Il Ruolo E La Funzione Del Falso Nella Storia Della Shoah

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Il Ruolo E La Funzione Del Falso Nella Storia Della Shoah IL RUOLO E LA FUNZIONE DEL FALSO NELLA STORIA DELLA SHOAH. STORICI, AFFAIRES E OPINIONE PUBBLICA Thèse en cotutelle entre l’Université de Bologne Alma Mater Studiorum et l’Université Paris X Nanterre (Ed 395 École Doctorale Milieux, Cultures et Sociétés du Passé et du Présent, Doc Histoire du monde contemporain). Membres du jury: Prof. Henry Rousso (rapporteur), Prof. Luciano Casali (rapporteur), Prof. Marie Anne Matard Bonucci (rapporteur), Prof. Alfonso Botti (Président du jury). «Citai di nuovo, per non diventare idillico in prima persona, il poeta che dice: “Quanto hai vissuto, nessuna potenza del mondo può togliertelo”. Ciò che abbiamo realizzato nella pienezza della nostra vita passata, nella sua ricchezza d’esperienza, questa ricchezza interiore, nessuno può sottrarcela. Ma non solo ciò che abbiamo vissuto, anche ciò che abbiamo fatto, ciò che di grande abbiamo pensato e ciò che abbiamo sofferto... Tutto ciò l’abbiamo salvato rendendolo reale, una volta per sempre. E se pure si tratta di un passato, è assicurato per l’eternità! Perché essere passato è ancora un modo di essere, forse, anzi, il più sicuro». Viktor E. Frankl - Uno psicologo nei Lager INDICE INTRODUZIONE p. 4 PREMESSA p. 15 CAPITOLO I QUESTIONI DI METODO STORICO p. 32 1. La dimensione di massa della storia contemporanea. p. 33 2. La storia del tempo presente. p. 37 3. Della difficile coesistenza di storia e memoria. p. 42 4. Il dovere di storia. p. 46 5. Sulla testimonianza. p. 51 6. Le testimonianze della Shoah. p. 56 CAPITOLO II FALSI TESTIMONI, ALCUNI CASI DI STUDIO p. 67 1. I primi falsari. p. 70 2. L’identità rubata di Binjamin Wilkomirski. p. 79 3. Il falso deportato repubblicano. p. 91 4. La Shoah come evento sovrastorico. p. 98 5. L’identificazione per empatia. p. 106 CAPITOLO III VERITÀ E MEMORIA DOPO LA CATASTROFE p. 112 1. La riflessione molto personale di Deli Strummer sulla Shoah. p. 117 2. La testimonianza: un testo che ha bisogno di interpretazione. p. 122 3. Lo strano caso di Herman Rosenblat. p. 132 4. L’onere della prova. p. 142 2 CAPITOLO IV LA MANIPOLAZIONE DELLE TESTIMONIANZE p. 149 1. Il pioniere. p. 155 2. “Il problema delle camere a gas”. p. 161 3. Le varianti di Kurt Gerstein. L’affaire Roques. p. 166 4. È autentico il diario di Anne Frank? p. 173 CAPITOLO V AUTENTICITÀ E FINZIONE p. 180 1. Il singolare destino di Yossl Rakover si rivolge a Dio. p. 186 2. La scrittura letteraria della Shoah e la porosità delle frontiere. p. 191 3. L’affaire Schwarz-Bart. p. 201 4. Levi, Wiesel, Semprún: scrittura e testimonianza. p. 206 CAPITOLO VI MEMORIA PUBBLICA E MEMORIA PRIVATA p. 220 1. L’affaire Aubrac. p. 223 1.1. L’affaire Barbie. p. 226 1.2. L’affaire Chauvy e il ruolo degli storici. p. 230 1.3. Un caso memoriale. p. 236 2. Alcide Cervi e i suoi sette figli tra storia, memoria e invenzione. p. 243 3. Verità storica e verità giudiziaria. p. 249 CONCLUSIONI VERITÀ STORICA E TRASMISSIONE DELLA MEMORIA p.268 BIBLIOGRAFIA p.279 3 INTRODUZIONE Quello del falso è un problema con cui si sono dovuti confrontare gli specialisti di ogni epoca storica, ma che ha subito un’accelerazione e un’esasperazione con la storia del tempo presente, anche per via della simultanea presenza dei protagonisti che hanno reso più complessa una scena storica e memoriale segnata profondamente dal rapporto tra storici e testimoni e dall’articolazione della memoria pubblica e di quella privata. L’evento che più acutamente ha risentito del problema del falso in età contemporanea è certamente il genocidio degli ebrei compiuto dai nazisti durante la Seconda Guerra Mondiale perché è proprio al cuore dell’impresa genocidiaria che è avvenuta la grande falsificazione che ha alimentato qualsiasi successivo discorso revisionista. La negazione dello sterminio, con il tentativo dei nazisti di occultare e distruggere le prove della loro colpevolezza, è infatti consustanziale allo svolgersi dei fatti operando così su due livelli: in origine, sulla cancellazione sistematica delle tracce e dei possibili testimoni; in seguito, sulle diverse tappe dell’operazione storiografica. Il sofisma negazionista in base al quale la realtà mortifera delle camere a gas può essere provata solo da chi le ha viste in funzione con i propri occhi, ovvero da chi vi ha perso la vita, mette in discussione non solo la concretezza storica dell’evento, ma anche, di conseguenza, la memoria dei sopravvissuti che, con la falsificazione della loro esperienza, sono costretti a fare i conti fin dai tempi della persecuzione nazista. Lo storico è divenuto così protagonista di una contemporaneità in cui storia e memoria hanno finito con l’intrecciarsi spesso in modo inestricabile e in cui il ricordo della Shoah, con la sua carica etica, ha fatto esplodere il problema delle frontiere tra vero e falso, tra realtà e rappresentazione, riconoscendo al testimone, in virtù dell’esperienza vissuta direttamente sulla propria pelle, un’esclusiva e legittima autorità sulla trasmissione dei fatti. L’emersione del testimone sulla scena pubblica ha posto pertanto in modo acuto il problema dello statuto della testimonianza rendendo l’analisi del funzionamento della memoria indispensabile per comprendere quanto un testimone sia molto più utile per la 4 descrizione, non tanto del fatto in sé, ma del modo in cui l’evento è stato socialmente codificato, registrato e trasmesso. Naturalmente, le inesattezze e le contraddizioni dei veri testimoni, anche quelle che a un esame attento si rivelano essere, come vedremo, solo apparenti, condividono con le false testimonianze vere e proprie solamente il contesto culturale e sociale in cui sono state prodotte o, meglio, la memoria di un fatto storico entrato ormai nella coscienza collettiva. Il legame tra i casi esaminati, pur nella loro estrema eterogeneità, spaziando da false autobiografie, come quella di Binjamin Wilkomirski, a testi controversi, come quello di Jean-François Steiner, o da racconti contestati, come quelli di Deli Strummer e Herman Rosenblat, a narrazioni che nel tempo hanno subito importanti variazioni, come nel caso Aubrac e nelle vicende del libro di Alcide Cervi, sarà stabilito grazie alla centralità giocata, in ognuno di essi, dalla forma testimoniale e dall’altrettanto fondamentale argomentazione in termini di affaire. Il termine affaire, ricorrente nel mio lavoro, non è utilizzato solo allo scopo di qualificare situazioni in sé intollerabili, ma per descrivere tutti quei casi in cui le reazioni, le opposizioni e la mobilitazione hanno giocato un ruolo determinante nel trasformarli in problemi pubblici la cui longevità può essere facilmente compresa nell’evidenza dello scarto tra le situazioni reali e la loro rappresentazione, in particolare la loro “messa in scena” mediatica. Molto significativamente, tutte le volte che gli storici, sollecitati, sono intervenuti nel dibattito, attraverso la stampa, hanno contribuito a incrementare l’affaire, invece che a ridurlo, mettendo in luce fino a che punto la posta in gioco nei diversi casi avesse delle implicazioni che andavano al di là delle semplici preoccupazioni storiche. Il problema del falso è stato perciò indagato all’interno delle ragioni storiche e culturali che hanno determinato la formazione discorsiva che ha per soggetto il testimone e la testimonianza come più autentico punto di vista sugli eventi del passato con le relative conseguenze sul piano storico e pubblico. Nella Premessa al primo capitolo, ho cercato di illustrare come falso e negazione siano trasversali alle vicende storiche, attraversino tutti i campi e spesso siano contemporanei ai fatti stessi. Alla base del pregiudizio antiebraico ci fu, per esempio, la calunnia che, in ogni epoca, ha funzionato da catalizzatore dell’odio, come dimostrano l’accusa di diffondere la peste, lanciata nel 1348 contro gli ebrei, o la pubblicazione dei Protocolli dei 5 Savi Anziani di Sion. Il presunto complotto ebraico avrebbe giustificato anche il genocidio trasfigurandolo in una sorta di reazione necessaria. La menzogna proseguì durante la guerra per convincere il popolo che per i tedeschi era questione di sopravvivenza, se non avessero annientato i “nemici” sarebbero stati annientati. La propaganda dava così legittimità allo sterminio, placava il dissenso e occultava ciò che stava avvenendo. Questo sistema generalizzato di menzogne permetteva a carnefici e spettatori di autoassolversi e, alla fine del conflitto, di non assumersi alcuna responsabilità perpetuando l’occultamento dei fatti. Ma le prime notizie sul sistema concentrazionario cominciarono a diffondersi ancora prima della fine della guerra delineando un massacro di proporzioni così vaste che presso l’opinione pubblica prevalse l’incredulità. Un’incredulità e un desiderio di deresponsabilizzazione che continuarono a lungo a opporsi all’emersione, sulla scena sociale, di una memoria dello sterminio. Concorse, inoltre, a favorire il silenzio una lettura universalizzante dell’esperienza concentrazionaria, in cui lo spazio memoriale istituzionalizzato era dominato dal mito resistenziale. Peggio dell’incredulità poté solo la negazione della realtà genocidiaria in cui nel tempo si sono impegnati i negazionisti approfittando anche delle inesattezze presenti nei racconti di alcuni sopravvissuti o delle false testimonianze apparse negli anni Novanta. La falsità, che non va confusa con la finzione, non è infatti rimasta isolata al solo campo antisemita, di cui è corollario necessario, ma si è manifestata, spesso involontariamente, in situazioni che, senza un’adeguata analisi, hanno contribuito ad alimentare il discorso
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