INTRODUCTION TO SUMERIAN GRAMMAR DANIEL A FOXVOG LECTURER IN ASSYRIOLOGY (RETIRED) UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT BERKELEY Revised September 2008 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 THE SUMERIAN WRITING SYSTEM 4 TABLE OF SYLLABIC SIGN VALUES 16 PHONOLOGY 18 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 23 THE NOMINAL CHAIN 28 PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVES 31 SUMMARY OF PERSONAL PRONOUN FORMS 38 THE ADNOMINAL CASES: GENITIVE AND EQUATIVE 39 THE COPULA 46 ADVERBS AND NUMERALS 51 THE ADVERBAL CASES 54 INTRODUCTION TO THE VERB 61 DIMENSIONAL PREFIXES 1: INTRODUCTION 69 DIMENSIONAL PREFIXES 2: DATIVE 73 DIMENSIONAL PREFIXES 3: COMITATIVE, ABLATIVE-INSTRUMENTAL, TERMINATIVE 78 CORE PREFIXES: ERGATIVE, LOCATIVE-TERMINATIVE, LOCATIVE 83 THE VENTIVE ELEMENT 90 RELATIVE CLAUSES: THE NOMINALIZING SUFFIX -a 95 PREFORMATIVES (MODAL PREFIXES) 102 THE IMPERATIVE 109 IMPERFECTIVE FINITE VERBS 117 PARTICIPLES AND THE INFINITIVE 127 APPENDIX: CHART OF VERBAL PREFIX CHAIN ELEMENTS 150 INDEX 151 EXERCISES 152 2 INTRODUCTION Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem William of Ockham This grammar is intended primarily for use in the first year of university study under the guidance of a teacher who can describe the classic problems in greater detail, add current alternative explanations for phenomena, help the student parse and understand the many textual illustrations found throughout, and provide supplementary information about the history of the language and the culture of early Mesopotamia. A few exercises have been provided to accompany study of the lessons, some artificial, others drawn from actual texts. Both require vocabulary lookup from the companion Elementary Sumerian Glossary or its equivalent. Upon completing this introduction, the student will be well prepared to progress to sign learning and reading of texts. Konrad Volk's A Sumerian Reader (Studia Pohl Series Maior 18, Rome, 1997-) is a good beginning. This introduction may also be of benefit to those who have already learned some Sumerian more or less inductively through the reading of simple royal inscriptions, and who would now like a more structured review of its grammar, with the help of abundant textual illustrations, from something a bit more practical and pedagogically oriented than the available reference grammars. Cross-references have often been provided throughout to sections in Marie-Louise Thom- sen's standard The Sumerian Langauge (Copenhagen, 19872), where additional information and further examples can often be found for individual topics. A more modern and concise restatement of the entire grammatical system is Dietz Otto Edzard's Sumerian Grammar (Leiden, 2003). The most sophisticated and up to date quick overview is now Gonzalo Rubio's "Sumerian Morphology," in Alan S. Kaye (ed.), Morphologies of Asia and Africa II (2007) 1327-1379. Pascal Attinger's encyclopedic Eléments de linguistique sumérienne (Fribourg, 1993) is a tremendously helpful reference but beyond the reach of the beginner. For standard Assyriological abbreviations used in this introduction see the lists in Thomsen and Edzard. Chronological abbreviations used here include: OS Old Sumerian period (2500-2350 BC) Sarg. Sargonic period (2350-2150 BC) Ur III Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BC) OB Old Babylonian period (1900-1600 BC) For those who may own a version of my less polished UC Berkeley teaching grammar from 1990 or earlier the present version will be seen to be finally comprehensive, greatly expanded, hopefully much improved, and perhaps worth a serious second look. My descrip- tion of the morphology and historical morphophonemics of the verbal prefix system remains an idiosyncratic, somewhat unconventional minority position, but even after nearly three decades of concentrated effort there is still no full concensus on the subject among other scholars specializing in Sumerian grammar. D.A.F. July 2008 3 THE SUMERIAN WRITING SYSTEM I. TRANSLITERATION CONVENTIONS A. Sign Diacritics and Index Numbers Sumerian features a large number of homonyms — words that were pronounced similarly but had different meanings and were written with different signs, for example: /du/ "to come, go" /du/ "to build" /du/ "to release" A system of numerical subscripts and diacritics over vowels representing subscripts serves to identify precisely which sign appears in the actual text. The standard reference for sign identification remains R. Labat's Manuel d'Epigraphie akkadienne (1948-), which has seen numerous editions and reprintings. New sign lists by L.-J. Bord (2002), also C. Mittermayer (2006) specifically for Sumerian literary texts, may be helpful. Y. Rosengarten's Répertoire commenté des signes présargoniques sumériens de Lagaš (1967) is indispensible for reading Old Sumerian texts. R. Borger's Assyrisch-babylonische Zeichenliste (AOAT 33/33a, 1978) is now the modern reference for sign readings and index numbers, although F. Ellermeier's Sumerisches Glossar I/1 (1979-80) is occasionally helpful for rare signs and values. Borger's index system which is used here is as follows: Single-syllable signs Multiple-syllable signs du (= du1) muru Note that the diacritic dú (= du2) múru always falls on the FIRST VOWEL of the word! dù (= du3) mùru du4 etc. muru4 etc. There is variation in the systems employed in older signlists for multiple- syllable signs, especially in Labat. In the earliest editions of his sign- list which may still be encountered in libraries, Labat carried the use of diacritics through index numbers 4-5 by shifting the acute and grave accents onto the first syllable of multiple-syllable signs: murú (= muru2) murù (= muru3) múru (= muru4) mùru (= muru5) 4 This would not be a problem except for a number of signs which have long and short values. For example, the sign túk can be read /tuk/ or /tuku/. Labat gives the latter reading as túku, which then does not represent tuku4, but rather tuku2, i.e. túk(u)! Borger's AbZ system, used here and in later editions of Labat, is more consistent, placing the diacritics on the first syllable of multi-syllable signs, but using them only for index numbers 2 and 3. New values of signs, pronunciations for which no generally accepted index numbers yet exist, are given an "x" subscript, e.g. dax "side." Note, finally, that more and more frequently the acute and grave accents are being totally abandoned in favor of numeric subscripts throughout. This, for example, is the current convention of the new Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary, e.g. du, du2, du3, du4, etc. Since the system of accents is still current in sumerological literature, however, it is vital that the beginner become familiar with it, and so it has been maintained here. B. Upper and Lower Case, Italics and Parentheses In unilingual Sumerian contexts, Sumerian words are written in lower case roman letters. Upper case letters (CAPS) are used: 1) When the exact meaning of a sign is unknown or unclear. Many signs are polyvalent, that is, they have more than one value or reading. When the particular reading of a sign is in doubt, one may indicate this doubt by choosing one of its common values and writing this in CAPS. For example, in the sentence KA-ĝu10 ma-gig "My KA hurts me" a body part is intended. But the KA sign can be read ka "mouth", kir4 "nose" or zú "tooth", and the exact part of the face might not be clear from the context. By writing KA, one clearly identifies the sign to the reader, with- out committing oneself to any of its specific readings. 2) When the exact pronunciation of a sign is unknown or unclear. For example, in the phrase a-ŠEŠ "brackish water", the pro- nunciation of the second sign is still not completely clear: šeš, ses, or sis? Rather than commit oneself to a possibly incorrect choice, CAPS are used to tell the reader that the choice is being left open. 3) When one wishes to identify a non-standard or "x"-value of a sign. In this case, the x-value is immediately followed by a known value of the sign in CAPS placed within parentheses, e.g. dax(Á). 4) When one wishes to spell out the components of a compound logo- gram, e.g., énsi(PA.TE.SI) or ugnim(KI.KUŠ.LU.ÚB.ĜAR). In bilingual or Akkadian contexts, a variety of conventions exist. Very commonly, Akkadian words are written in lower case roman letters with Sumerian logograms in CAPS: a-na É.GAL-šu "to his palace." In earlier literature one also sees Sumerian words written in s p a c e d r o m a n letters, with Akkadian in either lower case roman or italics. Determinatives, unpronounced indicators of meaning, are written with superscripts in Sumerological literature, or, often, in CAPS on the line 5 in Akkadian contexts: gišhašhur or ĜIŠ.HAŠHUR. They are also sometimes seen written lower case on the line separated by periods: ĝiš.hašhur. C. Conventions for Linking Signs and Words Hyphens and Periods In Akkadian contexts, hyphens are always used to transliterate Akkad- ian, while periods separate the elements of Sumerian words or logograms. In Sumerian contexts, periods link the parts of compound signs written in CAPS, and hyphens are used elsewhere, e.g.: énsi(PA.TE.SI) "governor" kušÉ.ÍB-ùr "shield" an-šè "towards heaven" Problems arise, however, when one attempts to formulate a rule for the linking of the elements in the agglutinative chains peculiar to Sumerian. No one has yet formally defined just what constitutes a Sumerian "word." Consequently, we only transliterate Sumerian sign by sign; we do not trans- scribe words. Verbal chains consist mainly of affixes which are always linked together into one unit. But nominal chains often consist of adjec- tives, appositions, and dependent genitive constructions besides head nouns and suffixes, and the linking or separation of various parts of nominal chains in unilingual Sumerian contexts is very much subject to the training and idiosyncrasies of individual scholars.