“Paint Me Black and Gold and Put Me in a Frame”: Turbofolk and Balkanist Discourse in (Post) Yugoslav Cultural Space

CEU eTD Collection “Paint MeBlack and Gold and Put Me in a Frame”: Turbofolk and Balkanist Discourse in (post) Yugoslav Cultural Space In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Nationalism Studies Programme Studies Nationalism Central European University,Central European Dr. Florian Bieber Dr. Florian Dr. Kovács Mária Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Rory Archer Masters of Arts of Masters Submitted to Submitted May 2009 Advisors CEU eTD Collection over friendsto in Zagreb livedwith whom I while this thesis greatwriting whocompany were grateful very also I’m lies. analysis my which on foundations the of amount great a provides authors these of both of work The sources. useful other numerous me towards pointing other publishedother papersandtoMarija Gruji mefor thesis sendingherand PhD Baker Catherine to grateful Iam particularly this thesis. many in themes the of feedback regarding critical constructive andprovided various sources urnesbes-show The input friends of has been invaluable, particularly year. academic in last faculty CEU fortheirthe assistance staff and at andthe other Kovács I am very grateful for the help of my supervisors, Dr. Florian Bieber and Dr. Mária M. blagi nes , frequenters and frequenters fellow students who helpedme enormously in accessing bijeli walter , lemonade and, walnutbased salads. Acknowledgements ü for providing me with her and own work for Zagreba þ ki-Yugo-haljina-parti- i CEU eTD Collection 4. 52 Turbofolk in ...... the Regional Context 3. Yugoslav Turbofolk: 23 Tracing Discourse ...... Patterns 2. Methodology 6 and ...... Literature Review 1 1. Introduction...... Table of Contents 4.2 Regional trends of Balkan 58 Hybrid Music...... 53 4.1. The Nationalist Instrumentalisation of Music:.... Comparing Croatia and Serbia in the 1990s 51 3.8 Conclusion...... 3.7 Croatian 45 Discourse of Turbofolk...... 3.6 Serbian Discourse 35 of Turbofolk...... 3.5 Newly Composed Folk Music 32 – The Origins ...... of Turbofolk 3.4 The Balkan/Europe construct: Patterns 31 of Association...... Table 1, The Balkan/Europe construct: 30 Patterns of Association...... 3.3 Linking Balkanism 26 and Turbofolk...... 3.2 25 Turbofolk as metaphor ...... 3.1 The Concept of 24 Turbofolk and ...... Turbo-Culture . ieaueRve ...... 9 2.2 Literature ...... Review 6 ...... 2.1 Methodology 4.2.1 Regional development, dissemination and exchange of hybrid musical 59 categories...... 3.7.4. Alternative views 50 of Turbofolk...... 3.7.3 Turbofolk as a Discursive 49 Tool...... 3.7.2 47 Turbofolk as a social ill...... 3.7.1 The symbolic 45 exclusion ...... of Serbia/Yugoslavia 3.6.4 Performers and media: Ambivalent turbofolk producers and 43 consumers...... 3.6.3 Critical Observer –Problematising 41 ‘turbo’ discourse...... 3.6.2 Anti-nationalist discourse 38 of turbofolk...... 3.6.1 Conservative Nationalist Discourse 36 of Turbofolk...... 2.2.5. Regional 21 Hybrid Musical Trends...... 2.2.4. New approaches 19 to Turbofolk...... 2.2.3. Turbofolk: ‘the 16 balladeers of ...... ethnic cleansing’ 2.2.2 Newly Composed Folk Music 15 in Socialist Yugoslavia...... 9 2.2.1 Balkanism...... ii CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 79 Bibliography ...... 73 ...... 5. Conclusion icgah ...... 86 ...... Discography 86 Documentaries...... 85 ...... Web based sources Secondary 79 Sources...... 79 ...... Primary Sources 5.2 Some 75 concluding remarks ...... about turbofolk 5.1 Balkanism and Turbofolk: From 73 exclusion ...... to self-exoticism 4.5 Conclusion – towards 72 apan-Balkan ...... identification? 4.4. World 69 Music ...... and turbofolk 4.3 Inverting the Balkan Stereotype: Self-Exoticism (or 66 Auto-Orientalism)...... 4.2.3 Grassroots popularity 64 of musical hybrids...... 4.2.2 Comparing Regional Discourses of Music 61 to Turbofolk...... iii CEU eTD Collection debate aboutrural/urban and dividesin eastern/western TurbofolkYugoslavia. isfrequently tone. which represents amixture of electronic dance sounds, kitsch folkmusic and anoriental unequipped to accept models culture’. accept of urban to unequipped ‘transitional majority seeking to rid itself of the baggage of rural origin while psychologically Yugoslavia World inthe Warpost meet IIperiod, emerged having cultural to needs the the of in andurbanisation contextof industrialisation rapid is consideredwithin the commonly folk music; henceforth NCFM) markethistory the of beganwhich in the early 1960s. 4 Routledge, 2002). Ljerka Vidi Ljerka Changes in Central and Eastern Europe the Politics of Identity in Prewar Yugoslavia” in Mark Slobin, (ed.) Popular Music 3 Europe and Russia (eds.) Sandford, Theo and Štulhofer Aleksandar 1. Introduction 2 alter.org/vijesti/kultura/bratstvo-i-jedinstvo-u-pjesmi-i-veselju/print:true Happiness]” H-Alter (Zagreb, 04November,2008) Available online at 1 Rasmussen, Ljerka Vidi Tea Nikoli and in Song Unity and [Brotherhood Veselju i Pjesmi u iJedinstvo “Bratstvo Prnjak Hrvoje 2 This developed from Yugoslav Turbofolk is generally considered to be a musical genre that emerged in beamusical Serbia considered to genrethatemerged Turbofolk is 1990s generally inner combustion. Turbo-folk isthecombustion of thepeople.Turbo-folkisn’tmusic. Folk isthepeople. Turbois the system ofinjectingfuelunder pressure tothemotor’s ü homosapien. isthe Turbo-folk system ofinjectingthe people.Ididn’t invent Turbo- ü Rasmussen, ü , “Serbian Sexual, “Serbian Response: Genderand Sexuality in Serbia during the 1990s” in Newly Composed Folk Music, xix. Music, Folk Newly Composed Rasmussen, “From source to commodity: newly-composed musicfolk of Yugoslavia” 14 (1995) 2, 241;Ljerka Vidi (New York: the Haworth Press: 2005), 125-140. Turbo-folk is thelove Turbo-folk of the masses. Activationofthe lowest passionsthe of Newly Composed Folk Music of Yugoslavia folk, I gave it its name. (Durham and London: UniversityDuke Press, 1996), 99-116. novocomponovana narodnamuzikanovocomponovana ü Rasmussen “The Southern Windof Change: Style and Sexuality and Gender in Postcommunist Eastern 4 Even in Even it NCFM’sstages early provoked (Antonije Puši Returning Culture: Musical (New York and London: and York (New http://www.h- ü aka.RamboAmadeus) (newly composed (newly 3 NCFM 1 1 CEU eTD Collection turbofolk) I seektodemonstrate within Yugoslavia socialist manythat (3.5) pointsthe of of to predecessor the Folk Music(NCFM, Composed of Newly examining discourse the category asametaphor(3.1), (3.2)andlink Balkanist discourse to turbofolkBy (3.3). Yugoslav of discourse turbofolk. The firstsections examine turbofolk as a conceptual (post) analyses of turbofolk. third impression The general of chapter academic discourse the turbofolk. regardingindicators nature of This helpsand provide controversial disputed the some to four inmind. and chapters of three the content with these revisits empirical (5.2) conclusion and text thesis partof the the throughout areaddressedattimes methodology (2.1) section relating turbofolk tothewider of discourse numberBalkanism, of a questions detailed inthe mainfocus ison the thesis.by While turbofolk this areaddressed to related uncertainties Balkan/Europe umbrella (avisual is inaid provided section A 3.4). number of empirical underthe posited canbetentatively which a seriesdichotomies of of associations’, ‘patterns as conceptualise I which arise criticisms common other of number a basis, this on criticised ‘Europeanness’ in realmofsymbolicthe geographyand cultural notspace. Turbofolkis only Balkanism andinternalised ‘nesting Orientalisms’), Balkanism of hierarchies (or perceived discussions of broader to links turbofolk This and self-exoticism. recontextualisation inversion, stereotype of strategies on relies commonly turbofolk processes, these to reaction In nature. ‘oriental’ or its ‘Balkan’ to linked traits essentialist contradictory) withhas been anumberof regard toturbofolk.turbofolk meansthat (often endowed This in former spaceinherently Yugoslav andbeyond Orientalist)cultural is (or Balkanist with Miloševi the viewed asthe 1990s manifestation of NCFM reflecting the socio-political circumstances of As well providingas atheoretical theliterature backdrop, review gives section (2.2) a In this thesis Iseek demonstrate to that much of the discourse that turbofolk generates ü era, representing war, nationalism isolation. and nationalism war, era,representing 2 CEU eTD Collection understanding whereby similarity of culture as the basic social bond is a contingent for the for contingent a is bond social basic the as culture of similarity whereby understanding Tu Franjo by held nation of the interpretations narrow decades (the lastin two and Croatia the seen in Serbia as culture national bounded andclearly a static conception of the to for adherents problem Balkan cultural movements. itmay trans- of representative post-communist bemore and embargo, during the 1990s war isolation Serbian as of a symptom beinginterpreted as rather and in region the similar trends cohere with appears to 1980s.Turbofolk in late the mobilisation during Serbia nationalist stretch back than itsthe roots further NCFM demonstrates, about ill. asthesection However specifically phenomenon, MiloševiSerbian linkedtothe closely are (4.4.) also examined. through discourse self-exoticism (4.3)and the interplay between music world and turbofolk Balkanistin which inisolatedturbofolk contributes to development Theway 1990sSerbia. an rather than as context local a of phenomenon manifestation as aSerbian conceived of best Similarneighbouring Balkan states. themes are identified suggesting thatturbofolk maybe examines turbofolk in wider contextandthe linking discourse from formerthe Yugoslavia to inhas turbofolk 1990s(3.6,3.7). generated ThefourthSerbia andCroatiachapter sincethe that examine discourse the on to goes then The chapter influences. its oriental and character was later tobe deployed against turbofolk) – its kitsch aesthetics, rural (or ‘peasant urbanite’) (which NCFM of criticisms main three on focused rhetoric This mid 1960s. the least at since NCFMin to already articulated turbofolkrelation were inthecontention 1990sabout raised Though linked to nationalist mobilisation in the early 1990s, turbofolk poses Though linkednationalistmobilisation intheearly 1990s, turbofolka poses to Having in originated in Serbia been has 1990sitthe often claimed that isa turbofolk ÿ man or Vojislav Koštunica for example). Following a Gellnerian a Following example). for Koštunica Vojislav or man ü regime, and thus a social 3 CEU eTD Collection cite Dubravka Ugreši turbofolk in. political principle of nationalism, of principle political 5 beyond phenomenon the of understanding to abetter andcontribute in culture thepopular identification pro/antijudgements. By soitdoing seeks todemonstrate the importance ofboth ethnic Miloševi of consigningdiscourse without regional innormativeBalkanism context itthe with posit seeksturbofolk thewithin wider Yugoslav since to thesis cultural space 2000, this ostracised byliberal elites. turbofolk appeartoespousecertain liberal performers values the isgenre habitually political and cultural elites. The case of Croatia in particular indicates this.of Even thoughpart some the on hostility official of face the in even thrive can turbofolk that and phenomenon Yugoslav (post-) but aSerbian merely isnot it that indicate to seem Hercegovina andBosnia Croatia across performers of Serbian Theincreasingpopularity states. not seen in turbofolk wane popularity inroads haveand made in performers neighbouring turbofolk asaninstrumentnationalistmobilisation. of Regime in change in Serbia 2000 has non-Serbsin the Serbian scene turbofolk during the 1990ssimilarly thenotion challenges of frequentlylegacy.oriental is partof ofturbofolk considered participation tone this The of nationalisms a hostile viewproblematic instrumentof dissemination for nationalist Formost agitators. Balkan of the Ottoman Empire often andengenders byfusingmusical disparate traditions and modern styles makes it a its legacy is a prerequisite and the Ernest Gellner, Before proceeding methodology tothe section literatureand review,like Iwould to With the benefit of hindsight and lively regional debate which has taken place in post- Nationalism ü who also considers music tobe an important factor in social memory (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997),2-4. ü regime dichotomy which much scholarship has placed 5 the dynamism and cultural heterogeneity that turbofolk that heterogeneity cultural and dynamism the and non ethnic 4 CEU eTD Collection space. of influence Yugoslavia an oncontemporary in practice cultural discursive post-Yugoslav 6 Dubravka Ugreši Dubravka competence of the heart. Justlikepopmusic. competence of Yugo-nostalgia, ifsuchathingexists today.Nostalgia belongs to thesphere of the sourceof system! –thatis everydaystate orapolitical this culture –andnota of ‘musical itisjust remembertheircommon idiots’.And verse, rhythmandsound,they words,rememberthe historyoftrivialitypouredinto songs.singers they Inother and and most gladlyrecalloften arethe years offestivals ofpopmusic,thenames of geography and history: theyhave all becomeYugo-zombies! whatBut theydomost or thenamesofpoliticalleaders;theyhardlyremember theircommon management’, ‘self terminologyeverytenyears,ortheyearsof political the replacementof popular music! They remember congresses,no longer theparty change, or oryearsof the historyof references, is warmterrainofcommon ground, thatstillfamiliar thoroughly rinsed innationalbrainwashing machines –the most frequentcommon warToday when and of ex-Yugoslavsmeet–crushedbytheamnesiacsteamrollers box! unity. forged That is why thewhole countryrang with acheerful sound,likea music popmusic democraticstage ofpopmusic.Whilefolkloredrummedvarietyintous, thebroadand andunity...was brotherhood musicreallydidforge The areawhere ü The Culture of Lies of Culture The (London: Phoenix, 1998),133. 6 5 CEU eTD Collection rendering it Serbia’s ‘most controversial export’. ‘most controversial it rendering Serbia’s scholarsother light. Thishasinfluencedboth havebroughtto public andacademia opinion and Todorova that Balkanistdiscourse inthe articulated stereotypes, Balkan with associated seeks It todemonstrate reproduces. turbofolkjudgments thatthisis discourse that frequently in category – – turbofolk cultural the space of value the former and Yugoslavia, the 2.1 Methodology 2. andLiteratureReview Methodology 8 2008),Press, 57-94, 90. and theOttoman Ecumene: Music, Imageand (ed.) Regional Political Discourse Buchanan, A. Donna in Sentiments” Shared and Meanings, Conflicting 7 it apowerful both tool in rhetorical cultural and fields broader foras taken granted down and for commodify alocalthem The added valueturbofolkaudience. hasgained makes turn negative upside- seeks stereotypes to self-exoticism mainly its performers as through Balkanism, seektodemonstrate I also thethat musical style has in participated process;this Needs citation Needs Ljerka V. Rasmussen, “Bosnian and Serbian Popular Music in the 1990s: Divergent Paths, This thesis is primarily concerned with discourse generated by a particular musical orientation inthe1990s. The music’sguilt byregime-association turbo a affords folk Can onetakea ‘scholarly’ interest inturbo whenfolk itissoobviously alliedwith a sceptical attitudeeven towards researchers, whichto fails acknowledge thatitwas corrupted system?Itisaquestion tacitly raised by indiscriminate criticism anda Serbia’s intellectualelite who providedtheblueprint thecountry’s for political political power that,inreality, it never had 8 In addition to turbofolk as an object of (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow . Ljerka V. Rasmussen Balkan Popular Culture 6 7 CEU eTD Collection examples arelinkedexamples Serbia back and to compared andCroatia. across Balkans. similarthe this Thesemusic) discourse casehybridfolk emergedgenerated The regional contextis called upon illustrateto that similar patterns of cultural production (in (including an Ottoman heritage and transition from socialism marketto economy since 1990). formerYugoslavia as the features cultural and socio-political similar some share states isthis space. regional fourth The chapter.context inthe Neighbouringexamined Balkan language, Serbian/Croatian. Itreat Nevertheless Serbia and Croatia asseparateunits within (SFRY) andacommon legacystate the common of factors, the two on primarily based I view this ‘cultural space’ though contested, as a validcultural centres. largest asthe Zagreb and Belgrade more specifically, or, Croatia andSerbia, object of analysis to a certain extent, frequently being deployed againstmembers of ‘in’the group. of butalsoa wider identification,of whichinclude transcend binary set ethnic associations turbofolkplay.judgements are also come intoIsuggestthat of ‘Balkan’ andthe part concept related value of Balkanism, other discourse the to relate turbofolk isto focus primary the While culture. national brand of narrow particular a retain to want who conservatives to and belonging, cultural ideasEuropean of towards threatening as whoseeturbofolk liberal elites both to be to applicable appears statement This culture. national for the unsuitable deemed is which orient of the is presence themea the recurrent that it clear becomes states Balkan comparable inneighbouring hybrid musicalforms predecessor NCFM)with to reference characteristics. Ibelieve thatupon examining turbofolk intheformer Yugoslavia (and its degenerative – all above and violence and kitsch banality, of connotations 9 See Table 1, (3.4) When I refer to ‘(post) Yugoslav’ cultural space, this generally refers in practice to 9 oriental 7 CEU eTD Collection points in this thesis. This method is used to illustrate certain features of turbofolk relevant in relevant turbofolk of features certain illustrate to is used method This thesis. in this points various is of examinedat musical songs content and lyrical topicaldebates. The for sources Bosnia andCroatia areusedfor both valuetheir as empirical asas functioning well primary Balkan region and abroad, various daily newspapers and weekly magazines from Serbia, literary.anthropological academic from In and addition works to the former Yugoslavia, the ethno-musicological, sociological, historical, disciplines; various from academia regionalthe helpin shouldperspective leastat providing some usefulindicators. this thesis and requirefurther analysis, turbofolk examining with benefitthe inhindsightof questionsbeyond scopeof arethe complex to these and contested While definitive answers national? the transcends that identification sense of suggest emergence of the a regional cultural patterns 4) Does trans-national emergencethe of advancement? socialistnetworks developedthat regional with more borders and porous technological 3) Was turbofolk a result (Serbian)the populace? of Serbian war-time levelgenuine2) Did turbofolk atagrassroots forced develop due towasit upon popularity or isolation or as forms)? an expressioncultural other to comparison (in phenomenon nationalistic a particularly is turbofolk ofIs 1) new post- toturbofolk. uncertainties pertaining and identity inconstruction shouldEastern Europe, alsohelp toin clarifying anumberof This inanalysis, complementing addition to relatingliterature symbolic to geography My research draws upon My a broad draws upon range of andresearch sources secondary primary and 8 CEU eTD Collection Greece 13 University 1998). Press, 12 11 Balkanism 2.2.1 2.2 Literature Review Library Zagreb (NSK) and the Open Society Archives (OSA), Budapest. National University atthe sources secondary Croatian and Serbian aswell as press archives and of aspects other life relevantcultural thesis. tothis InApril and May 2009 Idrewupon of public toperformers, songs, background debate contextual critical feedbackand provided a whoprovided friends andscholars of for input the very and Iam grateful cultural space in all bibliography; songsthe areaccessible onlineyoutube.com. on my I donotbutengagein research a systematicA analysisis of songs. discography attached 10 by works Goldsworthy,Vesna includinga criticalrepresentation study as of andsymbolic establishedgeography Balkanism analysis’. special and merits requires discourse ‘reductionism and stereotyping of Balkansthe hasbeen of such intensity degree and the that the that shebelieves Peninsula, Balkan with the associated stereotypes inconsistent Stathis Gourgouris Stathis Goldsworthy Vesna Ibid. 3. Maria Todorova Maria (Stanford: Stanford University 1996).Press, Maria Todorova has pioneered the notion has Maria notion of the Todorova pioneered ‘Balkanism’. Many of aspects individualsfrom thesis were discussedthis with post-Yugoslav Imagining the Balkans Dream Nation: Enlightenment, Colonization and the Institution of Modern Inventing Ruritania: The Imperialism of the Imagination 12 Stathis Gourgouris, (Oxford: Oxford University 1997). Press, 11 In addition to Todorova, other authors have authors other Todorova, to addition In 13 a collection edited by Dušan Bjeli by Dušan acollection edited (New Haven: Yale 10 Addressing the ü and 9 CEU eTD Collection Europe” in the 1990s” 20 19 917-931. 18 17 Contexts Century Nineteenth 16 1994). Press, University Stanford (Stanford: writes Lindstrom approach. beamore suitable to appears Orientalism thanvariation of rather a discourse as aseparate inbeen constructed opposition an to ontologically secure oriental ‘other’, treating Balkanism status, the Orient not.does Considering that many national identities in Balkansthe have other. from each yetdistinct power) of discourses are both Todorova views the relationship betweenas a variation Orientalismof assheis believesit aperpetuation of samethe underlyinglogic. Balkanism and Orientalism as similar Baki Orientalism point. fewas astarting very studies forgo such (in that they As aresult ingeneral. imaginative geography of parts and of world the representations other Western informs on butscholarship East views Middle the Western of analyses of 15 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,2002). imagined andinvented in opposition to ‘enlightenedthe predating West’ the iron curtain. Obrad Savi 14 Nicole Lindstrom, “Between Europe and the Balkans: Mapping Slovenia and Croatia’s “Return to “Return Croatia’s and Slovenia Mapping Balkans: the and Europe “Between Lindstrom, Nicole Todorova, Baki Edward Said Andrew Hammond “Typologies ofthe East: On Distinguishing Balkanism and Orientalism” Larry Wolff Larry Dušan Bjeli ü Hayden, “Nesting Orientalisms: The Case of Former Yugoslavia” representations. external negative to in response rejected and/or embraced internally is identity whereby identity contradictory Balkan position can constructions often generate in-between within. “other” This the as periphery, well antithetical as its Europe of part time same the at position: liminal in adistinctively located is Balkan the that Orientalism....is as such traditions critical similar from Balkanism distinguishes What In Hammond’s view Hammond’s In ü Imagining the Balkans , ü 14 Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment and Obrad Savi Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient and Larry Wolff who has examined how Eastern Europe as a whole has been has whole a as Europe Eastern how examined has who Wolff Larry and Dialectical Anthropology 20 29,2-3 (2007), 201-218, 201. ü 16 Balkan as Metaphor: Between Globalization and Fragmentation Said’s , 11. Orientalism 27(2003) 313–329, 314. 17 not only continues to inform critical (London: Penguin, 1978). 19 The Balkans has real ontological ü -Hayden Slavic Review Slavic 18 treats Balkanism treats 54,1(1995) 15 10 CEU eTD Collection Symbolic Geography of Serbia]” 27 26 25 Tu 24 23 the as themselves presenting by “inside” place their legitimate to tries disintegration bloody ininto developed ‘Everyparticipantcrises tobeincluded the capitalist inorder the order. secure aplacestruggled to of in during timesymbolic the peckingof order geography the states Yugoslav whereby a situation of Žižek writes in Slavoj region. reproduced the explanations for innate ‘Balkan’ behaviour common gained currency in 1990s the and were 22 Gypsies’ position Serbs as a people in construction.negotiated perceived andof terms Balkan/Europe the haveexamines the symbolic illustrating varioushow are geography of geographical features Serbia been posited as somewhereprocesses ‘between and Croatia. inconstruction Slovenia SerbiaGermans vis-à-vis Baki and Croatia and region.the so on. Lindstrom internalised has it,observes that been Balkanist discourse from also within Todorova outside examines this theme as a form of identity 21 Serbia) and dividing thus Belgrade equally between Europe Balkan. restof from ‘Balkan’ (the (Vojvodina) be ‘Europe’ Danube asdemarcating perceived can even the vis-à-vis blocks southern Zagreb of oldNovi the town Zagreb.of Hercegovinais ‘Balkan’ vis-à-vis the rest of Croatia, the rest of Croatiavis-à-vis Istria and Ibid, 90. Ibid, 82. Marko Živkovi Maple Razsa and Nicole Lindstrom “Balkan is Beautiful: Balkanism in the Political Discourse of Nicole Lindstrom, “Between Europe and the Balkans” Baki Todorova, ÿ man's Croatia” ü -Hayden termed ‘Nesting Orientalisms’. ‘Nesting termed -Hayden ü Hayden “Nesting Orientalisms”. Though primarily with intellectual concerned treating thetraditions Balkan Peninsula 27 symbolically in between the occidental and oriental other. Civilizational other. oriental and occidental the between in symbolically within 21 Balkans A hierarchy at amultinational level in the Former Yugoslavia wasidentified by ü “Nešto izme thenation,identify hierarchy withina national Croatian space whereby East European Politics and Societies , 39. ÿ u: Simboli Filozofija idruštvo 23 þ ka Geografija Srbije [Something in between: the Razsa and Lindstrom, extending this gradation to 22 18 (2001), 73-112. Slovenia is‘Balkan’vis-à-vis Germany, 18,4 (2004), 628-650. 26 Reflecting this liminal this Reflecting 25 The rivers Sava and 24 MarkoŽivkovi 11 ü CEU eTD Collection Reality and Nationalist Myth" 30 Symbolic Geography in Recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics", others. For Jovan Cviji Jovan For others. Similarly, certain ‘authentically Balkan’ virtues be as can positive posited against attributes 29 295. Music, Image and Regional Political Discourse Identity since 1990 in Donna A. Buchanan, (ed.) Sugarman “The Criminals of Albanian Music”: Albanian Commercial Folk Music and Issues of As Hayden and Baki and Hayden As inverted. be can stereotype pervasive. The areall Balkans the of negativeconnotations that in face“inside”) the of barbarism’. oriental capitalist for the ideological designation current (the civilisation bastion of European last 28 Cited in Xavier Bougarel "Yugoslav Wars: The 'Revenge of the Countryside' Between Sociological Between Countryside' the of 'Revenge The Wars: "Yugoslav Bougarel Xavier in Cited Milica Baki Slavoj Žižek, “Ethnic Dance Macabre”, few generations. a within degenerates which population urban the to and class,” andservile “inferior but on the contrary, its regenerating factor, standing in contrast to the to in contrast standing factor, regenerating its contrary, the on but of civilization an inferior degree is not type” “Dinaric of the regime” “patriarchal the ideologies: communism and fascism." and communism ideologies: great civilizations:aphorismin heard Belgrade in summerthe 1988: "The of Balkans gave theworld two asthey imagescan bein of the andcentral an Europe Balkans are the inverted, the Greek and Byzantine. Central Europe gave the world two However the persistence of negative Balkanist discourse does not necessarily mean notnecessarily does discourse negative Balkanist of persistence the However ü Hayden and Robert Hayden, "Orientalist Variations on the Theme "Balkans": ü Hayden write Hayden ü in 30 The Balkan Peninsula The Balkan Eastern European Quarterly The Guardian 28 (Lanham, MD:Scarecrow 2008),Press, 269-308, Balkan Popular Culture and the Ottoman Ecumene: 29 , (28 August 1992),21.,cited in Jane C. , 33,2, (1999), 157-175, 161. Slavic Review Slavic 51, 1(1992), 1-15. raya , the plains’ the , 12 CEU eTD Collection Cultural Studies 34 2001), 56. 33 (College Station: Texas A&M University 1993). Press, Goreta Miroslav and Letica 32 2000),Press, 123-145. City” in Nebojša Popov (ed.), of Nationalism particular region with specific codes of behaviour which are opposed to the universal goal totheuniversal goal of areopposed which behaviour of specific codes with particular region notion of the west. ZalaVol as commodity can beaprofitable forthis audience reproduced and views someWestern to according ‘Balkan’, The of concept cultural spheres. Diana Iordanova, discussing Balkan film, writes that of the West. part of Serb intellectuals is coupled with a discourse which creates an essentialised ‘other’ out wars in Yugoslavia. as a means works explain to the academic and journalistic its wayinto alsomade discourse nationalistSerbian intellectualsin 1980sand agitators and1990s. the The alleged ‘national purity’ country the of side gained anew sense amongstpurpose of 31 Zala Vol Dina Iordanova, Dina For example Robert Kaplan See Jasna Dragovi Jasna See uncritical uncritical fail recognise construct. Euro-centric the and to challenging remain Balkan By filmmakers makers. stereotypes, not accepting, [...] formany mode film which becomes of Balkan preferred the self-representation ‘self-exoticicsm’ voluntary specific a is result intellectuals...the Balkan consenting is aprocess which hasbeen embraced, and internalised by carriedmany partially out it as project, Western be apurely declared of Balkanscannot the The ‘orientalisation’ Balkanist discourse can also be instrumentalised as a means of self exociticism in Mo þLþ þ nik believes that in the international dimension, the Balkans are defined as a as defined are Balkans the dimension, international in the that believes nik , “The notion of ‘the West’ in the Serbian national imagery” . (London: Hurst & Company, 2002), 64-114; Sreten Vujovi , 8 (2005), 155-175, 168. Cinema of flames: Balkan Film, Culture andthe Media ü 34 -Soso, 32 She demonstrates also how the inversion of Balkan stereotypes on the on stereotypes Balkan of inversion the how also demonstrates She Habits of the Balkan Heart. Social Character and the Fall ofCommunism ‘Saviours of the Nation’: Serbia’s Intellectual Opposition and the Revival The Road to Warin Serbia: Traumaand Catharsis Balkan Ghosts (London: Macmillan, 1993),Stjepan Mestrovi þLþ observes in a study of Serbian intellectuals’ Serbian of inastudy observes 33 (London: BFI Publishing, European journal of ü , “An , “An Uneasy View of the (Budapest: CEU 31 Civilizational ü , Slaven 13 CEU eTD Collection 38 37 36 MA: MIT Press,2002), 79-116, 85. and Obrad Savi Obrad and cooperation. ismechanism Such a view thus international a of domination. 35 spectrum. the of left and right the on both themes, Balkanist instrumentalised consistently 1990s the inCroatia. rhetoric Balkanist that writes Lindstrom history). of course as the modernisation as normalisation, (Westernisation axis teleological along in view,the rhetoric a ‘European’ structured partakes mechanismsof the domination, same processes of withindomination Balkan the countries themselves. Presupposing a Razsa and Lindstrom “Balkan is Beautiful”. Lindstrom “Between Europe and the Balkans”, 317. Ibid. 96. Rastko Mo Razsa and Lindstrom provide and further more complex examples functionsthe of of European institutions. and culturetied identity andCroatian national lastcentury. Slovenian overthe Second, casting as artificially Croatia were Slovenia and whichleaders that alleged to Balkans, aregion Europeanelitesnational couldFirst, frame theirpurposes. questtwo for independenceserved southeast was as a the necessary to emancipationneighbours Balkan from or the intolerant, viewedlazy, in totheirEuropean, primitive, incontrast a word, democratic or, tolerant, as a meansPortraying Croatians and Slovenians as more progressive, hard-working, prosperous, to further their goal of joining þ nik, "The Balkans as an element in ideological mechanisms" In: Dušan Bjeli ü (eds.) Balkan asmetaphor: between globalization and fragmentation 37 38 They observe how Croatian political discourse and media in media and discourse political Croatian how observe They 35 He identifies the identifies He . (Cambridge ü 14 36 CEU eTD Collection 44 43 42 (Sremski Karlovci, Novi Sad: Izdava 41 1985). model’ the audience of which has a ‘relatively low’ cultural level. low’ cultural hasa‘relatively of which model’ audience the urban dichotomy as an explanatory factor for the emergence of regionalism of NCFM was a major source of its popularity. its of source major a was NCFM of regionalism and pluralism the that believes Rasmussen Yugoslavia. socialist within urbanisation these values. these recognised music as a formative system of values as1960s. well as a social class as as beganthe early in that Yugoslavia debates of cultural acontinuation many aspects associated with On thebasis ofher research itbecomes clear that contemporary discourses of turbofolk are in negotiated. and deployed were Croatian/Serbian) rural/urban, (Western/Eastern, dichotomies Milena Dragojevi Milena an invaluable starting point for a contextual backdrop for acontextual toturbofolk.backdrop an invaluable point starting to substantiallyto NCFM treat in thoughstudiesEnglish in Serbian by Ivan 2.2.2 Newly Composed Folk Music in Socialist Yugoslavia NewlyComposed FolkMusicinSocialist 2.2.2 40 Rasmussen, 39 Dragi Ibid. xxiv Rasmussen, Milena Dragi Ivan Rasmussen, “From source to commodity”, Rasmussen “The Southern Wind of Change” ý ü unfamiliar, andforeign. different Theyarebuilding up their model own a specificof youth The tradition butrural oppose urban the living model also of find which they The notion of ‘newly composed culture’ (the predecessor of culture’) predecessor of ‘turbo culture’(the ‘newly composed The notion of Ljerka Vidi Ljerka olovi ivi ü -Šeši Newly ComposedFolk MusicofYugoslavia ü 43 Newly Composed ü Divlja književnost: etnolingvisti Dragi evi ü , ü ü Neofolk -Šeši ü -Šeši Rasmussen’s research of NCFM’s genesis within socialist Yugoslavia is Yugoslavia socialist within genesis NCFM’s of research Rasmussen’s ü evi ü ü Neofolk kultura Publika i njene zvezde 41 , 219-220. ü consider the music in terms of social change and processes of -Šeši , xxv. ü describes this as a ‘populist, brand-new coined cultural coined brand-new thisasa‘populist, describes þ ka knjižarnica Zorana Stojanovi þ ko prou þ . avanje paraliterature 42 [ Neofolk Culture and its stars She demonstrates how cultural neofolk kulturaneofolk ü a, 1994). 39 44 She is the only scholar only is the She She employs a rural- a employs She (Belgrade: Nolit, (Belgrade: . ý olovi ü 40 ] and 15 CEU eTD Collection (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press,1999), 19. attempts to destroy, silence, or cut off the expression of alternatives. expression cutoff the or destroy,silence, to attempts culture. open global inSerbiato opposition – as to highly specific interpreted was ‘turbo-culture’ 49 48 his book his book examines musicalof destruction the alternatives;neofolk he argues that and aspects andof moral ‘cultural the 1990s Serbia. other and of downfall’ promotion chauvinism,of violence, criminal acquisition of apatriarchal wealth, social order of being a medium for the promotion of the lowest cultural habits, a key lever in the 47 37, 2(2003), 157-176, 172. the Miloševithe is wherebyto soundtrack the portray These condemnedasbeing a trend turbofolk comments 2.2.3. Turbofolk: balladeers ‘the of ethnic cleansing’ 46 45 Eric Gordy Eric Ibid. Branislav Dimitrijevi Branislav Robert Hudson “Songs of Seduction: popular music and Serbian nationalism” Serbian and music popular Seduction: of “Songs Hudson Robert Ibid. 221. Eric Gordy Eric longevity for the Gordy of accounts Miloševi the sound of warandthe war everything that has brought tothis country’. Folk Turbo that ‘the as the‘balladeers Black added represented of Ethnic Cleansing’. isolation’,journalist, whileBlack, another Robert described the singers of FolkTurbo West.in the academics and journalists For both by Folk Turbo about example, written been has lot A journalist Peter Morgan described Turbo that observes Hudson Robert Folk as ‘the music of new folk culture. and urban-commercial elite, traditional, the of element of combined culture’ ‘mosaic 48 ü The Culture of Power inSerbia: regime. Turbofolk has been authors Serbian andforeign has accusedbynumerous Turbofolk regime. ü “Globalni Turbo-folk [Global Turbo-folk]” [Global Turbo-folk “Globalni 45 Nationalism and the Destruction of Alternatives ü regime in Serbiaby regime his tracing NIN (Belgrade, June 20, 2002) 49 The largest chapter of chapter largest The Patterns ofPrejudice 47 46 Consequently, 16 CEU eTD Collection 54 (Spring 2004), 5-15. of superiority of ‘a shamefulsuperiority and legacy thewailing while trill hegemony suppressed, represents markers north’, ‘The culturesrhythmsthe from of techno colonial culture. the are embraced asanunacknowledged postcolonial turbofolk considers criticisingaesthetics, also turbofolk distain for turbofolk as a cultural component of the Miloševi 53 Psychology andAesthetics of Turbo-Folk 52 (Boulder,Colorado University Press, 1994). it’. ideologicalthe indoctrination both which was produced by regimeandthe brilliantly served in role crucial a played turbo-folk of aesthetics ‘the 1990s; in the Serbia of conditions social Miloševi the to of expression an to solely turbofolk 51 Sociology and Psychology 4,1 (2005), 11-19, 15. Europe. and Eastern musicanticommunist linked inCentral rock that post-1980 was inherently tothe revolutions been worldSuch ‘Western’ bySabrina view. a viewhasalsowhoasserts Ramet advanced time. have overmay he that admitting later dichotomised though sentiment, anti-regime and pro- to in relation turbofolk this, stressing and rock Gordy posits of data. empirical array awide contains and speaking readership that it for an wasEnglish turbofolk familiarof accountis most scene. probably the work rock His a relative positionturbofolk and werestate-sponsored occupied urbanspace detriment tothe of Yugoslav the at a certain point in 50 Nikoli Ivana Kronja ‘Politics, Nationalism, Music, and Popular Culture in 1990s Serbia’ Ivana Kronja, Sabrina Ramet (ed.) Eric Gordy “Reflecting on the 53 Tea Nikoli 50 Rock music Rock is viewed as antithesis the folk genres,of with associated ‘European’ or Ivana Kronja offers a harsh feminist critique of aesthetics, of feministturbofolk critique offersaharsh Ivana Kronja ü “Serbian Sexual Response” Smrtonosni sjaj: Masovna Psihologija i estetika turbo folka ü , also writing from a feminist perspective similarly does not withhold her 51 Rocking the State: Rock Music and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia Culture ofPower ] (Belgrade: Tehnokratia, 2001). , ten years on” Facta Universitatis, Philosophy, Universitatis, on” Facta years ten , ü regime’s new elite and the negative the and elite new regime’s ü regime. [ 54 The Fatal Glow: Mass Tomislav Longinovi Tomislav Slovo 52 16, 1 reducing 17 ü CEU eTD Collection Yugoslavian!]” Nisam ni Hrvatica ni Srpkinja, ja sam Jugoslavenka! [Lepa Brena: I am not Croatian nor Serbian, I am 59 Yu Mitologije 58 ideologue Dobrica Dobrica ideologue ‘last cry’ of pan-Yugoslav culture, aYugoslav variant of American the dream, identified herself (and continues to do soidentifieddo herselfto tothis continues (and day)as‘Yugoslavian’. Šeši Brenainstrumental as in thisthe movement, ‘mother of turbofolk’ (citing Dragi multicultural communism inthename of Pan-Serbian self-determination’ Lepaand posits Serbia was ‘part of the same political current that countered the Titoist version of perceived in the public arena. For examplein arena.For Longinovi perceived public the been and themselves presented have they which in way the to contrary quite interpreted 57 56 622-643, 641. V Bohlman (eds.) 1995 Rasmussen’s include not do authors the example, For illustrates. Rasmussen that NCFM hybridin genreswhichdeveloped states most Balkan simultaneously discourse the of or South’. and East the of one’s slavery to the Turks who are regarded as a part of the inferior cultures and races of drugi dom brena-nisam-ni-hrvatica-ni-srpkinja-ja-sam-jugoslavenka/412754.aspx 55 of Serbia’s isolation and as a deliberate cultural policy on the part of the Miloševi asymptom ananomaly, as haveemerged to appears turbofolk As aresult research. respective Brena has confirmed this in a number of recent interviews. For example see: S.C. Lepa Brena: Ĉ Dragi Rasmussen “From source to commodity” Tomislav Longinovi Tomislav or ü 56 57 ÿ e Mati work in their bibliographies though it was already published during the time of in it work bibliographies timethe of was already their though duringpublished their ). However the general consensus amongst observers is that Lepa Brena represented a Lepa Brena represented isthat observers amongst thegeneral ). However consensus ü A number of empirical errors are evident in some works and certain performers are Gordy, Kronja,and Nikoli evi (I don’t have another home) is believed to be a lament the former socialist state. ü -Šeši [Leksikon of YU Mythology] (Belgrade: Rende, 2005),223-226. ü “Lepa Brena” in VladimirArsenijevi Index.hr ü Music and the Racial Imagination , Neofolk û 55 ü osi , “Blood and Song at the End of Yugoslavia” in, Ronald A Radano and Philip and A Radano Ronald in, Yugoslavia” of End the at Song and “Blood , (2 March 2009). Available online at: ü saw this Yugoslavism as its ‘evil ‘Greater the (i.e.not as incarnation’ sawthis Yugoslavism ü do not considernot do the regional of perspective turbofolk, the ü (Chicago: University of Chicago 2000),Press, , Iris Andri ü writes that the rise of rise that the in writes of turbofolk http://www.index.hr/xmag/clanak/lepa- ü , and Brena’s 1994 song Ĉ or ÿ e Mati ü , (eds.) 59 ü Nationalist regime. Leksikon Ja nemam 58 ü evi and 18 ü - CEU eTD Collection genre. musical conventional a than rather category conceptual a as understood be can turbofolk that construction of national musical identity. musical national of construction concept of turbofolkin the early 2000s with emphasis an andfolkmusic.on pop also Baker examines specific the in former Yugoslavia. Croatia and in identity in construction of process the discourse in national ethnopolitical points reference the inclusion and/or exclusion2.2.4. Newapproaches toTurbofolk this generates in the life.with love the andsatisfaction of themes Bosnia-Hercegovina. in songs tigers deedsofArkan’s the paramilitary which celebrated wrote others amongst SSEES Inclusion/Exclusion: 7 Transgression of BoundariesCultural or a new Model of Cultural Exclsuions?” Paper presented at 1980s. the Šeši 65 (London: SSEES Occasional 2007) Papers, 139–158. (eds.) Nahodilová national musical identity” Catherine Baker, Christopher JGerry, Barbara Madaj, Liz Mellish & Jana 64 PopularMusic, 1999-2004” 63 62 61 as Serbia’ variant) a ‘“democratic” mask anationality for and anti-Serbianism’. 60 Marija Gruji Catherine Baker “The concept of turbofolk in Croatia: inclusion/exclusion in the construction of Catherine Baker “The Politics of Performance: Transnationalism and its Limits in Former Yugoslav Hudson, “Songs of Seduction”, 173. “Sav taj Folk [All that Folk]” (TV B92 documentary, Serbia, 2004). Cited in Gordy in Cited ü has stated that she believes the Brena phenomenon sustained [ sustained phenomenon Brena the believes she that stated has , (16-18 February, 2006). Catherine Baker demonstrates how performers and are interpreted as symbolic 61 In a similar vein to Longinovi ü , Inclusiveness of the “Turbo-folk” MusicScene in Post-Socialist Serbia: Culture of Culture Power Nationin formation: inclusion and exclusion in central and eastern Europe 63 th 62 She treats the reception of Serbian musicians in Croatia and vice versa and in Croatia musicians Serbian thereception of She treats International Postgraduate Conference on Central and Eastern Europe, Eastern and Central on Conference Postgraduate International Brena isanethnic focusedMuslim songs on Bosnian generally whose Ethnopolitics , 126-127. 5, 3(September2006), 275-293, 275. 64 Following the work of Gruji ü , Hudson incorrectly states that Lepa Brena održavala ü , 65 Baker believes ] Yugoslavia in ] Yugoslavia 60 Dragi UCL- ü evi 19 ü - CEU eTD Collection Political Conflicts about PopularMusic in Serbia]” being imposed. than media rather control over state of collapse the due to flourished turbofolk that maintains theoretically in ideologicalpopular hisanalysis about conflicts of musicin Serbiaand 70 thanliberating. qualities asculturally rather threatening extent’ value whichas view transgressive loaded conventional approaches the themusic’s liberating and transgressing phenomenon which she believes is ‘justas possible toacertain Despite numerous connections between turbofolk performers, businesspeople and politicians and businesspeople performers, between turbofolk connections Despite numerous Gordy Kronja)and Gruji local expression of of local global expression trends. body of the true Serb tradition’. Serb true body the of healthy in the tissue are recognised asmalignant influences that cultural to racist resistance based a‘cultural- Serbia – on of a ‘Tehranisation’ viewpointwhich aspart seesturbofolk nationalist asafar-right premise ideological same isthe on based this discourse that 69 21, 2004) European identity and favours amix of classical and music’. pop-rock implies a that culture andcosmopolitan ‘urban of concept the in to particular movement’, in valuesbe new thatshouldthe asa‘threat recognised promoted democratic ideologically to 68 67 Dimitrijevi Two articles weekly inSerbian Two address ideological turbofolkmore positions towards critically and phenomenon.examine the 66 Gruji Miša Zoran Zoran Cirjakovi Ibid. Dimitrijevi ü Ĉ In response which toworks link turbofolk and theMiloševi A modest number have of works emerged2000 (mostly from since Serbia) which “Inclusivenessof the “Turbo-folk” Music Scene” urkovi ü ü observes that in observes that post-Miloševi , “Globalni Turbo-folk”. ü 69 “Ideološki i Politi ü Marija Gruji “Turbofolk: Naš asvetski [Turbofolk: Ours butGlobal]” ü argues that this connection argues never sufficiently this that was theorised. ü NIN explores broader ways to examine turbofolkincluding as a 67 ü ki Sukobi oko Popularne Muzike u Srbiji [Ideological and Cirjakovi are criticalextremely ofconventional views of turbofolk. 68 Miša ü , following this argument, locates locates turbofolk following asa argument, this , Ĉ Filozofija i Društvo ü urkovi Serbia, turbofolk isincreasingly being ü 70 articulates these arguments more arguments these articulates XXV (2002), 271-284. ü regime (suchas thoseby NIN 66 He notes the irony (Belgrade, October (Belgrade, 20 CEU eTD Collection identities in Bulgaria” in, Richard Young (ed.) Young Richard in, Bulgaria” in identities Rasmussen, Levy, Buchanan, by works earlier upon builds volume The themes. orientalist and Balkan advancement. and technological borders flourished in the lack 1990sduetothe state control of media,increasinglyover porous Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2002),215-230. 76 Ethnomusicology 2 (2002) 11, 1-27. music and national consciousness in post-state-socialistBulgaria, 1994-1996 British Journal of Europe’, eastern in change political and Donna Buchanan follows the view of followsDonna viewof the Buchanan 2.2.5. Regional Hybrid Musical Trends calledsemi-urbanized rural population, or population urbanor class’.working discourse lends itself towards a ‘silent cultural discrimination of the cultural identity of the so This fans noarticulations inhiswork. of type of andturbofolk producers receive of space the critics, music various and Amadeus Rambo as such musicians alternative with urban. While Gordy for example included thevoices of‘urban’ listeners, rock interviews urban value s implies a dichotomy concepts hierarchy of which – favouringthese two the 75 Regional Political Discourse consumers. Serbia nor toidentify howthedomain would of entertainers directly behaviourthe dictate of in market amusic created politics a specific prove that to been has itpossible not Arkan) 74 in Serbia (exemplified by the 1995 marriage of inCeca of (exemplified by the1995marriage Serbia Veli 73 72 71 Claire Levy “Who is the “other” in the Balkans?: local ethnic music as a Donna A. Buchanan, “Bulgaria’s magical Donna A. Buchanan (ed.) Ĉ Ibid. 7. Ibid. 6-7. urkovi Examining recent hybrid musical trends in the Balkan region, an edited collection by collection edited an region, Balkan in the trends musical hybrid recent Examining ü , “Ideološki Sukobi” “Ideološki , 71 Gruji 76 ü additionally observes that nearly all critics of turbofolk employ a rural- a employ turbofolk of critics all nearly that observes additionally Rice, Balkan Popular Cultureand the Ottoman Ecumene: Music, Image and (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2008). 77 Stokes 78 Ethnomusicology and Kurkela Mystere 74 These musical forms are frequently related to the to related frequently are forms musical These Ĉ Music, Popular Culture, Identities. urkovi tour: postmodernism, world music marketing, music world postmodernism, tour: ü 73 41, 1(1997), 131–57 and,popular “Soccer, in asserting that hybrid folk genres folk hybrid that asserting in 79 which examine aspects of identity of aspects examine which þ kovi ü andŽeljkoRažnatovi different (New York, (New source of source 72 ü 21 - 75 CEU eTD Collection College London, unpublished PhD Thesis, 2009). 80 Cultural Policy 79 1992).Press, 78 popular music and narratives of national identity supplements this well. Croatian treating Baker by Catherine work doctoral Croatia, recent to dedicated a chapter construction in newmusicalformsrelation to BalkanWhile and the lacks thevolumetheme. Mediated PopularMusic” 77 Catherine Baker. Catherine Neo-Traditional” and Deregulated, Privatized, Balkans: Eastern the in Media “Music Kurkela. Vesa Martin Stokes. Timothy Rice “Bulgaria or Chalgaria: The Attenuation of Bulgarian Nationalism in a Mass- 3,2 (1997), 177-205. The Arabesk debate: music and musicians inmodern Turkey Popular music and narratives of identity in Croatia since 1991 Yearbook for Traditional Music , 34(2002) 25-46. 80 (Oxford: Clarendon (University 22 CEU eTD Collection observable themes in the discourse it has generated. has it discourse in the themes observable sixth sectionsand seventh examine inSerbia (3.5)and turbofolk in inCroatia (3.6), particular looks atsection generated thediscourse insocialist by while Yugoslavia (3.5), NCFM the Thefifth (3.4). Balkans turbofolk the with and associated stereotypes between linkages understand meansfourth a the whilesection to andtentative (3.3) theprovides turbofolk discourse The turbofolk links the asametaphor. third examines between section Balkanist as well other stylesvarious musical styles emergedthat in lastthe decadesin the region; includesthis turbofolk from neighbouringdescribe and isjudgement. to contested Iuse ‘folk implies used hybrid’ avalueterm the countries. The is something often that butconsider it conceptual category; definition, musicological a second section examinesspace. It begins by explaining what is meant by turbofolk (3.1). I employ not a specific theethno- use of 3. Yugoslav Turbofolk: Tracing Discourse Patterns 3. Turbofolk:TracingDiscourse Yugoslav 81 Interview, “Sav Taj Folk” Taj “Sav Interview, This seekschapter toexamine the of discourse turbofolkYugoslavin (post) cultural They constantly saythatI song turbofolk, whichtrue... isn’t somebodyif could firstly explain tome what means, turbofolk itwould beeasier – becausewouldn’t I beable to explain you what is,I turbofolk don’t actually know what thatkindof musicis! Ceca Ražnatovi ü , turbofolk singer , turbofolk 23 81 CEU eTD Collection stereotype derided‘Balkan’ by and his as some of be critics. ThisenablesThompson to critics, by artist ultranationalist MarkoPerkovi performer Croatian For example is made. judgement value a and audience or song performer, Studies Homeland? Reading musicthe on offer onaparticular webpage” Thompson” technicaldemarcation’. or musicological ‘pure exclusions, surpassing 84 83 synonyms alternatively (or ‘turbofolk’ term the of use by the Rather, made). be even can judgement sense(ifsuch ina a ‘turbofolk’ ethno-musicological song canbe as strict considered device. Itis notimportant for the purpose of this thesis as to whether a particular performer or rhetorical anexclusionary as functioning as aswell etc...) peasant eastern, trash, nationalist, as uponits subject(e.g. value imposesparticular judgements as a loaded term which usually of related variantsand nature the theircaptures by proxy NCFM, synonyms)turbofolk (and with to provideof a ready-made strategy distancing’. acritical apparatus andkitsch inorder violence banality,foreignness, connotationsof category which aggregates aconceptual as and‘more musical directions definition of lessconcrete asa act to turbofolk isview, ask considerspertinent Bakerto who this Concurring using it,with and why? moreitappears sense, in anethno-musicological turbofolkwhat constitutes debates about andTurbo-Culture ofTurbofolk Concept 3.1 The 82 Catherine Baker “Myth, War, Memory, and 139. Popular Music Croatia”, in in Croatia: The Case of turbofolk of Marko concept Perkovi“The Baker Gruji ü 8, 1(2003) 44-62, 51. This thesis shall follow this strategy. ‘Turbofolk as a conceptual category’ sufficiently Gruji “Inclusivenessof the “Turbo-folk” Music Scene”, 3-5. cajka Slovo ü writes that uses of the term ‘turbofolk’ carry certain cultural and inclusions cultural carry thatusesof certain writes ‘turbofolk’ term the 17,1(Spring 2005) 20-32, 28 and, Reana Senjkovi , 84 narodnjak his nationalism and militant persona being linked to the turbofolk the to linked being persona militant and nationalism his , neofolk or even ü - ‘Thompson’ is sometimes derided‘Thompson’ is asaturbofolk - folk ) certain attributes are projected upon the upon projected are attributes ) certain International Journal of Cultural ü and Davor Duki 82 83 Rather than tenuous than Rather ü “Virtual 24 ü CEU eTD Collection metaphors which criticise various aspects of public life in post-Yugoslav cultural of which metaphors public life in criticise aspects cultural various space. post-Yugoslav Thus value judgements associated with turbofolk and NCFMhave been extended invarious in inmobilisation 1980stoturbofolk Serbia late callingthe process the Dubravka Ugreši politi Rockers became the ‘bankers’ history’. national of readings incorrect on based mythmaking for mania nationalist ‘a and folklore’, of politicisation and ‘reinterpretation founded forms arethe on ‘turbo’ these Belgrade architecture, of encyclopaedia http://www.komunikacija.org.rs/komunikacija/casopisi/sociologija/XLIII_3/d01/html_gb in Serbia” (1December 2001)available online at: 87 89 Slobodan Bogunovi According to name‘turbo-architecture’. Belgrade, the acquired noteworthy. being semantic field this widening of the attributes’, aesthetic/artistic and coherence stylistic historiocity, of lack kitsch...a and bricolage temporariness, novelty, are composed’ ‘newly in ‘implicit term the that writes Rasmussen from asamusical genre. turbofolk removed been refer various to phenomenaextended pejoratively to far inametaphorical sense, 3.2 Turbofolkas metaphor musical genre. apurely than descriptive rather metaphor or device asarhetorical functions analysed bounds of with within the turbofolk understandingthe discourse the that category 88 86 85 Eric Gordy, Eric Žarana Papi Žarana Celia Hawksworth, Celia Norris, David in Cited Rasmussen, “From Source to Commodity, 242. þ ari . (n.d.) Available online at: The concept of turbofolk (and . 87 Croatian historian Ivo Goldstein refers to ‘newly composed history’ and writer 85 ü On UrbanIdentity in the Global Palanka: Perceptions of Self Among Belgrade “Europe after 1989: The Ethnic Wars, Fascizisation of Civil Society and Body Politics Body and Society Civil of Fascizisation Wars, Ethnic The 1989: after “Europe For example For the 1990sarchitecture of Dedinje,suburb an upmarket of ü to ‘newly composed folklore’. ‘newlypolitical composed to Zagreb: A Cultural History Belgrade: A Cultural History novokomponovana elita novokomponovana http://www.kabi.si/si21/IASPM/gordy.html neofolk (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2008),199. or and corrupt politicians corrupt and (Oxford: Oxford University 2009),Press, 173. novokompovana 86 In the same vein, pyramid-scheme vein, same the In 88 Žarana Papi (newly composed)) has composed)) (newly ü links the nationalist the links novokomponovani Turbo-Fascism ü . 25 ’s 89 CEU eTD Collection 93 92 specific to Serbia and opposed to global culture. to Serbia and opposed specific to as for habits promotion ‘turbo-culture’ the lowesta medium the of cultural and civilisational international and authors when addressing make fundamental turbofolk one assumption; tissue in body healthy the Serb true the of tradition’. malignant as arein that general recognised cultural influences resistance to – a‘cultural-racist 91 is Serbia that indication discourse is based on the same ideological premise thatMiloševi ideological premise based is same discourse on the ‘European’ and future. cosmopolitan Branislav Dimitrijevi which poses a danger either to the autochthonous roots and rural frame eastern uncivilised as with many,interpreted a cultural is For turbofolk national culture and/or the exclusion. marginalisation or possibility is meansof which often used asadiscursive as acultural other of a other; hasturbofolk a liminal and peripheral formerposition within Yugoslav cultural space Balkan stereotype. identifiesto the asattributed thatTodorova and otherness violence, barbarity eroticism, explicitly its both constructgeographicalits Balkanist due to origins and implications of BalkanismandTurbofolk 3.3 Linking Europeanisation of Balkans. of the Europeanisation violent manifestations work in that forcesnational at Todorova homogenisingBalkan Europe the today, with their wrongly attributed to some Balkan essence, are actually the ultimate 90 Todorova, Ibid. Dimitrijevi Todorova, Having gained a host of Having of ahost as extra-musical gained turbofolkattributes, an can be understood Imagining the Balkans Imagining the Balkans ü NIN 90 Just as‘Balkan’has asits aliminal position internal Europe, within increasingly 93 , 13. , 1997 adopting Western values. This parallels the view of view the parallels This values. Western adopting 91 92 Dimitrijevi He views turbofolk however, as an ü believes thatthis type of ü ü used during the late 1980s late the usedduring believes that both regional both that believes 26 CEU eTD Collection disappear’. orientalism ideaof theSaidian of typical connotations negative – the music positive situation. Kurkela writes thethat ‘Ottoman legacy makes meaningof the oriental popular andregional the Bulgarian capture able to better is Orientalism, to discourse separate or avariant as valuedeither Thus Balkanism, Todorova’s necessarily ‘of’Europe). not (though be in considered post-colonial the conventional sense. Geographically itis in securely Europe cannot thus and Soviet and Ottoman Byzantine, past, the in empires eastern to subordinated or America. Europe Western in meanings from different very is Bulgarians for Orientalism of meaning the well; fit Croatia ‘other’ (and implicitly better) locales. (andimplicitly better) ‘other’ more securely and from west the national or as regarded than those value lower remain of east the from sources that notion is the panics moral regional these to Central self. national the to a threat as viewed other ‘eastern’ internal the of presence the being denominator 99 98 Cambridge Press,Scholars 2005), 20-33. Collins, (eds.) Croatian Popular Music in the Second Half of the Nineteen-Nineties” in, Mark Yoffe and Andrea 97 96 Image and Regional Political Discourse Romania” in Donna A. Buchanan, ed., chalga generated by music is visible across the region. Hybrid musical genres (or categories) such as 95 Regional Political Discourse Donna A. Buchanan, ed., 94 Ibid. 172. Kurkela, “Bulgarian Chalgaon Video”, 170. of Trends and Characteristics Main Roll: ‘n Rock of Fall and Decline “The Kostelnik Branko Stokes, Margaret H. Beissinger “Muzic Beissinger H. Margaret Vesa Kurkela “Bulgarian Chalga on Video: Oriental Stereotypes, Mafia Exoticism, and Politics” in in Bulgaria, 97 Referring to Bulgarian Referring to Rather than being specific to Serbia (or evenSerbiaRather thanbeing Balkanist former specificto (or Yugoslavia) discourse have generated similar discourse and resulting ‘moral panics’, the common The Arabesk debate 99 Contradicting this view however, it a consistent theme in Balkan nation states nation in Balkan theme consistent a it however, view this Contradicting Rock & Roll andNationalism: A Multinational Perspective 94 muzic Balkan Popular Culture and the OttomanEcumene: Music, Image and (Lanham, MD:Scarecrow Press,2008), 143-174. ă oriental 98 ă chalga, Oriental Bulgaria, like the rest of the Balkan Peninsula, has been has Peninsula, Balkan the of rest the like Bulgaria, Balkan Popular Culture and the Ottoman Ecumene: Music, (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow 2008),Press, 95-142. ă Kurkela points out that Saidian Orientalism does not does Orientalism Saidian that out points Kurkela inRomania, ă : Identity and popular culture in Postcommunist culture popular and : Identity 95 arabesk in Turkey (Newcastle-upon-Tyne: 96 and cro-drance in 27 CEU eTD Collection 103 democratisation as a flight from from Balkans’ the aflight as democratisation and modernization emancipation, national for programmes their forward put ‘who elites national both of part the on exclusion cultural both of face the in affirmative as regarded 102 musicians of ostracism the to led and undesirable ambiguity national made states Yugoslav as nextsectionthe treating highlights. In earlythe NCFM 1990s nationalising processes in Yugoslav political and intellectual reproducedin werealso discourse spherethe of pop-music hegemony. cultural western and national on dependent ultimately are genres hybrid that shows close’. andown but oriental, backward, are: they actually (turbofolk, chalga etc...) is at the forefront. ‘This culture arrogantly glorifies the Balkans as stereotypes of Balkansthe in foundwhich expression 1990s,the new the music folklore filmmakers, by Balkan out carried beenpartly has inrole turbofolkthe scene. JustasIordanova deduces thethat ‘orientalisation’ of Balkans the precisely thisagainst legacy thathybrid oriental folk styles are criticised. (particularly amongst national elites) – the shame of the Ottoman era and its legacy. Itis 101 100 in creativethe industries general. in more detail, see 4.3). Ivanare gainedattributes by may ‘Balkan’ while an occidental other be(this is scorned examined formthe of self-exociticism oralternatively,is and stereotypedconcept the inverted positive Ibid. Ivan Vol Iordanova, þLþ ý The of‘Nesting gainedprocesses Orientalisms’ impetus which in astrong 1980s important an played both have stereotypes Balkan of inversion and Self-exoticism , “The notion of the West”, 168-170. olovi Balkan Cinema ü “Why do we take Pride in the Balkans?” , 56. ý olovi 101 In the turbofolk scene, ‘Balkan’ is often invoked either in either invoked often is ‘Balkan’ scene, turbofolk the In ü writes that of the examples of resistance to negative 103 and stereotypesstemming from itabroad also 100 Bulgarska Etnologija the same can be said for turbofolk and 102 While this type of culture can be 1 (2007), 9. 28 CEU eTD Collection Popular Music folk singer articulates the paradoxical nature of nature of 1993 she In this. paradoxical folk articulates the singer declared basisthe on national exampleNeda aYugoslav of For Ukraden, ambiguous pop- declaration. Republic of Croatiafor 200,000 DM]”, 104 Pero Zlatar, “Neda Ukraden tuži Republiku Hrvatsku za 200.000 DEM! [Neda Ukraden sues the ý Zagreb and [Izetbegovi Alija’s and they don’t the Bosniansknow call me a traitor because I’m not in Sarajevo; theI’m Serbs call me an Ustaša a Serb from Imotski; and the Croats claim I’m a being a Serb born in Croatia! born a Serb being the place I would live! When I thought about it all,I understood that my only sin was: etnik because after 20 years of years IchoseBelgradebecause etnik of workingZagreb’s 20 with Jugoton, as after , 206-207 ü ] whore because my career was connected to Sarajevo andSarajevo to wasconnected my career because ] whore Slobodni Tjednik 104 , (Zagreb, 16 April 1993), Cited in Baker, 29 CEU eTD Collection Table 1,TheBalkan/Europe construct: Patternsof Association Authenticity Ancientness Uniqueness Home Soul Fun Islamic and/or Orthodox Mud Authoritarian South Other Gypsy Foreign Oriental East Village Low Culture Rural NCFM Turbofolk Balkan Negative Stereotypes Negative Inverted Stereotypes Inverted Modernity Rootless Conformity Abroad Coldness Work Christian Asphalt Democratic North Self Local National Western West City Culture High Urban folk/’Ethno’ ‘Real’ Rock/pop Europe 30 CEU eTD Collection Transformation of Sarajevo” in Xavier Bougharel, Elissa Helms and Ger Duijzings (eds.) Popular Music NationalisticDiscourses” 18, 2(2007) 123–137 and “The Kosovo Battle: Media’s Recontextualization of the Serbian discursive battleground: Serbian recontextualization of Bush’s G.W. discourse” 181-194; Vol on Planet Reebok? Local vs. Global Identity among Young Serbs” Belgrade and Zagreb] (Belgrade: Biblioteka XX vek, 2005); Miroslava Malaševi Etnografija Otpora u Beogradu i Zagrebu 107 within.others stereotypes suppliedWest byform markers the reposition by to which in oneself relation to Europe/Balkan is dichotomy remapped across reappropriated region.the and Theimages and 3.4 TheBalkan/Europe construct: Patterns ofAssociation 106 105 discussimpressions their and interpretations of particular phenomena. to wereencouraged slant whererespondents with an anthropological particularly those listed above, such tendencies are neverthelessitisreifynot basedwish bysuggesting entirely dichotomies I do that to upon the discourse apparent in a number of studiesWhile withtheBalkan andturbofolk.Peninsula andinversion stereotypes associated these of of the region, beNevertheless consider a thechartto visual I negativeuseful aid inconceptualising orientation which are political particularly and fluid religion depending are on origins (i.e.variable ethno-religiousmost The identity) opinions. and ideology. personal as well as any), (if upon which ‘bulwark individual be of civilization’ himself an herself locatedconsiders or to horizontallygrouped these groupings Some terms. under contestable; areof course dependent are andcommon dichotomies vertically Europe/Balkan intoThe chartis divided other. each to relate frequently which dichotomies of associations; maps patterns 1)which (Tabe Forexample see the following; Gordy Vol Baki þLþ ü Following patters of internalised Balkanism (or Nesting Orientalisms) Nesting (or Balkanism internalised of patters Following Hayden “Nesting Orientalism” , “The notion of the West”, 167. þLþ ; Anders Stefansson, “Urban Exile: Locals, Newcomers and the Cultural 106 , “the notion of the West”; Karmen Erjavec and Zala Vol Basedin sources used onthevarious chart this thesis Iprovideatentative The International The Journal of Press/Politics Culture of Culture Power [Antinationalism: An Ethnography of Resistance in ofResistance Ethnography An [Antinationalism: ; Stef Jansen, Stef ; Ethnologia Balkanica, 12, 3(2007), 67-86; Baker, Antinacionalizam: þLþ 107 , “War on terrorism’ as a Discourse & Society, Discourse ü , “Are there Nations 7 (2003) The new The 105 the 31 CEU eTD Collection totalitarianism’ with implicit racial undertones. racial implicit with totalitarianism’ based ‘ethnically of type of metaphoranew became a central frameworks civilizational were more commonly invoked. By different 1980s,belongingthe to cultural and being limitedof scope with regard to socialist Yugoslavia. East/west, rural/urban dichotomies contraposed models; of anofficialtwo andculture, dogmatic culture adissident exclusively’ analysed from within Europeanculturesoutside are‘almost context the Eastern 108 Culture 109 110 and (western) European culture’. European and (western) differences boundariesmaintained ofculture-core psychologically reinforcing perceptions between Balkan and ‘institutionally of set a and kitsch) and (folklore music folk commercial traditions. peak ( hyperproduction the 1960s until which in developed 1990s. Similarthe themesvisible are from music’sthe inception in the categories from onwardstoturbofolklink it and related generated 1960s the to discourse the 3.5 NewlyComposed Folk Music – TheOrigins ofTurbofolk Publishing, 2007);Živkovi Bosnian Mosaic: Identities, Memories and Moral Claims in a Post-War Society folk ‘genuine’ ( to threat as influencesand musical eastern aesthetics, on the same basis as turbofolk due to its rural or newly urbanised character, its kitsch Rasmussen, For example Ramet, example For Longinovi . Rasmussen writes that NCFM From its inception, NCFM accentuated the difference between traditional and traditional between difference the accentuated NCFM its inception, From but rather inYugoslavia of the NCFM developmentnarrate notto seeks This section ü , “Blood and Song”, 635. Newly ComposedFolk Music Rocking the state ü , “Nešto Izme 108 Dragi ÿ hiperprodukcija u”; Levy, “Who is the Other”; Buchanan, , xix. ü evi ü 110 -Šeši ü , (writingin opines that the early 1990s) ) of the 1980s. NCFM was criticised (Aldershot: Ashgate izvorna Balkan Popular 109 these both these ) music ) 32 CEU eTD Collection other more ‘eastern’ and ‘southern’ parts of Yugoslavia to Croatia of Yugoslavia to and Slovenia. moreparts other and ‘southern’ ‘eastern’ The genuine popularity NCFM inof republicswasthese often tomigrationattributed from toreachnational dominance. inferior’cultural threatened genre which and aesthetically assertive commercially ‘populist, againstthis was asserted distance cultural where Croatia particularly in Slovenia and bycommentators wasadvanced imageof The ‘eastern’ NCFM 111 show andTV Radio request NCFMonly a listeners once aweekduring Zagreb played looseningties of with restof the Yugoslavia. andthe space’ ‘Central European to adherence madefor Slovenia’s Callsnation. were Slovene the upon have would this effects possible the and East and South the from migration about raised andwas West andEast concern between Yugoslavia’s difference civilizational Serbia. Intellectual in discourse periodthis emanating from Ljubljana stressed theinnate and in Slovenia nationalism of revival a and Yugoslavia within differentiation of processes Balkan other self, epitomised by (musically epitomised by NCFM. superiority of based assumption cultural the wereon inof republics these distancing 115 114 113 112 Rasmussen, Dragovi Ibid. 138. Ibid.183. Ibid. expressed in singing styles. most andprominently features, itsBosnia, “orientalist” Macedonia, Montenegro) (Serbia,in southeast the production) its commercial audience(and concentration of “eastern” cultural model of Yugoslavia, drew on two facts of regionalism: the greatest Yugoslavia’s between distinction the them among chief issues, divisive internally crystallized east and west. The dominant position, that NCFM embodies an Central media in both Slovenia and Croatia curtailed NCFM’s exposure. For example For exposure. NCFM’s curtailed Croatia and Slovenia both in media Central ü -Soso, “Savioursof the Nation”, 166. Newly ComposedFolk Music šlager , rock and pop), rationalised, rock which it bythat negated –the 111 , xix. 114 Thisbe should seen in context of the 1980s the 115 113 Processes 112 33 CEU eTD Collection Press, 2003)Press, 442-465. Yugoslavia” in D Djuriy and M Suvakoviy, (eds.) Suvakoviy, M and Djuriy D in Yugoslavia” (London: MacMillan, 1997),113-134; and “We Will Rock Yu: MusicPopular in the Second Punk” in, Jill Benderly and Evan Kraft, (eds.) This period (1979-1989) also coincided with a peak in production of This in coincided (1979-1989)also period with suggestingNCFM thus of a peak production 2003filmthe for exampleby andmusic heyday alternative (celebrated which reverethe rock Yugoslav of from official airwaves. Študent 25 1991a ‘Balkan Party’ inwas organised oneof Ljubljana’s alternative clubs and alternative1990s on the independence Ontheeveof on scene. June of Slovenia’s declaration Slovenia,in otherofferings) proliferated amongst (featuring early ‘Balkan parties’ NCFM the In as be dominantthese NCFM patterns. couldrejecting of consumption interpreted away time processes ofcultural and politicalnationalisation wereoccurringYugoslavia. across oppositional activity political participation by and ethnicminority late1980s. the stereotypes. Balkan and‘Western’ discourses both panickedcultural the of an ironic parody Dragi Moj. Zagreb song the old of version aNCFM Pervan recorded Željko atmosphere, “illegal”activities’. of scene which‘subcultural hadthe composed culturally appeal 121 South-East European Studies, 19-20October13-14. 2001), Conference 120 119 Discourse (ed) 118 117 for a itsperiod. banned broadcast Zagreb effectively 116 For example Gordy, example For “ Velikonja Mitija Ibid. Buchanan Donna in A Postlude” them: Cross to How and Boundaries “Balkan Pettan Svanibor Ibid. Rasmussen, Balkan Popular Culture and the Ottoman Ecumene: Music, Image and Regional Political Asserting popularity the and omnipresence of somewhatNCFM challenges works keptbroadcasting music warin duringthe it Yugoslav Slovenia hadafter disappeared (Lanham, MD:Scarecrow 2008), Press, 365-383, 370. Cultural BoundariesCultural in Europe: the Balkans inFocus He turned this old ‘city’ song (which echoes to the Austro-Hungarian past) into Austro-Hungarian past) ‘city’ echoestothe song(which Heturned thisold 118 Sretno Dijete Newly CompsedFolk Music both encompassing as Rasmussen by portrayed is scene NCFM The Ex-Home Culture of Power 120 (Happy (Happy Child) subject the and of a number of scholarly works). :’Balkan Culture’ in Slovenia after 1991”Paper presented at ; Ramet, , 184. Independent Slovenia:Origins, Movements, Prospects Rocking thestate Impossible Histories 116 Media ‘uncovered’ the thriving newly thriving the ‘uncovered’ Media (University of Lund, Centre for ; Gregor Tomc, “The Politics of (Cambridge and London: MIT Serbus Zagreb 119 117 By this In this In Radio 121 34 CEU eTD Collection logical way, taking intoaccount the arguments of both nationalist and liberal circles in regard Serbian society. The factor‘critical observer’of thenon-nationalistanti-nationalist or orientation generally castigates turbofolk asan enabling viewpointMiloševi attempts Serbian culture duetoits inauthenticity to– inparticularits oriental and Islamic A qualities. examine turbofolk in a more right nationalist viewpoint generally considers turbofolk to be ‘garbage’, ( the protagonists and consumers of turbofolk, absent in of protagonistsand the absent turbofolk, consumers orientations identified byMiša identified orientations follow turbofolk. the threegroups divergentin society viewsregarding The Serbian division is However such a betweenthegroups. overlaps frequently listexhaustive discourse and useful in termsearly Itidentifies1990s. threegeneral towardsturbofolk.orientations Thisbynomeans an of analysis and helps to give3.6 SerbianDiscourseofTurbofolk an impression of some of the intoher work in a series of films and songs which celebrated Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia. sustained [održavala] describes Brena as a ‘state project’ andMilena BrenaDragevi asa‘state describes [Yugoslav woman]and fame ofLepa Brena in 1980s the her Yugoslavand declared Anaorientation. Miljani Like rock music, NCFM also sustained a pan-Yugoslav orientation, exemplified by the rise to allat absolute. not space was cultural Yugoslav music inurban of rock dominance the that 124 123 122 Ĉ series film part three The Folk Taj Sav urkovi This section in This section of discourse hasoriginated that the since examines turbofolkSerbia ü , “Ideološki i Politi Živela Jugoslavijo ü regime and as a reflection of cultural and moral degradation of Hajde da sevolimo ü ki Sukobi oko Popularne Muzike”, 280-282. Ĉ urkovi 122 Brena incorporated Brena pan-Yugoslavthis loyalty incorporated directly [Long live Yugoslavia]. live [Long ü and the fourth section serves to provide section to andthefourth serves aspacefor [Let’s love each other] and songs and other] each love [Let’s ü - Ĉ urkovi eši ü considers her persona to have to persona her considers ü ’s categorisation. 123 Jugoslovenka šund ) a danger to 124 Afar- 35 ü CEU eTD Collection 2002), 25-40. 127 126 Živkovi with Dutch violating thus sounding techno) the bounded national model.culture According to Turkishmusical (e.g. of cultures traditions different variousmeshes components Turbofolk ý body Serb’. true inthe tissueof malignant thehealthy in as are recognised general uprooted. must identity of be aspect that Serb ‘Turkish’ an of phenomenonundesirable asapart Turbofolk of Discourse Nationalist Conservative 3.6.1 pattern. in not production occasionallya cohesive though enteringdebate and consumption though viewinespouses, with being allegedvalues primarily of the terms thatturbofolk concerned amore agnostic take andweeklies) dailies media (generally tabloid consumers and associated valueexcessive judgementsof The formerthe orientation groups. of turbofolk performers, the avoids and viewpoints) both of similarity the out pointing (frequently turbofolk to 125 olovi Ivan Ivan Ibid. Dimitrijevi ü ý systems of national cultures, with different languages, different cultural traditions and traditions cultural different languages, social histories cultural and separate different with cultures, national of systems andsplit goal isseparate Muslimsinto toheritage of Serbs, Croats shared cultural single cultural model into two or more radically of a varieties and differenthues various of spectrum cultures. continuous the split to strive For exampleNationalists their Turbofolk has encountered conservative resistance which seeks to ‘erase’ the opines that opines ü olovi , when it comes to ‘deep it self-recrimination,’in to repository comes ‘nothingof the Serbian , when 125 ‘This discourse is based on a cultural-racist resistance to cultural cultural influences that resistance to is basedon a cultural-racist ‘This discourse ü ü , , Kultura, Nacija, Teritorija [Culture, Nation, Territory]” Nation, [Culture, Teritorija Nacija, Kultura, , NIN 127 Republika (Belgrade, July 1 126 Ivan 36 CEU eTD Collection nationalist intrumentalisation. nationalist Islamic’ and a result his station did notplay her. Sovrli Branka performer folk though even that Ĉ “Serbdom” with oriental tunes. oriental with “Serbdom” deliberately polluting establishment of the song,accusing contemporary pop Iranian turbofolk performer DraganaMirkovi 133 opposition coalition DEPOS (and choral singer) Pavle Aksentijevi (Šumadija). see Serbian identity’ identity derived wishes tothis from exclusively central Serbia incorrect historicalhe of perception oriental terms ‘an upon what elements while Serbs of viewthis have communism consider to imposed intentionally ‘Asiatic rhythms’and tradition. onthe spiritual Serbian seen asan attack turbofolk is 132 131 130 129 Balkanologie, Hristi Zoran ascomposer such nationalists self-declared and conservatives cultural traditionalists, themes could be as powerful as the entangled complex of the Turkish Taint’. 128 oki See the song ‘Oro’ (4.5) for an example of this in the Serbian music industry. Gordy, Živkovi Ibid, 280-281. Ĉ Marko Živkovi Marko urkovi ü ü showed similar contempt towards the oriental nature of for stating example of nature oriental the turbofolk, towards contempt similar showed , Pavle Aksentijevi endangered Serb ‘spiritual space’, i.e. of Serb national identity. In that, they rely on a on rely nationalmodel cultural of culture inwhich they activity isseen asanintegral component that, In identity. national Serb of i.e. space’, ‘spiritual Serb endangered instead preservation on the of concentrating butare allegedly the Bosnia Hercegovina, in and Croatia be and before wars the theirmain during which to preoccupation used lands, Serb future the of maps in drawing engaged longer no are workers’ ‘National In the post 2000 period, Culture of Power ü ü , “Serbian Jeremiads” “Serbian , , “Ideološki Sukobi”, 280. 130 2(December 1998). For example For aJuly during of 1994 session Serbian member parliament, of the ü , “Too Much Character, Too Little Too Character, Much “Too , , 134. ü , singerMiroslav Ili 133 131 Ultranationalist ý olovi ü . He juxtaposed this. Hejuxtaposed with identicala nearly sounding ü writes of the return of culture as a means of ü 132 and media and figuressuch as NenaKunijevi ü Kultur was not Muslim, her songs ‘sound very ‘sound songs her Muslim, not was Radio Ponos : Serbian Jeremiads 1994-1995” 129 (Radio Pride) director Zoran Ĉ ü played asongby Serbian urkovi ü adds thatholders adds 128 For 37 ü , CEU eTD Collection those who opposed turbofolk on this basis to generally be self-declared non-nationalist or non-nationalist self-declared be generally to basis this on turbofolk opposed who those universemeaning, of closely linked with risethe of nationalism and wars’. musical synonymsmusical style, (and turbofolk butalso generallyincludedfurther criticism turbofolk. of Lukovi this group includingthisscholars group Milena Dragi elite’. Društvo Zagreb]” and inBelgrade Balkan/Europe of experience the Orientalism: [Everyday 136 ‘so called globalists or cosmopolitans’, mainly drawn from the ‘pre Miloševi 135 product of Miloševi of product the discourseofturbofolk Anti-nationalist 3.6.2 culture. national homogenous a maintaining of necessity the stress who those amongst particularly circles, mobilisation in thisnationalist category nationalistand turbofolk, remainsmusic of contested between links cited often the Despite strategy. nationalist integral an corollary) necessary a of turbofolk as (with exclusion the remains Thus cultural corpus national the preserving 134 Stef Jansen, “Svakodnevni Orijetalizam: Doživljaj ,Balkana’/,Evrope’ u Beogradu i Zagrebu Beogradu u ,Balkana’/,Evrope’ Doživljaj Orijetalizam: “Svakodnevni Jansen, Stef Ĉ ý olovi urkovi 135 ü XVII (2002) 33-71,40. During fieldwork inDuringfieldwork Belgrade in Jansen1996-1998 Stef ina that asserts addition to war by means war by other of asacontinuation or for thewareffort, assupport for war, nation the of preparing Anti-nationalist (or non-nationalist) views of turbofolk frequently castigate it as a by- a as it castigate frequently turbofolk of views non-nationalist) (or Anti-nationalist . However opposition of is. However opposition based not of viewpointturbofolk anti-nationalist solely an Heincludes a number of whoSerbian publichave figures addressedturbofolk within ü “Kultura, Nacija, Teritorija” Nacija, “Kultura, ü , “Ideološki Sukobi”, 281. ü era. 134 Ĉ urkovi ü terms the opponents of turbofolk of this orientation this ofturbofolkas orientation of theopponents terms ü narodnjaci, neofolk evi ü -Šeši ü and Ivana Kronja, and journalist Kronja, and andIvana Petar etc...) ‘constitute awhole ‘constitute etc...) Filozofija i 136 He considers ü socialist 38 CEU eTD Collection 142 in events understanding of way non-nationalist common most the probably is which that turbofolk feeds intothe larger rhetorical framework of urban versus rural; framework(a neofolk,opposed to “Balkan” and whichis “primitive”. regarded as Miloševi (by the from notabledecade connecteddefunct) of to absence turbofolkthen as the apart music the based aesthetics onakitsch andnature of qualities, oriental urbanised/peasant rural/newly the Threenotable arose, criticisms in time (2002-2003). that period severely criticised turbofolk had which that of mirror newspaper articles many thattheir negative.of Sheresponses writes high students with school findsregards toturbofolk. thattheir evaluations She areuniformly 141 more symbolic potency than its nationalist connotations alone. and vulgar; ‘tasteless’ ‘kitsch’, ‘cheap’, ‘violent’, ‘xenophobic’, includes this standpoint anti-nationalist regime’. the towards orientation of but culture’ peasant and urban between ‘distinction the between only not indicator important became an taste musical that he observes pattern; asimilar shows 140 139 decline andMiloševi antinationalist and politically oriented within the opposition to Miloševi 138 137 Gordy, Culture of Power, 144. Maleševi Gordy, Jansen “Orijentalizam”, 42. Gordy, Ibid. 41. Gordy observes that in Belgrade, rock musicin Gordy high that observes and Belgrade, rock isperceived as ‘implicitly art More recently,Maleševi More Miroslava ü Culture of Power Culture of Power 141 regime. ü 139 “Are there Nations on Planet Reebok?”, 186. 138 thuscontinuing thetrend Gordy that and Jansenhave observed in previousthe and ‘garbage’, So while turbofolk was opposed as a symbol of nationalism, as asymbol moral SowhileturbofolkSerbian of was opposed ü ’s regime, other value judgements are also very apparent. From From arealsovery other value’s apparent. judgements the regime, , 140-164. , 105. gastarbeiter -like, ‘primitive’ and ‘Balkan’, and ‘primitive’ -like, ü gauges the attitudes of a number of numberBelgrade of of attitudes a the gauges 142 It is abundantly clear is abundantly It ü . 137 140 Gordy’s research giving turbofolk 39 CEU eTD Collection Turkey, Iraq or Lebanon or in favour of Serbia’. in democratic of favour a ‘European Lebanonor Turkey, or Iraq activistsincited speak people their to minds in of Asiatic favour an Serbiamodelled upon demonstration in Nišin February 2000 entitled ‘Converts to Islam Investigation’ Jamahiriya’. Islamic and sultanate Ottoman the from inherited it ‘mentality rather duetothe but called itsorigins of geographical not sobecause ‘Asiatic’ other the oneEuropean, cultural roots’, historical and completely disparate ‘two from stemmed which tendencies’werepresent fundamentally opposed in ‘two asserted that Serbia group The liberals. Serbian of part the on orientalist of example blatant most the possibly providing student resistance group based part of their official Memorandum on the Orientalist theme 147 of the Process the in Development ofa Civil Society in Incorporated the Balkans]” Ideologies Orientalist and of Neoliberal Elements The discrepancy: orijentalizma uprocesu konstituisanja jednog balkanskog civilnog društva [The Other Serbia’ in Islam and the isTurk’ beso greatin revealed not to thethat same rhetorical techniques isusedin of terms orient in general.nationalists whichThis proclaimEast can and beSerbia interpretedIslam as a ‘bulwark as a religionagainst as the partIslam’ in general.andof dreadan ongoingthe ‘terrible The distance political between Otpor’s view and that of 146 (with ‘low culture’ programming and incessant advertising) presumably for commercial reasons). 145 Geography rhetoric 144 (2005) 151-167, 154. itB92 ‘pridednever itself had played that one subjectivity’. and dignity urban of antithesis the considered winter of in1996/1997 Belgrade therewas‘a self-conscious ban on turbofolk’ ‘waswhich Towards acritical understanding of post-Yugoslav urban self-perceptions” Mediterranean Studies Yugoslavia) 143 Ibid. Vladimir Markovi Vladimir Ibid. (Ironicallyin the post 2000period B92 television isoften criticised for emulating TV Pink Stef Jansen “The streets of Belgrade. Urban space and protest identities in Serbia” Keith Brown, “Beyond Ethnicity: the politics of urban nostalgia modern in Macedonia” Otpor , 20(2001) 30-55, 49-50. 143 both distorts Serbian history and identity and discredits swathes of the Middle and dichotomy.During Balkan-Europe the anti-Miloševi the ü “’Druga Srbija’ u Diskrepanciji: Elementi ideologija neoliberalizma i neoliberalizma ideologija Elementi Diskrepanciji: u Srbija’ “’Druga 11, 2(2001), 417-442; see also, Stef Jansen “Who’s Afraid of White Socks? Diskrepancija narodnjak , 2, 3 (2001) 1-6, 4. 144 ’. 145 The opposition radio station Otpor Ethnologia Balkanica , the anti-Miloševi the , 147 Political Through Through such ü 146 protests of protests During a Journal of Otpor , 9 40 ü CEU eTD Collection of turbofolk in terms of Orientalism. Jakarta and Tirana to Tijuana’. and to Tirana Jakarta maintaining that similar styles of music have appeared all over the world ‘from Casablanca to mentality’. ungrateful from Europe an Ottoman invasion’ Turbofolkwith being asign ‘Asiaticthis of 153 152 151 150 anti-Miloševi suggested by Olga Dimitrijevi conservative right-wingers such conservative Aksentijevi right-wingersas such 149 2002 and 2004.BranislavDimitrijevi mainstream press two articles criticised conventional in aboutturbofolknarratives twoarticles conventional mainstream criticised press in processes Serbia. global of expression local the as turbofolk in examining interest corresponding a been has in music. oriental elements towards of stance negative because their ‘protofascists’ be even turbofolkviews or ‘culturally previous declaring of them racist’ to two discourse ‘turbo’ Observer Critical –Problematising 3.6.3 portion of the nation it wishes to lead, ‘imprisoned’ by false stereotypes. inproblem Serbia today whereby is incapable liberalelitethe large of communicating with a 148 Cirjakovi Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ĉ Cirjakovi urkovi south or east of the centre of Belgrade. Anything coming from from Gu coming Anything of east of centre Belgrade. the or south be They from Serb cultural horrified with appear to scene everything coming the Ĉ urkovi ü 152 ü , “Ideološki Sukobi”,(Alternatively, 281; the term ‘urban-micro-fascist’ has been ü , , ü Zoran Cirjakovi NIN NIN movement with both movement with hinging idea onthe ‘European Serbia of defending ü writes that since 2000 a number of observers have strongly criticised the havestrongly sincenumberobservers of 2000a writes that . 150 This group centres around This group ü ) ü 153 furthers this argument and links turbofolk to global linksfurthers thisargumentand to turbofolk trends He polemically castigates an ‘urbane leftist’ Belgrade viewleftist’ an castigates Belgrade ‘urbane Hepolemically ü stresses the similarity of similaritystresses the between arguments the of ü and liberals such andliberalsas the Citok and themagazine 148 Otpor ü Prelom (Resistance) a or Vranje, a or 149 NIN There . 151 In in 41 CEU eTD Collection 159 158 157 156 men’ is representative of the average music video shown MTV shown on video music of average isrepresentative the men’ by Kronja orGordy) –iconography of ‘objectified women’ and ‘gold chains muscularon (e.g. – turbofolk with associated criticism aesthetic conventional that out point authors Both 155 154 concept’. concepts social main-stream traditionalist and pro-conservative a as this treating as possible as extent, a certain is, to liberating phenomenon and a as transgressing turbo-folk ‘understanding of banality. and sexism on monopoly a have lyrics song Balkan that assumption misleading that demonstrate to music American/British of lyrics the translated comedian featuringstand-up a programme television Croatian a recent Similarly avant-garde’. even feminist and subversive, be ‘anti-establishment, also can turbofolkthat repression over other cultural forms. cultural other over repression been perceived as an expression of cultural freedom but on the contrary, as an act of Ibid. 6. Gruji Ivana Cirjakovi Dimitrijevi Ibid. ü Orient are in fact ugly, dirty, primitive and incurably un-European places. Asia majority mostthat of and the cultural these of Serbia, racists areconvinced (which itusually isn’t) but rather that isturbofolk too‘Asiatic’ and The ‘Oriental’. nationalist is that or is) often it (which bad is turbofolk that claim they as not, is of everything part that preventsthem for theis acceptance Cairo, ‘Westernof and Civilisation’. Algiers, The realBombay, problem distant of products resembles frequently Following this more critical towards turbofolk,approach Gruji û “Inclusivenessof the FolkTurbo Music Scene”,1. osi ü , ü ü , Personal Communication, 16May 2009. NIN , NIN 158 . However she notes that generally the hybrid nature of turbofolk has not has turbofolk of nature hybrid the generally that notes she However 159 157 155 while the authors assert authors the while ü arguesthat 154 156 42 CEU eTD Collection turbofolk careerand her rural background. Shedeclares iscommunity linked islinkedher to own experience with associated of prejudices her profession.‘turbo’ Indira Radi folk just [narodnjake]...I divide music into good bad,or genre the isn’t important’. on defining ‘bad’‘good’ or music. ‘On every album I have of and alots super,pop, super interview, performer Škori Mira motifs, it’s something techno ... inbetween’. with folkI sangmy career of alot [ use describe term the ‘turbofolk’ to outright music. their‘inthat Cecastates beginningthe of based primarily on cultural elitism. cultural on primarily based at concerts, weddings, and other public gatherings and that criticism is discriminatory and claim that it is the music of ‘the people’ ( consumers producersand turbofolk Performersandmedia:Ambivalent 3.6.4 162 161 160 Interview with Mira Škori Mira with Interview with Ceca, Interview Ibid. 7. narodnjake patronised me [omalovažavati] because of the work Ido.Theyhave of me work because that the called me and [omalovažavati] patronised hated have they because [stereotypes], these felt often myself have I stereotypes. People who hate somebody because of their sexual orientation, slave themselves to their becauseof victims of have prejudice they been that stated have Some performers The general response of performers and producers of turbofolk to criticism to is to [NCFM] ... I think what I sing is not folk music. You have some of it, folk Sav Taj Folk ü , Sav Taj Folk ü narodna declares that her declares that vocal former support of Yugoslavia’s gay ü also avoided terming her music alsoavoidedinstead focusing terming her turbofolk, 160 Performers themselves have often been unwilling to unwilling been often have themselves Performers ] music. In beginningthe of mixed 1990s the I rock narod 161 ), the type musicof that people wanted to hear Wheninto genrecame during question an 162 43 CEU eTD Collection community. tomaintenance in pop-cultural of singlea post-Yugoslav away contribute space and cultural a within occurring as Yugoslavia former in lifestyles celebrity treat generally majority the as such tabloids daily stance (particularly hard-line political arather some take While its production and consumption. with concerned are chiefly a turbofolk as concept, towards stances oriented value or ideological taking than rather and celebrities) international and personal lives of turbofolk performers (as well as other Serbian, former Yugoslav and commercial television stations ( Serbia’, gay son] http://www.gayecho.com/interview.aspx?id=8175&grid=4481&page=11 like Saša [Panti think who ‘people that shewarns Incontrast of Europe’. beapart ‘finally Serbia can so that inherentlyformind’for acceptance for gays and as tolerance and appealing European, ‘open attributingan construct, Balkan/Europe invokes the later Karleuša andunderstand’), accept to inclination an displays always [narod] people (‘our flattery national basisof a the a TVPink talk-show in November 2008. persona), including herself with gayminority the on this basis,while on defending gay rights times felt innot accepted country’this (presumably herdue to controversial turbofolk public ‘many has who somebody prejudice, of victim a as herself includes also Karleuša Jelena 165 164 163 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ha5k-jHxcPY Ibid. “Piramida”, Ginovi Jordan Serbian Serbian newspapers ( tabloid in their own head. own in their have they created me of hate a which picture folkie [narodnjakuša]...they provincial, 165 Svet thus evoking orientalist imagery of a less civilised past. civilised less a imagery of orientalist evoking thus (Belgrade, 7February 2009) Available online at: TV Pink TV ü ü “Indira Radi “Indira – homophobic bring – back actor] us 19 tothe , 20NovemberAvailable 2008. online at: 163 ü : Stala bih uz svog gej sina [Indira Radi [Indira sina gej svog uz bih : Stala Pink, DM Sat, BN TV Alo, Dnevni KurirAlo, 164 While initially tothe Serbianappealing public on ) report on the professional activities ), magazines ( th ü , 18 : I would stand behind my behind stand would : I th and 17 Svet, Skandal th Dnevni Kurir centuries of ) and ) 44 ) CEU eTD Collection (Manchester: Manchester University Press 2003). European Quarterly : TexasA & M Press), 31-63; GordanaUzelac “Franjo Tudjman's Nationalist Ideology” Democratic Transition in Croatia: Value Transformation, Education and Media 1989: The HDZ and the Politics of Transition” in Sabrina Ramet and Davorka Mati and Hercegovina 167 Croatian process, popular of As broader this border). highway part tothe Belgrade until close Zagreb- the on for Belgrade sign aroad of omission the example (for day to this intact and symbolic of most Croatianstreets language,which other of practices,remain renaming have been documented by many authors. many by documented been have Serbia/Yugoslavia of exclusion Thesymbolic 3.7.1 forpart accounts fourth alternative views(3.5.4). provide a rhetorical tool inclusion of and in exclusion Croatian andcultural space (3.5.3) the looks athow turbofolk The turbofolkpart represent anditsthird can ‘low culture appeal’. can its implicitnecessarily ‘Serbness’ the due to butrather subversiveness that and danger second looks section at turbofolk asanannoyance, ill orasocial not whichis(3.5.2) The (3.5.1). ‘Serbness’ turbofolk’s on based exclusion symbolic the this; examines section Thefirstin Croatian discourse. power of its furthering source exclusionary ‘otherness’ discursive tool as in Serbia, it additionally draws upon the ‘Serbness’ of turbofolk as a further surrounding it. weekly the 3.7 CroatianDiscourse of Turbofolk 166 See See Ugreši Baker, The processes of nationalisation that occurred during The processesofnationalisation Tu the occurred that The have isterm ‘turbofolk’ beento Croatia saidto introduced in 1994in in a report Popular Music Globus ü , Culture of Lies 166 . (Luton: University of Luton Press, 1999) 135-209; Marius Søberg, “Croatia since While the turbofolk category in Croatia can serve as an exclusionary , 31,, 4(1998); Alex Bellamy, which emphasised the ‘conspicuous consumption whichemphasised the‘conspicuous andgangsterism’ macho , 166. ; Mark Thompson Mark ; 167 Features of this included the purification of Features includedthis of the theof purification Forging War: The Media in Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia The Formation ofCroatian National Identity ÿ man era (1990-1999) . (College Station TX ü , (eds.) Eastern . 45 CEU eTD Collection unacceptable for thewider unacceptable public. and cultural. and economic both republics, former between began Yugoslav forms of new Croatia, cooperation in and Serbia 2000regime changes the after 1990s late inandBeginning particularly the music ‘enemy’ ‘excludingany conceptualised was signifiers as of Serbianculture’. still excluded from all domestic television and radio stations (other than in satirical form or form satirical Croatised in than (other stations radio and television domestic all from excluded still Despite itisinCroatia 1990s) comparison therelative tothe of turbofolk normalisation (in their confinementensurethat to effort every to ‘ 171 170 Ethnologia Balkanica 169 168 Croatia for the eastern melos’. eastern the for Croatia beatup ZabranjenoZagreb whoaudience isjustshowed there that Pušenje noplace in the responded incident by legitimisingto violence againstmusic‘The physical – oriental cultural towards from products Serbia presidentand the Bosnia, of Croatianthe Union Music 1996 attack on Bosnian bandZabranjenoPušenje inZagreb. Indicative of official the position process. reverse fraught than the more in ethno-political discourse’ believes and reception the that in Serbian music of Croatia was points reference ‘symbolic as interpreted are figures musical transnational how demonstrates 173 172 (Zagreb, 25Februaruary 2008) Rasmussen, Baker,2006, 275, 279, Bojan Baskar “Within or Without? Changing Attitudestowards the Balkans139. in Slovenia” Croatia”, in of turbofolk concept “The Baker Orhidea “Tinejdžeri Gaura opijeni turbo-folkom [Teenagersdrunk on turbofolk ]” Ibid. Perhapsmost extreme the exampleCroatianfolk exclusion of of was the category the ijekavia 169 Newly Composed These processes in popular music have been observed by Baker who Baker by observed been have music in popular processes These variants) and represents a cultural, societal, and political phenomenon 7(2003) 195-206, 198. gastarbeiter narodnjaci , 199 171 173 He added that his organisation would continue to make his to Headdedthat organisation continue would -like cultural reservations at the outskirts of city’. of the outskirts atthe reservations cultural -like 170 do not return to Croatia and if they did he promised Nacional 641 168 172 46 CEU eTD Collection against Croatia was invoked; “we had been attacked by that music. by “wehad been Croatiaattacked against wasinvoked; that turbofolk waspolitical. between connection Thesymbolic and Serb turbofolk aggression connotations of itsturbofolk. This useinSerbia(seeparallels 4.5).By logicthis consuming folk is viewed in contextthe of ‘world’ ‘ethno’ musicor hence avoiding thevalue space’. city of Croatian Hercegovinisation) (and ruralisation with the associate genresthey musical from distance themselves to with which resource as acultural music perse–forsome andalternative ‘Serbianpop-rock existCroatians, performers urban to Serbian opposed nationalisticnecessary nothowever Thisview or in is public discourse. east dichotomies (favouring the urban and western), is a prevalentview in Croatia and visible ill social Turbofolk3.7.2 asa others. for nationalism Serbian and turbofolk between connection of the the salience shows this incident manyfor inCroatia, a mereannoyance represent Narodni being a publicity beingstunt. publicity a accusedit while of blamedgroup Republika cancellation the the veteran’s on threats Srpska, Theorganiser, group. by veterans’ protests a war February 2007 after dozen Serbian folkand Bosnian singers, event the collapsedin ‘unclear circumstances’ in space in Croatia. Planned to be heldin Plannedspace inCroatia. to Zagreba folk nature of inmusic contested largestturbofolkthe Croatia’s eventdemonstrates public 176 175 174 Baker, “The Politics of Performance”, 283. Ibid. Baker,Music, Popular198. Turbofolk as ‘garbage’, a social ill or amere irritant, often based on urban-rural, west- The controversy of ‘Folk-revija’, an event which would have been independent been have would which event an ‘Folk-revija’, of controversy The Radio , who appeared together on , whoappearedtogethera Nova primary the on of TVtalk-show, offence 174 For the veterans’ representative and a host on Croatian (folk) Croatian on host a and representative veterans’ the For þ ki Velesajam with the participation participation of Velesajam with the a over ki 175 176 While turbofolk may turbofolk While Similarly, ‘genuine’ Similarly, BN Televizija from 47 CEU eTD Collection a wide choice of places have inZagreb Serbianlistenkids music was today shameful, because edgeofto the to town to go out in that style’. marginal, with isalso nouveauriche turbofolk associated youths ( 179 30 December 2003). the cultural exchange of breasts’ with Serbia: Croatian Music Scene 2003].” Srbijiom: Hrvatska Glazbena Scena 2003[Severina,with a change of manager hasforever ‘overcome to the 1990s...when music associated with with was played 1990s...whenmusic east associated the to the in bars only ( dingy (Zagreb, 23December 2008). ‘ the media about the ‘normalisation’ of turbofolk clubs. As early as 2003 it was observed that is partof increasinglythe on abegrudging there activity. acknowledgement violent However Rather than a legitimate musical choice, turbofolkis often treated as a deviant and potentially Zagrebians in a turbofolk club ills such asdrugabuse orteenage binge A2008report in drinking. pop and Serbian turbofolk in measure. equal as participating for aglobal Zagrebian or aBelgradermay who both process Croatian loath ‘authentic’ folk like Šaban Bajramovi 178 177 narodnjaci Orhidea “Turbobiznis Gaura narodnja Ilko OrhideaGaura “Tinejdžeri opijeni turbo-folkom” ý stick with our taste” [the girl’s friends from from 16 [thegirl’s friends our taste” stick with to intelligent, young and pretty, and we go to one of the best schools in Zagreb, welisten “Although weare singer... turbofolk Serbian of the concert the at yearold seventeen am at Seka Aleksi “I drunkgo, buthereMother toldamongst whores and bandits. am medead I notto Turbofolk inCroatiabeen has inmediaoften in addressed samethe mannerassocial uli narodnjaci ü move from a booze holes ( a booze from move “Severina je promjenom menedžerazauvijek nadišla ‘kulturnu razmjenu sisa’ sa already for three years. There are those who despise this music, but we but who music, despise this those years. Thereare already for three ü . Ihavego to and see Ceca and then I can die” says a visibly drunk þ ü kih klubova [Turbobusiness of FolkClubs]” (Roma ethno-folkfrom singer Niš) can be understood birtije ) to so called elite clubs’ elite called so to ) 179 As well as being asrural portrayed or th Zagreb high school]. Zagreba Nacional 178 Nacional and that ‘in contrast þ ka zlatnamladež 177 424(Zagreb, Nacional cited young kr þ me 684 ) on 48 ) CEU eTD Collection stated that he can ‘more than successfully...position [his music] against aggressive, eastern aggressive, [his music] against he can‘more stated than that successfully...position against the east’. the against Buli turbofolk, exhibiting thus increasingly localised of patterns ‘Nesting Orientalisms’. Mate from distance themselves folkto singers partof the effort on hasbeenaconcerted there somewhat closer than Oliver Droagojevi Oliver than closer somewhat the last ten years tens of thousands of new of of thousands years tens last ten the that in whereforgotten largely newthe SplitHercegovina, hasbeenfrom audience recruited invokes turbofolkdemarcate long to ( term Splitresidents 185 Dalmatia]” aggressiveness. and primitiveness of their asevidence is seen quick journalistic cliché’. shamingas samemilieux the (commonly in Hercegovina being notion thatthe turbofolk rehabilitated of Baker writes Serbian Tool Turbofolk3.7.3 asaDiscursive turbofolk is ‘unfortunately, omnipresent’. 184 Beautiful”, 637-639;Bellamy 183 182 List Jutarnji Brena]” Lepa and the decay of the city’s urban spirit and rock scene. 181 180 Baker, Boris Dežulovi is “Balkan Lindstrom and Rasza see Croats of Hercegovina stereotyping the about more For Baker,Music, Popular168. Peri Kostelnik, “The Decline and Fall”; Jansen, “Orijentalizam” ü , a singer who could be categorised as singing NCFM, described himself asa‘barrier himself NCFM,described assinging be categorised couldwho , asinger ü et. al. “Moja Štikla: Hrvatski folk ili nova Lepa Brena [Moja Štikla Croatian folk or anew The concept of Turbofolk is frequently used to as an exclusionary device in Croatia. as andevice exclusionary to frequently isused of The concept Turbofolk Popular Music Dani (Sarajevo, 5July 2002). ü 185 “Kraljice Marakane u Slobodnoj Dalmaciji [Queen of Marakana Stadium in Free Duško Kuliš, another Hercegovina folkKuliš, Hercegovinadeclared Duško (self another singer , 167. 182 Croatian National Identity The alleged penchant for turbofolk on the part of Hercegovinans of part the on turbofolk for penchant alleged The ü 181 [a native Splitsinger]’. native [a Spli ustaše ü ani music and insignia)has developed into ‘a have moved, and towhom , 93. 180 As Spli Jutarnji List 183 ü ani Journalist Boris Dežulovi Boris Journalist 184 Yet within Yetwithin Hercegovina, ) from newcomers. ‘It is journalists observe, journalists narodnjaci narodnjak are 49 ü ) CEU eTD Collection 190 Dalmacija stances, it has remained a marginal object of interest to critical observers in interest Branko Croatia. tocritical itobservers of a marginal has stances, remained object varying of range a articulated and years in recent turbofolk towards views conventional Turbofolk of views Alternative 3.7.4. kitsch cheapness, and ‘Balkanness’. a rhetorical tool with which to endow Severina’s musical endeavours with the connotations of and widerpublic the to and explanation attention media demands that anoccurrence interest, sensationalist manner. In either case the contentious nature of turbofolk makes it a subjectinvolved of in ‘Serbian style’ nickname). her of equivalent show business or to at least to present Severina’s career in 189 symbolism national and (Dalmatian) regional such with singer Croatian 188 187 stated ‘ ‘turbonarodnjak’) fullblooded as a Gas(described her Gas newsingle to headline reacting Serbia and the incorporation of oriental insounds hermusic. often with cruxbeingthe her evident ‘Serbianisation’; from her with music work producersin inCroatia articles tabloid broadsheet and countless triggered musical figureshave Serbian the body with a weak immune system. And with my songs I avoid that’. real folk songs against turbofolk]” against songs folk real turbofolk’ 186 See Baker,ibid. 742-746. Robert Pauleti See Baker “ Ibid. Tanja Šimundi In contrast to Serbia where a number of public figures and academics havechallenged figures and academics public toSerbia of where anumber In contrast Collaborations between Croatian most between (arguably Collaborations famous and the singer)Severina Kako jeSevepostala (Split,17 May 2008). 186 He describes how turbofolk has ‘infected our youth youth He likealmost turbofolk has ‘infectedour describes how flu the attacks Štikla ü ü “Pauleti -Bendi controversy”. ü “Duško Kuliš: Pravim narodnjacima protiv turbofolka [Duško Kuliš: With ü : Kako je Seve postala 189 ɋHɜɟ The concept of horroris Theconcept of thata turbofolk of invoked either out Slobodna Dalmacija ’ (‘How Seve[erina] became Seve[erina] (‘How ɋHɜɟ (Split,20 April 2008) [How Severina became 188 ɋHɜɟ A ’ 187 , the Serbian Cyrillic Serbian the , Slobodna Dalmacija ɋHɜɟ 190 ]” had become Slobodna 50 CEU eTD Collection group Croatian caseof motifs. The folk on relies music which inthecaseof vilify, particularly remainsitpotency metaphor can be and as as todistance a rhetorical invoked and devise Its many, others. popularity amongst enduring its amongst negative strong reactions despite visible in tandem with Miloševi the with association turbofolk’s predates orientalist the rise of NCFM. It andhas its character NCFM/turbofolk peasanturbanite basis on kitschthe aesthetics, against of also outlived levelled criticism Clearly decade. last in the space cultural itYugoslav in (post) – prompted turbofolk still provokes 3.8 Conclusion to Balkanistthe discourse of hybridmusical forms. was influenced by Hercegovinans who ‘culturally gravitate toward east’ the toward gravitate who‘culturally by was influenced Hercegovinans and culture civilisation’ European Western sphere of of the Croatia‘as part that helaments hasits habits’. cultural kept provincial that society Croatian the in elite riche nouveau of ‘emergence the and song’ dance trivial and the awareness of the majority of the population that one can easily submitto a commercial education ‘Poor and includingfactors to be attributed music can dance Croatian popularity of Croatia. hasKostelnikfor an written a chapter musicedited worktreating the declinerock in of 1990s 193 192 191 Ibid, 22, 28. Ibid. 31. Kostelnik “The Decline and Fall of Rock” Magazin This chapter has outlined the principal inThis has hasthemes chapter theprincipal that turbofolkoutlined discourse the 191 This is however, of limited analytical use. Kostelnik concludes that the rise in rise the that concludes Kostelnik use. analytical limited of however, is This discussed in the next chapter illustrates this well (see 4.4). 192 Rather than explaining the social processes at work, ü regime; such discourse is discourse such regime; 193 and adds thus 51 CEU eTD Collection framed in national terms. are still similar, although patterns, these alternatively whether or national the transcends Balkan of suggests the a pan-Balkan cultural identity somestates emergence sort of which in in culture popular similarities the whether explores then Theconclusion audience. external be can stereotypes meaningsand for alocal the inverted, changed commodified and/or howBalkan shows themes these examining three, in chapter discussed already discourse much negativeand whichcharacterised purely the of from stereotypes Balkan.Departing sections atself-exoticism look in (or‘ethno’) turbofolk (4.3)and‘world’ music relation to regional and are to Bulgariaan and Romaniaextent shows that many of the criticisms generalisable of turbofolk are mirrored across Albania,folkthe inneighbouring generated genreshave that of A comparison discourse the across the andperiod. post-socialist flows inthelatter in Balkans increasedthe trans-national partly to Balkan region. Thetheir third origins and fourth showscomparable toturbofolk Showing (4.2). the interplay between variousthe styles in of terms that turbofolk did not develop in isolation. It owes its origins at least Power his regarding notes Gordy that retrospectively apoint problematic, analytically than a metaphorical sense (or as more than a asmorethan (or sense ametaphorical than performers national juxtapose rock/pop and lobbied behind the cause. To inmoreturbofolk 1990s. By turbofolkso I seektodemonstrate that uniquein doing many wasnot its of that examines music as instrumentalised by nationalist in agitators Croatia and Serbia in the 4. inthe RegionalContext Turbofolk 194 Gordy, “Reflecting on the . 194 This chapter examines turbofolk in the regional context. The first section The first section (4.1) context. in regional the examines turbofolk This chapter The second section examines hybrid folk styles in the Balkan region which which region are in folk hybrid The styles Balkan the examines secondsection Culture of Culture Power ” relative position at a point in time) is in time) a point at position Culture of 52 CEU eTD Collection reproduced this in contemporary colloquial forms characterised by obscene portrayals of by portrayals obscene forms characterised incolloquial this contemporary reproduced anditmusic, folk rock poetry, of pop, Serbo-Croatian astock familiar Drawing upon Serbian cultural Serbian cultural symbol. inpeoples, be 1990s the it and appropriated came to wars as associated an exclusively with the occurred ‘Serb’(Asimilar transformation product. certain autochthonous as anallegedly potency gave ita spacehowever, national Croatia from It’s exclusion trait. than specific a genre rather trend musical a general of part as be seen can NCFM of instrumentalisation nationalist Hrvatsku novi val Miloševi intelligentsia. exampleFor musician rock Boro cause, nationalist of the champions became regime socialist the of critics sharpest the amongst were who musicians time emerging nationalist andfracturing regimes political in units’ Yugoslavia. zabavna 1990s 4.1. The Nationalist Instrumentalisation of Music: Comparing Croatia andSerbia inthe 195 Hrvatska (Ambiguous Identities inthe New Europe, Special Issue, 1997). Dayton” to Versailles from Balkans the in Geography 197 196 198 Rasmussen, Baker Ibid. Marko Živkovi A new genre of ‘war songs’ proliferated in the beginning of the Serbo-Croatian war. Rasmussen holds that a large majority of musicians of diverse genres (NCFM, genres diverse of musicians of majority large a that holds Rasmussen , rock, bandKazalište Prljavo nationalist pre-empted mobilisation with 1988 the Popular Music ü (Stampfeet your and say all for Croatia) andplayed atHDZgatherings. The (Croatian Rose). and advocating an ultra-nationalist alternative. In Croatia formerly socially critical socially formerly Croatia In alternative. an ultra-nationalist advocating and Newly Composed izvorna ü “Violent Highlandersand Peaceful Lowlanders: Uses andAbuses ofEthno- gusle , 60. , a single stringedmusical instrument. While common to all Yugoslav ) ‘supported, either explicitly or tacitly, the official positions of the 198 197 ) They continued with 1993album Theycontinued with the , 197. 196 mirroring the prior of nationalisation of the Serbian ý orba in Serbia for betweensupport wavered Replika: Hungarian Social Science Quarterly Lupi petamairecisveza 195 At the same Ruža 53 CEU eTD Collection brothers, I’m a peasant from Zagreb you’llpal, soon sing in German...here we come toplunder all you;of My Zagreb up aSerb Barbarian stereotype.Zagrebian ‘Good chicks, they were like toys us; to Ah my chauvinistic response in the same melody from Bora encounter between formertwo friends andnow opposing soldiers. This was followed by a released the1991 203 of were. warsongs of the play ‘utopia, on words Yugoslaviathe and adapted to glorify to nation.adapted and team lyrics with Split Hajduk and Belgrade Partizan both from fans football ultra-nationalist 202 Trauma and Catharsis Orgazam’s 201 lyrics represented. lyrics subgenre. indicate supportthe substantially regimesnot appears did respective the to that networks, informal andsolddivision inCroatia) inkiosks whichwastypically through pirated distribution formostnetworks unofficial music Xlater inwar (see page for section this this 200 Research, 1998)9-28, 17-18. war. inthe actors 39; Svanibor Pettan “Music, Politics and War in Croatia in the 1990s: An Introduction” in Svanibor Pettan (ed.), Introduction” An 1990s: in the in Croatia War and Politics “Music, Pettan Svanibor 39; 199 Cited in Rasmussen, Newly Composed, 197-198. Dragi Ivan Gordy, Rasmussen, “Bosnian and Serbian Popoular Music”, 61-62; Longinovi ý Some musicians engagedby in dialogue song. Croatian new wave rocker JuraStubli Often these songs used the same melodies and symbols with the respective nation’s ü olovi evi Culture of Power Igra rokenrolcelaJugoslavija ü Music, politics and war: views fromCroatia -Šeši ü “Football, Hooligans in andWar” Nebojša Popov (ed.), ü , Ej mojdružebeogradski 199 200 Neofolk Kultura (Budapest: CEU 2000) 373-398,Press, 385. In both Inboth Serbia productionand Croatia the poor quality and limited ý  202 olovi , 131; Longinovi, 131; ýDþ ü shows for example how anti-war Serbian band Elektri ak, don’t let me finish all you.’of , 192. 201 RadioB92 produced aspecial programme ü , “Blood and Song”, 637. (All (All dances andYugoslavia rock roll) used was by topiti (hey my Belgrade mate), dealing with awartime with dealing mate), Belgrade my (hey – to melt) to convey just how similar many (Zagreb: Institute of Ethnology and Folklore and Ethnology of Institute (Zagreb: Ĉ or ÿ evi ü (of Riblja 203 The Road to War inSerbia: ü , “Blood , “Blood and Song” 637- ý orba) who takes Yu-Topije þ (a 54 ki ü CEU eTD Collection previous section observes. Thompson’s as market flourishedthe media on black the by though varyingstate marginalised degrees to and ‘Balkan’‘European’ as opposed to stylistic elements. democracy and peace’ (sung in from included English) footage Brussels and EUflags. all wantstars...we Croatia of Europe’s beone ‘Let – leanings andEuropeanness democratic homeland). Iv 208 convey political anappropriate sense often gatheringsto of sung at sorts of anthem national a pop became It aggression. Serbian the of face in dissent mostfamous performers of all genres participated, communicating that there was no room for cause – ‘there is Croat the of only righteousness the one emphasising truth’this, reflecting lyrics the and Croatia’, of ‘theunification whole world is now with us’. Tuti Zrinko producers, show-business well known two of tutelage musicians the under androck Croatia. produced two of warsmostthe this iconic of 1991 kind,the songs 207 Homeland)by Hrvatski Band Aid (Croatian Band Aid) and Tomislav Iv and democracy. Croatian state television ( television state Croatian and democracy. appeal in cause andwarlegitimated independence ‘European’valuesof of a wayto to civility 1991-1995 warand received mostthe airplay.Croatia wasglorified in these songsand the categories. ‘alternative’ 206 205 204 Baker, Senjkovi CatherineBaker, Pettan, “Music, Politics and War”, 19. ima samo jedna istina.../...cijeli svijet jesada sa nama ü and Rajko Dujmi Rajko and More pro-ustaše variations on the war theme contained a more aggressive message aggressive a more contained wartheme the on variations pro-ustaše More Svanibor Pettan categorises Croatia wartime popular music into ‘official’ and ‘official’ into music popular wartime Croatia categorises Pettan Svanibor The Hrvatski band Aid project gathered ‘all but a handful’ of Croatia’s active pop Popular Music ü and Duki þLü ’s Popular Music Stop theWar in Croatia ü “Virtual Homeland”, 53. , 61. 204 ü Official music cohered with official Croatian narratives during the during narratives Croatian official with cohered music Official . 205 Tuti , 48. ü described the project as ‘a musical symbol of the ý avoglave Hrvatski RadijoiTelevizije of the same era strongly emphasised Croatia’s ), Baker, is considered as paradigmic of the Popular Music 208 As a result they were domoljub Moja Domovina 206 þLü , henceforth HRT) , 49. Most of Croatia’s ’s Stop theWar in (love for the 207 and is and (My 55 CEU eTD Collection 213 212 contribution and the politicians criminals) known between some performers, particular relationships of NCFM andbe keptin mind. turbofolk‘making Turks out of Serbs’ and the rejection of turbofolk on the part of the far right should to threatens it’ the nationalist a ‘symbolnational homogeneity eachof andSerbianhood refuge of externalpressure time as commentators some by viewed being as well as sentiment) national popular reflecting thus causenationalist seems appropriation extent. greatest the to relatively this which exhibited due to its association itculture’ newly-composed she was ‘populist affirms that degrees ofwaridolatry. However as theweak. ordinary and various exhibited bywardiscourse culture’) wereaffected rock ‘urban’ ‘youth and people’s [narod] allbelieves that shesheof models cultural inidentifies, what the (including termsthat Serbia music (and 211 in werehighly warandthe early 1990s. Dragi nationalisticthe themes evident Moja Domovina collecting arange musiciansof from generationaldifferent and stylistic background (e.g. of processes Thehomogenisation at war’. wasnot ‘Serbia becauseofficially in occur not did of wareffort. the discourse hegemonic broadly the within contestation for room the demonstrates she and division a binary not a‘continuum’, be should divisions regardedas the in considers that and complicated practice intodivision official musical madeand alternative manifestations by was more Pettan alternative variation of war music and remains a well known song. known well a remains and music war of variation alternative 210 209 Rasmussen, Ibid, 187-188 Dragi Baker, Pettan, “Music, Politics and War”, 19. Despite some clear links between turbofolk and Serbian ultra-nationalism links and between someDespite turbofolk (in clear Serbian ultra-nationalism In Serbia in the early 1990s the sort of state In Serbiain HRT engaged engineered early that the sortof state productions 1990s the ü evi Popular Music ü 213 -Šeši Newly Composed However at the same time the nationalist discourse which berated turbofolk berated which discourse nationalist the sametime the at However ) did not occur inbombing.occur Nevertheless thenot 1999NATO ) diduntil during Serbia ü Neofolk Kultura , 62. , 198. , 187. 210 212 NCFM proved to be NCFM particularlyvulnerable to proved to 209 Baker observes that this that Bakerobserves ü evi ü -Šeši ü 211 56 CEU eTD Collection where she claims that 80 per cent of concert goers arefemale. cent concert 80 per of that where she claims diaspora) (for the abroad inher concerts with particularly women, popular is predominantly further masculine) Cecahermilitary from maintains associations work, (presumably that she Asclaimmusical divorce thenationalistdoes not ona iftrying basis. to and reputation this notoriety militaryhas both Thompsonthat gainedfrom his persona love songs’. they are all repertoire; extent. ‘Although Iconsidermyselfbig Ihave a patriotic patriot, notone song inmy an musicalthis careerto her from she separates equivalent) (with as herCroatian Thompson 217 216 56-57 (cited in Gordy, similar fashion had’. never it in that, reality, power folka political turbo affords regime-association it gave certainly ‘the music’s by inguilt that commenting appears correct a degreeof potency, Rasmussen bent folkloric its and Croatia from exclusion its after Serbia with specifically genres ofneofolk While the identification involvedbecame innationalistgenres agitation. musical variey whereby a showsexamples casesof Comparingof and Croatia the Serbia 215 214 Sav Taj Folk Sav Taj Folk Teofil Pan Teofil Rasmussen, “Bosnian and Serbian Popular Music”, 90. While Ceca is generally imagined at the far extreme of Serbian nationalist turbofolk nationalist farof atthe Serbian imagined extreme is While Ceca generally turbofolk machinery could think up in nextthe two hundred years! is more simpleminded archaic ( kitsch archaic is more simpleminded ‘nationally grounded’ creative works ( creativeworks ‘nationally grounded’ respectedmost of cultural supplements magazinesour literary the and respectable years our of models retrograde andstrategies shouldSerbian discourse of ten read again last the dominant the for responsible as dailysubculture turbofolk the regard who those All paper: in the endless poems of the ‘Kosovo cycle’ and other þLü “Slika Orijana Džeja (The Picture of Dorian Džej)” ofDorian Picture (The Džeja Orijana “Slika Vreme Power of Culture music critic Teofil Pan Teofil critic music 216 , 160-162). Her role as Arkan’s wife is sufficient to engender to issufficient wife asArkan’s Herrole þLü umotvorinama arhiki writes þ ) and slimy ( ) which will be found there, there 217 Vreme Zabave Vreme sluzave and musical content. She content. musical 215 ) pathetics than the (February 1995, 214 In a 57 CEU eTD Collection hybrids at a regional Balkan level Music trendsofBalkanHybrid 4.2 Regional sing in Serbian/Croatian for the sake of a widermarket. while Macedonia isinvolved in the Serbian and Croatian show business scene, e.g. many performers by proxy – partof Albanian cultural/political space encompasses Western and Northern Macedonia political features as the former Yugoslavia, more so than Greece or Turkey. Macedonia is examined 218 inall observable Balkan states. is of other’ ‘internal threateningthe the presence national bounded of culture, conception of ethnic minorities within hybrid folkis scenes music negatively evaluated against a aesthetics, rural, oriental and uncivilised ‘Balkan’ qualities. Thenature and oriental presence consistently being on basiscriticised the of an expression ‘lowof exhibiting culture’ poor folk hybrid genres.As with Serbianthe case, is apattern visible whereby turbofolk is hostility). Thirdly, (andmedia even in faceof outright state support phenomenon the whichcan without thrive similar discourse patterns argue.The suggestsdetractors regionalit is picture of apost-socialist part grassroots emerged in the popularity from turbofolkgrassroots as claim, ratherenforcedfrom defenders or as above region in responsewhether this,it brings stemmingquestion to intoturbofolk development, wasanorganic as to the new phenomenon but aSerbianrather manifestation a regional of stemming Secondly,trend. from nota specifically it Firstly,countries was isa turbofolk Serbian suggests that useful exercise. turbofolk in formerthe post Yugoslavia to socialist hybrid musicforms in Balkan other Here Bulgaria, Albania and Romania are examined in detail as they share some similar socio- This demonstrate section muchseeks to that of surrounding discourse the new folk 218 resembles that in Serbia and Croatia. Comparing Croatia. and in Serbia that resembles 58 CEU eTD Collection muzika primarily with the dissemination of pirated cassettes. Cea underthe practices harsh toassimilationist subjected time were atthat which violated thenational culture) and the of presence Roma performers inthisscene who eradicate the musicto its inthe1980s both Serbian due to (and ‘foreign’ nature, qualities thus were soldin aired andneither music wasthe media. began circulate in andto NCFM audio 1970s the cassettes 1980s. of their origins toYugoslav NCFM inand 1990s the were influenced by turbofolk. muzic Timi As aresult Montenegro, Western Macedonia) Montenegro, 224 223 222 221 categories musical hybrid of exchange and dissemination development, Regional 4.2.1 220 219 is known as folkmusical thatemerged hybrid inBulgaria 1990s. in In the Romania asimilarphenomenon style, andtherefrain Greece, insteadoffrom only a Kurkela, “Chalga”,146. Ibid, 107. Ibid. Ibid. Beissinger, “Muzic Cited in Sugarman, “The Criminals of Albanian Music”, 271. The first verse is from Turkey, the second verse is from Serbia, the third verse is in Gypsy ă , (wedding music performed mainly by Roma bands) made its way into Romania. into way its made bands) Roma by mainly performed music , (wedding oriental In becoming NCFMinfluencedBulgaria, Yugoslav well performers, domestic known In the Romanian Serbianof musiciansregion Banat, performed atweddings and Chalga ( ă muzic ú ɱɚɥɝɚ became popularundergroundinitiated became forms,measures despite government oara (the capital of Banat) and Southern Romania became centres where the where becamecentres Romania andSouthern Banat) capital of (the oara ă Oriental ă – also called popfolk or ethnofolk) is the most common name for a oriental ă ”, 106 ă and in inhabitedAlbanian lands (Albania, Kosovo, muzika popullore instrument] (Announcer on Kosovo Radio, 2002). 221 . All three genres in some way owe part 224 bouzouki From the south, Bulgarian Whenlackedit genreemerged the a they’ve put a 220 No official recordings official No ú escu regime. escu çifteli svatbarska [Albanian 223 222 219 59 CEU eTD Collection as another source of source as another andfunctioned Turkey Kosovo) bordering (apartof from Serbia between Bosniaks Sandžak links Commercial in sang these who Serbian. as Muharem Serbezovski such performers space beyondinhabited areas Albanian by recordings the of cover versions byRomani Yugoslavia 1980s. the during recordings of cassette audio and genres various Turkish based on patterns rhythmic pre-programmed with came equipped Macedonia. and whohadleft Yugoslavia since theSecondWorld Warhadbutlinks maintained with Kosovo influence. Cultural migrants,exchange viaTurkey tens with of occurred Albanian thousands was present since its inception in of allparts Albanian inhabited Yugoslavia as a direct 229 Orientalisms’, ‘nesting of concept the to Adhering singlelabel but insisted prototypes’. commentators it from ‘Serbian ethnopop derived 228 227 226 225-268, 233. Ecumene: Music, ImageandRegional Political Discourse (ed.) Buchanan A. Donna in Cosmopolitanism? Balkan or 225 of emergence NCFM was considered both ‘own and close’. – for Bulgarians of product consumption make it itan to attractive combined business scene) western its trappingsnature socialism of with glamorous and Yugoslav in home’. andyet‘closeranything to Bulgaria produced than ‘more western’ Yugoslav NCFM wasconsidered itthat has been suggested ‘westerness’, Sugarman, “Albanian Music”, 287. Noel Malcolm. Buchanan, “Bulgarian Ethnopop”, 233. Baki Donna A. Buchanan, “Bulgarian Ethnopop along the Old Via Militaris: Ottomanism, orientalism, ü In the AlbanianIn inhabitedlands the Balkans,the of cultural the led transmission which to Hayden “Nesting Orientalisms” muzika popullore 228 Kosovo: A Short History Albanianmusicians inMacedonia purchased synthesisers Turkish which arabesk arabesk and Turkish other genres. In 1990s the with openingthe of 229 occurred occurred on a number fronts.later of NCFM (and turbofolk) At the same time in Serbia, in time same the At stars were sent as gifts to remaining family members in members family remaining to gifts as sent were stars (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 322-323. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2008) 226 Balkan Popular Culture and the Ottoman patterns of patterns of perceived gradations 227 The comparatively more liberal more The comparatively arabesk began enterpublicbegan to estrada (show 225 60 CEU eTD Collection 233 knows no‘Arkan’, ‘Artborders’. (in)famously retorted, of paramilitary wife music Ceca, heof the sold askedwhy seller when a market Sarajevo lowin levels andspaces. marginal continuedalbeit at cultural exchange Serbo-Croatian recognised, officially not while thus and directions both in flourished piracy 4.2.2 Comparing Regional Discourses of Music to Turbofolk ofMusicto ComparingRegionalDiscourses 4.2.2 for’. yearned Sarajevo post-war clean ethnically almost and thatby soldiers the Army suffering‘Turbofolk of Bosnian the was only the – product Serb foundnumber 1996the himselffor inearly a conduit of albums requested Serbian turbofolk club scene turbofolk ofitsprovided with source the techno sound. Croatian thecreation musicin theearlywhichdance facilitated of a Belgradedance 1990s of that theproliferation suggested ithas been In reverse, the flavour. decidedly ‘Croatian’ provided Croatia with rawmaterialsenough repackage NCFM elements to ofit, albeitwith a domestic musicmusical Nevertheless common Yugoslav scene. the untilmarket 1991 already resemblances to turbofolk and the ‘eastern melos’ of NCFM was a recurring criticismin influences from tandem with manyGreece, where hadAlbanians begun to. emigrating in the across entirecommunity Albanian the root take theseto influencesbegan borders Albania’s 232 of Performance”. Politics “The see Baker space 231 230 canbeconsidered This of discourse backwardness. type its primitivism and supposed due to by bethreatened wereperceived ofnational identity to which certain understandings leadingturbofolk inSerbiaand Croatia,heatedpublic to debatesinthe 1990sbased on Cirjakovi ‘Dimitrijevi Yugoslav in transnationalism musical ofinter-republican resumption ofthe examination an For Rasmussen, “Bosnian and Serbian Popular Music”, 88. The ‘moral panic’ generated by generated panic’ The ‘moral in embargo 1990s early the ade-facto wasunder music In Croatia whereSerbian ü , NIN ü , NIN . . chalga in Bulgaria is remarkable similar to that of that to similar remarkable is Bulgaria in 232 233 Similarly a Serbian journalist aSerbian Similarly 230 Despite embargoes, Despite 231 In war time chalga 61 CEU eTD Collection Cea 238 as excluding, at least or pushing margins, tothe ‘local the representedin other’ 237 236 235 234 society by national narratives belonging, of challenging ‘European’ andis used a cultural Bulgaria’s largest minorities, TurksandRoma. within contemporary post-socialist Romania. place their find Roma) (chiefly minorities national where as as well construct Europe/Balkan the in to liesboth relation Romania where about beliefs aesthetics’ –threatening of segments Romanian society by ‘challenging held deeply assumptions culture about and communism, ‘loudly crying against musiciansof againstestablished popandrock hadwho protested censorship during Romaand local Turks. of experiences from coming ‘uncivilised’ the sounds be and ‘strange’ deemedto‘bad’,‘vulgar’, were soundscape of what of national the in initiated 1999 byvarious December figures, cultural prominent ‘cleansing’ requestedthe national values’. national ‘defence of culture, of ‘authentic’ values...wrapped around definitions of national identity and ina frequently engage intellectuals Romanian that observes Katherine Verdery degenerating. as uncivilisedand are interpreted east the association with In contrast venerated. Westare the with wherebyassociations its following atrend from ‘Balkan’neighbours Romanian non-Slavic invoked narratives origins innational areoften distance nation the to position on Balkanthe andPeninsula romance the roots of Romanianlanguagethe and its in access media space’. Katherine Verdery. Katherine Beissinger,“Muzic Ibid. 208-209. Ibid. 208. Levy “Who is the ‘Other’ in the Balkans?”, 199. ú escu’s The explicit oriental tone of muzic of tone oriental explicit The Muzic Romania (Berkely: University of California Press,1991), 94;cited in Beissinger 132. ă oriental 238 ă National Ideology under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Oriental ă can be seen as an expressive form that both attracts and repulses 236 ă ” 97. chalga ă oriental and calling for new institutional control to limit 237 234 Like Croatia, Romania has a contested Romania Croatia, Like A petition to the Bulgarian parliament ă has a polarising influence in Romanian in influence a polarising has 235 Levy notes Levy notes ironythe chalga by 62 CEU eTD Collection interview. ‘Albanians are a Western people, but this music butthis [ aWestern people, are interview. ‘Albanians indirector Kosovo implicates Serbs in ‘orientalisation’the of Albanian inculture a 2002 ensure A cultural is production to acertain degree of video maintained. cultural authenticity monitoring of cultural production’. top-down no is there when happens what of ‘symptomatic is thus and oversight state of lack duetothe manyoccurred Albanian commentators to music Albanian modern according oriental ( garbage ( –deemed values aesthetic its firstly streams; main in three isdirected criticism the turbofolk, genre [ Beissinger notes the paradox most some that of notes the paradox the Beissinger well educated’. are relatively or who Romanians –the ethnic elite urban andlarge, the are‘by tothe city urban migrants itsperiod’, classesandnewrural detractors while working belong‘a hasnouveau-riche considered emerged to postcommunist the classthat to during shorthand dichotomous value which produces judgements. Itsfans are andsupporters 243 242 241 240 239 Ibid. 292. Ibid. 289. Sugerman, “Albanian Music”, 289. Ibid. 131. Bessinger,129, 131. muzika popullore Regarding Albania, that‘perhaps themostopines Sugarman striking aspectof the Eastern Europe. This isphenomenon unique not toRomania. Itwas and ishappening elsewhere in musicians‘Gypsy’ view Many identify. they which with genres traditional the as of throes altering the death hearthe also lyrics; some ‘banal’ and culture, ‘contaminated’ ‘alien sounds’, direction of Romanian popular culture, a trend they loath. their own perceptions of what ‘foreign’ means. Foes of within irony withoutseeingmusic the relishand American Western popular European outspoken critics of the ‘foreign’ nature of muzic of nature ‘foreign’ the of critics outspoken orientalizu shund ) or kitsch ( ), Turkish ( 240 ] ishow much Albanians love to say hate it’.they kiq frymë turke frymë ); secondly, as rural or peasant ( 243 This implies the necessity of elite driven national driven elite of necessity the implies This ) or Roma ( magjupsu ă oriental ). 242 katunarë muzic ă The development of of The this development , comes from those who those from comes , muzika popullore ă 241 oriental ); and thirdly, as Like the Serbian Likethe ă hear its ] had 239 63 CEU eTD Collection producers who may be more talented but lack important political connections necessary for necessary political connections lack important but who be may more talented producers connections tofor financial has gain, which been musicians detrimental to other and common criticism is in that these producers both Serbia andCroatia used political Amore socialist states. in be post is expected small to such a concentration that indicating ZrinkoTuti music scene shows a similar pattern whereby a small number of (Ton number a whereby asmall music pattern producers of similar shows scene Serbia suggesting this as evidence ofinorganic methods. production from imposed above. Gordy identifies numbera small (four) of networks in production develop as was butunderstood notrather an unnatural organically phenomenon did which forcing of turbofolk upon widerthe population as aninstrumentof his rule.Thus isturbofolk 4.2.3 Grassroots popularity of musical hybrids popularity Grassroots ofmusical 4.2.3 and heritageof as Ottoman the byinhabitants a state. experienced minorities,neighbouring appearstomanifestThis influencesfrom countries orient asresident inferiority orient. of the granted for of the and nation taken view the reveals an essentialist This Kosovo). in Serbs in Bulgaria, Roma and Turks in Romania, (Roma minorities national by isin national culture which propagated allegedly forms representsomething unnatural Forbothgrounds. cultural elites and asignificant partof opinion popular newthese musical culture’. associate the Albanians with Orient,the fundamentalism, andisn’t the like. our This orientalised Albaniansimposedhave agreatdeal.music TheSerbs so this on us asto 245 244 Gordy Ibid. 296. A dominant criticism of turbofolk music in Serbia is the Miloševi is the in Serbia music turbofolk of criticism A dominant Across the region the respective folk hybrids are criticised remarkably similar 244 The Culture ofPower Culture The ü , Rajko Djumi , Rajko , 133. ü ) work with large amount of domestic largeamount perhaps with of performers ) work 245 Yet the Croatian pop Yetthe ü regime’s deliberate regime’s þ i Hulji 64 ü , CEU eTD Collection 250 to Svetlana Veli Svetlana to pirated. in Romania percentof were forcassettes widespread piracy. exampleIn 1995over90 dueto contestable extremely are however figures Sales chiefly rock. ‘high genres, cultured’ states and transnationally inand region folk artists appear tohave consistently moreoutsold Audiohavemode cassettes been important of an transmission of folk-hybrids both within Mitrovi Serbiahave facilitated’ by Željko performers wasbelievedCroatian to to ‘greatly pop been return firstin within2000 politicalof post-war Croatia.to operate The scene the post copies. folkloric recordingmay sell 20,000copies,up to a folktop album could exceed70,000 popularity folk hybrid Kosovo,of where music. the most In successful ortraditionallypop the of indication an provide figures estimated Nevertheless internet. the on and form CD example, lauded often as a Miloševi beforPink –TV conflated ideology not should and of interests business Here the success. 249 248 247 246 transmission on radio or television. Folk hybrids media havethrived inCroatia and despite state hinderingRomania hostility its Beissinger,“Muzic Sugarman, “Albanian Music”, 279 Vesa Kurkela, “Music Media in the Eastern Balkans”, 181. Baker,Music, Popular196-197. Nacional 248 Across regionthe folkvarious hybrids exhibitpopularity.overwhelming grassroots 247 ü , owner of TV Pink and City Records. Serbianfolk starCecawas the best female selling in singer by Slovenia 2002. Currently pirated music is easily accessible in most Balkan countries both inaudio both countries Balkan most in accessible is easily music pirated Currently Editors “Slovenski hvalosjev Svetlani Veli þ kovi ü ă and criminal Arkan]” criminal and Oriental ă ” 128;Gaura “Tinejdžeri opijeni turbo-folkom”. 250 ü regime tool regimehas tool shown itis equallywilling and capable Nacional 246 363 (Zagreb,30 October2002). þ kovi ü i zlo þ incu Arkanu [Sloveneian eulogy 249 65 CEU eTD Collection search through the embassy, Idon’t care how such things work, I’ll get avisa, it’s urgent that many problemshave Alluding the Balkan citizens – ‘Iwill visasshe that sings to obtaining the name Mile), Kiti Mile), name the source for NCFM. In Vesna table, who cares about Europe? you in Nowhere cares about Europe? havetable, worldthe do who this!’ what’s is a dreamfor them us.Once every for [Europe] day again, Opa!Everyone uponthe favourableBalkan reference to hedonism. should ‘You nobody know has thelife wedo, that hear how we enjoy ourselves in the Balkans. jednom pa opa / zajedno svi na sto / ma, kakva Evropa / na svetu nema to! 253 252 reflected in song lyrics. Seka Aleksi in Seka lyrics. song reflected hedonistic of Theis aspects Balkans. the Balkans frequently affirmed with positive attributes and heterogeneous the celebrate to appears sources, BalkanandEuropean numerous hybrid genres thathave beenidentifiedin sections. previous the negotiated and undermined. This manifests clearly in caseof the turbofolk andcomparable inverted, indeedhas been stereotype Balkan the cosmopolitans, self-declared elites or 4.3 Inverting theBalkan Stereotype: Self-Exoticism (or Auto-Orientalism) 251 Nema niko, to da znaš / ovaj život kao naš / što je njima pusti san / to je nama svaki dan Ovaj / hejživot Još nije loš.../ Baš svi, nek Ivan Ĉ ý The very nature of from The very amix of nature turbofolkgenres, and comparable borrowed styles of In inarenasdominated by cultural unofficial not nationalspheres of Balkan states, olovi ogani invert Balkan similarly the ogani usingthe stereotype ü “Pride in the Balkans”, 9. ü is working abroad in Europe and his lover ( lover his and in Europe abroad isworking Nema više cileMile Nema više þ uju svi / kako se veseli na Balkanu ü ’s Balkan (‘The time for messing a (‘The time for aroundpun isover’, on 252 appeals, ‘this life is not bad...let everybody bad...let not is life ‘this appeals, Stoja’s Evropa ma, kakva Evropa , nasvetu nema to! 251 Gastarbeiter (Europe) similarly makes similarly (Europe) Ĉ ogani) wants to join him. join to wants ogani) 253 Mile Kiti Mile (Stoja, theme, long a Evropa ü and 66 ) CEU eTD Collection wars. hegemonic whichdiscourse western impetuswas given duringgreater 1990sYugoslav the to which parody parable intended and to debates of musical national understandings identity according dark and mentality’ ‘Balkan but rather asasemi-dramatic, sides stereotyped of satirical semi The snake replied, ‘Because we are in Balkans’. the weare ‘Because The snakereplied, snakethe him. bitAs sank, they youit? dogasked, the ‘why do did you’ll drown Now too’. agreed and the snake climbed onhisback and begancross. they toIn middlethe of riverthe snake bite.‘why I dothat? would ThesnakeIf you replied, would sinkI’ll The dog drown’. him across as the dog wasmet snakesleeve. Avenomous a dog ata Balkan snakeasked The riverbank. the dog to take able to swim. The dog said he would but was worried that the calling’. them my love. France orGerman Sweden woman iscan comparenot your to you,destiny,andhis songs the throughout girl –‘Noconfirms‘Balkan to isSwedish that better’ or there is no nochance chance I would myever love, cross thea Balkanborder with soul is I go to you, what women in love wouldn’t?’ 254 258 voljena šanse, balkanska/nema duša sudbina/zove 257 tvoja ni Švajcarska/nisu Francuska, Ni / voljena 256 255 koja žena kada voli ne bi Tražicu te preko ambasade / baš me briga da li takve stvari rade / ho Ibid. Levy, “Who is the ‘Other’ in the Balkans?”, 199-200. Ni Svedjanke, ni Nemice / ti nisu ni do kolena /da s njima predjem graniceBalkanu na / ma, moje nema je Srce sanse, Interpreting Contrary to the traditional dark image, this popular culture arrogantly celebrates the image, culturecelebrates arrogantly popular this Contrary to the traditional dark into a joyful consumption of pleasures forbidden by European norms and taste.It turns the lowermost picture of the Balkans upside down and converts the stigma In Bulgaria, a1998album by Slavi Trifonov, 256 chalga is enemy. viewedasthe chalga in terms of this positive inversion Alexander Kiossev writes 258 254 Additionally, it can be considered a scoff ascoff itbecan at Additionally, considered Kiti ü affirms that his heart is in the Balkans, 257 Levy viewsnot asametaphor for this Vavilon featured a story in the album ü u vizu, hitno idem tebe / 255 67 CEU eTD Collection 262 261 260 MIT Press,2002), 165-190; 184. ‘World Music’, detailedin followingthe section (4.5). hasyet’. one no them certified is aredead, Westerners lovehate. are all thatthey and just dead. It unpredictability, passions, nicebut issonice love inafakethere, life full andboringcountries...Everyone of way...I in thewestern bit a quite ‘Itravelled Niš; from director of theatre a words the In America. elites). European (andwestern vehemently local pro- form hegemonic as abold practices to of resistance from westor the emancipation asanecessary forin difference strategy search the particular Thiscanbeconsidered asone more Western sothan Europeans. loving and destructive, define passionate, helpto asirrational, of These Balkaners proud, types representations and Obrad Savi Obrad and 259 mirroring (selling) them back to the west’. constructions inherited form West,the reproducing themin theirartistic portrayals and andemployed ‘[R]espondents exotic cultural viable consciously borrowed product. Vol to according and commodity a become has Self-exoticism form. in reverse albeit dichotomy hegemony anddiscourse ofSerbia TheBalkans, resting and upontheBalkan/Europe west. the against Ibid. 168. Ibid, 163. Vol Alexander Kiossev “The Dark Intimacy: Maps, Identities, Acts of Identification” in, Dušan Bjeli þLü þLþ , a number of artists are able to convert Balkan marginalisation into a commercially into marginalisation Balkan convert to able are artists of number a , “neighbourhood” away“neighbourhood” from both Europe and the annoying official homelands. Balkan scandalous, intoagreat, is regression willing of akind intimate....It Balkans as they are: backward and Oriental, corporeal and semi-rural, rude, funny, but Vol , “the Notion of the West”, 162. þLü observes comments from Serbian intellectuals regarding Western Europe and Western Europe regarding from intellectuals Serbian comments observes ü (eds.) 260 Clearly essentialist, it exhibits a reverse ‘othering’ process launched it ‘othering’ process exhibits areverse Clearly essentialist, Balkan asMetaphor: Between Globalization and Fragmentation 261 This type still of discourse depends heavily on western 262 This is particularly important in the genre of genre in the important particularly is This (Boston: 259 ü 68 CEU eTD Collection 265 in Serbia]” Tomaševi Croatia)legitimised this inapproach music mainstream the scene. A 2008 song successful Eurovision (gainingplacing, 12points from most neighbouringincluding states the Eurovision Song Contest and became one the biggest hits of the last decade in Serbia. The musicimplying the that promises; ‘ancientness’ and ‘authenticity’. as a toact‘Balkan’ markerin not as shorthand sensebuta geographical certain for qualities, 264 Internet] with his 2004 singers. Turbofolk singer ‘ethno’/pop turned ŽeljkoJoksimovi and be aspecific ‘ethno’sound combinedcan music with orfolkpop and performed bypop neofolk identification due toits alleged authenticity and tradition. from steeredaway butsimultaneously activated isselectively stereotype Thus Balkan the ‘spontaneity, passion and emotion, atemperamentwhich totheends goes ofjoy and pain’. means This and temperament temperament. aBalkan for cultural roots ametaphor ‘Balkan’, ‘ethno’prominent groups and anumber of albums and derivativescompositions feature of cosmopolitan urbane. and cosmopolitan both resource, cultural valuable as a perceived frequently is contrary, on the Balkan context in the music’ ‘world or ‘ethno’ of category the internationally, connotations negative hold 4.4. WorldMusic and turbofolk 263 ý Ivan Ivan olovi ý ý In an effort to avoid ‘turbofolk’ categorisation, the inclusion of certain instruments While turbofolk and similar hybrid categories are viewed as degenerative and usually and areviewedasdegenerative categories hybrid similar and While turbofolk (Belgrade: Biblioteka XXvek, 2006). olovi olovi ü ü “World Muzici u Srbiji”. u Muzici “World Novi Zvuk (composed by Joksimovi (composed ü ü Lane Moja “Balkan u Naraciji o Etno: pri , 25.5.2004, 59-62. þ e omuzici sveta na Internetu which was based on this formula. The song came a close second in second a close came song The formula. this basedon was which 263 In the narratives of in music world of Serbia, Inthenarratives World ü ) followed this pattern. followedIt also this) with pattern. cohered new the Muzici u Srbiji [Balkan in the Narrative of World Music [Ethno: Stories about Musical World on the ü successfully achieved this 264 He observes that three Heobserves that ý olovi Oro ü considers by Jelena 265 69 CEU eTD Collection 271 270 1990s)includedthe aduetwith innotable Macedonian Roma musicianEsmaRedžepova Croatian group besuccessful. necessarily notmay strategy such a NCFM However category. turbofolk or provide legitimacy‘real’ folk for whileimplications theproblematic avoiding of the turbofolk. ‘widermistakenly population continues to enjoy their Balkanmusic with ‘oriental spices’ – For For be foreign ‘lest communicated shouldnot mistake to they Serbiafor Turkey’.audiences Turkish musical influences a as danger to nationalidentity the and thus assomething which Balkans and valuingRomanian, Bulgarian, Serbian Macedonianor styles equally,still views 269 past. Byzantine in the is placed focus a while marginalised still are legacy Ottoman the and influences ‘worldmusic’ whichcelebratesthe ‘Balkan mixture’, platform – the Eurovision Song Contest. folk –featuring ‘ethno’ musician BoroDugi this category entails byappealing a evenfurther to ‘world music’interpretation of Serbian that judgments the value songavoids the ininclusion NCFMcategory) the for certain criteria [Kosovo] once again’. once [Kosovo] makes allegorical reference to Kosovo – ‘On Vidovdan, wake me up, so I can look at him/it 268 267 model of nationalistin discourse culturepopular as identified by 266 Ibid. Ibid. ý See See ý Na Vidovdan / probudi me / da ga opet pogledam olovi olovi ý olovi ý In Croatia the ‘ethno’ or ‘world’ label is invoked in the same way as in Serbia, to in Serbia, as way same in the invoked is label ‘world’ or ‘ethno’ the Croatia In However despite the hybridity and multicultural nature of interpretations of nature of Balkan and multicultural thehybridity despite However olovi ü ü , “Balkan u naraciji World Muzici”, 62. “Kultura, Nacija, Teritorija”. Nacija, “Kultura, 271 ü it is evident however that the ‘ethno’ listeners are a minority in Serbia and the and inSerbia minority a are listeners ‘ethno’ the that however is evident it ü , Etno: pri Magazin 269 Ethno musician Bora Dugi þ 267 e o muzici sveta na Internetu (frequently imposingaccused of type NCFM upon sounds Croatia in Though composed’‘newly with a folksy sound fulfilling(thus 268 ü in medieval in robes on a decidedly European ü , while respectful of the synthesis of the ý olovi ü ý observes thethat Turkish olovi ü 266 (3.4.1). The song 270 70 CEU eTD Collection ‘home’. Both sets of connotations rely on the commodification as as well of stereotypes.nightlife wild and fun represents frequently it in turbofolk while multiculturalism ancientness, In authenticity musicand (limited) world Balkan represents interpreted. is meaning different self-exoticism, of form asa corpus musical their in ‘Balkan’ symbolic ismusic ofOttoman/Turkish. Whileboth exclusion ‘ethno’ the utiliseand turbofolk the ‘ethno/world’ region) in the hybrids musical of discourse of similarity the consider we if and ‘narodnjak’. ‘turbofolk’ in categorisation Evidentas or Balkan Serbian presumably (and exclusion of counterclaims by derided be to inclusion ‘ethno’ of claims allows This local. In isprocess. seenthis,turbofolk Balkan the often context inoppositionto asunvalued and as well Yugoslav context Yugonostalgia. as appealingto in‘ethno’ international an setting. His band BijeloDugme straddles rock/folkthe in divide a Serbian androck worldmusic.is His workwith Severina considered proof of her turn towards modern Balkan toancomposer international audience, Goran Bregovi kafana the while south the orient, own Serbia’s of symbol loaded particularly a are on, situation geography geography ‘ the Leskovac–Vranje–Kumanovo highway... [to]...the first 2002. 272 Baker, 272 is the source of folk music and a symbol of debauchery. World music allows ‘authentic folk’ to be consumed as part of a valued global The distance between turbofolk and world music can be marginal; the most famous most the music canbe and world marginal; turbofolk between The distance Weekly narodnjaci Popular Music južna pruga’ Nacional in some Croatian media discourses while Bregovi while discourses media Croatian some in , 169. (southern track), on which these Serbian/Macedonian towns are towns Serbian/Macedonian these which on track), (southern however called it a ‘trash- it called however narodnjak kafana ’. In Yugoslav symbolic Yugoslav In ’. ’ which followed ‘the ü is considered more considered is ü , transgresses folk, 71 CEU eTD Collection resulting in part from factors that are independent of are independent of political resonances. factors from that in part resulting patterns of musical similarity in the region as ‘evidence for both alliance and cleavage, and as by reads is contested elites. Sugarman butthisthe often markedly increased since 2000 while Serbo-Albanian Serbian, has exchange Croatianstagnated. and Bosnian has exchange Turkish and Romani elements. Romani and Turkish Bulgaria embrace of regional belonging. regional of embrace unqualified with an correspond haveto not does eclecticism Stylistic of artists. part the on intercultural of practises necessarily backedbyanacknowledgement not socialism,are these story. full the portray not does in ethno-nationalism mired commonalities intercultural of asanarea Balkans the of herBut portrayal become musical divisive. can forms contested infact and together bring people necessarily not heritage do cultural a common aspects of that Peevaconcludes states, inBalkan lyrics andinterpretations same with the song different film documentary recent aform Adela pan-Balkan identification? Peeva’s do these harkcultural towards trends of extent‘world’ music) ‘ethno’ sections asidentified inthe or thisbegs previous question,the – towardsapan-Balkanidentification? 4.5 Conclusion 275 Ethnomusicology 274 273 Sugarman, “Albanian Music,”301. Timothy Rice “Time, Place and Metaphorin Musical Experience and Ethnography” Sugarman, “Albanian Music”, 300. While cultural linksWhile cultural in arevisible hybridfolkforms andboomed sincethe end of Considering the growth of musicalpan-Balkan inhybridtrends folk genres(and an to chalga 47, 2(2003), 151-179, 42. has spaceprovided for an sense extended identity national of includes which Whose song is This? Whose song is 274 273 Serbo-Bulgarian exchange has proliferated sincethe1980s, hasproliferated Serbo-Bulgarian exchange Alliances vary between hybrid scenes. Rice writes that in that writes Rice scenes. hybrid between vary Alliances seems indicateto not. In search of variations of 275 72 CEU eTD Collection said to have occurred in (post) Yugoslav insaid tohave the late 1980s. since occurred cities (post) for processes urban decline whichare the andcultural provided asuitabledecay metaphor of turbofolk Armanisuitand/orwith oriental sound. Likethewhite socks, imageof an paired lyrics kitsch banal value, nature, its urban-peasant of account on objections coupled with the polemic) can be considered to symbolise a deeper problem in post Yugoslav states; the states; Yugoslav inpost problem deeper symbolise a be to considered can polemic)the and from The musical it3.2). pro departs anti (when to turbofolk preference division a purely areas beyond hasor ‘newly musical the metaphors (see expandedinto ‘turbo’ composed’ Zagrep urbane or Belgrade in anti-nationalists example for while that shows Discourse multiple. more potent style in Croatia than other Serbian music (for example rock or ‘genuine’ folk). music is which wars.This with widely theassociated 1990s makes association afar turbofolk ‘Tehranisation’mustBelgrade. Croatia ‘inundation’the preventof Serbian of turbofolk, must preserve its ownintegrity ‘Turkish’against or‘Islamic’ soundingmusic prevent to to ‘Nesting Orientalisms’turbofolkheightened is association. byadditional Thisshows a the Serbian of pattern – each cultural barrierthe internal Serbian orient, the south of Serbia ( is seen as a defenceoriental properties. In Serbia this orientis considered againstto be both the Turkish/Islamic other and the east. andits aesthetics, its newly allegedrural character itscriticised of urbanized interms poor or Serbia is whereby trendemerges acoherent presentday inthe and Croatia, turbofolk Serbia Turbofolk:Fromexclusion5.1 Balkanismand self-exoticism to 5. Conclusion 276 Jansen “White socks” “White Jansen þ The negative attributes that turbofolk is commonly said to contain contain are usually saidto is commonly turbofolk that attributes negative The Looking from at turbofolkof socialist developmentthe duringNCFM Yugoslavia to ani may criticise turbofolk due to its nationalist credentials this criticism is usually južna pruga ). In Croatia the oriental quality of 276 As a result, the use of 73 CEU eTD Collection dream isdream for them for[Europe] day us’. every degree, relying on a essentialist dichotomy of Balkan/fun versus Europe/boring –‘what’s a affirming ‘Balkan-ness’. This type of discourse can in turn Occidentalise the west toacertain and inverting stereotypes theBalkan concept, celebrate in categories comparable regional in paradoxically, form the of folk‘genuine’ music. globalappropriate worldor sound.This soundcanglobal befoundsometimes locally, which should consume valuedcultural the Western andof products Europe Americaan or alternatively,high culture suitablebounded or conception leaning the state of a European frequently articulated in relation to national values; the conception is of a nationRejection few. state a name to with a Serbian and Roma Turkish, include can orient (internal) This nature andand presence.urbanite oriental sound rural/peasant based onits kitsch aesthetics, nation states. Hybrid folk forms are rejected by sections of both the political right and left Byzantine rather than Ottoman heritage of heritageSerbia. of Ottoman than rather Byzantine excludes which is drawn line – a an extent to only but celebrated is multiculturalism ‘Turkish’music’, ‘world narratives of Serbian ‘ethno’ categorisation. In disparageappeal to an means bywhichto or ‘Oriental’discursive a as functions turbofolk context, Balkan the In music. turbofolk to reference with elements becontested can category ‘ethno’ The consumption. local/regional forlocal the commodifies fromturbofolk audience, ‘Western’) (usually international an for this commodified sounds local genre and a focus is made on the between the Miloševi rejection of large swathes of the population they seek to politically represent. communicateinability liberal of to urban with elites widerpopulation the and the symbolic 277 Stoja, In reaction stereotypesto and hegemonic discourse, some performers of turbofolk and The regional context suggests that (apart from the Yugoslav specific association specific Yugoslav the from (apart that suggests context The regional Evropa ü regime and turbofolk) discourse is extremely similar across the Balkan 277 While ‘world’ or ‘ethno’ music consists of consists music ‘ethno’ or ‘world’ While 74 CEU eTD Collection pattern does not appear tobean does not anomaly.pattern with causes turbofolkthis cohered – that nationalist served styles respective the varying the nationalistmore nationalist many than cultural forms, particularlyother inlast decade. the Examining instrumentalisation that itmobilisation resisted nationalist isany notat times,suggests certainly not evidence has turbofolk While themes. (Serbian) national than rather lyrics their in theme Balkan of music in Croatia and Serbia (4.1) shows that many Stoja, Mile Kiti Mile Stoja, clear of political themes appealing for an audience beyond thenational. Performers such as steer and space cultural post-Yugoslav this across perform artists mostturbofolk successful consumed widely by all national groups and her repertoire stays clear of patriotic themes. The folkYugoslav festival In scene. post-war the cultural space of Yugoslavia hermusic is pan- in the Ilidža of suburb Sarajevo in the career her began nationalism Serb with intersected as symbol turbofolkof ultimate the Arkan, posited turbofolk often of singer andwife the and rumblings withnationalist atodds the life’is with ‘satisfaction and dream’ ‘American the 1980s, duringdominated exemplifiedby thelatter variant andherYugoslav Lepa Brena on being by primarily guilty generallyassociation. Certainly interethnicthe NCFMforms which much ideological the of framework from which 1990s the cataclysm emerged with turbofolk provided which elite intellectual itwas theSerbian that out have pointed commentators other forms? Some commentatorscultural other to fromrelation in the phenomenon, region nationalistic anda particularly abroadis turbofolk Firstly, have four. declared so. On the other hand and three chapters of inmind theempirical research bearing refers backtothese questions section and this perspective, theregional examined Having turbofolk discourse examined 5.2 Someconcluding remarksabout turbofolk mitinzi In the methodology In section,number methodology the a of questions wereposed regarding turbofolk. (nationalist rallies) taking place across Serbia at the same time. Even Ceca, ü , Indira Radi , Indira ü , Seka Aleksi , Seka ü and Ĉ ogani are far more likely to invoke the likely to more arefar ogani 75 CEU eTD Collection maintenance of maintenancebarriers.it is While that asupranational performers of appeal existing clear to the well as identity a regional engender both to means the provide patterns cultural national styles. musical proscribed circumvent to styles musical similar and in Serbia lentitselfwidespreadand the region piracy,to enablingfactor of another turbofolk cultural flourishedin which exchanges Similarly political theregion. upheavaland economic transnational new on thrived turbofolk that argued convincingly be can it isolation, Serbia’s forms which had Rather previously dominated. than turbofolk that suggesting due to arose ofideologically nationally appropriate waned outside production or cultural the for allowing sphere upon cultural the dominance socialist state’s the simultaneously permeable while more became borders post-socialist that shows context regional The other. each with interacted have which music of styles Balkan between interlinks various the how shows 4.2 business in networks former Yugoslav republics. political/economicwilling toworkwith aswell post-2000 the with actors national as other areequally as pragmatic ideological turbofolk producers than rather businessmove alliance; Miloševi the between links While some business andappeal. countercultural displaying agrassroots somewhat as are extremely popular are performers and Bosnian by Serbian live concerts mediaon turbofolk, blanket agenerable despite asCroatia ratios highas3:1.In at sometimes genres, other outsell usually hybrids folk that demonstrates 4.2.2 section sales, music of in terms that and hostility driven) state or (elite official of face in the often networks shows hybridthat folk in forms Balkan the disseminatedregion frequently informalthrough grassroots popularity. forced upon Serbian the dueto populace ordeveloped 4.2.1 Section The in question second themethodology inquiressection whetherturbofolk was As discussed in the last section in the previous chapter (4.5) the emergence of (4.5)the emergence of trans- in chapter section previous the As discussedinthe last While turbofolk is often suggested as being an expression of Serbian isolation, section ü regime and turbofolk scene are clearly visible this can beinterpreted this can visible areclearly scene turbofolk and regime narodnajaci clubs 76 CEU eTD Collection http://www.24sata.info/mobile/vijesti/dogadjaji/6721-VIDEO-Lepa-Brena-uniformi-Vojske- Army in Br 281 280 o vremena dugo sam koji "Trenutak in summer Sarajevo. and Zagreb plannedlargein May mediaandBosnian response tothis for (late 2009) concerts arena inCroatian is Army forsurfacing currently RepublikaSrpska the support alleged war-time Lepa Brena’s surrounding example acontroversy For and rejected. contested are often appeals these audience), pan-Yugoslav or a pan-Balkan to example times, (for at audiences 279 Republike-Srpske-Brckom-Trenutak-koji-sam-dugo-vremena-ocekivala.html 278 value local imitation of British and Americanforms butis heldbegenerally toof high cultural withthose ‘Western’ cultures(for example which Yugoslav rock could also beconsidered a Turkish tunes ‘ as teenagers of Belgrade group beendescribedminimal. – asplagiarism bya areperceived has turbofolk exchanges Often example isanongoing since phenomenon Albanian-Serbian the 1980s, exchange appears for exchange Serbian-Bulgarian While uneven. and patchy is turbofolk as such culture produced and consumed at face value –space for ironic distance exists. Both and ironicturbofolk face exists.Both and for value–space distance consumed at produced simultaneouslyIt also exotic anddecadent. be should not assumed musicisthe that always but close and familiar it renders styles of fusion chaotic The imperialism’. ‘cultural which challenges bothtraditionalist, national conceptions and than pro-conservative and turbofolkconsider asliberating as transgressing of culture as well as ‘western hegemony’ audience. domestic of the by rejected parts they are often and Gruji See Gordy, the Culture of Power, 144 Malaševi See for example, S.B. “VIDEO / Lepa Brena uuniformi Vojske Republike Srpske u Br 280 ü Following the view of Gruji of view the Following ). Manifestations of regional identification do not occur coherently they notManifestations occur do, identificationand when ). of do regional “the inclusivenessof the Turbofolk 1-2. Scene”, þ ü ko: „The moment which I have waited a long time for“]" 24 Sati, Available Online at: , “Are there Nations on Planet Reebok?”, 186. 281 ’. 279 turbofolk (and related regional styles) can be regarded as a musical form canberegardedas a musical regional styles) turbofolk related (and Associations with eastern cultural forms are seen as lesser in value in value than lesser formsseen as are eastern cultural Associations with þ 278 the worst of the lowest taste….mere imitation of Greek or ekivala [Video / Lepa Brena in uniform of teh Republika Srpska Republika of teh uniform in Brena Lepa / [Video ekivala ü A regional identification based on new forms of popular who believes it is just as possible (to a certain extent) to extent) a certain (to possible as just is it believes who þ kom: 77 CEU eTD Collection of culture is actually not that great. that not is actually of culture forms pop alternative more rock, or between thedistance that this shows Perhaps their work. turbofolkAmadues, –Rambo Dap Tijana usually consideredas for not artists be a source engenders it can panicked the discourses þ evi ü and Let 3for example and these explore in themes 78 CEU eTD Collection Baker, Catherine. “Myth, War, Memory, and Popular Music in Croatia: The Case of Marko Ashbrooke, John. “Locking Horns in the Istrian Political Arena: Politicized Identity, the Secondary Sources Zlatar, Pero“Neda Ukradentuži Republiku Hrvatsku za200.000DEM! 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(Budapest: CEU 123-145. (Budapest:CEU Press, 2000), (Oxford: Oxford University 1997). Press, (London: Phoenix, (London: 1998) Democratic Transition inCroatia: Value . (College Station TX : Texas A & M Press), (London: MacMillan, (London: 113-134. 1997), Kultur (Cambridge and London: MIT Press, : SerbianJeremiads 1994-1995” Eastern EuropeanQuarterly Slavic Review Replika: Hungarian Balkan Popular The RoadtoWar in European journalof (University of (Oxford: Independent , 53, 2 The new , 31, 4 . 84 CEU eTD Collection Ginovi (Accessed on15May 2009) Web basedsources Viva laDiva and VladaT“Zaboravljena istorija srpskefolk-avangarde Forgotten [The Stojanovi S.C. Lepa Brena: Nisam ni Hrvatica ni Srpkinja, ja sam Jugoslavenka! [Lepa Brena: I am S. B.“VIDEO /LepaBrena uuniformi Vojske Republike Srpskeu Br Prnjak, Hrvoje. “Bratstvo i Jedinstvo u Pjesmi i Veselju [Brotherhood and Unity in Song and Papi Queeria. “Indira Radi Gordy, Eric. Ginovi ü , Žarana. “Europe after 1989: The Ethnic Wars, Fascizisation of Civil Society and ü ü online at: http://gayecho.com/common/newsprint.aspx?id=7333&burl=%2FMuzika.aspx%3Fid AvailalbleJuly at: 2008). online bother I am bother Icon]’ a Gay me that http://www.gayecho.com/vesti.aspx?id=8090&grid=2054 January Available2009). online at: http://www.gayecho.com/interview.aspx?id=8175&grid=4481&page=1 my gay son] Available Online at: Army in Br of Serbia] Symbolic Geography sam vremenadugo o _gb http://www.komunikacija.org.rs/komunikacija/casopisi/sociologija/XLIII_3/d01/html Body in Politics Serbia” (01December 2001)available online at: ------Nešto izme Nešto ------%3D7333%26grid%3D2052%26page%3D1 history history of Serbian folk-avantgarde]” ni-srpkinja-ja-sam-jugoslavenka/412754.aspx Available at: online neither Croatian nor Serbian, Iam Yugoslavian!]” vremena-ocekivala.html Lepa-Brena-uniformi-Vojske-Republike-Srpske-Brckom-Trenutak-koji-sam-dugo- alter.org/vijesti/kultura/bratstvo-i-jedinstvo-u-pjesmi-i-veselju/print:true Happiness]” H-Alter (Zagreb, 04November,2008) Available online at http://www.kabi.si/si21/IASPM/gordy.html Rockers Belgrade http://www.gay-serbia.com/kolumna/2002/02-08-14-folk_avangarda/index.jsp , Jordan. “Indirina Topla Bra , Jordan. “Indira Radi ü , Boban.“Seka Aleksi On UrbanIdentityin the Global Palanka: Perceptions ofSelfAmong http://www.gayecho.com/interview.aspx?id=4487&grid=4481&page=3 þ ko: „The moment which I have waited along time for“]" 24 Sati, Svet ü Gej 2008[IndiraIkona Radi (Belgrade, 7February Available2009). online at: . 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