15, 24–5, 32, 44, 46, oil industry, 93, 105 65–7, 114, 121, 127, 129, 138 Old World, 10 Negrón-Muntaner, Francis, 32 oligarchy, 94–5, 97, 133 Nelson, Charmaine, 113, 114 one-drop rule, 15, 68, 80, 100 neocolonialism, 23, 31, 35, 47 Onward Society, 96 neoliberal economic policies, 44, Oostindie, Gert, 16 48, 158 Operation Urgent Fury, 29 neoliberal globalization, 36 oppression, 68–9, 110, 133, 140, 158 196 Index

Organisation of Eastern Caribbean Pérez, Luis Julián, 43 States, 154 performance, 85, 140 organized crime, 150–1 performativity, race, 51, 56–7, 60, organized paedophile network, 30 64, 68, 79, 85–7, 92, 98, 101, Oriental ‘Other,’ 116, 149 107, 109–10, 124, 142, 145, 153, origins and development of 158–9 Caribbean racisms, 1–26, 156–7 Perina, Mickaella L, 53, 54 Ortiz, Fernando, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62 persecution, 102 ostracism, 24, 75, 152 personal income, 154 ‘Other’/‘Otherness,’ 6–7, 51–62, 64, peso economy, 36 90, 101–3, 106–8, 113, 116, 123, petty crimes, 91 145, 147, 163 Phagwa, 149 phenotypes, 70, 79, 83–4, 89, 96, Padmore, George, 224 107, 121–2, 126, 128, 133, 136, paedophiles, 30 139–40, 142, 148, 153, 160 pagans/heathens, 6, 45, 116, 148–9 Phillips,William D Jr., 7 paid jobs, 37 physical abuse, 30, 34, 68 paintings, 12, 113–14 physical features, 3, 6, 31, 36, 110, Palestine, 95 120, 129, 139, 146 Palmer, Colin A, 136, 137 physiognomics, 6, 50 pan-African, 14, 24, 83 pigmentocracy, 12, 36, 51, 62, 75, Panama, 4 83, 87, 114, 136, 159 Papiamento language, 13, 18 plantation agriculture, 2, 7, 9–10, 13, parang, 71, 142 17–18, 22–4, 28–9, 44, 54–6, pariahs, 125 66–8, 75–7, 83, 85, 87, 91–4, 97, parks, 25, 35, 143 105, 113, 117–18, 127, 134–5, Parry, John H, 10 139, 157, 159 party politics, 125–53 Plummer, Brenda, 24 Pateman, Carole, 99, 100 Plummer, Brenda Gayle, 24, 45 patriarchy, 65, 99, 116–18 plunder, 9, 155 patriotism, 132, 155 pluralism, 79, 161 Patterson, P. J., 83 poetry, 5, 41, 53, 62–3, 81, 113 peasantry, 29, 33, 45, 97, 130, 134 police, 24, 32, 82, 93, 130 peonage, 24 People’s Democratic Party (PDP), 133 brutality, 34, 150 People’s National Movement (PNM) harassment, 40 creole independence project, political economy, 126–7, 137, 141, 131–40 148, 153 and National Alliance for political parties, 14, 78, 105, 124, Reconstruction (NAR) 128, 130, 133 coalition, 125, 130–1 political prisoners, 91 People’s Charter, 134 politics of purity, 62, 68, 90 and UNC duality, 141–5 pollution, 32, 68, 106 Williams premiership, 69, 127, polyracial neoliberalism, 154–62 131–7, 139, 148, 151, 153 polyracism, 3, 156 Pérez, Louis A. Jr., 14, 39 polytheism, 5 Index 197

poor whites, 19, 25, 89, 93, 96, 98, psychological impact of colonialism, 100–1, 126 99, 123, 136, 143, 147 popular culture, 84, 152 public health, 32, 86 population collapse, 8, 157 public memory, 82 pornography, 113 public services, 38, 128 Port Authority, 151 public symbols, 133 Port of Spain, 151 Puerto Rico Portugal, 8, 136 American segregation regimes, Portuguese, 7, 9, 13, 18, 55, 89, 93, 23–6 97, 132, 163 census data, 33 possession, 1, 11, 21–3, 28, 32, 74, ceremonial centre at Tibes, 4 92, 114 cholera epidemic, 48 postal system, 32 contemporary racial conditions, postcards, 116 32–5 post-colonialism, 1–2, 27–8, 32, genetic study, 8 35–6, 40, 53, 63, 110, 122, 127, indigenous genocide, 10 135, 141–5, 157–8, 161 migration, in-/out-, 33–4 post-independence, 2, 36, 69–80, 83, myths about African heritage, 34 122, 131, 142, 153, 158 pre-colonial history, 4 post-racial politics, 125–53 racism in, 33–5, 48–9 post-Reformation, 3 slave-based sugar plantations, 10 poverty, 28, 31, 39, 48, 116, 118–19, Spanish colonization and rule, 126, 145, 151–2, 154 12–13 power relations, 54 and USA, 23–6, 28, 32–5, 48–9, ‘Power to the People’ (slogan), 137 157–8 Prashad, V., 48 pundits, 138, 146 Pratt, Mary Louise, 60 Puri, Shalini, 72, 73, 153, 161 pre-colonial history, 3–7, 133, 157 purity, politics of, 52, 62, 65, 67–8, pre-Columbian era, 2–7, 9, 157 73–4, 79–80, 82, 90, 93, 96, prejudice, 67, 76, 80, 110, 128 98–101, 103, 106–8, 114, 121–2, 145, 158, 161 Premdas, Ralph R., 27, 155 pre-modern racism, 3–4, 6, 156 Presbyterians, 72–3, 93 ‘quadroon,’ 66, 68, 114 Price-Mars, Jean, 46–7 Quijano, Anibal, 99 prison, 15, 19, 37, 47, 49, 91, 117, ‘quinteroons,’ 66, 81, 114 147, 151, 158 privatization, 36, 39, 48–9, 90, 127, race law, 66–9 155, 158, 162 ‘Race politics 50 years of Probyn, Elspeth, 109 Independence,’ 125 Prosser, Jay, 103 races (leisure activity), 96 prostitution, 30–1, 155 racial anxiety, 123–4, 159 Protestants, 93 racial branding, 100, 152 proto-racisms, 3–7, 90, 156 Racial Contract, The (Mills), 99–101, psyche, 54, 58, 98, 101, 103, 111, 105, 110, 123–4, 147 122–3, 143, 147, 160 ‘racial enigma, The’ (Singh), 147 198 Index

racial hierarchies, 3–7, 9–10, 13, 15, religion, 3, 5, 16, 37, 43, 46–7, 53, 18–19, 21, 24–6, 30, 35–6, 38, 64–5, 73, 90, 128, 130, 138, 40, 42, 57, 59, 75, 83, 86–7, 90, 141–2, 149, 157 98, 100, 157, 161 religious artefacts, 4 racially motivated crime, 45 religious chiefs, 5 racial patriarchy, 99 religious convergence, 53 ‘racial purity,’ 79–80, 82, 90, 93, 96, religious festivals, see festivals 98–101, 106, 145, 158, 161 religious identity, 4–5, 6, 26, 41, 67, racial pyramid, 15, 25, 59 73, 77, 92, 95, 121, 138–9, 141, racial slur/derogatory terms, 19, 25, 150–1 135, 140 remittances, 37 racial stratifications, 12 Representación of 1811, 13 repression, 10, 38, 40, 47, 56, 58, 66, radicalism, 14, 47, 149, 161 86, 91 radio broadcast, 32, 139 retailing sector, 94 Ragbir, Anusha, 119, 121 Reunion Island, 22–3 Ramadan, 149 reverse racism, 89–90 Ramadhar, Prakash, 125 revolt, 21, 47, 69, 71 Ramayana, 120, 149 Richelieu, 21 Ramcharitar, Raymond, 69, 144 rights and liberties, 7, 13, 20, 31, 41, Ramgoonai, Drupatee, 119–20 66, 73, 81, 94, 99, 126, 142, 162 Ramirez, Christine, 121 Ritto, Luis, 13 Ram Lila, 138, 143, 149, 160 rituals, 5, 9, 160 Ramonet, Ignacio, 37, 38 Rivera, Enrique, 44 Rampersad, Indira, 79 Robinson-Walcott, Kim, 98, 106, 108 rape, 11, 48 Rodney, Walter, 127, 133, 137, 148 Rastafarianism, 28, 83 Roman views of subject peoples, 6 Ravi, Srilata, 135 Romo, Anadelia, 143, 160 Rawan (Hindu demon god), 149 Ron Mulata, 64 real estate, 105, 152 Roosevelt, Theodore, 24 Rowe, Rochelle, 115 rebellion, 10, 14, 91 Royal African Company, 92 Reconquesta of Iberia, 7 Royal Yacht Club, 95 Reddock, Rhoda, 72, 73 runaway slaves, 10, 13, 91 red racism, 19, 70, 129 rural population, 12, 14, 23, 28, 39, Redwood, Zara, 115 44–5, 76, 79, 86, 138, 152, 153, Reeves, Tom, 47, 48 159 refugees, 125 Ryan, Selwyn, 72, 75, 125, 131, 132, Régimen de Casta,12 135, 138, 139, 141, 142, 146, regional economic competitiveness, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153 154 regional reparations movement, 8, Saada, E, 22 157 Saba, 18 Reid, Basil, 1 Sable Venus: An Ode, The (Teale), rejection, 1, 6, 11, 23, 34, 41, 43, 45, 112–13 47, 112, 117 Sagbs, Ernesto, 41, 42, 43 Index 199

Saladoid/La Heuca period, 4 industry, 31–2 Salih, Sara, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68 ratio, 75–6 Samaroo, Brinsley, 80, 137, tourism, 29–31, 64, 115 138, 139 trafficking, 30, 157 ‘sambo,’ 65 workers, 19, 66, 68, 76, 112–13, Sanchez Taylor, Jacqueline, 31 116–18 Santan Dharma Maha Sabha (SDMS), sexual abuse, 31, 48, 68, 117 128, 141 sexuality, 3, 31, 34, 65–6, 82, 96, Santa Rosa Carib Community 112–14, 118 (SRCC), 71 sexual violence, 30, 116 Santa Rosa Festival, 71 shared values, 61 Santería religion, 64 Shearer, Hugh, 137 Saracenization, 6 Shelford, April, G, 21 Saraswati, L. Ayu, 120 Sheller, Mimi, 61, 116 Sarduy, P. P, 31 Shepherd, Verene, 78 Sawyer, Mark Q., 31, 36, 37, 40 Shiv Shata dance troupe, 121 Sayyid, Salman, 162 Siegerts, 93 Scarano, Francisco A, 12 Singh, H. P., 80, 134–5, 138, Scher, Philip W, 155 141, 147 schools, 132, 150 Sino-Soviet split, 40 denominational, 133 sitar, 150 missionary, 78 skin bleaching, 11, 51, 56, 120, segregations and exclusions in, 25, 158–9 34, 70, 89–90, 162 astringent lotions and cosmetics, white-only, 124, 159 81 scientific evolution, 112 bonneting and masking, 82 Scotland, 19, 91, 97 ‘cosmetic art’ of, 82 Scottish migrants, 91–3, 97, experiments with oxygenated 101, 129 air, 82 Seaford Town, 97 for social and political reasons, Sea Lots, 150–1, 153 80–7 secret societies, 13–14 toxicity, 81–2 securitization, 32, 45, 155 skin colour, 6–7, 17–18, 21, 25, 27, Sedgwick, Eve K, 109 39, 45, 63, 71, 81, 83, 86, 89, 92, Seethal, Dana, 139–40 102, 110, 115, 126 ‘Self,’ the, 57, 102, 109, 123 skin ego, 103, 123 Seligman, Herbert J, 46 skin tanning/darkening, 85, 122 semi-autonomous working class skin tone, 86, 108 struggles, 148 slogans, 33, 136–7 Senegal, 54 smallpox, 10 Sephardic Jews, 13, 17–18, 102 Smith, Matthew J, 47 Seshadri-Crooks, Kalpana, 120, soca music, 119–20, 149–50 123 social capital, 109, 151–2, 156 sex social control, 12 gender and race, 82, 96, 142 social Darwinism, 97 reproductive, 80, 99, 106 social deviants, 72, 146 200 Index

social distance, 96, 148 St. Bartélemy, 23, 32 socialism, 36 St. Christopher, 19 social revolution, 14, 136 St. Domingue, 11, 21–2, 24, 29, social security, 32 41–2 social stratification, 12 St. Domingue Museum of History Society for the Propagation of and Geography, 42 African Nationalism St. Eustatius, 18, 32 (SPAN), 138 St. Kitts, 19, 35, 81 Society for the Propagation of Indian St. Lucia, 21, 35 Culture (SPIC), 138 St. Maarten, 18, 23, 32 sodomy, 10 St. Vincent, 20–1, 35, 51, 71, 93 solidarity, 13, 40, 134 Stabilization Mission in Haiti, somatic norm, 45, 100 UN, 48 songs, 5, 43, 119, 140 St Andrew Lawn Tennis Association, Soubise, Julius (Mungo Macaroni), 96 81 state balls (leisure activity), 96 Souls of White Folks, The state-sponsored multiculturalism, (Du Bois), 16 127, 139, 141–5 South America, 4, 8, 24, 30 status, social, 4–5, 7, 15, 17, 22–3, South India, 116 34, 36, 57, 59, 63–5, 67, 70, 77, sovereignty, 14, 34–5, 60, 161 84, 89, 93–4, 99, 101–2, 104, Soviet Union, 3, 39–40 106, 108, 112, 116, 118–19, 123, Spain, 12, 14, 61–2, 151 125, 127, 132 conquest and racial St Elizabeth cricket club, 96 Caribbeanization, 9–13 stereotype, 18, 56, 62, 146 encomienda system, 11 Stiebel, George, 95 intermarriage policies, 11 stigma, 19, 25, 111, 115 involvement in slave trade, Stoler, Ann Laura, 96 17, 61 street crime, 30 mestizaje, ideology of, 60–2 structural adjustment, 86, 159 and the Netherlands, 17 Stubbs, J, 31 reconquista, 7, 102 subjection, 103, 116 sexual culture, 10–11 submissiveness, 113, 116 Spaniards, 11–12, 33 sub-Saharan Africans, 7, 19 Spanish Caribbean, 52, 60–4, 122 Sued-Bardillo, Jalil, 10 Spanish colonialism, 7, 9–15, 17, 21, Sugarcane, The (Grainger), 81 23, 25–6, 41–3, 46, 52, 55, sugar industry, 7, 10, 14, 17, 19–20, 59–64, 70–2, 89–90, 92–4, 99, 25, 39, 44, 81, 91–3, 118, 130, 102, 108, 113, 122, 129, 150 139, 151 Spanish creoles, 108 Sullivan, Shannon, 100 Spillers, Hortense, 112 superstition, 34 spirits, 5, 156 Suriname (Dutch Guiana), 13, 17, Spiritual Baptist Liberation Day (30 80, 135 March), 142–3, 160 Survey of Living Conditions (2005), Spivak, Gayatri, 86 151 sports, 152 sweatshops, 48 Index 201

Swedish colonization, 16, 157 treaty(ies), 16, 24, 32 symbolic, cosmological universes, 4, of Breda, 16 156 of Utrecht, 16 ‘symbolic animalization,’ 12 of Westphalia, 16 syncretism, 73, 77 Trench Town, 124 Syria/Syrians, 55, 83, 88–9, 94–5, Trexler, R, 10 105, 112, 129–30, 133–4, 139, tribute-taking, 7, 9, 11–12 141, 152, 163 Trinidad and Tobago systemic vulnerability, 154 African enslavement, 92 African/Indian mix, ‘the dougla,’ 72–8, 80, 88, 117, 126, 145–7 Tainos, 4, 9–10, 10, 12, 33, 59, 61, Amerindians, 132, 143 63, 87 beauty contests and national Taino petroglyphs, 5 identity, 119–21 Tate, Shirley Anne, 51, 53, 56, 58, Black Power uprisings, 1970, 66, 83, 84, 92, 101, 102, 107, 136–9, 151 109, 113, 122, 153, 158 Catholicism in, 94 taxes, 12, 154 census data/categories of race, technology, 32, 85, 100, 152 129–30 television, 32, 37, 139 Commission of Enquiry into racial terrorism, 151 discrimination, 1970 report, textile industry, 48 130–1 ‘third space’ of hybridity, 55–7, 84 Congress of the People (COP), third-wave feminism, 118–20 125–6 Thomas, Deborah A, 68, 83, 84 constitution (2003), 142 three-tier social structure, 92 creolization, ideology of, 69, 119, tobacco, 19, 91 148–50 Torabully, Khal, 134, 135 Culture Ministry Scholarship, 131 defining whiteness in, 97–8 Torres, Arlene, 33 economy of, 77, 92, 104–6, 132–3, tourism, 31, 48, 154–5 135–7, 139, 141, 145, 148, see also sex tourism 151–3 ‘tourist apartheid’ resorts, 24–5 Equal Opportunities Commission, tourist guidebooks, 34, 44, 116, 155 131 trade, 7, 32, 42, 48, 70, 92, 95, 113, and Hinduism, 72–3, 77, 118, 141 115 Indentured Ordinance Act, 117 transculturation, 51–62, 87 independence of, in 1962, 35, 131 transfer of power, 35–6 Indian/African anti-racial transgenerational mixing, 67, 80, 83, antagonism, 131–41, 145–52 152 Indian cultural identity, 80, 132–3 transgressive identity, 79, 101 Indian vs. African women, 116–21 transnationalism, 49, 52, 64, 84, 158 Islamism in, 77, 142 transracial relationships, 64–5, 75–8, Middle Eastern community, 94, 104, 108, 118, 121 105, 141 travel books, 116 multiculturalism, state-sponsored, travel writing, 44 141–5 202 Index

Trinidad and Tobago – continued United Nations (UN), 44, 48 national motto, 131 universalism, 22, 54, 98, 108, 126 new indigenous practices, 61 University of Havana, 39 PNM (People’s National University of the West Indies, 138, Movement): creole 147 independence project, urban population, 14, 28, 45, 76, 77, 131–40; and National Alliance 83, 86, 94, 119, 124, 130, 138, for Reconstruction (NAR) 146, 150–2, 159 coalition, 125, 130–1; People’s Urdu, 139 Charter, 134; and UNC USA duality, 141–5; Williams black nationalist movements, 122, premiership, 69, 127, 131–7, 136 139, 148, 151, 153 Cold War, 47 Portuguese settlers, 13, 93, 132, colonial racialization, 23–6 136 Cuba and, 15, 23–5, 37 post-colonial relationalities, Dominican Republic and, 24, 158 141–5 Haiti and, 24–5, 45–6 post-independence mixing, human trafficking, 30 70–80 hybridity/multiculturalism, 52 post-racial politics, 125–53 invasion of Grenada, Operation pre-colonial history, 4 Urgent Fury, 29 race futures and uneasy migrations to the, 33, 48, 109, convivialities, 148–52 139, 158 Race Relations Board, 130–1 Puerto Rico and, 23–6, 28, 32–5, racial difference and racism in, 48–9, 157–8 127–31 racism in, 35, 107–8, 126 ‘Spanish’ category, 70–2 sex tourists from, 30, 106 Spanish colonization and rule, 12 skin tanning/darkening, 85 white elites/whites-only enclaves, Virgin Islands and, 24 104 white population, 92–4 utopic vision of society, 155 Trinity Cross, 119, 128–9, 142 Trotman, David Vincent, 117 values, 5, 16, 33, 36, 61, 66, 91, 96, Trumbull, Charles, 31 105, 110, 121–2, 124, 141, 142, Tuana, Nancy, 100 145, 148, 155–7 Turits, Richard Lee, 42 Vargas-Ramos, Carlos, 33, 34 Turks and Caicos Islands, 20, 32 Variétés dans l’espèce humaine two-tier economy, 31 (Buffon), 21 Tyler, S. Lyman, 7 Vasconcelos, José, 59 Venetian ceruse (Spirits of Saturn), undocumented migrants, 30 81 unemployment, 36, 39, 128, 146, Venezuela, 4 151–2, 154 Venezuelan migrants, 93, 129, 132 unfree labour, 91–2, 108 Vergès, Francoise, 54 United National Congress (UNC), victims, 10, 34, 91, 125, 150 139, 141, 152 Victorian culture, 116 Index 203

violence, 9–10, 12–16, 29–30, 45, whiteness 47–8, 75, 79, 117–18, 150–1, 157 aspirational, 12, 27, 33, 41, 45, 161 Virginia, 99 constructions of, 88–124 Virgin Islands, 20, 24, 32 ‘discovery of,’ 16 visual culture, 114 hegemonic, 11, 44, 81, 162 voodoo, 41, 43, 46–7 Jewishness and, 13 voting patterns, 65–6, 140, 147, 160 mixedness and blackness, Voyage of the Sable Venus from Angola 50–87 to the West Indies (Stothard), as the ‘Other,’ 102–3, 106–8 113–14 post-race discourse, 125–53 waves of, 16–26 Walcott, Rinaldo, 85 whitening/blanqueamiento, 15, 32–3, Wales, 91 59–60, 64 Walsh, Martin, 19 whitening of the population, 61 waltz, 43 white plantocracy, 66 war, 11, 14, 16–17, 20, 23, 32, 42, white power, 96, 99, 105 47, 91, 132, 157 whites-only Warao, 8 beauty contests, 115 Warner, Jack, 139–41 genealogy, 67 Watson, Hilbourne, 49, 158 residential enclaves, 93, 104–5, waves of racialization in the 124, 159 Caribbean, 16–26, 155, 157, 162 Whiting, Sharpley, 118 British influence, 18–20 Wide Sargasso Sea (Rhys), 112 Dutch influence, 16–18 Williams, Carla, 112 French influence, 21–3 Williams, Claudette, 62, 63, 110, US influence, 23–6 111, 115 wealth, 15, 33, 59, 62, 85, 89–90, 93, Williams, Eric, 127, 131, 132, 133, 95, 97, 106, 124, 134, 138, 134, 136, 137, 148, 151, 153 154–5, 161 Willis, Debra, 112, 115 Welsh migrants, 91–2, 101 Wilson, S. M, 4, 8 Werbner, Pnina, 52 Wingard, Jennifer, 152 Western art, 113 wining, 142 Western capitalist modernity, 3, 49 Wise, Tim, 129 Western Empire, 149 women West Indian, 25, 97 abandoned, 117 West Indian Washerwomen, The Afro-Trinidadian, 72 (Brunias), 113–14 Amerindian, 11–12 West Indies, 12–13, 17, 113, 138, 147 in beauty pageants, 115, white Bajan, 98 119–21 Whitehead, Neil, 1, 9 commodification of, 64 white imperialism, 10, 116 creole, 18, 76–7, 81–2, 112 white indentureship, 19, 91, 94, 97, and crime, 150 100–2, 107–8, 112 Cuban, 31–2, 40 white leadership in churches, 96 domestic violence, 150 white minority, 92–4, 96, 105, Dominican, 30, 44 133, 141 enslaved, 11–12, 64, 116–17 204 Index

women – continued Women’s Self-Help Society, 96 forced labour, 30–1, 157 World Bank, 154 genteel, 96 Wray, Matt, 101 hair and beauty culture, 11, 44; see also skin bleaching xenophobia, 6 Indian vs. African, 75–7, 111–12, 116–21 Yancy, George, 100, 101, 107, 108, mixed race, 50–124 112, 147 models of womanhood, 111–12, 120–1 Yoruba, 14, 64 representations of, 62–3, 112–14, Young, Robert, 55, 56, 61 116, 119–21 Youth at Risk Committee, 150 sex trafficking, 30–1, 157 Youth Training Centres, 151 sexual abuse/deviance, 75–6, Yucatan Peninsula, 4 117–18, 121 Yukpa, 8 violence against, 11–12, 117 virtue of, 82, 111–12 Zeuske, Michael, 13