Running head: HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 1

On Cognition, Culture, Discourse and Corpora:

High Seas and Smitten Hearts

Asterios C. Chardalias

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 2

To Despoina Μου ‘μαθες έρωτα You taught me love (Athanasiou, 1994) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 3

Abstract

This thesis has an aspirant dual purpose: to both enlighten aspects of conceptualization in environments of dense figuration and to investigate possible avenues for methodological crosspollination between Corpus Linguistics and

Cognitive Linguistics. It reviews sea conceptualizations of the ‘heart’ in a corpus of

260 Modern Greek songs as a case study, theoretically framed by a discussion of:

(a) Conceptual Integration Theory (CIT), in relation to cognition and discourse;

(b) Distributed emergent cultural cognition, in relation to cognition and culture;

(c) Corpus-Assisted Discourse Analysis (CADS), in relation to discourse and corpora;

(d) Cultural Discourse Analysis (CuDA), in relation to discourse and culture.

Keywords: cognition, culture, discourse, corpora, blending HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 4

Contents

Abstract…………………………..…………………………...... ……………………3

Contents………………………………………………………………………………..4

I. Introduction

1. Cognition, culture, discourse and corpora...... 7

2. Conceptual Integration Theory...... 10

3. Distributed, emergent cultural cognition...... 17

4. Corpus-Assisted Discourse Analysis...... 21

5. Cultural Discourse Analysis...... 22

6. Thesis structure...... 24

II. Methodology

1. Research questions...... 25

1.1. Theoretical questions...... 25

1.2. Applied questions...... 28

2. Working assumptions...... 29

2.1. Words...... 29

2.2. Concepts...... 30

2.3. Discourse...... 31

3. Corpus compilation and sub-corpus derivation...... 32

4. Keyword extraction and analysis...... 33

5. Scenario extraction and analysis...... 34

6. Blend extraction and analysis...... 35 HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 5

III. Results & Discussion

1. Keywords...... 37

2. Scenarios...... 40

2.1. Sea Scenarios...... 42

2.1.1. Seafaring Scenario...... 43

2.1.1.1. Source Event: Sailing Off...... 47

2.1.1.2. Path Event: Navigation...... 51

2.1.1.3. Obstacle Events...... 53

2.1.1.3.1. Obstacle Event: Magic Encounters...... 53

2.1.1.3.2. Obstacle Event: Sea Storms...... 54

2.1.1.3.3. Obstacle Event: Piracy...... 55

2.1.1.4. Goal Events...... 58

2.1.1.4.1 Goal Event: Sinking...... 58

2.1.1.4.2. Goal Event: Porting...... 62

2.1.2 Fishing Scenario...... 64

2.1.2.1. Source Event: Preparing...... 66

2.1.2.2. Down vector Event: Casting...... 66

2.1.2.3. Up vector Event: Retrieving...... 67

2.1.3. Beach-going Scenario...... 68

2.1.3.1. Event: Sandplaying...... 69

2.1.3.2. Event: Swimming...... 70

2.1.3.3. Event: Seashell picking...... 71

2.1.3.4. Event: Sea-gazing...... 72

2.2. Love Scenarios...... 73 HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 6

3. Blends...... 77

3.1. Sea-unrelated non-heart blends...... 78

3.2. Sea-unrelated heart blends...... 79

3.3. Sea-related non-heart blends...... 81

3.4. Sea-related heart blends...... 82

3.4.1. Sea/Heart...... 85

3.4.2. Vessel/Heart...... 90

3.4.3. Shipwreck/Heart...... 97

3.4.4. Port/Heart...... 98

3.4.5. Maritime Pilot/Heart...... 99

3.4.6. Mooring Rope/Heart...... 100

3.4.7. Lighthouse/Heart...... 101

3.4.8. Chart/Heart...... 102

3.4.9. Nautical Compass/Heart...... 104

3.4.10. Pirate Booty/Heart...... 105

3.4.11. Fisherman /. Heart...... 106

3.4.12. Fish/Heart...... 107

3.4.13. Beach/Heart...... 108

3.4.14. Sea Rock/Heart...... 108

3.4.15. Seaside Plant/Heart...... 109

3.4.16. Drowning Victim/Heart...... 110

IV. Conclusions...... 111

References...... 121

Discography...... 137

Appendices...... 148 HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 7

I. Introduction

1. Cognition, Culture, Discourse and Corpora

Cognition, culture, discourse, corpora: any of these concepts have generated an immense body of literature by scientists from distal academic backgrounds in fields like information technology, psychology, anthropology, sociology, culture studies and, of course, linguistics. The network of interconnections between them has been repeatedly fathomed from a number of different perspectives. It has invariably come out to be sophisticatedly intricate, involving the additional notion of ‘text’—a common denominator for the four pylon concepts. Propositions expounding those interconnections include: cognition as a culturally situated phenomenon (Vygotsky,

1978; Wilson, 2002; Ziemke, 2003; Miyamoto, 2006; Kristiansen, 2008; Kimmel,

2008); culture as a cognitive activity (Langacker, 1994); culture as an emergent property of discourse (Barker & Galasiński, 2001; Gilbert, 2004); texts as products of cognition (Steen, 2002; Virtanen, 2004); texts as cultural artifacts (Meehan, 2001;

Park, 2005); discourse as texts-in-use (Haberland, 1999; Fairclough, 2003); discourse as the locus of cultural cognition (Van Dijk, 1990; 1993; 2014; Sharifian, 2008); corpora as text databases (Hundt, 2008; Gries & Berez, 2014); and corpora as discourse feature descriptors (Sinclair, 2004; Partington, 2004; 2006).

We believe that the juncture just described constitutes a promising area for research from a Cognitive Linguistics vantage point; one that has not been adequately explored. Incorporating insights of all those divergent strands of theorizing and empirical investigation into a coherent program for the study of conceptualization would be a feat of interdisciplinary dialectics. But before we attempt anything like that, we should have a firm grasp over the definitional properties of our main object of study. Conceptualization is the incessant, intricate and intensive mental procedure of HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 8 individuating human experience, as well as acknowledging and categorizing salient ambient entities and the relations that hold between them; the making and re-making of rudimentary, dynamic templates for organizing world knowledge into cohering associative networks that facilitate both elemental and high-order problem-solving and decision-making tasks.

An explicit specification of a conceptualization is called an ontology (Gruber,

1995). Ontologies are contextual (Benslimane, Arara, Falquet, Maamar, Thiran &

Gargouri, 2006). Decisions regarding which ontology to select, at which time and to which purpose are individualistic and culture-specific. Ontologies are multiple

(Wimalasuriya & Dou, 2009). Simultaneous activation of more than one ontologies for the same concept is possible and, in fact, virtually unavoidable in comprehensive discourse. Taking into consideration a number of affiliation parameters within a single ontology and across ontologies, cognition forms different kinds of information packages (Chafe, 1976; Vallduví & Engdahl, 1996). These groupings vary in the specification details and the taxonomic principles used to organize them, they all however more appropriately capture one or the other aspect of the relations investigated. Such information packages include, among others: scenarios (Minsky,

1975), frames (Fillmore, 1976), scripts (Schank & Abelson, 1977; Schank, 1982;

1986), prototypes (Rosch, 1983), image schemas (M. Johnson, 1987), Idealized

Cognitive Models (ICMs) (Lakoff, 1987), cultural models (Quinn, 1991; Yu, 1998;

Sharifian, 2008) and text-worlds (Werth, 1994; Gavins, 2007).

It is important to understand that any given concept can be included in more than one information package at the same time. This would mean that a thorough examination of conceptualization would ideally have to account for a concept’s role and position in all. A promising theory that seems to allow us to do just that, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 9 effectively and economically, is Conceptual Integration Theory (CIT). With it as our launching pad, we can commence our exploration into how the prolific practice of discourse analysis applied onto data procured through corpora can have some decisive influence over the study of human cognition in cultural settings as expressed in language.

As corpus methodologies have grown to become the major empirical paradigm in linguistics, cognitive linguists need to acknowledge their untapped potential and adopt them in their research routines. With corpus data pointing to directions manual discourse analysis would not be able to, many of the intriguing theoretical claims in the field can seek experimental verification through a strong, sustainable emphasis on research material authenticity (Stefanowitsch, 2006; Gilquin, 2010). Fortunately, there are signs that, although even partial, coarse automation of the relevant analytical procedures may be still eons away, corpus management software is hesitantly gaining grounds as an indispensable aid to human intuition when charting cognition. But embracing Corpus Linguistics should not mean severing ties with paradigms that have informed Cognitive Linguistics in the past, quite the contrary. Its introduction should provide an opportunity to re-affirm and strengthen those ties. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 10

Figure 1. Research niche conceptual network

Moving in that direction (Figure 1) we discuss: Conceptual Integration Theory

(CIT) in relation to cognition and discourse; distributed emergent cultural cognition in relation to cognition and culture; Corpus-Assisted Discourse Analysis (CADS) in relation to discourse and corpora; and Cultural Discourse Analysis (CuDA) in relation to discourse and culture.

2. Conceptual Integration Theory

Conceptual Integration Theory (CIT) (Fauconnier & Turner, 1994; 1995;

1998; 2002; 2006; Turner & Fauconnier, 1995; 1999; Turner, 1996; Fauconnier, 1997) is a developing framework for the study of human cognition with a special interest in manifestations of creativity, prominent in literary and rhetorical invention alike. It is gaining popularity in Cognitive Linguistics circles and beyond for its ability to HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 11 uniformly explain a variety of conceptual phenomena and to operate throughout multiple levels of analysis. Central to the theory is the cognitive process of blending.

Blending can be considered a generalizing formalization of matrix bisociation

(Koestler, 1966), the smelting together of elements originating from multiple, previously unrelated and ostensibly incompatible domains of experience into a new one to a computable pragmatic effect. While some may see CIT as antagonistic to traditional Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), the two frameworks are, in fact, largely complementary, since they contemplate on different aspects of figurative conceptualization (Grady, Oakeley, & Coulson, 1999). While CMT is primarily concerned with well-established metaphoric associations between concepts, CIT focuses on the ability to creatively re-combine elements from familiar conceptualizations into new and meaningful ones. That way, conventional metaphors, by establishing links between elements, feed the blending process.

Mental spaces. Pivotal to the evolution of the theory was repurposing mental spaces

(Fauconnier, 1985) out off formal semantics. Cloaked in conceptual apparel, they turned from awkward, formal notation to elegant, easy-to-use apparatus. The rebranded mental spaces are interconnected, temporary, partial assemblies of conceptual information, containing elements retrieved from immediate context with a situational purpose in mind, structured by frames and other cognitive models. They are not to be conflated with domains. Domains contain general and stable knowledge of which mental spaces are but an interim subset. A mental space can be built up by recruiting from many different conceptual domains and different and incompatible spaces can be built by recruiting from the same domain. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 12

Network. Mental spaces typically converge into multi-space arrays called conceptual integration networks. In the network model (Figure 2) meaning construction is not restricted to any single space, but takes place across the entire array and its connections. The model is concerned with on-line, dynamical cognitive work as instrumented by conceptual projection. There is one overarching goal: achieve human scale, i.e. reduce representations to situations with very few participants, direct intentionality, immediate bodily effect and instant coherency evaluation. It is achieved through the central process of conceptual blending which comprises three basic subroutines: composition, completion and elaboration. Blending can operate recursively at any time, at any site in a network. A minimal network contains four mental spaces: two input spaces, one generic space and one blended space, but networks in other cases of conceptual integration may have more input spaces and even multiple blended spaces. The space for which pragmatic force is computed is the topic space. There can be more than one topic spaces.

Figure 2. Model conceptual network (adapted from Fauconnier & Turner, 2006) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 13

Mental spaces are represented by circles, elements in the spaces by points in the circles, counterpart connections between elements in different spaces by solid lines, projections from one space to another with dashed lines and the frames recruited to structure mental spaces by rectangles. A network is simplex when the only input with a frame projects it as the organizing frame of the blend; mirror when a frame common to the inputs is projected as the organizing frame of the blend; single-scope if a frame of one input but not the other is projected as the organizing frame of the blend; and double-scope if different frames of different inputs project together as the organizing frame of the blend.

Input spaces. There are at least two input spaces to a blend. A blended space can have multiple input spaces.

Generic space. There is a generic space, which maps onto each of the inputs, representing shared conceptual structure. The generic space contains what the input spaces have in common at any moment in the development of the conceptual integration network, defining the current cross-space mapping between them. A given element in the generic space maps onto matched counterparts in the input spaces.

Powerful generic spaces can become conventional and serve as resources to be drawn on in attempts to build new cross-space mappings in new integration networks.

Blended space. Elements from the input spaces project to another space, the blend, where they combine and interact. Besides inheriting partial structure from each input space, the blend develops emergent content of its own, which results from the juxtaposition of projected elements. This emergent property of the blend allows the network model to account for phenomena that are not explicitly addressed by other cognitive mechanisms. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 14

Counterpart connections. There are partial cross-space mappings between elements in different input spaces. Elements connected through cross-space mappings are called counterparts. Counterparts always project into a fused element in the generic space.

Counterpart connections are of many kinds: identity, similarity, analogy, experiential correlation.

Projection. Projection from the inputs to the blend is typically partial. An element in an input space can: (a) project into a separate element in the blended space; (b) project into a fused element in the blended space together with another element from the same input space with which it has an internal connection (metonymic tightening); (c) project into a fused element in the blended space together with another element from a different input space with which it has a counterpart connection; (d) project into a fused element in the blended space together with another element from a different input space with which it has no counterpart connection (opportunism); (e) not project at all.

Composition. Composition, the most straightforward subroutine, refers to the projection of content from each of the inputs into the blended space. Composition of elements from the inputs makes relations available in the blend that did not exist in the separate inputs. Representations resulting from composition may not be realistic, but nonetheless unrealistic blended images are easily constructed and manipulated.

Completion. Completion recruits additional structure to the blend through pattern matching to complement already composed structure. A minimal composition in the blend can be extensively completed by a larger conventional pattern, as blends recruit heavily from background conceptual structure and knowledge. When juxtaposition of HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 15 elements from the inputs prompts understanding via a scenario, features of elements in the blend get auto-completed to better fit the scene. A given construction goes with a given schematic scenario. To describe events using that construction is to prompt the hearer to integrate those events into that schematic scenario. In some cases, integration of events is already provided in one of the inputs and is recruited by the blend to provide integration for the other input. This way completion is often a source of emergent content in the blend.

Elaboration. Elaboration expands the blend through imaginative mental simulation according to principles and logic stipulated in it. Completion would have contributed some of these principles and it can continue to do so even during elaboration.

Elaboration itself may also bring about new principles and logic. Once connections to long-term knowledge have been made, we are able to imagine scenarios which unfold along various possible trajectories. We can ‘run the blend’ indefinitely and as a result blended spaces can become extremely elaborated. We might proceed from the original image to ridiculously complex images even overshadowing the original.

Emergent structure Composition, completion, and elaboration lead to emergent structure in the blend; so the blend ends up containing structure that is not replicated from the inputs. Emergent structure is crucial to the performance of the reasoning tasks at hand. New juxtapositions, new frames, new features all arise when elements from distinct mental spaces are combined. The blend remains hooked up to the inputs, so that structural properties of the blend can be mapped back onto the inputs.

Pragmatic incongruities in the blend can get highlighted and mapped back to the inputs for inferential and emotional effect. Incongruity makes blends more visible but this does not mean it is one of their defining characteristics. Because blends are used HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 16 cognitively in flexible ways, incongruity in the blend can be disregarded, if the focus of the problem allows sidestepping it.

Optimality principles. Not all phenomena that meet the constitutive principles of conceptual integration are equally effective blends. There are constraints under which blends work most effectively, governing principles that a blend can meet more or less well. There is tension among some of these principles and so each blend satisfies them to varying degrees. Optimality principles for blending include:

 Intensification of vital relations. Compress what is diffuse by scaling a single vital

conceptual relation or transforming vital conceptual relations into others.  Maximization of vital relations. Create human scale structure in the blend by

maximizing vital relations.  Integration. Get the blend to constitute a tightly integrated scene that can be

manipulated as a unit. Every space in the blend structure should have integration.  Topology. Maintain element relations under projection.  Web. Maintain the web of appropriate connections to the input spaces without

additional surveillance or computation.  Unpacking. Get the blend to enable reconstructing of the inputs, the cross-space

mapping, the generic space, and the network of connections between spaces.  Relevance. Find significance for every element in the blend by linking it to other

spaces and assigning it functions in running the blend  Non-disintegration. Neutralize projections and topological relations that would

disintegrate the blend.  Non-displacement. Do not disconnect valuable web connections to inputs.  Non-interference. Avoid projections from input spaces to the blend that defeat

each other in the blend.  Non-ambiguity. Do not create ambiguity in the blend that interferes with the

computation  Backward projection. As the blend is run and develops emergent structure, avoid

backward projection to an input that will disrupt the integration of the input itself. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 17

3. Distributed, Emergent Cultural Cognition

Distributed, emergent cultural cognition is an integrative view of cognition as a complex adaptive system interactively negotiated among cultural group members and hence a property of cultural groups rather than individuals (Sharifian, 2008). It is the locus of cultural conceptualizations, including cultural schemas, cultural categories and cultural models. We can understand it as the emergent blend in a conceptual integration network with individual cognitions as inputs (Figure 3).

Properties of cultural cognition include emergence, distribution, complexity, adaptation, nesting, unboundedness and awareness.

Figure 3. Group cognition conceptual network (adapted from Sharifian, 2008)

Emergence. Cultural cognition is emergent. Its results may be sufficiently determined by basic constituent activity, but constituents collectively exhibit with properties that HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 18 can only be studied at level higher than them. There is often a form of top-down feedback. The parts constituting the system cannot contain the whole (S. Johnson,

2001). Emergent properties of cognition at the group level supersede what is represented in the mind of each individual. Individual cognition cannot capture the totality of cultural cognition. Group interaction dynamics eventually lead to emergent properties that may no longer be reduced to individual representations.

Distribution. Cultural cognition is distributed. It is a system in which networked components communicate and coordinate their actions in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components, decentralized control and independent failure of components (Coulouris,

Dollimore, Kindberg & Blair, 2011). The distribution of cultural cognition extends across the dimensions of time and space. Members of a cultural group might share some but not every aspect of their cultural cognition with other members and the pattern is not exactly the same for all individuals across the cultural group (Borofsky,

1994).

Complexity. Cultural cognition is complex. It is complex in that it is diverse and made up of multiple interconnected elements resulting from the interactions between the members of a cultural group across time and space (Waldrop, 1992). Relationships between elements contain feedback loops, offering both negative and positive feedback (Cilliers, 1998). The effects of an element's behavior are fed back to in such a way that the element itself is altered. As complexity grows, coherence is more difficult to maintain. Different cultural groups differ with regard to the coherence of their cultural conceptualizations. Some cultures, and some people within a given/single culture, develop more coherent conceptualizations. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 19

Adaptation. Cultural cognition is adaptive. It is dynamic and ever evolving to meet the requirements of its environment. As Kronenfeld (2002) observes, culture is not merely fixed knowledge, but productive representations of a growing repertoire capable of generating new responses to novel situations that still make sense to cultural groups. The ultimate level of cultural cognition is not viewed in terms of fixed representations inside the mind of individuals but as emergent properties resulting from the interactions between members of a cultural group. Such a view of cultural cognition allows for individual differences while acknowledging the existence of collective cognition.

Nesting. Cultural cognition is nested. That is, the agents that are components of its system are themselves complex adaptive systems. Information is organized in layers, and objects in one layer contain other similar objects. It almost always refers to self- similar or recursive structures. A property is repeated because of class inheritance, a nested element will behave like its parent unless otherwise instructed. Maximal projections back to the original layer that initially developed the property are difficult to follow often making nested systems appear unbounded.

Unboundedness. Cultural cognition is unbounded. There is difficulty involved in delimitating its boundaries: where one cultural group ends and another begins is difficult, if not impossible, to determine. The decision is usually based on the observer's needs and prejudices rather than any intrinsic property of the system itself.

Awareness. Cultural cognition is conscious. Μembers of a group are likely to recognize certain knowledge or conceptualization to be characteristic of the culture they belong to. Moreover, they may be conscious of the influence that a particular HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 20 collective cognition has on their thought patterns and behavior and, in fact, may try to opt out of it. Social interactions between cultural group members may suggest the operation of some sort of a collective cognition to those who are not members of the cultural group, whereas the members of the in-group can be quite unaware that such cultural conceptualization is being brought into play.

Cultural cognition and language

Cultural cognition is largely, but not solely, transmitted through language.

Cultural conceptualizations are instantiated in various cultural artifacts and activities, of which language is one. Because human languages largely embody the cultural conceptualizations of their speakers, language is an integral aspect of cultural cognition. Inherent within the system of every language are categories, schemas, conceptual metaphors and propensities for certain perspectives that reflect cultural cognition. Language in this perspective is viewed as a complex adaptive system

(Steels, 2000; Frank, 2008) which acts as a repository for cultural conceptualizations.

Cultural conceptualizations provide analytic tools for explorations of pragmatic aspects of language and the rhetorical organization of discourse. Not only linguistic performance derives from our cultural cognition, but we also operate on the assumption that other interactants draw on the same cultural cognition. The role of an individual agent can be viewed as two-fold. On the one hand, the individual can have an initial causal role in the development, dissemination and reinforcement of cultural cognition. On the other hand, an individual’s performance can be influenced or determined to a varying degree by the cultural cognition that characterizes the cultural group. Thus, the role of individuals in a cultural group may be described in terms of a circular pattern of cause and effect. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 21

4. Corpus-Assisted Discourse Studies

CADS (Hardt-Mautner, 1995; Stubbs, 1996; Conrad, 2002; Partington, 1998;

2004; Baker, 2006) is a hybrid methodological tradition which attempts to amalgamate corpus-oriented and discourse-oriented approaches to the study of language. It aspires to combine the statistically cemented quantitative tenacity of

Corpus Linguistics (CL) with the in-depth, qualitative precision gaze of Discourse

Analysis (DA). Because discourse analytic methodology is not applicable on limited co-text, which is what concordances provide, and manual overview of larger stretches of language will be consequently required, CADS thrive on smaller, specialized, ad- hoc corpora where the researcher intimately knows at least a great part of the material that went into the compilation.

The nature of this co-operation is not completely agreed upon. Stegmeier

(2012), in providing a discussion of corpus linguistics basics as pertaining to discourse analysis, concludes that the two disciplines are definitely compatible and that corpus linguistics seems readily applicable to discourse analysis. But, while he admits that DA should seize the development opportunity provided by the CL boom, he believes that statistic measurements and automation via extensive computational tools, like automated annotation software or sophisticated retrieval programs, should not struggle to substitute established philologically motivated research by virtue of hermeneutic methods. Rather, any kind of computer-aided methods should be seen as complementary, added tools in the analyst’s methodological repertoire. Baker et al.

(2008) recognize that because both CL and DA are informed by distinct theoretical frameworks, their respective approaches to analysis are influenced by their informing theoretical concepts. They, however, in examining the combination of methods normally used by DA and CL, undertake to render explicit that neither DA nor CL HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 22 need be subservient to the other but that each contributes equally and distinctly to a methodological synergy.

5. Cultural Discourse Analysis

Cultural discourse analysis (CuDA) (Carbaugh, 1996; 2005; 2007; Scollo,

2011) is a theory and methodology for the study of communication practices as discursive phenomena. Drawing from ethnography and interpretive anthropology, this particular analytic procedure aims to bring together inquiries about the cultural shaping of communication practices and the interactional dynamics that occur among culturally shaped communication practices. It construes communication as a practice and culture as emergent in practices to gain an understanding of both the practice and the meta-cultural commentary activated through it. Treated as a part of a cultural discourse, a communication practice can be surveyed for pragmatic force, semantic web and discursivity. The concept cultural discourse has been used systematically to organize ways of appreciating how culture is an integral part and a product of discourse systems with discourses being understood to be multidimensional, polysemic, deeply situated and complex functional accomplishments (Carbaugh,

1988).

Investigations about the cultural nature and the meanings of communication are based upon the view that communication both presumes and constitutes social realities; and further, that as people communicate they engage in meta-cultural commentary which typically goes beyond the current topic of explicit concern. CuDA equates meaning with this commentary. The objective is to render an enriched reading of the meanings of a communication practice in a way that does not simply replicate what has been said already by participants, but creates a productive portrait of the meaningfulness of the practice to participants, which puts it in a different semantic HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 23 light without violating the participants’ sense of themselves. Interpretive analysis revolves around these portraits, called radiants. Radiants are believed to be an active part of communication practices (Witteborn, 2007). They may be explicated as symbolic terms, cultural propositions, cultural premises, semantic dimensions, and/or norms.

Modes of inquiry. As a methodology, CuDA is based upon five distinctive modes of analysis. A mode of inquiry is a particular analytic attitude to a research project.

Modes are analytically distinct, yet complementary. Each has its own grammar and logic; enables the analyst to make specific kinds of claims that are important ingredients in cultural research; and accomplishes specific tasks the others do not. The modes appear in an order which reflects a weak linear design. However, the investigative process is also a cyclical one. Moving through one mode can lead back to deeper reflections about others.

The five interrelated modes of analysis are: a theoretical mode which reflectively conceptualizes aspects of socio-cultural life as discursive phenomena; a descriptive mode which involves careful and exacting documentation of communication practices; an interpretive mode which explicates the meaningfulness of those practices to participants; a comparative mode which examines what is unique as well as common in the phenomenon of interest across discourses or communities; and a critical mode which offers a critical appraisal of the phenomenon of concern. Of these, the first three are necessary for a cultural discourse analysis, while the last two are optional.

6. Thesis structure

The remainder of this thesis is structured as follows: In Section II we demonstrate our methodology. We begin by posing our research questions, sketching HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 24 what we are interested to achieve and why, both on a theoretical and an applied level.

Then we lay down our working assumptions for the crucial notions of ‘word’,

‘concept’ and ‘discourse’. Lastly, we describe how we went about compiling our corpus, deriving a sub-corpus from it and extracting and analyzing keywords, scenarios and blends. In Section III we present the results of our research and comment on them. This section is organized in three parts: the first deals with

Keywords, the second with Scenarios and the third with Blends. Finally, in Section IV we revisit our research questions and offer our conclusions along with suggestions for further research.

II Methodology

1. Research questions

This paper has an aspirant dual purpose: to both enlighten aspects of conceptualization in environments of dense figuration and to investigate possible avenues for methodological crosspollination between Corpus Linguistics and

Cognitive Linguistics. It, therefore, poses questions on a theoretical as well as an applied level. In an endeavor to answer those questions, it reviews sea conceptualizations of the ‘heart’ in Modern Greek song lyrics as a case study from which fruitful generalizations can be hopefully made.

1.1. Theoretical questions

Blend status. Criticism against CIT has been repeatedly raised on the grounds of non- falsifiability and its tendency to hastily gloss over methodological and terminological differences among the diverse fields of scientific inquiry it draws inspiration from and aspires to make claims about, like neuroscience, evolutionary biology and cultural HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 25 anthropology (Gibbs, 2000; 2001; Ritchie, 2004; Glebkin, 2013). Despite extensive work on them, the concepts it has introduced appear to remain relatively underspecified and vague, while no rigorous apparatus has been offered to put them to empirical test. Under these circumstances, clarifying the exact nature of blends remains one of the most important considerations in investigations of conceptual integration. Our ability to detect them, computationally or otherwise, hinges on our knowledge of their distinctive characteristics and on the predictions we can make about their potential habitats. Pertinent questions about blend status in our line of work include:

 What role do blends play in figuration dense environments?  Are blends better classified as text- or discourse-level phenomena?  Can blends be considered operationalizations of cultural models?

Blends and intertextuality. Blends are content intensive, in the sense that they will continuously seek for new information to integrate. Yet every time original content is brought into one of their spaces, structure is almost certain to be carried over as well.

As a consequence reanimated tensions arise for the optimality principles to resolve.

The principles then get to work realigning topologies, leaving a trace back to the trigger embedded in the network. With enough initial momentum, the network can be send spiraling into a feedback loop, where topology realignments caused by the introduction of content into the spaces, call upon new content of their own, which in turn causes new realignments and so on and so forth. But importing content over progressively greater elaborative distances eventually claims its toll. As computational work needed to maintain the loop increases exponentially, available resources are depleted faster. At some point the cost of realignment will simply outweigh its benefits, bringing the process to a halt. When the commotion dies out, we may realize HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 26 that the chain reaction unleashed has had implications far-reaching enough to cause the complete overthrow of the original network. Now feed this morphing behemoth a discourse load of content and watch what happens. Quite a lot and spectacular, we hope. So, in unraveling the thrilling interplay between blends and intertextuality, the following inquires spring to mind:

 What effects does intertextuality have on blending?  Are intertextuality effects on blending more pronounced in the specific discourse

type under study?  Can intertextuality itself be viewed as an instantion of blending?

Blends and conceptualization routes. Blends appear to obey the evolutionary law of path-dependency, which means we are unable to predict their maximal elaboration, since the operation will depend on local accidents at each interval. A record of these accidents sketches an evolutionary path through recurrent opportunistic exploitation of existing blend structures or contextual features and dictates the content that elaboration has to work with at any given moment (Fauconnier & Turner, 2006: 334-

335). While we may not be able to predict the maximal elaboration of a blend, path- dependency should ensure that we can at least retrace its route in retrospection. In other words, current state of a blend, or even its very existence, may bear testimony that at some point conceptualization followed one route and not another. Establishing the presence of definite conceptualization routes in blending would turn its networks from quantum back to newtonian. Information included in the network and the cognitive capacity needed to process it is not everywhere at once, but moves from site to site, passing landmarks along the way. In this sense, pinpointing restrictions in the flow of information is what prevents networks from disintegrating into chimerical probability plasma. So, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 27

 Does blending follow designated conceptualization routes?

We certainly hope so. If this is the case, given a blend between the ‘heart’ and a concept under the Domain of Sea with ‘romantic love’ as its generic space, we should be able to speculate about the conceptual forces that forged it and the succession in which they were applied on it. In order to find out what brings those three together, how logical inference allows us to move from one to the next and back, whether they must always appear as a group as well as whether they present with observable flow patterns we ask:

 Are there conceptualizations of the ‘heart’ inviting ‘romantic love’ without

recourse to sea scenarios?  Are conceptualizations of the ‘heart’ via sea scenarios without invitation of

‘romantic love’ possible?  Are conceptualizations of ‘romantic love’ via sea scenarios possible without

recourse to the ‘heart’?

1.2. Applied questions

Another issue that concerns us is the application of theoretical insights into evolving and fine-tuning methodological tools that would help bring about new and exciting breakthroughs. We are interested in how this may come about through the development of appropriate, user-friendly, multi-tasking research software. It is our firm belief that a well-informed computational take on Cognitive linguistics can invigorate the field, allowing it to break new ground by processing more linguistic data than ever before in search of empirical verification for its claims. Delegating repetitive tasks and tedious procedures to intelligent computational systems will allow researchers of cognition and language to reallocate human capacities to more rewarding pursuits. In particular, this paper investigates: HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 28

 Can raw frequency counts help locate blends?  Is there a way to computationally automate blend extraction?

2. Working assumptions

Whenever notions hotly debated in the scholarly community are discussed in relation to a specific research project, it is imperative that a comprehensive list of working assumptions defining its epistemology be provided. Doing so is the only way an external audience can objectively evaluate the coherence of the reasoning scheme ventured and the validity of any arguments presented. In this spirit, let us illustrate how we approach the notions of ‘word’, ‘concept’ and ‘discourse’, so that the analysis we attempt is held to effortlessly follow from the relevant data we examine.

2.1. Words

Words are understood as concept lexicalizations, established semiotic systems for at least one primary concept and quite possibly an entourage of minor ones. They linguistically materialize abstract mental representations and emotive states. At this parsing level, which is the default one in Corpus linguistics, there is no null-concept lexicalization and hence form always corresponds to content. Content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) are assumed to carry the main burden of conceptualization, hence they are the focus of investigation and keywords are selected among them only.

Function words are excluded from study. From a Cognitive Linguistics perspective, that may appear counter-intuitive, since a lot of the early, trailblazing work in field was done on function words, namely prepositions. Their exclusion is a mere methodological affordance aimed at decluttering the dataset. Inflection is not factored in either, unless it proves to have systematic implications on construal. In any case, words are treated as nothing more than entry points to the conceptual realm. There is HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 29 no real intention to dwell on them any longer than it is needed and as soon as reduction to concepts is achieved they are supposed to phase out of sight completely.

2.2. Concepts

Concepts are perceived as the minimal units of information human cognition can sustainably manipulate. They constitute elementary particles in the nucleus of mental spaces, which in their full form will, in turn, converge into blends. Various concepts under the Domain of Sea are thought to form the nexus of the source input space. On the contrary, it is the ‘heart’ that invariably lies at the core of the target input space. Thus, while the target input space is thought of as minimally elaborated across blends and remains relatively rigid, source input spaces may differ wildly, even between blends with source input spaces formed around the same sea concept. In light of this, the relation we are trying to fathom may appear asymmetric since we pitch a conceptual domain against a concept. But pinning the ‘heart’ down as the unchangeable, irrevocably fixed center of the target input space allows us to trace the implications on the network of changes in the makeup of one of the other input spaces. Knowing how tweaks in certain spaces, but not others, influence the behavior of the entire network, gives us a better chance at consciously manipulating it. This is crucial because a conceptual network can in theory be reviewed and enriched indefinitely through the operation of elaboration. Unless an observer is introduced to the system to gel quantum information into one state of being it will not cease to expand outwards. No matter how stable we would like our vantage point into the network to appear, we have to acknowledge that the network remains a dynamic construction and cognitive retrojection (Kimmel, 2008) can still alter the composition of a mental space in the long run, regardless of its initial state. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 30

Concepts are considered to be invoked only once in a text. Various lexemes, both in isolation and in cohort, may help achieve that. Once invoked, they are thought to retain a gradable level of activation, which is both spreading (Preece, 1981;

Crestani, 1997; Patterson, Nestor & Rogers, 2007) and residual (Tuggy, 2006). There are two ways activation level gets boosted, repetition and expansion, which may occur in combination. Repetition means reusing an already familiar lexeme to re-activate the concept and expansion coming up with a different one. Concept activation is liable to attrition (Köpke, 2004, 2007; Jarvis & Pavlenko, 2008). If a concept goes a long time without repetition or expansion its activation level will gradually decrease. It stands to reason that concept activation fluctuates to different degrees and at different rates in each text. Activation fluctuation is not recorded. Instead the notion is employed as an

Occam’s razor to help deflate final concept count by disengaging concept tokens from lexeme tokens. As a result, the maximum observable tokens for a concept will in any case match the total number of texts studied. The number of texts a concept gets invoked into as a percentage of the total texts, termed token spread, can be then used as provisional measure of its salience and creative potential.

2.3. Discourse

Discourse is understood as a collection of independently authored texts with presumably converging illocutionary forces in perceived dialectal configuration to each other. This texts-in-use perspective on discourse allows us to contrast it with the notion of text both in terms of extensionality and in terms of situatedness. It does not only stretch across multiple texts, but it does so bearing the marks of its processual nature as opposed to the text which is evaluated as a product. For the purposes of the paper its boundaries coincide with those of the corpus, in the case of the general discourse of the heart, and with those of the sub-corpus, in the case of the blended HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 31 discourse of the ‘heart and the sea’. Meaning formation is assumed to have a scope extending over the totality of discourse. This is significantly broader than in traditional approaches, where its purview spans the phrase, the sentence or even the text. The extension hopes to capture influences of intertextuality that would otherwise be ignored. Given the nature of the discourse type under study (song lyrics), which is highly productive and creative in its use of figuration, conceptualizations identified therein are assumed to be a superset of those likely to appear in everyday language.

This is because we believe routine communication to be more practical and result- oriented and consequently less colorful and convoluted. The extra data and material provided make song lyrics an excellent candidate for the comprehensive description of a Greek cultural model for the ‘heart’.

3. Corpus compilation and sub-corpus derivation

Our initial intension was to investigate as many conceptualization avenues and blending opportunities for the ‘heart’ in Modern Greek song lyrics as we could possibly lay our hands on. Determined to have no expectations prior to the interaction with the corpus (Tognini-Bonelli 2001), we took to painstakingly web-scraping the complete lyrics of 1000 songs, so as to obtain a corpus sizeable enough to allow even for infrequent pattern observation without our researcher presuppositions having affected design. The only prerequisites for inclusion in the corpus were that the songs explicitly mention the lexeme ΚΑΡΔΙΑ and that they do not contain extensive lyrics in languages other than Modern Greek. Deemed integral to the discourse type under study, any line repetitions, as most prominently in refrains, were not suppressed but included intact in order for frequency counts to reflect their special gravity. A series of metadata about the songs, including song title, lyricist, performer, record label and release year, were also collected from various online resources. Representative of HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 32 decades of Greek music tradition from way back into 1939 up to recent days of 2014, the anthologized song genres varied from folk and rembetiko to rock and low bap

(Greek hip-hop subgenre).

Confronted with the overwhelming bulk of the aggregated material –all

141.707 words of it– and after some tentative initial data processing that revealed multiple directions which would take far too long to explore in any substantial detail, we decided to limit our search to one source domain alone and make a case study out of it. We opted for the Domain of Sea because of its creative potential as foreshadowed by multiple entries in the preliminary word list. A sub-corpus was then derived by isolating those songs that also contained keywords pertaining to the domain selected. Owing to that the original 1000-song corpus was relegated to reference status and a smaller, more versatile 260-song sub-corpus took front stage in its place. The reduced study material amounted to 37.519 words. With a sub-corpus available, the resulting layout was ideal for pursuing a three-pronged approach involving investigation at and cross-referencing among three distinct tiers of language organization, namely large-scale corpus analysis (macrostructure), small-scale corpus analysis (mesostructure) and individual text analysis (microstructure) (Bednarek,

2009).

4. Keyword extraction and analysis

Searching for source domain vocabulary, while studying figuration, is a well- established technique and usually the first step towards discovering areas of interest in the vastness of material available through corpora (Partington, 1997; 2003; 2006;

Koller, 2006; Markert & Nissim 2002; 2006). Once the decision to limit the search to the Domain of Sea was finalized, the preliminary word-list, acquired via AntConc, was re-examined to make sure no word that could fall under it escaped our attention. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 33

Then, the revised list was checked against the Dictionary of Standard Modern Greek

(Triantafyllidis, 1998) to conclusively corroborate membership. Every keyword that did not explicitly include ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑ (SEA) and its derivatives or another independently validated keyword in its definition was excluded from the list. Certain multi-word units (MWUs) that included previously identified keywords, but presented with high degree of fixedness, were additionally included as separate entries. When present, lexicalized figurative meaning was noted for future reference. In addition, since keywords were only meant to be studied as access points to concepts, they were a priori divided into twelve thematic groups (Appendix A). This grouping, improvised and unrefined as it may have been, essentially laid the groundwork for much of the analysis that followed. In effect, keyword extraction not only preceded and facilitated sub-corpus derivation, but also prefigured scenario extraction. Once keywords were located and grouped, routine frequency counts were conducted, enumerating types, tokens and token-to-type ratios. Considering scholars who remain skeptic about the usefulness of word frequency (Archer, 2009), we decided to include additional, alternative metrics, so keyword technicality and keyword density were also considered. Keyword-related data were presented in tables, where appropriate.

5. Scenario extraction and analysis

The need to extract and analyze scenarios arose from CIT postulating that pattern completion can only proceed through the support of at least one organizing frame. With completion being a vital operation for the enrichment of blended spaces, not exercising due diligence in presenting the framework that sustains it would be a distorting omission. Organizing frames supply much of the information blends end up exploiting for their creative purposes. This information cannot be located in the inputs. Blends in the discourse under study were expected to receive double HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 34 exoskeletal scaffolding by both sea scenarios and love scenarios, with the former cohering the latter and having their specifications restrained in response. Since sea scenarios proved ordained to do the conceptual heavy-lifting, they became a priority and received greater attention than love scenarios. That is reflected in the asymmetric degree of detail in their respective analyses. Identifying them and their event structure was mainly achieved by reviewing keyword verbs and deverbal nouns. The subcategorization frames of these items, as registered on various freely available online valency lexicons, provided the initial clues towards uncovering internal organization. Close reading of their immediate context helped enrich what were originally rudimentary scripts into full-fledged scenarios. Explication of their image schematic structure and its effect on construal ensued. As for love scenarios, the proposal of Steen (2003) was adopted with minor modifications. Authentic material retrieved from the sub-corpus was used in illustrative examples. The original relevant lines in Greek and a free English translation were provided. The item of interest for the conceptualization of the heart was typed in bold for convenience. Whenever possible, scenario specifics were visualized through two-clip storyboards of double- labeled schematic diagrams. The visualization medium was carefully designed to combine the simplicity of Concept Maps (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Novak, 1998;

Novak & Cañas, 2008), with the domain cross-referencing of Knowledge Integration

Maps (KIMs) (Linn, 2006; Schwendimann, 2011) and the specificity of Situated

Image Schemas (Kimmel, 2008).

6. Blend extraction and analysis

Blend extraction ran parallel to and complementary with scenario extraction, with the pendulum swinging back and forth as dictated by circumstance. Sometimes scenario analysis revealed details that helped locate novel instances of blending, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 35 sometimes the discovery of a blend necessitated the addition of an event to address it.

It was mainly based on extended collocation analysis of the lexeme ΚΑΡΔΙΑ. Co- indexation reference resolution helped reveal excerpts where the concept ‘heart’ was active but the corresponding lexeme was absent. There were instances where this meant close reading of whole stanzas. Taking a hint from Goatly (1997) and his

‘markers of metaphor’, our search for blends relied on pinpointing any of the stratagems (a)-(g) in the concordance lines reviewed:

(a) Identity statements, when the ‘heart’ was directly equated with a ‘sea’ concept

(b) Similes, when the ‘heart’ was likened to a sea concept

(c) Compounding, when a sea concept was used as a modifier in a compound

construction where the ‘heart’ was the phrasal head, or the phrasal head where the

‘heart’ was a post-modifier in the genitive, often topicalized.

(d) Meronymy, when the ‘heart’ presented with meronymic structure of a sea concept

(e) Predication, when the ‘heart’ was assigned agency of an activity usually

predicated of a sea concept

(f) Parataxis (asyndeton, polysyndeton), when the ‘heart’ was coordinated with a sea

concept via a paratactic conjunction or punctuation.

(g) Combination, when two or more of the above co-occurred

Analysis of extracted blends transpired in two stages: first categories of blends were identified and their characteristics explicated; then, examination of individual blend types in the prototypical category was undertaken, citing more than seventy examples taken from the sub-corpus. Whenever possible, metaphorical motivations for blends were presented in infographics. A realistic schematic rendering of the item under question was placed in the center, so its basic geometry could be used in vector HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 36 representations of orientational metaphors. It was framed by icons of other concepts participating in the network. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 37

III. Results & Discussion

1. Keywords

After examining the corpus, 134 different keywords (Appendix A) corresponding to the Domain of Sea were located. Keywords here are meant to be lexemes that are typically understood as delimitating the discourse, rather than words with statistically unusual frequency compared to that in a reference corpus, as in the technical Corpus Linguistics sense of keyness (Scott & Tribble, 2006). At least one of these designated keywords appears in 260 out of the initial 1000 songs scanned. That means more than an amazing 1/4th of Modern Greek songs about the ‘heart’ surveyed are actually songs about the ‘heart’ and the ‘sea’! It is evident that sea in the discourse of the heart presents with a high degree of linguistic exploitation (Soriano, 2003:

109). The productivity and, more crucially, the creativity of the projection exceed those of any other Domain invoked while conceptualizing the ‘heart’. Given that the

Greeks are a nautical people, this should not come as a surprise. Conceptual mappings are routinely expected to receive input from culturally salient domains (Deignan,

2003). It was this preliminary observation that prompted for the paper to investigate the discourse of the heart with an exclusive focus on how it interacts with the Domain of Sea.

Frequency and distribution counts (Appendix B) suggest that rather than relying on a restricted marine vocabulary, songwriters go to great extents to come up with lexical items that will still retrieve the relevant scenarios, but will not sound mundane or cliché. Keywords vary in technicality (Chung & Nation, 2003; 2004;

Kwary, 2011) from frequent, everyday terms, like ΚΥΜΑ (WAVE) and ΚΑΡΑΒΙ (SHIP), to not so common, obscure naval terminology, like ΣΤΑΒΕΝΤΟ (LEEWARD) and ΣΤΡΑΛΙ

(FORESTAY). Everyday terms can appear in isolation and individually see the retrieval HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 38 of maritime frames and scenarios through. Technical terminology, on the other hand, relies almost exclusively on clusters for its effect. More keywords clustering together increase keyword density, calculated as number of keywords per number of running words. Keyword density (Kubek & Unger, 2011: 325; Jean-Louis et al., 2014) can be perceived as a more targeted version of lexical density, where only domain-relevant content words, instead of content words indiscriminately, are taken into account.

Positive correlation between technicality and lexical density has been independently established (Halliday, 1998: 201; Ravelli, 2003: 49-50; Jones, 2007: 113). A correspondence of similar nature is traced between technicality and keyword density here. In addition, denser environments appear to be more hospitable to blends, presumably because they can more easily satisfy the Web optimality principle

(Fauconnier & Turner, 2006: 340).

Given that a large portion of the keywords are essentially hapax legomena, the analysis can proceed in the spirit of Large Number of Rare Events (LNRE) Models

(Baayen, 2001). These metrics set out to predict the possibility of encountering a new type produced by a particular process after sampling a given length of discourse.

Lüdeling & Evert (2003: 475) note that LNRE statistics can operate as a cognitive model whereby conceptualizers are sanctioned and encouraged to produce new types via a specific process exactly on account of rich discursive experience with novel types produced that way. Both Baayen (2001) and Lüdeling & Evert (2003) talk about lexical types and morphological word-formation processes, but we can easily extend the main idea to accommodate conceptual types (blends) and cognitive processes

(conceptual integration) as well. That is why we can expect songwriters to take liberty with vocabulary in forming original sea-related blends in the context of the ‘heart’.

What is more, it is with these less documented cases that the prowess of conceptual HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 39 integration can be showcased most eloquently. Since the degree of specificity mandates a more intricate web of correspondences between input components in order for the blend to run smoothly, the optimality principle ‘maximize vital relations’

(Fauconnier & Turner, 2006: 340) gets promoted.

It makes sense then that frequent keywords (Table 1) are not so reliable predictors of blends. Indeed, only 5 out of the 16 blends studied in this thesis are surmisable from high-frequency keywords, with the majority derived from mid- frequency ones instead. Frequent keywords are, nonetheless, consistent indicators of the identifiable scenarios structuring the discourse. Not surprisingly, ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑ (SEA) is the most frequently occurring keyword of them all, totaling 144 tokens over 48 songs, 18.46% of the songs in the sub-corpus. Two more top-ten entries are co- referential with it: KYMA (WAVE) and ΝΕΡΟ (WATER). Moving away from keywords of generic, non-scriptal caliber, we discover the scenario of seafaring promptly introduced by ΚΑΡΑΒΙ (SHIP), ΛΙΜΑΝΙ (PORT), ΒΑΡΚΑ (BOAT) and ΑΡΑΖΩ (MOOR). By the same token, ΔΙΧΤΥ (FISHING NET) points to the scenario of fishing, while ΑΜΜΟΣ

(SAND) to that of beach-going.

A/A Keyword Gloss Songs Songs (%) S Words Words/Song 01 ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑ SEA 48 18,46 148 3,08 02 KYMA WAVE 48 18,46 84 1,75 03 ΚΑΡΑΒΙ SHIP 33 12,69 63 1,91 04 ΛΙΜΑΝΙ PORT 25 9,62 54 2,16 05 ΝΕΡΟ/(-A) WATER(S) 24 9,23 47 1,96 06 ΠΝΙΓΩ/-ΟΜΑΙ DROWN 15 5,77 41 2,73 07 ΒΑΡΚΑ BOAT 11 4,23 38 3,45 08 ΑΜΜΟΣ SAND 14 5,38 36 2,57 09 ΔΙΧΤΥ FISHING NET 17 6,54 34 2,00 10 ΑΡΑΖΩ MOOR (V) 14 5,38 32 2,29 Table 1. Top 10 most frequent keywords

Keywords are the only quantifiable data corpus methodologies can process directly. Because words are the least contestable quantifiable unit of those typically HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 40 investigated in Corpus Linguistics, any automation facilitated by computer software will rely on raw data from the micro-management stratum of lexis. At the same time, lexical and conceptual levels of analysis need to remain unconflated but interfaced.

This is no easy task. Consider for instance the keyword ΚΑΡΑΒΙ (SHIP) (63), concept

'vessel' (84), and blend Vessel (33), which amount to different counts. All instances of

ΚΑΡΑΒΙ are instances of 'vessel'. But so are instances of ΠΛΟΙΟ (SHIP2), ΒΑΡΚΑ (BOAT) or any other item in the Vessel Typology thematic group. 'Vessel' can also be accessed metonymically through all the keywords in the Vessel Meronymy, and by presupposition through the keywords in Sea-people Typology, Sailing Off, Nautical

Lore, Sinking, Porting, Navigation and Piracy thematic groups. Access to a single instance of the concept 'vessel' may be granted through keyword clusters. Therefore concept 'vessel' instances are not the sum of all the vessel-related keyword instances.

Neither all activation of 'vessel' procure a heart blend Vessel; in fact the majority does not.

2. Scenarios

The culturally salient and lexically rich Domain of Sea affords the discourse of the heart access to background information bundles, which help cohere and interpret it. These include encyclopedic knowledge, structure frames and, most crucially, operant scenarios. Specific attention is paid to the latter because they fare in optimal compatibility with the dynamic nature of Conceptual Integration Theory. Real-life, meaningful involvement in the activities prescribed by the scenarios allows for fruitfully translating source nuances onto the target discourse. Anchored in every-day experiences with the sea, the elusive concept of 'romantic love' as condensed into its semiotic counterpart, the 'heart', acquires additional pragmatic relevance and tactility. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 41

Information bundling can occur through scenarization, a meta-cognitive compilation routine that takes cue from pertinent stimuli anywhere in the dataset and uses pattern-recognition and pattern-matching techniques to illustrate possible comprehensive/-ible arrays (Ohsawa, 2009; Rioux & Lizotte, 2011). In the tradition of

Natural Language Processing (NLP), Scenarized Knowledge Representation (SKR) is a bi-directional functional intermediate between a linguistic form of knowledge, codified in language, and a natural form of knowledge, germinating in the human mind (Wang et al., 2006: 83). This tri-level model (Wang, 2007) effortlessly aligns with our layout of keywords, scenarios and blends. Even though the distinction works great for analytic purposes, it may suggest a degree of autonomy in the representations that is not corroborated by our data. Scenarios do not first evolve independently and assume their mediating role afterwards. Instead, novel scenario generation can be effectively achieved through blending (Tan & Kwok, 2009).

Sea scenarios certainly abide aplenty in the songs studied. Nonetheless, the actual theme in point in the overwhelming majority of them, in 246 out of 260 to be exact, is 'romantic love'. That is where illocutionary force permeates from and where pragmatic effects are to be computed. What is more, the remaining songs –8 about

‘unfairness of society’, 3 about ‘happiness’ and 3 about ‘sadness’, do bring up the concept, even if incidentally. Consequently, the true backbone of the discourse of the heart, even when it materially implicates the Domain of Sea, must still lie outside it.

Of course 'romantic love (eros)' has its own scenarios to play out on that do not normally involve sea concepts. Since it is simultaneously building on both the sea scenarios and the romantic love scenarios, the discourse of the heart can be understood as a double-scope story, a conceptual integration array where blending of organizing frames takes place (Turner, 2003). This should not be taken to mean that HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 42 blending is a secondary step, one that operates on already mature narratives alone

(Turner, 2008:14-15). Blending is rather a self-sustaining ecosystem. It does not only integrate advanced narratives, but also helps create the same advanced narratives it will subsequently work on out of rudimentary narratives (Turner, 2008:15; Dancygier,

2010: 14). As sea-related heart blends augment a skeletal romantic love scenario, they also lay the groundwork for more detailed sea scenarios; scenarios that can in turn accommodate more sea-related heart blends and eventually turn the discourse of the heart into a viable habitat for sea concepts that feels and behaves all too natural.

2.1. Sea Scenarios

Scenarization of fragmental sea frames or isolated sea events happens across the totality of discourse. It is only at this supratextual level that the crisp, integrated sea scenarios, we are going to analyze further down, are directly observable.

Individual songs never span a whole scenario, but deal with a limited number of its events instead. Still a scenario needs to be activated as a backdrop against which the lone events are to be situationally comprehended. The scenario is originally severely underspecified. As more discourse gets parsed, more details are saturated into previously established scenario representations, which are thus dynamically enriched, refined, recalibrated and made available back to scenarization for further processing.

As mentioned earlier, three main sea-related scenarios are documented in the

Sub-corpus: seafaring, fishing and beach-going. They reflect the adventurous, alluring and recreational nature of love respectively, being inclusive enough to cover a wide assortment of aquatic experiences and provide the template for meeting the optimality principle of Integration (Fauconnier & Turner, 2006: 340). Internal event structure elaborates on proceedings and provides further niches for creative exploitation harboring opportunism and path-dependency (Fauconnier & Turner, 2006: 334-335). HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 43

Frequency of scenario and event occurrence (Appendix C) correlates with multitude of different sea-related heart blends (Table 2). That means the more widespread the use of a sea scenario and event is, the more likely various sea-related heart blends will occur in its context. Not all scenario specifics cohere blends, however. There are scenario contingencies for blending left unexplored. Sea scenarios structure the discourse of the heart, even when they do not blend directly into it.

A/A Events Scenarios Tokens Token Spreads Blend Types (%) 01 Navigation Seafaring 54 20.77 5 02 Porting Seafaring 51 19.62 5 03 Sinking Seafaring 41 15.77 3 04 Swimming Beach-going 34 13.08 2 05 Sea Storms Seafaring 22 8.46 2 Table 2. Top 5 most frequent events

2.1.1. Seafaring Scenario

Seafaring appears to be the most pervasive of the three scenarios, employing

105 out of the 132 designated keywords to cohere 9 out of the 16 sea-related heart blends. The Scenario is scripted over the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor, contextualized for the Domain of Sea as LOVE IS A SEA VOYAGE. It is essentially path- schematic (Figure 4). It comprises a source event: Sailing Off; a path event:

Navigation; three obstacle events: Magic Encounters, Piracy and Sea Storms; and two alternative goal events: Sinking and Porting. That is a ship will sail from a port, go out at sea, face magic creatures, storms and pirates and either sink or survive to reach port again. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 44

Figure 4. Seafaring scenario event structure

By default the scenario plays out in a loop (1). Ships are meant to sail repeatedly from port to port and are only of use as long as they continue to do so. This setup echoes embodied experience with our cardiovascular system circulating blood from the heart to the rest of the body and back to maintain homeostasis. The message reverberates stronger if we also consider the LIFE IS A CIRCLE metaphor.

(1) Τα καράβια κάνουν κύκλο στις καρδιές

Ships circle around in the hearts

(Ch. Alexiou, 1992)

The loop, though vital for the constitution of the scenario, is usually framed out in the actual lyrics. Love is supposed to be unique, not routine, so re-runs are either backgrounded as misconceptions, past loves that were deemed significant at the time but in retrospection are not, or edited out altogether. In the case of obstacle event: Piracy or goal event: Sinking the loop is suspended. A pirated or sinking ship cannot continue on its due course and people onboard may not survive the incident.

Suspending the loop can hence be understood as 'death' (2, 3). Lyrics modeled over these events, however, do lead back to a conceptualization of 'romantic love' through the Eros and Thanatos displacement (Freud, 1920/1922).

(2) Ο χάρος, πειρατής μ’ ένα μουσκέτο, μεσόφρυδα όπου να 'ναι θα χτυπήσει HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 45

Death, a pirate with a musket, will shoot between the eyebrows anytime now

(Avramidis, 1999)

(3) Σαν πλοίο που βουλιάζει με εγκατέλειψες,

You abandoned me like a sinking ship,

δεν υπάρχω πια χωρίς εσένα...

I do not exist anymore without you.

(Giannopoulos, 2005a)

Source event: Sailing Off and goal event:

Porting are isomorphic but counter-

directional in that they share lexical

probes and conceptual structure but

describe reverse procedures. They are also

scenario terminals, two definitive points Figure 5. Seafaring scenario arcs on the circle that define two arcs (Figure

5). Both arcs can be identified with a love relationship. Using Arc 2: At port allows for an interesting reversal: the conclusion of the scenario can actually depict the start of a romantic affair and conversely the beginning of the scenario a termination of it.

If there is one concept the scenario cannot do without, this is most definitely the ‘vessel’. When talking about sea voyages, establishing the presence of a vessel is a matter of existential presupposition. All 84 songs that make use of the scenario refer to vessels in one way or another and. Even though, only one of them offers some linguistic illustration of a vessel actually being constructed, multiple instantiations of it can be put together conceptually by combining information fragments scattered throughout the discourse. (Re)constructing the whole from its parts involves the HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 46 crucial operation of metonymy. The master builder here is definitely meronymy.

Telling terms in this conceptual shipbuilding cover anything from hull (ΣΚΑΡΙ) parts like bows (ΠΛΩΡΗ), decks (ΚΑΤΑΣΤΡΩΜΑ, ΚΟΥΒΕΡΤΑ), holds (ΑΜΠΑΡΙ) and railings

(ΠΑΡΑΠΕΤΟ, ΡΕΛΙ, ΚΟΥΠΑΣΤΗ) to standard rigging (ΞΑΡΤΙΑ) like anchors (ΑΓΚΥΡΑ), mooring ropes (ΠΑΛΑΜΑΡΙ, ΚΑΒΟΣ), masts (ΚΑΤΑΡΤΙ, ΑΛΜΠΟΥΡΟ), sails (ΠΑΝΙΑ), motors (ΜΗΧΑΝΗ), oars (ΚΟΥΠΙΑ) and rudder-wheels (ΤΙΜΟΝΙ) to specialty items like pirate flags (ΠΕΙΡΑΤΙΚΗ ΣΗΜΑΙΑ).

Vessels that emerge can be arranged by prototypicality (Figure

6). The most prototypical is the generic wooden sailboat (29 songs). Variants in diminishing order of popularity include: the rowboat (10 songs), the pirate ship

(4 songs), the cruiseliner (3 songs), Figure 6. Prototypicality of vessels in the seafaring scenario the ocean-liner (1 song), the freighter ship (1 song), the Greek traditional fishing boat 'trehandiri' (1 song), the motorboat (1 song) and the fire ship (1 song). Some are lexically identified in the lyrics (ΦΟΡΤΗΓΟ, ΤΡΕΧΑΝΤΗΡΙ, ΓΑΛΕΡΑ, ΠΕΙΡΑΤΙΚΟ), others need to be inferentially explicated from context (oars > rowboat, motor > motorboat, sails > sailboat, ocean > oceanliner, islands > cruiseliner, fire ship captain > fire ship). In the majority of cases

(34 songs), though, the vessel type remains totally unspecified with no clues to determine its identity. The wide variety of vessels helps illustrate the wild creative potential of the scenario. Since every vessel type saturates the specifics somewhat differently, a construal cornucopia opens up for the heart to sail through. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 47

2.1.1.1. Source Event: Sailing Off

Sailing off is a telic event that signals the transition from one state of being to its parametric opposite as it introduces apparent motion to overcome static inertia. It imposes an egocentric viewing arrangement (Langacker, 1987), where current state of mind is considered the deictic center construed as a fixed location. Consequently, moving to an alternate state of mind will require acceleration. The event comprises three sub-events: Embarking, Disengagement and Power-Up. The sub-events are so closely knit together that can be used interchangeably for one another and metonymically for the event. A vessel sailing off in the sea scenario mashes up with an individual getting into or out of love in the love scenario.

Relevant keywords (10): ΑΝΟIΓΩ ΠΑΝΙΑ, ΒΑΖΩ ΠΛΩΡΗ, ΒΙΡΑ ΤΗΝ ΑΓΚΥΡΑ, ΚΑΒΟΣ,

ΛΙΜΑΝΙ, ΜΠΑΡΚΑΡΩ, ΠΑΛΑΜΑΡΙ, ΠΡΟΚΥΜΑΙΑ, ΠΡΟΣΩ ΟΛΟΤΑΧΏΣ, ΣΑΛΠΑΡΩ

Relevant blends (1): Vessel/Heart

Sub-event: Embarking. Embarking formally introduces the human element, depicting people getting aboard the vessel (4). This is the first step into the direction of satisfying the overarching goal of blending: ‘achieve human scale’ (Fauconnier &

Turner, 2006: 339). Once embarked, however, passengers and crew now form an integral part of the vessel topology and move out of focus as conceptualization zooms out to vessel, which is figuratively animated by their presence. The animated vessel will remain the focal point throughout the voyage, unless extraordinary circumstances demand otherwise. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 48

(4) Η ζωή μου με πάει να μπαρκάρω, σ’ ένα αυτόφωτο πλοίο να μπω

My life gets me to embark, to come onboard a self-luminous ship

(Laryngakis, 1992)

Embarking is but one in a long row of ‘getting into’ eventualities found in the sea scenarios. Sinking (see section 2.1.1.4.1.) depicts a vessel getting into the sea, porting (see section 2.1.1.4.2.) a vessel getting into a port, casting (see section

2.1.2.2.) a fishing device getting into the sea, diving (see section 2.1.3.2.) a person getting into the sea. The generic script of ‘getting into’ in the context of romantic love activates embodied experience of penetrative sexual intercourse.

Sub-event: Disengagement. Disengagement introduces motion to the vessel. As anchors are raised and mooring ropes untied, it is left unrestrained and free to drift.

This kick-off motion, however, is still not considered intentional, but rather as the result of external forces (Drag) operating on a suggestible patient. Disengagement is utilized in the discourse of the heart to talk about 'romantic love' in two ways that bring about conflicting representations (Figure 7): either as stepping away from the love affair (5), or as forsaking normal reasoning and giving in to feelings and emotions (6, 7).

(5) Βίρα την άγκυρα, παιδιά, ω, ω, ω, [...] γιατί έχω πόνο στην καρδιά.

Anchors aweigh, lads, oh, oh, oh, because I've got pain in my heart

(Tsitsanis, 1949) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 49

(6) Και δεν υπάρχουν άγκυρες γερά να μας κρατάνε

And there are no anchors to firmly secure us

κόντρα στα κύματα που στο χαμό μας πάνε

against the waves that take us to our doom

(Kallinis, 1998)

(7) Όλο μου βάζουν άγκυρες κι άγκυρες δεν αντέχω

They are always laying anchors for me, but I cannot stand anchors

κι αν είν’ δεμένο το σκαρί δεν θέλω να το έχω

and if the hull is moored I don't want to have it.

(Lampridi, 2010)

Figure 7. Disengagement sub-event HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 50

Sub-event: Power-up. Depending on the vessel type, the sub-event of power-up involves setting sail (for sailboats), firing the motor (for motorboats) or starting to row

(for rowboats). Power-up is the decisive moment when vessel motion ceases to be unintentional (Drag) and becomes self-propelled (Propulsion). With power-up the vessel turns from patient to agent. It is now the instigator of action rather than a passive recipient; the time when the person in love decides to act upon internal impulses. Once again there is a dual interpretation (Figure 8): This could either mean that people act on survival instincts to perfromatively remove themselves from a damaging or unrewarding relationship (8) or act on desire to pursue a love interest (9).

(8) Άνοιξες πανιά και φεύγεις τώρα μακριά

You have set sail and you are now leaving off

(Serkos, 2002)

(9) Βράδιασε κι άνοιξα πανιά να γυρίσω στη δική σου αγκαλιά

It got dark and I set sail to return to your embrace

(Mousafiris, 1980) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 51

Figure 8. Power-up sub-event

As the powered-up vessel gradually leaves the port, any land elements begin to fall out of frame, so the referential grid has to be re-sketched. Re-sketching the referential grid is a self-exploring experience related to the feeling of love. When infatuated or disenamored individuals begin to challenge the world as they knew it in an introspective realignment to accommodate partnership or (re)accommodate singularity (10). With a cocktail of anxiety, fear and enthusiasm, the voyage has begun, full speed ahead.

(10) Στεριά η αγάπη χάνεται, πουλί η χαρά πετάει

Love fades away like land, happiness flies like a (sea)bird

περνούν τα χρόνια κι η ζωή και ποιος να τα προφτάσει

years and life go by and who can keep up with them

(Mytilinaiou, 1994) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 52

2.1.1.2. Path Event: Navigation

Navigation is the art of calculating position and deciding direction of a floating vessel. Traversing an immense body of water with hardly ever visible landmarks present for guidance is an amazing feat; one that takes patience, skill and the appropriate equipment. Getting into a love relationship is pretty much the same.

The playing field will originally appear vast and unfamiliar and will urge for its exploration (11). Once initial routes are established, sticking to them will become of crucial importance and can be plotted on charts for future reference. Knowing how to steer away from trouble will keep the lovers afloat. When unsure what to do, they will have to consult their compass and charts (12). They will have to be aware of their current coordinates to decide on their heading (13). At times, one party will act as captain (14), being entrusted with executive decisions for the relationship.

(11) [Καρδιά μου], [τ]α πρώτα σου χτυπήματα καράβια που αρμενίζουν

O heart, your first beats are like ships that navigate

Στις θάλασσες του έρωτα και πίσω δεν γυρίζουν

the seas of love and do not come back

(Nikidis, 1981)

(12) Μ’ είχες δει να μπαίνω μες στην καταιγίδα

You had seen me going into the sea storm

Κι ήσουν η πυξίδα μήπως και χαθώ

And you were the compass, lest I get lost

(Theofanous, 2004a) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 53

(13) Ρότα καρδιάς, […] και μεσοπέλαγα

Heading of the heart and in the middle of the sea

για σένα πέθαινα, για σένα έκλαιγα

I was dying and crying for you

Εσύ με λάτρεψες και άλλαξα πορεία,

You worshiped me and I changed my route

κι έγινες έρωτας, καημός και ιστορία

and you became love, longing and history

(Peristerakis, 2011)

(14) Καπετάνιε της καρδιάς μου

Captain of my heart

(Zikas, 1987)

Relevant keywords (13): ΑΡΜΕΝΙΖΩ, ΚΑΠΕΤΑΝΙΟΣ, ΛΟΣΤΡΟΜΟΣ, ΝΑΥΤΗΣ, ΠΙΛΟΤΟΣ,

ΠΛΗΡΩΜΑ, ΠΥΞΙΔΑ, ΡΟΤΑ, ΣΤΑΒΕΝΤΟ, ΣΥΝΤΕΤΑΓΜΕΝΕΣ, ΤΙΜΟΝΙ, ΦΑΡΟΣ, ΧΑΡΤΗΣ

Relevant blends (5): Vessel/Heart, Chart/Heart, Nautical Compass/Heart, Maritime pilot/Heart, Lighthouse/Heart

2.1.1.3. Obstacle events

The path from source to goal is rarely unobstructed. Intervening antagonists are more than likely to appear, activating the blockage schema. Obstacle events are optional, unranked and episodic, meaning if they do occur, they can do so in any sequence and any number of times. Even though obstacles are by default undesirable from the perspective of a moving agonist, in the discourse of the heart they are ultimately positively valuated because they provide the element of adventure, break routine and assess sentiment resilience. Passionate lovers yearn for an eventful voyage HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 54 that will challenge them and put their feelings to the test. The only events in the scenario that can proliferate unrestrictedly and in unpredictable patterns are obstacle ones. Of course there is a threshold level of how much hardship a relationship can withstand before giving way, much like a seafaring ship.

2.1.1.3.1 Obstacle event: Magic Encounters

Seamen love to tell tales of their great adventures out at sea. Chronicles of heroic escapades, while confronting magic creatures or crossing enchanted passages, are brought back to ports and are as much treasured as any riches obtained on the journey. There is a sense of agnostic awe in dealing with the arcane, a sense most likely profoundly impressing, cherished and commemorated. It can prove perilous, however, since it has a paralyzing effect that interferes with the parallel execution of other vital ongoing tasks. Being in love often involves a similar experience. Like seamen, lovers can be over-eager to recount their magic love stories and will do so with the same conviction and fervor (15). They are equally likely to get side-tracked by their emotional involvement and perform poorly on other aspects of their everyday life as a result. Here the Domain of Sea cross-cuts the Domain of Magic and the

Domain of Books & Storytelling to enrich the discourse of the heart.

(15) Θα ψάξω δρόμο τυχερό μέσα από συμπληγάδες

I'll look for a fortunate passage in-between clashing rocks

και στην καρδιά σου με φτερό θα γράψω δυο αράδες

and I'll write two lines on your heart with a quill

(Katsoulis, 1998a)

Relevant keywords (3): ΓΟΡΓΟΝΑ, ΣΕΙΡΗΝΑ, ΣΥΜΠΛΗΓΑΔΕΣ

Relevant blends: – HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 55

2.1.1.3.2. Obstacle event: Piracy

Piracy is the unlawful act of boarding a vessel uninvited and violently removing objects of value (cargo, passengers’ valuables) or holding the crew to ransom. It can also involve temporary or permanent commandeering of the ship, which is then made to divert its charted course. During a pirate raid passengers and crew can be brutalized to death. On the other hand, the way of the pirate is glorified in defying established societal norms and leading life as a truly free individual. It is not difficult to understand that when the Domain of Sea intersects the Domain of Money

& Economic Transaction, the Domain of Crime and the Domain of Death, pirates come aboard. All of these domains can independently cohere love scenarios. In the event of piracy in the discourse of the heart we witness them joining forces for an incredibly powerful effect that revolves around the fear of loss and its antipode, the lust for acquisition. Love is understood as a valuable possession lovers do not wish to be separated from or are desperate to acquire (16).

(16) Κράτα την καρδιά σου από τους πειρατές

Keep your heart safe from pirates

(Ch. Alexiou, 1992)

Relevant keywords (6): ΚΟΥΡΣΑΡΟΣ, ΚΟΥΡΣΕΥΩ, ΜΟΥΣΚΕΤΟ, ΠΕΙΡΑΤΗΣ, ΠΕΙΡΑΤΙΚΗ

ΣΗΜΑΙΑ, ΠΕΙΡΑΤΙΚΟ

Relevant blends (2): Vessel/Heart, Pirate booty/Heart

2.1.1.3.3. Obstacle event: Sea Storms

Sea storms are severe weather conditions over sea manifesting with strong winds, high waves and possibly heavy rain. They constitute significant disruptions to HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 56 normal state of affairs. They generally impact negatively on lives and property, since they can wreck ships along with cargo and hands onboard. They are usually characterized by menacing intensity but liberating brevity. During a sea storm it becomes increasingly difficult to effectively steer a vessel (17). Loss of control generates agitation and repeated failed attempts to subdue the elements a sense of frustration. As the waves splash, sea spray gushes in the air creating a specific kind of fog, known as sea fret. Concomitant reduced visibility adds up to a sense of misdirection and disorientation. It is a life-threatening situation for crew on deck struggling to execute the appropriate maneuvers. Working under extreme stress in the face of danger in what feels like a near-death experience results in a sense of emergency and lingering, impending doom. Words for a sea-storm in Modern Greek have unsurprisingly acquired the additional lexicalized meanings of upheaval, trouble and confusion. The psychology of the sea storm scene, in all its intricacy and intensity, can be genuinely replicated in a relationship.

(17) Όταν στο πέλαγο βρεθείς είναι μοιραίο να χαθείς με τέτοια [...] τρικυμία

When you are out at sea with such a storm you will inescapably be lost

και το τιμόνι της καρδιάς θα σου τ’ αρπάξει ο βοριάς

and the Northern wind will snatch the rudder-wheel of the heart.

(Chiotis, 1982)

It is interesting to notice that in the blended scenario sea storms do not just occur as natural phenomena. Most of the times, they are rather understood as being introduced to the system by an external agent, typically the love interest. The phrase

‘to bring sea storms in one's heart’ has been conventionalized to such an extent that it acquires an almost idiomatic ring to it. Because Sea/Heart is construed as a container, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 57 where things can be brought into, storms are a threat to any vessels already inside and probably to the integrity of the container itself. The entire FORCE schema along with its subsidiaries (Peña-Cervel, 1999) is brought to bear on the scene. In order for someone to bring something into something else (CONTAINER schema), they must first enter it themselves, in person or via proxy. If there are occupants already inside

(BLOCKAGE schema), then the entrant must first obtain access rights from them, through persuasion, trickery or might (REMOVAL OF RESTRAINT schema), and can only proceed after having secured them (ENABLEMENT schema). Upon entry or at a time following entry, the entrant might misguidedly feel entitled to grant access to a third party (ATTRACTION schema). Most of the times, however, original occupants have not willingly wavered their rights to access regulation and the entrant is acting on falsified power of attorney. Consequently, they will deem any access granted this way void, treat the third party as a threat and mobilize to confront it

(COUNTERFORCE schema). Retaliatory measures may be taken against the entrant as well. The entrant may have been a decoy (DIVERSION schema) and have vacated before adverse action. This pattern rings familiar for a series of relevant scenarios, building on Domains of experience also frequently capitalized upon to construe the

‘heart’. Compare:

 A virus infects a cell and disseminates its RNA [BODY]  A trafficker smuggles contrabands across a border [CRIME]  A besieger takes over a fortified city and plunders for spoils [WAR]  A saboteur sneaks past enemy lines and plants explosives on strategic

infrastructure [WAR]  A deity/mage summons an elemental to a location to punish an infidel/test a

champion/combat an assailant [MAGIC] HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 58

For all their damaging effects and negative connotations, sea storms in the discourse of the heart are generally understood as eros pathology. As such they may actually be cherished and presented as tokens for sincerity of emotions and degree of commitment. They are consequently promoted to an integral component of the experience, one that makes it truly rewarding (18).

(18) Δεν έχει αξία το ταξίδι αν δεν υπάρχει τρικυμία

The voyage isn't worth it, if there's no sea storm

(Tsotou, 1980)

Relevant keywords (11): ΑΦΡΙΖΩ, ΑΦΡΟΣ, ΚΥΜΑ, ΜΑΪΣΤΡΟΣ, ΜΠΟΡΑ, ΠΑΦΛΑΖΩ,

ΡΕΥΜΑ, ΣΤΑΘΜΗ, ΤΡΑΜΟΥΝΤΑΝΑ, ΤΡΙΚΥΜΙΑ, ΦΟΥΡΤΟΥΝΑ

Relevant blends (2): Sea/Heart, Vessel/Heart

2.1.1.4. Goal events

Sinking and Porting are telic events that signal the transition from one state of being (back) to its parametric opposite, as they (re)introduce apparent stability to overcome dynamic inertia. It imposes a heterocentric viewing arrangement, where an alternate state of mind is considered the deictic center construed as a fixed location.

Consequently, arriving at it without overshoot will require deceleration. Goal events are alternatives and hence mutually exclusive: a ship will either sink or port. A vessel slowing down to a stop as it reaches the seafloor or a port in the sea scenario mashes up with an individual getting into or out of love in the love scenario.

Sinking and Porting are classified as goal events because they both irrevocably terminate a loop of the seafaring scenario. They differ in their default valuation.

Porting is positively charged, while sinking negatively. Because of its negative default valuation sinking can be re-construed as obstacle. Valuation can be subverted, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 59 however, with Sinking acquiring a positive reading of surrendering to love and

Porting a negative one of retiring from the love game.

2.1.1.4.1. Goal event: Sinking

Since it is essentially the worst-case scenario for a vessel, sinking has evolved into an unchallenged icon of failure, so much so that the meaning has been lexicalized. The most common situation this understanding is ascribed to in the sub- corpus is 'failure to be loved', when one's feelings are not enough to sustain a relationship which eventually dies out, despite efforts to the contrary (19). This is the default reading of sinking in the discourse of the heart and the most straightforward one, since it does not contradict the scenario assumptions in any significant way: sinking occurs after navigation interrupting it, terminates the scenario and is negatively valuated.

(19) Η αγάπη αυτή σαν πλοίο ναυάγησε

This love sank like a ship

(Giannopoulos, 2005b)

But there are also instances of 'failure to love', when one has refrained from love feelings up until a point in life, option which one evaluates negatively in retrospection (20). This anterior reading gives prominence in the current state of cupid bliss, making everything in the past pale in solemn comparison. In this view, the normal sequencing of the seafaring scenario is challenged, as a goal event gets re- arranged into a source event. The internal incohesion can be resolved if we posit two separate runs of the scenario: one which ends in sinking and corresponds to the individual's life prior to falling in love and one which does not end in sinking and HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 60 corresponds to the individual's life after falling in love. The two runs of the scenario are then compressed into one on account of the counterpart identity relation between the vessels which both correspond to a single individual. The compression satisfies the ‘intensify vital relations’ optimality principle (Fauconnier & Turner, 2006: 340).

As an added bonus, we can also retrieve a sense of love as a ‘new lease on life’ out of this procedure.

(20) Βαθιά σαν θάλασσα είναι τα μάτια σου, εγώ ναυάγιο μες στη ζωή

Your eyes are deep like the sea and I was a shipwreck of life

τα δυο τα χέρια σου, γίνονται χέρια μου, λιμάνι έγινες για μένα εσύ.

your two hands, become my hands, (so) you have become my port.

(Axarlis, 2004)

Another aspect of the sinking event that can relay messages about ‘romantic love’ is its accidental and fatal nature. Sinking, as all calamities, is often considered unavoidable post hoc. This helps soothe existential anxieties over loss of life and property. Accidents are meant to happen and the proper response to them is to get past the claustrophobic feeling of inescapability and acknowledge the renewed potentials they bring. Love is oftentimes also woven against such a deterministic framework, which thus celebrates serendipity (21).

(21) Φίλα με, ταξίδεψέ με, στα βαθιά ναυάγησέ με.

Kiss me, get me to travel, make me sink in the deep

Της καρδιάς οι πελαγίτες κάνουνε γιορτές τις ήττες.

Seamen of the heart make a celebration out of defeats.

(Alkaios, 2003) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 61

One last point of interest is that sinking involves downward motion, which seems to accurately reflect the proverbial "falling in love". A number of other eventualities across sea scenarios (Figure 9) do so as well, namely the anchoring aspect of sub-event Disengagement in the Sailing off event (see section 2.1.1.1.),

Casting (see section 2.1.2.2.) and sub-events Diving and Drowning in the Swimming event (see section 2.1.3.2.). The intuitive use of descending eventualities would be to describe the termination of a relationship in accord with SADNESS IS DOWN orientation. Interestingly enough, though, they are also used to mark the beginning of an affair (22) in which case they conflict with a representation of love as an uplifting experience that plays on the HAPPINESS IS UP metaphor.

(22) Ναι, σαν παλιό πειρατικό θα βυθίζομαι στον ωραίο του κορμιού σου ωκεανό

Yes, I will sink like an old pirate-ship in the beautiful ocean of your body.

(Giannopoulos, 2011)

Figure 9. Descending eventualities across scenarios

A Sea/Sky blend (Figure 10) can retain most of the structure but reverse verticality so it complies with HAPPINESS IS UP orientation specifications. Sea and Sky are often rendered as spaces of similar characteristics (fluidity, buoyancy), so a blend HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 62 between them is not unlikely. Reverse verticality can then project back to the sea input space. There is a less computationally demanding way of resolving the alignment issues by simply bypassing them altogether, positing the conceptual metaphor NONRATIONAL IS DOWN and the metaphor chain LOVE IS TRUST - TRUST IS

RELINQUISHING CONTROL - LACK OF CONTROL IS DOWN as the core instigators of involving downwards motion in representations of romantic love. A third possibility is to consider there is no mismatch to begin with, since the reduced perceived weight while under submersion can invoke the concept of lightness, which will mediate to bring happiness along via the HAPPINESS IS LIGHTNESS metaphor.

between Goal Event: Sinking and HAPPINESS IS UP metaphor

Relevant keywords (11): ΒΑΖΩ ΝΕΡΑ, ΒΟΥΛΙΑΖΩ, ΒΥΘΙΖΩ/-ΟΜΑΙ, ΓΕΡΝΩ, ΜΠΑΖΩ,

ΜΠΑΤΑΡΩ, ΝΑΥΑΓΙΟ, ΝΑΥΑΓΟΣ, ΝΑΥΑΓΩ, ΠΛΗΜΜΥΡΙΖΩ, ΠΝΙΓΩ/-ΟΜΑΙ

Relevant blends (3): Sea/Heart, Vessel/Heat, Shipwreck/Heart

2.1.1.4.2. Goal event: Porting HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 63

Porting is a mirror event to Sailing Off. Studying the two in contradistinction emphasizes the cyclical nature of the scenario. Predictably, it consists of three sub- events: Power-down, Engagement, Disembarking. Engagement (Figure 11) is by far the most common of porting sub-events in the songs studied, while Disembarking is virtually unrepresented. Porting signifies the canonical ending of a sea voyage, since a ship having sailed from a port must survive to reach another to be of any use in transportation or commerce.

Figure 11. Engagement sub-event

Real life ships are usually familiar with their end ports, have been there before and after a scheduled stay, they will be back on another leg of their voyage, return to their home ports. Ships in the discourse of the heart, however, do not necessarily know their end port before they come across it and they are meant to stay there indefinitely. What is routine and mechanistic in one case is exhilarating and revealing HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 64 in the other. Ports are busy places and bigger ports able to accommodate more ships at a time can usually offer the individual ship a greater variety of amenities, which will thus make them preferable over less busy, smaller ports that have a limited variety of amenities to offer. But porting is much more personal and bidirectionally exclusive when it is used in the context of romantic love. No other ships are supposed to occupy the port at the same time and conversely a given ship should not occupy a different port than the one originally scheduled (23). Even if they retain their structural integrity, including piers, wharfs, jetties and even lighthouses, ports in the discourse of the heart do not come out as industrious, buzzing mega-structures but more closely resemble serene, hidden anchorages and secluded, private marinas.

(23) Λείπεις και φωτιά μου άναψες, τα όνειρά μου όλα τα 'καψες

You are gone and you have set me on fire, you have burnt all of my dreams

σε λιμάνι άλλο άραξες, με τυραννάς.

you have moored in a different port, you torture me

(Kalemis, 2006)

Relevant keywords (13): ΑΓΚΥΡΑ, ΑΡΑΖΩ, ΓΛΑΡΟΣ, ΔΕΝΩ, ΘΑΛΑΣΣΟΠΟΥΛΙ, ΚΑΒΟΣ,

ΛΙΜΑΝΙ, ΜΟΥΡΑΓΙΟ, ΜΩΛΟΣ, ΠΑΛΑΜΑΡΙ, ΠΙΛΟΤΟΣ, ΠΡΟΚΥΜΑΙΑ, ΦΑΡΟΣ

Relevant blends (6): Sea/Heart, Vessel/Heart, Port/Heart, Pilot/Heart,

Lighthouse/Heart, Mooring rope/Heart HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 65

2.1.2. Fishing Scenario

Fishing, while moderately

productive, is the least creative of

the scenarios. It coheres 2 sea-

related heart blends and makes use

of 9 keywords. The scenario is

scripted over the SEDUCTION IS

ENTRAPMENT conceptual metaphor, Figure 12. Fishing scenario event structure contextualized for the Domain of

Sea as SEDUCTION IS FISHING. Rather than standing in complete autonomy, it can be embedded in the Seafaring scenario, if there is a vessel involved, or in the Beach- going scenario, if there is not. It is attraction force-schematic, playing along the verticality schema (Figure 12). It consists of a source event: Preparing, a down vector event: Casting and an up vector event: Retrieving. A fisherman at some fishing spot will ready the fishing device, toss it in the sea, wait and then bring it back up in hopes of having caught fish. The procedure will be repeated until the desired amount or allowed quota has been achieved. Iteration is then a constitutive attribute of the scenario but—much like the loop in Seafaring—it is normally suppressed in the discourse of the heart due to perceived uniqueness of romantic sentiments that cannot be easily reconciled with repetition.

Going fishing can be characterized as either a fiery passion or a pressing need; something one pursues as a hobby because one loves to do it or something one is obliged to do to secure sustenance. Because it is both a recreational pastime and a demanding vocation, fishing can capture the relaxing and the anxiety-ridden aspects of a romantic relationship equally well. In addition, by being a sport, it can also HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 66 accommodate the notion of ‘competition’ as it evolves among suitors. Not everybody appreciates a conception of love as a power game where one party essentially tricks the other into submission. There is little allure in a carefully orchestrated masterplan, involving learned stratagems and set in motion by purely egotistical, self-gratifying motives; one that equates the love interest with nothing more than a trophy. That is maybe why, rather than illustrating adventures of the Casanova type in agent construals, the fishing scenario is more often used to express the mindset of the people on the receiving end, those hooked by the angle or entangled in the net, in patient construals.

Relevant keywords (9): ΑΓΚΙΣΤΡΙ, ΔΙΧΤΥ, ΔΟΛΩΝΩ, ΠΑΡΑΓΑΔΙ, ΠΥΡΟΦΑΝΙ,

ΣΠΑΡΤΑΡΑΩ, ΨΑΡΑΣ, ΨΑΡΕΥΩ, ΨΑΡΙ

Relevant blends (3): Sea/Heart, Fisherman/Heart, Fish/Heart

2.1.2.1. Source Event: Preparing

Preparing has to do with getting the fishing paraphernalia on site and working.

The particulars will differ depending on the fishing mode. Preparing for the fishing modes depicted in the sub-coprus may, among other things, include choosing and positioning the lure or bait for angling (24) and longline-fishing, mending or untangling the nets for net-fishing and lighting up the torches for torch-fishing.

Properly selecting and setting up equipment is tantamount to the success of the endeavor and, most of the times, what separates a greenhorn from a seasoned fisherman. Likewise, someone versed in matters of love can better appreciate a period for reconnaissance of sorts, when intelligence about the object of interest will be accumulated. As in fishing, so in love, preparing may take away a lot of artful HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 67 spontaneity, but in compensation grants an air of confidence that can hardly be resisted.

(24) Ψαράς θα γίνω στη στεριά με δίχτυα δολωμένα

I'll be a fisherman on land with baited nets

για να ψαρέψω μια καρδιά που δεν πονάει για μένα

so I can fish that one heart that doesn't care for me

(Axiotis, 1993)

2.1.2.2. Down vector Event: Casting

Casting comes with a splash, as the fisherman feels confident enough with preparations to actually commence fishing by lowering the fishing device of choice into the sea. At this stage there is yet no guarantee that any fish will be caught, but the decisive step has been taken. All that the fisherman can do henceforth is to wait patiently or to retrieve, adjust and re-cast. When transcribed onto a love scenario,

Casting is, in its most rudimentary of forms, a statement of intention, whereby one party discloses romantic feelings for another by any means deemed fit and awaits response (25), i.e. flirting. Again, there is no definitive assurance as to whether the other party will reciprocate the advances. The party that initiated contact can either persist until satisfied or give up and try on a different occasion. There is a large degree of freedom in how direct, straightforward and telling the approach will be. Some measure of mystique is understood to be maintained, however, since in the source scenario the prey remains oblivious to the presence of the fishing device long enough for it to move into a position where it can be apprehended. Of course, flirting is typically more interactive than this sea event sketches it out to be, but the main idea HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 68 that is communicated here is that the interaction originates with someone who is interested in maintaining it, while another will originally simply entertain it.

(25) Άπλωσα το παραγάδι στην απάνω γειτονιά

I laid the longline in the uptown neighborhood

Με πανσέληνο το βράδυ να σου πάρω δυο φιλιά

So I can take from you two kisses at night under the full moon

(Axiotis, 1993)

2.1.2.3. Up vector Event: Retrieving

A fisherman will retrieve either after a pre-determined time interval or upon being alerted to the possibility of a catch by a specialized mechanism built into the fishing device. But even if fish get entrapped, they can still get loose. The fisherman needs to retain composure and channel enthusiasm into successfully getting the fishing device out of the sea along with the fish. So, retrieving is far from a done deal and—most importantly—not always an easy task. It takes coordination and skill, since the fish are now alarmed and will struggle for their life by writhing (26, 27). It is the part of the procedure that truly matters, the only way the fisherman will get to have fish. Retrieving corresponds to a going steady phase in a love scenario, where commitment issues may bring about reservations and spasmodic actions that will challenge and threaten the neophyte relationship. Unlike fishermen, who may as well go on and re-cast after successfully retrieving, lovers are meant to refrain from further flirting with different people after going steady. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 69

(26) Δίχτυα ήταν τα χρόνια και τα τράβηξα,

The years were fishing nets and I pulled them up

κι όσα σπαρταρούσανε τ’ ανάδειξα

and whatever writhed I showed it off

Σ’ έρωτες κι αγάπες μεσολάβησα, δίχτυα μου βαριά.

I mediated in romances and loves, o my heavy nets.

(Nikolakopoulou, 2001)

(27) [Σ]αν ψαράκι σπαρταρώ στ’ αγκίστρι καρφωμένο

I writhe like a little fish angled at the hook

κι όταν ακούω να τραγουδάς χίλιες φορές πεθαίνω

and when I hear you sing I die a thousand times.

(Zikas, 1985)

2.1.3. Beach-going Scenario

Beach-going is the scenario with the least coherent internal event structure.

Events in this scenario are not strictly sequenced and hence not causally linked to one another. Rather, they stand in relevant autonomy and are able to be shuffled and repeated at will. That is why it is difficult to assign an image schematic structure to it.

Re-creating the scenario involves positing a paragon day at the beach when all possible beach-related activities are undertaken one after the other. It coheres 4 sea- related heart blends by employing 20 keywords. Its hallmark is the distinctive absence of vessels. This, otherwise powerful and influential conceptual entity in the discourse of the heart is trivialized to a fleeting object of casual observation at best, while the human element takes front-stage. Clad in its anthropocentric preoccupations, the scenario gains in immediacy and concreteness, since somatic experience does not HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 70 need to be first projected onto a different ontology before it can be conceptually exploited, but can be utilized as is instead. Another unique aspect of the scenario is its semi-aquatic setting. Sea does not envelope the totality of space where the action occurs, as is the case with Seafaring and Fishing, but only a portion of it.

Relevant keywords (20): ΑΚΡΟΓΙΑΛΙΑ/ΑΚΡΟΓΙΑΛΙ, ΑΚΡΟΘΑΛΑΣΣΙ, ΑΚΤΗ, ΑΜΜΟΣ,

ΑΜΜΟΥΔΙΑ, ΒΟΤΣΑΛΟ, ΒΟΥΛΙΑΖΩ, ΒΟΥΤAΩ, ΒΟΥΤΙA, ΒΡΑΧΟΣ, ΓΙΑΛΟΣ, ΕΠΙΠΛEΩ,

ΚΟΛΥΜΠAΩ, ΚΟΡΑΛΛΙ, ΚΟΧΥΛΙ, ΜΑΡΓΑΡΙΤΑΡΙ, ΟΣΤΡΑΚΟ, ΠΑΡΑΛΙΑ, ΠΝΙΓΩ/-ΟΜΑΙ, ΦΥΚΙ

Relevant blends (4): Beach/Heart, Sea rock/Heart, Seaside plant/Heart, Drowning victim/Heart

2.1.3.1. Event: Sandplaying

Playing with the sand is perhaps the quintessential beach activity, irrevocably scented with summertime childhood memories of carefreeness and creativity. Beach sand has been a self-regenerating, endless canvas for many a youthful masterpiece, inexplicably monumental in their simplicity and transience. What stands out conceptually about the sand is its intimate relation with time. A traditional instrument of chronometry, it appears to observe the passage of time without directly experiencing its ramifications. Playing with the sand is then toying with time, which loses its relentless, patronizing grip on reality as a result. There are three aspects of sandplaying that attempt to spin the evanescent and timeless yarn of love: Burying

(28), Sandcastling (29) and Sandwriting (30).

(28) Κρύβουμε στην άμμο χίλιους θησαυρούς

We hide one thousand treasures in the sand.

(Kalantzi, 2010) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 71

(29) Είναι κακό στην άμμο να χτίζεις παλάτια,

It is unwise to build palaces on the sand,

Ο βοριάς θα στα κάνει συντρίμμια, κομμάτια

the northern wind will blow them to pieces and rumble.

(Ntaiana, 1967)

(30) Στην άμμο έγραφες, θυμήσου, ότι μ' αγαπάς

Remember, you wrote on the sand that you love me

(Saleas, 2012)

2.1.3.2. Event: Swimming

After some time under the scorching sun of the beach, there is nothing more refreshing than a dip into the cool sea which murmurs inviting just few inches away.

Swimming is an excellent cardiovascular exercise that will get the heart throbbing and send energizing vibes all over the body. As sea buoyancy defeats gravity and allows for floating the swimmer enjoys extended freedom of motion. Submersion under water simulates the proto-experience of coziness and safety in the amniotic sac, urging an ontogentetic ecstasy to squirt out, primordial and instinctual (31). It is also vividly symbolic of spiritual catharsis, magnified by culturally shared, Greek- orthodox imagery of the sacrament of baptism and the celebration of Epiphany. Not everything about swimming is benevolent, however, since the bleak possibility of drowning always lurks somewhere among the waves (32). As water violently overflows the respiratory system, a dragging, soulless body is plunged heavy into the dark blues below. ‘Romantic love’ also sends one’s heart racing in an exhilarating rush of energy, tantalizing, liberating, reassuring, absolving, potentially lethal. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 72

(31) Κάτω απ’ το χάδι σου σε μπλε βυθούς βουτάω,

I dive to blue seafloors under your caress

μες στα γαλάζια ντύνομαι και κολυμπάω

I dress in light blue and swim

Σαν τώρα να γεννήθηκε η ψυχούλα μου αρμενίζει

My soul floats around as if it were born just now

(Athanasiadou, 1987)

(32) Ντρέπομαι, καρδιά μου, σαν παιδί να κλαίω,

I am ashamed, my heart, to cry like a child

πνίγομαι μακριά σου, δεν μπορώ, σου λέω

Away from you I feel I’m drowning, I can’t stand it, I tell you

(Giannopoulos, 2005c)

2.1.3.3. Event: Seashell picking

A walk by the seashore, collecting mementos washed ashore by the waves, offers beach-goers a chance to always keep a tangible piece of the sea with them.

Those souvenirs, though initially trifle and insignificant, eventually grow to totemic proportions, as nostalgia veneers them with a shiny lacquer of translucent, yet empowering, desire (33). Carefully handpicked from among countless others of their kind, they are invested with an objectively ungrounded sense of uniqueness, manifested as endearment or even separation anxiety. By analogy, lovers treasure moments in their relationship and often stash reminding items away. These items, when gifted, become tokens to be redeemed at a later date, a kind of guarantee for a pledge of reunion (34). Considering how working memory manages episodic information, seashell picking comes forward as a virtual ‘walk down memory lane’. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 73

(33) Πάρε ένα κοχύλι απ’ το Αιγαίο να 'χεις στο ταξίδι συντροφιά

Pick a seashell from the Aegean to have some company on your voyage

Κι από το φιλί το τελευταίο κράτησε στα χείλη τη δροσιά

And savor on the lips the dew from the last kiss

(Fileris, 1980)

(34) Δυο κοχύλια, δυο φιλιά, δυο πεντόβολα στο χέρι

Two seashells, two kisses, two pebbles in the hand

Έλα στην ακρογιαλιά, έλα να σε κάνω ταίρι

Come to the seashore, come and be my mate.

(Logothetis, 1973)

2.1.3.4. Event: Sea-gazing

When not involved in any of the afore-mentioned beach activities, beach-goers can indulge into some quality recreation and relaxation by simply taking time to inspect the vista around them, while idle. Passively admiring the seascape takes away stress, as nature employs its soothing touch to recalibrate the visiting individual into its rhythms. Relieved from everyday worries, the mind can roam free in rejuvenating daydreaming. The sensation of just lying back and enjoying the view can be linked with the eroticism of scopophilia (35). Voyeuristic pleasure derived from gazing at the object of desire, while maintaining a distance from it, is fundamental for sexuality awareness. In its inverse form, it can cause individuals to knowingly engage in activities which will invite voyeuristic attention, conducing to an understanding of sexuality as a spectacle (Mulvey, 1978, 1989; Bartky, 1988) (36).

(35) Ας ήταν οι στιγμές αστέρια να κοιτάνε την ομορφιά σου αυτή, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 74

If only the moments were stars gazing at your beauty,

χαμένο μου νησί

my lost island.

(Koutouvos, 2005)

(36) Σ’ αγαπώ θα πει σου βάζω στη ματιά δυο δειλινά

I love you means I put before your gaze two evenings,

δυο κύματα αλμυρά, δυο σύννεφα, κι ό,τι είδα στη ζωή μου

two salty waves, two clouds and whatever I've seen in my life

(Kostidakis, 2007)

2.2. Love Scenarios

Steen (2003), discussing love poetry—including song lyrics—within the framework of Cognitive Poetics (Tsur, 1983), attempts to sketch a rudimentary 'love story' scenario (Figure 13). In his view, every 'love story' appears to proceed in roughly three stages, aptly described by three basic predicates: WANT (37), GET (38) and KEEP (39). It also involves a number of arguments, namely the suitor, the love interest and, in some cases, a contender (x, y, z). The economy of his design shines through, when we find out that the three predicates he posits are enough to describe all crucial events: Crush (WANT), Disenamorment (NOT WANT), Hooking-up

(GET), Rejection (NOT GET), Going Steady (KEEP), Breaking-up (NOT KEEP). He also explores and seeks to codify the causes and results pertaining to the three designated stages.

(37) Μια αγάπη δίχως αύριο, η αγάπη αυτή

This love is a love without tomorrow HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 75

Μα σε θέλω κύμα άγριο και ας πονέσω πολύ

But I want you wild wave even if it hurts me a lot

(Giannatsoulia, 2004)

(38) Δυο μάγισσες τα μάτια σου που πήραν το μυαλό μου

Your eyes are two witches who got my mind

κι είναι οι νύχτες μου φωτιές απ’ το παράπονό μου

and my nights are fire because of my complaint

(D. Alexiou, 2007)

(39) Ταξίδεψέ με, πάρε με άλλη μια φορά

Get me to travel, take me one more time

στα μεγάλα σχέδιά σου κράτα με κοντά

keep me close to your big plans

(Gerothodorou, 2014) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 76

Figure 13. Love story scenario (adapted from Steen, 2003)

In our understanding, his ploy can be easily (re)rendered in predicate logic terms (Appendix D). Not only is this alternative approach semiotically more consistent and concise, but it also offers fresh insights. Because much of the scenario progression hinges on reciprocity, it is vital to be able to constantly and systematically account for action across a duplex conduit. Predicate logic includes arguments in its notation, so it helps monitor and factor in their contributions at all times, which would otherwise be neglected. Using the negation operator (~) allows for uniformly treating the NOT part of predicates and the LACK part of cause and result statements, bridging yet another apparent terminological gap. Using the material implication operator (→) to express causal relations brings together both cause and result statements in compact formulas that defeat the awkward disjointment of the original design. It also allows for mixing affirmative with negative statements, accessing a whole new set of scenario probabilities. Predicates GET and KEEP can be shown to HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 77 be derivative functions over WANT (Table 3). That is why all cause statements about the former can be considered collapsible under the latter, leading to avoidance of undue repetition. Results AFFAIR and RELATIONSHIP can be re-rendered as the predicates GET and KEEP respectively. This will reveal some cause statements to actually be tautological. Other events, such as Cheating, for instance, can be expressed as compound formulas: xGETy & (yGETz → y~WANTx) → x~KEEPy.

The rendering is not meant to be an actual application of predicate logic and consequently has no interest in undertaking truth-conditional commitments or reasoning from premises tasks, though it may incidentally present with these properties as well. It only seeks to take advantage of the calculus’s notational conventions to highlight certain aspects of the conceptual system under investigation.

A/A Formulas Predicate 01 xWANTy & yWANTx → xGETy GET

02 (xWANTy & y~WANTx) & SOCIETYWANTxGETy → xGETy GET

03 (x~WANTy & y~WANTx) & SOCIETYWANTxGETy → xGETy GET 04 xWANTy & y~WANTx → x~GETy ~GET

05 (xWANTy & yWANTx) & SOCIETY~WANTxGETy → x~GETy ~GET 06 (xWANTy & yWANTx → xGETy) & xWANTy → yKEEPx KEEP 07 (xWANTy & yWANTx → xGETy) & yWANTx →xKEEPy KEEP 08 (xWANTy & yWANTx → xGETy) & y~WANTx → x~KEEPy ~KEEP 09 (xWANTy & yWANTx → xGETy) & x~WANTy → y~KEEPx ~KEEP

10 (xWANTy & yWANTx → xGETy) & SOCIETY~WANTxGETy → ~KEEP (x~KEEPy & y~KEEPx) Table 3. ‘Love story’ scenario predicates as formulas

Steen (2003) insightfully observes that a lot of what is going on in this scenario is actually already approachable through independently established mappings of conventional conceptual metaphors, such as NEED IS ILLNESS, PASSION IS A

NATURAL FORCE or HAPPINESS IS UP. Many of these generic metaphors can be customized to operate from within the Domain of Sea. We ran the functional calculus on a subset of our data tracing the emergence of concepts under the Domain of Sea in HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 78 the 'love story' scenario. They entangle with all the causes of WANT: DESIRE as

Exploration, PASSION as a Natural Force, NEED as Direction. They also do so with all the results of ~KEEP: LACK OF HAPPINESS (ANGER), LACK OF AFFAIR

(DISSAPOINTMENT) and LACK OF RELATIONSHIP (LONLINESS).

Additionally, because predicate relations can morph into attributive and ultimately identity ones (eg. xWANTy > yWANTED > y=WANT), concepts in the Domain of

Sea also end up identified with arguments in personification constructions.

Coincidentally, the ‘heart’ frequently receives its own human ontology specifications through similar, yet independent, processes (Chardalias, 2014). The matching specifications then form the foundations for a further exploitable counterpart relation.

3. Blends

Blends are considered the principal conceptualization unit for this thesis. Once established, they provide the crucial ontologies needed to set the rules for being in the hybrid discourse universe we investigate. Best adapted to deal with instances of novel figuration appearing in bulk, they are ideal analytic tools for a discourse type like the one at hand, where pushing the boundaries of understanding is standard policy. They may be misleadingly identified with blended spaces alone, where input projections interact and emergent structure arises. However, since cognitive work can be undertaken simultaneously at various sites across a conceptual integration network, it is actually the latter that is designated by the term. In this sense blend and network can be used interchangeably.

Based on the composition input relevance of their source and target mental spaces to the concepts and domains researched, we maintain there are four different categories of blends attested in the sub-corpus: sea-unrelated non-heart blends, sea- unrelated heart blends, sea-related non-heart blends and, of course, sea-related heart HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 79 blends. They are of varying significance to the present analysis and the interrelations among them can be eloquently depicted in a Venn diagram (Figure 14). We only provide a comprehensive inventory of examples and follow-up detailed discussion for sea-related heart blends.

Figure 14. Relations between blend categories

3.1. Sea-unrelated non-heart blends

Sea-unrelated non-heart blends (eg. Plant/Wound (40)) are instances where there is no direct implication of the concept ‘heart’ or of the Domain of Sea but a concept with traceable links to the heart blends into a concept of a disparate domain.

These are mostly found in songs where only one or few of the keywords are located.

There the Domain of Sea is restricted to a few lyrics and assigned only a supporting role to the holistic conceptualization of the scene. These blends hardly help illuminate the relations under study, except perhaps for general hints towards understanding the mechanics of selecting source domains to map multiple, yet associated, targets. It may appear reasonable for blends of this kind to occur in texts on the conceptual periphery of the thematic sub-corpus; texts where the sea is a mere incidental trope, not the overarching scheme and where concepts of other domains dominate. Such an observation only helps reaffirm fuzziness of category boundaries (Malt, 1993; HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 80

Hampton, 1998; J.R. Taylor, 2003). But surprisingly, they occasionally occur even in more hard-core sea songs, suggesting that conceptual integration is a process that tends to go haywire, operating beyond locality constraints as it feeds on every conceivable input, even if not contextually available but merely discursively suggested.

(40) Βαθιά πληγή, παλιά πληγή μονάκριβη, δική μου.

Deep wound, old wound, lone and my own

Την ξεριζώνω απ' την καρδιά, φυτρώνει στην αυλή μου.

I uproot it from my heart, it sprouts in my yard.

(Papakonstantinou, 2000)

3.2. Sea-unrelated heart blends

Sea-unrelated heart blends (eg. Queen/Heart (41)) are instances where the concept ‘heart’ blends into a concept of a disparate domain. Introducing the heart in this peculiar insular fashion, by using other-domain heart blends in texts overrun with sea concepts, serves the purpose of reinforcing its established connotations of centrality and uniqueness. This happens because a stimulus can be exaggerated upon by rendering it in negative space (Veloudis, 2014). So, an islet of other-domain blending makes the heart pop up from a uniform thematic background, as the absence of the expected sea blending helps delimitate a bounded area of focused attention within a normal sea blending stretch of discourse. Which particular other domain will be used to produce the effect is not predictable, because if it were to be invoked outside what gets perceived as negative space, the space could not have been formed in the first place. Traces of alternative source domains, feeding divergent input mental spaces, act as reminders that sea conceptualizations of the heart, although highly HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 81 elaborate and illuminating in themselves, are just part of a grander picture that unavoidably affects them in ways that elude the preoccupations of the present thesis.

(41) Βασίλισσα καρδιά, μακριά σου μένω μόνος

Queen heart, when away from you I am alone

εσύ 'σαι ο ταξιδευτής, εσύ είσαι κι ο δρόμος you are the traveler, you are the road

(Malamas, 2007)

If the negative space collapses under external pressure, a special subcategory of these blends arises, sea-adjusted heart blends. In their case, there are not enough contextual clues to conclusively determine the domain of the concept that blends with the ‘heart’, but there is a reading that allows to subsume it under ‘sea’ (eg. Pilot/Heart

> Maritime Pilot/Heart (42)). Blends of this tenor acquire their sea reading only under duress to homogenize sea clues scattered throughout the same text into a comprehensive layout that subsequently affects everything in its jurisdiction. But it is the discourse the text is assumed to belong to that brings those presumably randomly dispersed clues, which might otherwise have gone unnoticed, to conscious attention.

Once located, they can together accumulate enough clatter to force a perspective back onto the text from within it. Domain adjusting is an ostensible upshot of discourse over individual texts. It poses the interesting theoretical and methodological question of whether the phenomenon should be regarded as solid evidence for the far-reaching effects of intertextuality or simply as researcher bias. We argue for the former.

(42) Να 'ρθεις και με πιλότο την καρδιά να βρούμε μια άγνωστη αμμουδιά

Come and, with the heart as a pilot, we'll find an unknown sand beach

(Pretenteris, 1954) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 82

3.3. Sea-related non-heart blends

Sea-related non-heart blends (eg. Waves/Longings (43)) are instances where there is no direct implication of the concept ‘heart’ but a concept under the Domain of

Sea blends into a concept with traceable links to the heart, such as other emotions like

‘pain’, ‘longing’ and ‘fear’, either of the participants in a love affair or the concept

'romantic love' per se. Blending into the target's immediate vicinity, rather than the target itself, appears to be a widely adopted practice since this kind of blends are the most common in the sub-corpus. In fact, certain source domain concepts, such as

'waves', are restricted exclusively to this peripheral role. This way 'sea' is essentially marrying into the family of the ‘heart’.

(43) Τρικυμία στην καρδιά μου έχεις φέρει φοβερή

You've brought a terrible storm in my heart

σαν της θάλασσας το κύμα με χτυπάνε οι καημοί

longings smash on me like the waves of the sea

(Tsogkas, 1976)

Now, recall our research question of whether pragmatic force originating in

‘romantic love’ can pour into the Domain of Sea without recourse to the concept

‘heart’. The assumption that sea-related non-heart blends are actually the inferential product of mapping entailments carried over by sea-related heart blends, which might or might not also appear in the same text, lends weight to the hypothesis it cannot. In our example, ‘longings’, as in ‘erotic longings’, can be construed as ‘waves’, as long as the ‘heart’ has already been construed as ‘sea’. It is only in the context of a ‘heart’ integration network that the convergent topology between ‘erotic longings’ and HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 83

‘waves’ becomes evident and can be manipulated for expressive purposes. Without recourse to the ‘heart’ the connection to ‘romantic love’ will remain blurred and practically unattainable, since none of the other sea-blending concepts has the connotative strength to conclusively pin it down, to the exclusion of other emotionally loaded scenarios. Conversely, if access to ‘romantic love’ is a priori and independently established, the only relevant concept with the appropriate topology to facilitate alignment with concepts under the Domain of Sea and hence sanction their involvement is again the ‘heart’. The conceptual arbitration of ‘heart’ need not manifest itself linguistically, but it is extremely likely that it will. In other words, emergent structure that surfaces individually as sea-related non-heart blends can in fact be understood as overflowing output of elaboration upon sea-related heart blends.

3.4. Sea-related heart blends

Sea-related heart blends are instances where the concept ‘heart’ blends directly into a concept under the Domain of Sea. Blends of this kind are clear-cut cases of the conceptualization of the ‘heart’ unequivocally proceeding through ‘sea’ to arrive at ‘romantic love’. They consequently constitute the prototypical blends for this paper. In accordance with the provision that prototypes need not be frequent

(Geeraerts, 2006; Gilquin, 2006), they are present only in about one third (34.23%) of the songs in the sub-corpus (Table 4). Acknowledging prototypicality effects (Rosch,

1983; Lakoff, 1987a) on blends brings along a renewed perspective because it means that the already laborious task of identifying prototypical cases is barely scratching the surface of the actual conceptual complexity underlying the discourse universe.

Integration networks may extend far beyond their originally conceived boundaries. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 84

Sea-related heart blends consistently turn out to be single-scope, shared-topology networks with source-projected organizing scenarios and the generic space as the topic space. Topology alignments to concepts of the Domain of Sea are mainly achieved through the container schematicity of the ‘heart’. Blend simulation is organized and executed by any of the three sea scenarios we have analyzed. The generic space is awarded topic status because it is the only space in the network with the appropriate abstractness level to match that of ‘romantic love’. We have identified

16 distinct blends of this kind: Sea/Heart, Vessel/Heart, Shipwreck/Heart, Port/Heart,

Maritime Pilot/Heart, Mooring Rope/Heart, Lighthouse/Heart, Chart/Heart, Nautical

Compass/Heart, Pirate Booty/Heart, Fisherman/Heart, Fish/Heart, Beach/Heart, Sea

Rock/Heart, Seaside Plant/Heart and Drowning Victim/Heart.

A/A Blends Scenarios Tokens Token Spread (%) 00 No blend (Ø) - 171 65.77 01 Vessel Seafaring 33 12.69 02 Sea All 17 6.54 03 Chart Seafaring 6 2.31 04 Beach Beach-going 4 1.54 05 Compass Seafaring 4 1.54 Port Seafaring 4 1.54 Shipwreck Seafaring 4 1.54 Table 4. Top 5 most frequent blends

The ‘heart’ mostly blends with concepts expressed by mid-frequency keywords of high-frequency scenarios and events in keyword dense environments. It appears that concepts invoked by high-frequency keywords are only employed to set the mood by fetching the relevant scenarios but do not integrate directly with the heart themselves. Notable exceptions to this observation are ΘΑΛΑΣΣΑ (SEA) and ΚΑΡΑΒΙ

(SHIP). It is true that a staggering amount of the total sea-related heart blends revolve around those two concepts, but it is also true that the majority of their tokens remain unblended. By rule of thumb, the more common a concept is, the less frequently it HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 85 blends with the ‘heart’ and the other way round. Therefore, the blending ratio appears to increase as token frequency decreases (Table 5, Figure 15).

A/A Concepts Blended Tokens Total Tokens Blending ratio (%) 01 Maritime pilot 1 1 100.00 02 Compass 4 6 66.67 03 Seaside plant 1 2 50.00 04 Rock 3 7 42.86 05 Vessel 33 84 39.29 Table 5. Top 5 concepts with highest blending ratio

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 Sea Vessel Port Shipwreck Chart Lighthouse Rock CompassSeaside plant Pilot Blended Tokens Total Tokens Blending ratio (%)

Figure 15. Co-relation of frequency to blending ratio

More than one sea-related heart blends are rarely materialized together in the same song. Once a blend of one kind is introduced into a text, it will impede competing ones from also claiming a place there. It seems that blends are auto- coerced into canonical distribution, spacing out into different texts without overlapping. Since blends of individual texts are endemic to them, arguing for a single, internally coherent mega-blend at discourse level, although in theory appealing HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 86 and elegant, is not advisable. The apparent incompatibility of same-domain single target blends—instances when the heart blends with more than one concept under the

Domain of Sea simultextually—can be explained on grounds of perspectivization

(Lakoff, 1987b; Verhagen, 2007). When one angle is pursued, changing gears into a different one is computationally demanding and hence disfavored. The transition may be smoothened by employing sea-related non-heart blends that will maintain the general sea ambience but deflect attention from the ‘heart’ long enough for it to be re- introduced later under a different blend.

Incompatibility at text level, however, does not necessarily entail incompatibility at all levels. At discourse level, where text limitations are not applicable, introducing the concept ‘heart’ multiple times in the same scene, each under a different blend, is perfectly plausible. In fact, it may be this multiplication of

‘hearts’ blending around that offers the discourse its distinctive romantic flavor.

3.4.1. SEA/HEART

Out of all the concepts under the Domain of Sea that populate the discourse of the heart, 'sea' itself is of course the most salient one. It is the one repeatedly evoked through all blends and scenarios—be it as a protagonist, accommodating medium or background fixture. It is only natural that a blend with it will also occur. Some song lyrics receive the blend on face value, not reviewing any counterpart connections of the network, but detecting its presence in silhouette form (44). Others get meticulous and integrate various features of the sea, including its color (45), its physical dimensions (46) and the forces that operate across it (47). HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 87

(44) Την καρδιά μου σου έδωσα, μια καρδιά σαν την θάλασσα

I gave you my heart, a heart like the sea

(Vrouvas, unknown)

(45) Η αγάπη η απόλυτη εσύ, της καρδιάς μου το βαθύ το θαλασσί

You are the absolute love, my heart's deep sea blue.

(Giannopoulos, 2005d)

(46) Είναι θάλασσα η καρδιά και στα πλατιά της τα νερά ερωτευόμαστε

The heart is a sea and in its wide waters we fall in love

(Kallinis, 1998)

(47) Είναι κύμα οι δισταγμοί ξανά, θάλασσα [...] είναι κι η καρδιά.

Once again hesitations are waves and her heart is sea.

(Karasoulos, 2014)

The major conceptual force driving the conflation of the ‘heart’ with the ‘sea’ is a conspiracy between the EMOTIONS ARE LIQUIDS and HEART IS A CONTAINER FOR

EMOTIONS metaphors (Figure 16). Water is the prototypical liquid and it is found in ample supply in the sea. Love is one of the prototypical emotions and figuratively situated in the heart. The blend occurs by analogical reasoning. For those who feel that a different construal of sea, not as containing water, but as being water, messes with the necessary topology alignments, an economical CONTENT FOR CONTAINER metonymy can fix it right back. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 88

Figure 16. Metaphorical motivations for Sea/Heart blend

Depending on which individual sea-related events or sequences of events are called upon to cohere it, the resulting blend comes forward as having one of four facets: sailing course, storm risk area, ship graveyard and fishing spot. All blends of this kind have counterparts, where the heart blends with other sea concepts, with which they can integrate at discourse level crafting an organic scene that simultaneously accounts for the behavior of both of the participants in a love affair.

Given the one, completion can be expected to stumble upon the other.

Sailing Course. A sailing course is an established sea-route routinely traversed by vessels. The sailing course facet is the most common illustration of the Sea/Heart blend. It works with an understanding of the sea from a mariner’s viewpoint. Because it necessarily involves a vessel, it can be argued that the facet is an alternative construal for the Vessel/Heart blend and can integrate with it at discourse level to produce an illustration of ‘romantic love’ as a ‘heart sailing in heart’ scene. All the events in the Seafaring scenario can be used to cohere it. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 89

(48) Θάλασσα καρδιά, ανοίγει ο έρωτας πανιά

O heart like the sea, love sets sail

για ν’ αρμενίζει τις νυχτιές στ’ αστραφτερά σου τα νερά

to yacht at nights in your glimmering waters

(Arvanitidis, 1999)

(49) Έλα στης καρδιάς μου τ’ ανοιχτά νύχτα με του έρωτα το πλοίο

Come to my heart's open seas, at night on the ship of love.

(Neofytidis, 2003)

Storm Risk Area. A storm risk area is a hazard zone over sea with statistically elevated probability of storms. The storm risk area facet is also common, as the extremely high frequency of the keyword ΚΥΜΑ (WAVE) may suggest. It makes full use of the obstacle event: Sea storms (see section 2.1.1.3.3.). Here, presence of vessels is not asserted but implied. Even though, there does not have to be a vessel for a storm to break out, if there is its ramifications are more pronounced and consequently more salient. It can integrate with the Vessel/Heart blend at discourse level to produce an illustration of ‘romantic love’ as a ‘heart stormed by heart’ scene. Storms occur because of atmospheric pressure differential so the metaphor that is flexing some muscle here is EMOTIONS ARE LIQUIDS IN A PRESSURIZED CONTAINER.

(50) Μες στην καρδιά μου να 'ξερες φουρτούνες πόσες μου 'φερες

If only you knew how many storms you brought into my heart

(Konstantakis, 2009) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 90

(51) Θυμάται μια μικρούλα ζωντοχήρα που του έφερε φουρτούνα στην καρδιά

He remembers a young divorcee that brought storm into his heart.

(Nikolaidis, 1948)

(52) Με φουρτούνα στην καρδιά [...] το κύμα σε τυλίγει

If you have a storm in your heart, waves will engulf you.

(Chiotis, 1982)

(53) Τρικυμία στην καρδιά μου έχεις φέρει φοβερή

You've brought a terrible storm in my heart

σαν της θάλασσας το κύμα με χτυπάνε οι καημοί

longings smash on me like the waves of the sea

(Tsogkas, 1976)

Ship Graveyard. A ship graveyard is an area on the seafloor, where multiple shipwrecks have come to rest, either because different vessels have actually sunk in the vicinity by accident or because they were taken there to be decommissioned. The ship graveyard facet is less common. It makes use of goal event: sinking (see section

2.1.1.4.1.). It can be considered an alternate construal to the Heart/Shipwreck blend and it can integrate with at discourse level to provide an illustration of ‘romantic love’ as a ‘heart sunk in heart’ scene.

(54) Έστειλα πολλές φορές καράβια στης καρδιάς μου το βυθό

Many times I have sent ships down to the seafloor of my heart.

(Zioga, 2002) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 91

Fishing Spot. Finally, the fishing spot facet is extremely rare. In fact, it presents in only one case, which makes use of source event: preparing of the Fishing scenario

(see section 2.1.2.1.). It can be considered an alternative construal to the more straightforward Heart/Fisherman blend, one which obscures agency and alleviates malicious intent connotations. The two can integrate at discourse level to produce an illustration of ‘romantic love’ as a ‘heart fishing in heart’ scene.

(55) Στης καρδιάς μου το βυθό...είναι λέω κανείς εδώ;

I ask whether there is anyone at my heart's seafloor

Θα δολώνω τ’ όνειρό μου μήπως βρω τον άνθρωπό μου

I will keep baiting my dream hoping to find my soulmate

(Gounas, 2010)

3.4.2. VESSEL/HEART

Probably the most influential blend of all, the Vessel/Heart blend presents with amazing intricacy and detail, exploiting any speck of naval background encyclopedic information available to establish counterpart relations. Again, there are song lyrics who receive the blend solely on face value (56) and song lyrics which integrate various features of vessels, including functionality (57), boarding arrangements (58), age (59), (60) and cargo (61), (62). Virtually everything one can possibly know about vessels gets called in to exploitative elucidate on romantic matters.

(56) Μια θάλασσα ο έρωτας, καράβι η καρδιά

Love is a sea, the heart a ship.

(Tsafas, 2007)

(57) Έχεις κάνει την καρδιά σου πλοίο για όλα τα νησιά HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 92

You have turned your heart into a ship for every island

(Nikolaou, 2013)

(58) Στης καρδιάς μου το καράβι σου 'χω κλείσει πρώτη θέση

I have booked you first class in the ship of my heart.

(Giatras, 1996)

(59) Έτσι είναι εμένα η καρδιά μου όπως τα γέρικα τα πλοία

My heart is like the old ships

(Tsotou, 1980)

(60) Γέρικο πλοίο στη στεριά είναι η δόλια μου η καρδιά.

My poor heart is an old ship ashore.

(Simos, 1996)

(61) Στο αμπάρι της καρδιάς σου κρύβεις μέσα έναν χάρτη

You hide a map in your heart's hold.

(Alimpertis, 2003)

(62) Καρδιές καράβια παλιές αγάπες κουβαλάνε στα αμπάρια τους

Hearts that are ships carry old loves in their holds.

(Avgenikos, 2006) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 93

Figure 17. Metaphorical motivation for Vessel/Heart blend

Heart comes to be identified as a vessel motivated by an apparently incongruous metaphor system consisting of HEART IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTIONS,

LOVE IS A JOURNEY, EMOTIONS ARE LIQUIDS, HAPPINESS IS UP, HAPPINESS IS

LIGHTNESS, HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS ARE CONSTRUCTIONS and the conduit metaphor for communication (Figure 17). One way to tie up the conceptual loose ends is to posit a blending partner to the ‘heart’ as a constructed light container with salient upwards extending overstructure capable of journeying across a liquid medium facilitating communication. It so happens that a ship fits that description perfectly.

Notice how, in this design, ‘liquid’ combines with the medium in conduit rather than its expected counterpart, content. The difference may appear insignificant but its impact cannot be underestimated. It might as well be the reason we get a conceptualization of the ‘heart’ as a ship ploughing the seas, instead of a truck hauling beer. Facets of this blend correspond to most of the events of the seafaring scenario.

Because events are sequential and surmisable from one another, elaboration can help us move between facets from within a single network. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 94

Sailing off vessel. A sailing off vessel is a vessel leaving port. The sailing off vessel facet is relatively infrequent. It makes use of source event: Sailing off (see section

2.1.1.1.). It can employ identical templates with the sailing course facet of the

Sea/Heart blend, only the heart is identified with the sailing vessel instead of the sea.

(63) runs on the same template as (48) and (49) do, also including the spaces recruiting from the Domain of Night and the Domain of Magic.

(63) Για πού το βαλες καρδιά μου μ' ανοιχτά πανιά

Where are you heading my heart with open sails

για ποια πέλαγα ουράνια, άστρα μαγικά

for which heavenly seas and magic stars?

(Messini, 1999)

Navigating vessel. A navigating vessel is a vessel already out at sea. The navigating vessel facet is quite common. It makes use of path event: Navigation (see section

2.1.1.2.). It can be considered the agent construal to which the Nautical compass/Heart, Chart/Heart and Lighthouse/Heart blends are the instrument one and with which it can integrate at discourse level to produce an illustration of ‘romantic love’ as a ‘heart navigating by heart’ scene.

(64) Μην αφήνεις την καρδιά σου μια κοπέλα σαν καράβι τώρα να την κυβερνά

Don't let your heart be navigated now by a girl like a ship

(Nikolaidis, 1984) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 95

(65) [A]νακαλύπτω την καρδιά μου, την ψυχή μου,

I discover my heart, my soul,

καράβι ακυβέρνητο στα χέρια σου

an ungoverned ship in your hands

(Loukas, 1997)

(66) Φίλα με της καρδιάς μου καραβοκύρη

Kiss me, skipper of my heart

(Gkatsos, 1972)

(67) Είναι βάρκα η καρδιά κι ο χρόνος κωπηλάτης

Heart is a boat and time an oarsman.

(Katsoulis, 1998b)

(68) Τι έχουμε να πούμε άλλο πια στο πέλαγο η καρδιά χωρίς κουπιά

What do we have to say anymore, the heart is out at sea without oars.

(Theofanous, 2004b)

(69) Στροφές αν δώσεις ξαφνικές αυτά [τα δελφίνια] τρομάζουν

If you suddenly accelerate they [the dolphins] are scared

απ’ τους υπέρηχους που βγάζει της καρδιάς η μηχανή

from the ultrasounds that the motor of the heart makes.

(Leivadas, 2000) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 96

(70) Οι καρδιές που αγαπούν μένουνε πάντα μόνες

Hearts that are in love are always left alone

σαν τα πλοία που κυλούν στης θάλασσας τις ρότες

like ships that glide on headings of the sea

(Balachoutis, 2006)

Sea storm-stricken vessel. A sea storm stricken vessel is a vessel facing rough sea.

The blend facet makes use of obstacle event: sea-storm (see section 2.1.1.3.3.). It can be considered the patient construal to which the storm risk area facet of the Sea/Heart blend is the agent.

(71) Φουρτουνιασμένο ωκεανό περνάει η καρδιά μου

My heart crosses a turbulent ocean

(Vasileiadis, 1965)

(72) Να μια βάρκα, μια βαρκούλα, να μαΐστρος, τραμουντάνα,

Here's a boat, a little boat, here's mistral, tramontane,

να μια διάτρητη καρδούλα

here's a perforated little heart.

(Gkonis, 2009)

Sinking vessel. A sinking vessel is a vessel whose floating capacity has been compromised and is soon expected to go down. The sinking vessel facet is rare, because usually when goal event: sinking (see section 2.1.1.4.1.) is being used the

Shipwreck/Heart blend occurs instead. We can get from it to the Shipwreck/Heart blend via completion. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 97

(73) Το sos έχει η καρδιά μου τώρα εκπέμψει

My heart has transmitted SOS

(Avradmidis, 1999)

Porting vessel. A porting vessel is a vessel arriving at a port. The blend facet makes use of goal event: porting (see section 2.1.1.4.2.). It can be considered the agent construal to which the Port/Heart blend is the goal one and with which it can integrate at discourse level to produce an illustration of ‘romantic love’ as a ‘heart porting at heart’ scene.

(74) Ήταν η καρδιά μου βάρκα με πανιά κι όλα τα λιμάνια δεν τη χώραγαν

My heart was a sailboat and no port could fit it

(Kalamitsis, 1979)

(75) Στο κορμί σου θ’ αράξουν καρδιές πολλές μα καμιά δε θα μείνει για πάντα.

Many hearts will moor in your body, but none will stay forever

(Moukidis, 1998)

(76) Ενώ η καρδιά σου ρίχνει άγκυρες παντού,

While your heart drops anchor anywhere,

μες στα δικά μου τα νερά ποτέ δεν μπήκε

it never entered my waters.

(Papanikolaou, 2008) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 98

(77) Πάντα σ’ εσένα επιστρέφει η καρδιά

The heart always returns to you,

και το κορμί που τα σημάδια του μετράει

so does the body which counts its marks

όσα λιμάνια κι αν μετρήσει τελικά

after all, no matter how many ports it counts,

σε σένα πάντα το καράβι θα γυρνάει

the ship will always come back to you.

(Avgenikos, 2006)

3.4.3. SHIPWRECK/HEART

Shipwrecks are what is left after vessels have sunk. If not salvaged, they grow to become permanent fixtures of the underwater scenery and integral parts of the seafloor ecosystem. Corrosion, decay and overall wear means it gets gradually harder to identify them as relics of manmade construction. The Shipwreck/Heart blend makes use of goal event: sinking (see section 2.1.1.4.1.). It shares all the structural characteristics with the Vessel/Heart blend, but not the functional, one of the most important ones being mobility. We believe that makes a world of a difference, which is why we have included the Shipwreck/Heart blend in a stand-alone format and not subsumed under Vessel/Heart. Take away motion and vital connections to ‘romantic love’ get severed, since EMOTIONS ARE MOTION and LOVE IS A JOURNEY no longer apply. Portraying scenes where an individual grows catatonic and numb on account of severe emotional trauma is the principal context the blend appears in. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 99

(78) Αχ, ρε ναυάγιο ζωή πόσο ν' αντέξω ακόμα,

Oh, you shipwreck of a life how much longer can I stand

βουλιάζουν απ' τα χέρια σου καρδιά, ψυχή και σώμα.

my heart, my soul and my body sink by your hand.

(Lyronis, 2012)

(79) Έκρυψα [...] ένα παράπονο [...] να μην τ' ακούσουνε καρδιές που 'ναι ναυάγια

I hid [...] a complaint [...] lest shipwrecked hearts hear it.

(Bithikotsi, 2011)

(80) H ξεχασμένη μου καρδιά ναυάγησε στα μέτρα,

My forgotten heart shipwrecked in few feet

σκαρφάλωσε στη θάλασσα και πνίγηκε στην πέτρα

it climbed the sea and drown on the rock

(Lampridi, 1998)

(81) Υποφέρουνε πολύ της καρδιάς οι ναυαγοί

The castaways of the heart suffer a lot.

(Charalampopoulos, 1975)

(82) Δεν θα 'χω καρδιά, σαν καράβι τσακισμένο, απ’ το κύμα χτυπημένο.

I won't have a heart like a wrecked ship smitten by waves

(Atraidis & Vasilopoulos, 1982)

(83) Και όλο ψάχνεις για κουράγιο, έγινες, καρδιά, ναυάγιο

You are constantly looking for courage, o heart you became a shipwreck

(Mousafiris, 1976) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 100

3.4.4. PORT/HEART

Ports are structure complexes where ships can: take shelter from a storm, unload cargo, disembark passengers and park awaiting reassignment or decommission. The Port/Heart blend makes use of source event: porting (see section

2.1.1.4.2.). Depending on whether one prefers to live on land or at sea, getting to a port can be both positively and negatively evaluated. When love is an adventurous sea voyage then a port is tediousness or social restrain. When life is a perilous sea voyage then love can be a port, providing tranquility from everyday worries and anxieties, a place to rest, regroup and regain strength to battle on. With jetties extending into the sea on either side of a port’s mouth like two stretched arms, ports are typically likened to a human embrace. If completion is allowed to recruit to the scene the porting vessel facet of the Vessel/Heart blend, we get two lovers hugging.

(84) Μες το λιμάνι της καρδιάς σου βρήκα μουράγιο στη ζωή να κρατηθώ

In the port of your heart I found a pier to hold on to in life.

(Axarlis, 2004)

(85) Στης καρδιάς σου το λιμάνι βρήκα κύματα βουνά,

In the port of your heart I found towering waves,

ήταν δύσκολο ν' αράξω, βρήκα τα νερά θολά

it was difficult to moor, I found the waters muddy.

(Dionysiou, 1971) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 101

(86) Μπρος στα πόδια σου απλώνω τα όνειρά μου να περνάς

I lay my dreams before your feet to walk on,

στο λιμάνι της καρδιάς σου αν με πας

if you take me to the port of your heart.

(Kanellopoulos, 1983)

(87) Γιατί με βγάζεις από την καρδιά σου, είμαι καράβι έξω απ’ το λιμάνι

Why do you take me out of your heart, I'm a ship outside the port

(Vaxavanelis, 2000)

3.4.5. MARITIME PILOT/HEART

Maritime pilots are trained professionals who board a ship and assume control while it sails through perilous or crowded waters, as is usually the case in busy ports.

The pilot is entrusted to maneuver the ship safely through oncoming traffic to its berthing location or away from it. Expertise and trustworthiness are crucial attributes for this post. A maritime pilot plays out on the archetype of the guide offering direction and guarding against potential mishaps. In this sense the blend that occurs is similar to that of the Lighthouse.

(88) Να 'ρθεις και με πιλότο την καρδιά να βρούμε μια άγνωστη αμμουδιά

Come and, with the heart as a pilot, we'll find an unknown sand beach

(Pretenteris, 1954)

In (88) a couple hopes to get aboard a vessel. They have a general idea for their destination of choice but ignore how to get there. Sailing into unknown waters to a secluded location accessible by sea is in fact part of the adventure experience they seek. That is why they will have to find someone else to guide them. Someone in HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 102 whose know-how they can entrust the ultimate success of their voyage as well as their life. A personified ‘heart’ steps up to claim the role.

3.4.6. MOORING ROPE/HEART

Mooring ropes are heavy-duty, specially threaded ropes used to secure a ship at its berthing location while at port. Tying mooring ropes attached to the vessel to bitts on the pier is one of two complementary ways port officials make sure vessels do not float adrift, the other being anchors. Mooring ropes are hence conceptually active during sub-event Disengagement of source event Sailing Off (see section 2.1.1.1.) and sub-event Engagement of goal event Porting (see section 2.1.1.4.2.). That is where the

Mooring rope/Heart blend is expected to occur. They can represent emotional bonding running on the LOVE IS UNITY metaphor or they constitute restraints to the range of motion.

(89) Καρδιές στη θάλασσα δεμένα, λυμένα, κομμένα σχοινιά

Hearts at sea tied, untied, cut ropes.

(Roussi, 2012)

(90) Eμείς δεν δένουμε καρδιά και παλαμάρι στη στεριά

We tie neither heart nor mooring rope to land.

(Tiliakou, 1972)

3.4.7. LIGHTHOUSE/HEART

Lighthouses are special-purpose buildings erected to guide ships away from sea rocks and cliffs or into ports, at night or under conditions of low visibility, such as heavy rainstorms and fog. Heart comes to be identified as a lighthouse motivated by an apparently incongruous metaphor system consisting of LOVE IS FIRE, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 103

UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING, GOALS ARE DESTINATIONS, HAPPINESS IS UP and HUMAN

RELATIONSHIPS ARE BUILDINGS (Figure 18). Lighthouses are towering buildings extending upwards allowing vessels to find their destinations by means of a rotating lamp traditionally with fire burning inside. Moreover, they are typically built in isolated, hard-to-reach places and they require one single caretaker. Elaboration may recruit such additional information about lighthouses into the blend as well.

Figure 18. Metaphorical motivation for Lighthouse/Heart blend

(91) Της καρδιάς το παραθύρι φάρος κι αστέρι φωτεινό

The window of my heart is a lighthouse and a bright star

(Zikas, 1987)

(92) Φάρος η φωτιά μέσα στην καρδιά σου

The fire inside your heart is a lighthouse

(Koutouvos, 2005)

(93) Σαν φάρος μες στο πέλαγος θα φέγγεις στην καρδιά μου

Like a lighthouse at sea you'll shine in my heart

(Papasideris, 1964) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 104

3.4.8. CHART/HEART

Charts are valuable reference resources for mariners and one of the two bare essentials for navigation, the other being a nautical compass. They are used to identify position and determine heading. The Chart/Heart blend makes use of path event: navigation. There is a representational quality built deeply in the heuristics of charts: events occurring at different actual locations are construed as events unfolding at their respective co-ordinates on the chart (94). By entailment, changing anything on the chart will result in analogous change back in the actual world. Striking an item off the chart (95)-(97) will cause the item, or knowledge about how to reach it, to disappear; in any case one will not be able to visit the location anymore. When a concept of representational quality is fed to figuration it becomes meta-representational.

Investigating figuration involving representational concepts can be tricky, because distinctions between planes of representation are difficult to maintain or re-construct.

Metonymic tightening will force the planes to converge, which can ultimately lead to them collapsing onto one another.

(94) Μια ζωή ταξιδεύω στης καρδιάς σου τον ατέλειωτο χάρτη κι όλο χάνομαι.

I travel for a lifetime at the endless chart of your heart and I'm constantly lost

(Neofytidis, 1987)

(95) Απ' το χάρτη της καρδιάς σου σβήσε με παρακαλώ

Please, erase me from the chart of your heart

(Gavalas, Unknown ) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 105

(96) Αποδείχτηκες σκάρτη, έρωτας μιας βραδιάς

You've been proven defective, a one night stand

και σε σβήνω απ’ το χάρτη της δικής μου καρδιάς

so I'm erasing you from the chart of my heart

(Dimas, 2009)

(97) Φτάνει πια, μια καρδιά απ’ το χάρτη να τη σβήνεις

Enough with you erasing a heart off the chart

(Arapis, 2008)

3.4.9. NAUTICAL COMPASS/HEART

A nautical compass is a compass used onboard for purposes of marine navigation. Heart comes to be identified as a nautical compass motivated by an apparently incongruous metaphor system consisting of LOVE IS MAGNETISM, LOVE IS

A JOURNEY, HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS ARE CONSTRUCTIONS. A nautical compass is a construction that exploits the earth’s magnetic field to orient journeyers. Magnetism is one of the fundamental forces of the cosmos and it has astonished humans with its ability to influence items without the need for physical contact. When used to saturate

‘romantic love’ it plays on the force schematic notion of attraction. The feeling of getting drawn to people you love is one that cannot escape observation. The Nautical compass/Heart blend has a tendency to co-occur with obstacle event: sea storms

(100). It seems that the need for orientation is more eminent when faced with extraordinary conditions. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 106

Figure 19. Metaphorical motivation for Nautical Compass / Heart blend

(98) Είπα να φύγω μακριά να βρω αγάπη άλλη,

I said I'll get away and find another love,

μα η πυξίδα της καρδιάς εσένα δείχνει πάλι

but the compass of my heart points back to you

(Chapsiadis, 1983)

(99) Άνοιξα πανιά στη μέρα, τα όνειρά μου αποσκευές

Ι opened sails into the day with my dreams as luggage

και με την καρδιά πυξίδα έψαξα μα δε σε είδα

and with my heart as compass I looked for you but didn't find you.

(Kriezis, 2013)

(100) Αντιπαλεύω κύματα του πάθους, μανιασμένα,

I struggle with raging waves of passion,

μα η πυξίδα της καρδιάς [...] μου δείχνει πάντα εσένα.

but the compass of my heart always points to you. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 107

(Katsaros, 2003)

3.4.10. PIRATE BOOTY/ HEART

Heart gets identified with pirate booty under the influence of the HUMAN

RELATIONS ARE ECONOMIC TRANSACTIONS metaphor. Because heart is a valuable possession it is liable to theft. Removing an item without its owner's consent is usually frowned upon, but in the discourse of the heart where reversals are typical, it can be seen as an act of dexterity and valor and hence applauded. The Pirate

Booty/Heart blend makes use of obstacle event: piracy. Encyclopedic knowledge about pirates may help elaborate the blend, for instance, a heart that has been looted by a pirate may end up stashed up in a treasure casket.

(101) Πειρατικά [...] έρχεσαι, κλέβεις μια καρδιά κι εξαφανίζεσαι

Like a pirate you come and steal a heart and then disappear.

(Karras, 1990)

3.4.11. FISHERMAN/HEART

The Fisherman/Heart blend is one of only two blends which provide a direct personification of the heart, the other being the Maritime Pilot/Heart. Presenting the heart as an emotive agent is a powerful illustration of the role of affect in cognitive activity. In principle, the blend could use all of the events in the fishing scenario, but this is not the case. Down-vector event: casting seems to dominate as the organizing frame for the blend when it is stated, while up-vector event: retrieving when it is implied. There are no examples where the blend uses source event: preparing. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 108

(102) Θάλασσα καρδιά, στα δίχτυα σου, στ’ αγκίστρια σου

Heart like the sea, in your nets, on your hooks.

πώς λαχταρώ, πώς σπαρταρώ κι αφήνομαι να πνίγομαι.

how I crave, how I writhe and let myself drown

(Arvanitidis, 1999)

(103) Όταν γυρίζει ο καιρός και μπλέκεται στη νύχτα,

When the weather changes and tangles in the night,

καρδιά μου όλα ρίχτα, τα δίχτυα που άφησες στεγνά

my heart, cast them all, the nets that you left dry

(Roussi, 2004)

3.4.12. FISH/HEART

The Fish/Heart blend comes up while running the fishing scenario.

Completion would recruit fish in any fishing scene, since fishing is pointless unless there is prey present. Falling prey to love is a popular descriptor of a romantic affair which aids in communicating the sense of clumsy helplessness in dealing with romantic feelings. All the fish that blend with the heart are in erratic motion and most of the times forcefully withdrawn from their natural environment, which effectively depicts the sense of uneasiness of having to abandon familiar routines when in love.

Proto-Christian symbolicity of the fish, standing for Jesus Christ, the preacher of love, may have played a role in motivating the convergence between fish and the heart.

(104) Φτερουγίζει η καρδιά μου σαν χελιδονόψαρο

My heart flutters around like a flying fish

(Logothetis, 2000) HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 109

(105) Στις άκρες απ’ τα χείλη σου τα δίχτυα τους [τα μάτια σου] ερίξανε

They [your eyes] casted their net at the edge of your lips

και πιάσαν την καρδιά μου

and they caught my heart.

(Zikas, 1985)

(106) Κι ένα ψάρι έχει πάρει το σχήμα της καρδιάς μου

A fish has taken the shape of my heart

Νερό δε βρίσκει να κολυμπήσει

It can't find water to swim into

(Maikidis, 2008)

3.4.13. BEACH/HEART

A beach is the stretch of land by the edge of sea allowing access to and from it

(107), (108). It is usually covered with sand or pebbles. It is at once a frontier and a middle-ground. A meeting point of natural elements. It is also a depository for anything washed ashore such as driftwood, starfish, seaweed and seashells (109). As sea meets land, so do two individuals and as sea fixtures before hidden in the deep get out in the open so do emotions. What is more, the beach ties in with stereotypic representations of romantic outings rivaling similar clichés like the fancy restaurant, the carnival or the cinema.

(107) Στης καρδιάς σου τ’ ακρογιάλι μια βραδιά θ’ αράξω

At your heart's seashore I will moor some night. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 110

(Gkatsos, 1969)

(108) Είναι η θάλασσα μια τρέλα που σε βγάζει στην καρδιά

The sea is a craze that washes you out to the heart

(Moraitis, 2009)

(109) Στην καρδιά μου έχει μείνει ένα κόκκινο κοχύλι

A red seashell is left in my heart.

(Vita, 2001)

3.4.14. SEA ROCK/HEART

Sea rocks are geolithic formations in the sea near a coast. When of adequate size they acquire landmark status in the general seascape. A person scanning the scenery from the beach will most likely lock and hold gaze upon spotting them. That is why the Sea rock/Heart blend makes use of the sea-gazing event in the beach-going scenario. They are natural breakwaters (110). Their appearing unmoving and unscathed despite receiving ferocious blows by the waves translates into human experience as perseverance and patience almost to a stoic degree. Looming just around and below sea-level, they can prove dangerous for the secure crossing of vessels (111). Hitting the rocks is an established sign of failure.

(110) Χτύπαγες σαν κύμα πάνω στην καρδιά μου κι όμως είχα τόση υπομονή

You were crushing like a wave onto my heart, but I had so much patience

(Parios, 1984)

(111) Χίλιες φορές ναυάγησα στο βράχο της καρδιάς σου HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 111

One thousand times I have been shipwrecked at the rock of your heart.

(Chapsiadis, 1983)

3.4.15. SEASIDE PLANT/HEART

Spaces of the Seaside plant/Heart blend recruit, not only from the Domain of

Sea, but also from the Domain of Plants. Only a handful of flora species can survive the salinity, low water retention, direct sunlight and sandy soil of the seaside. There is no practical application in growing seaside plants, since they are not traditionally used in commercial landscaping. This makes it highly unlikely that they be purposefully cultivated, especially on location. Planting at a beach can be considered a representation of futility, since normal expectations dictate that, even if someone was willing to give it a try, little can sprout and blossom there. When the plant that cannot blossom is equated with the ‘heart’, a profound sense of despair emanates. But planting is a symbolic act of hope. Hoping in a desperate situation is entertaining wishful thinking.

(112) Είχα φυτέψει μια καρδιά στου χωρισμού την αμμουδιά

I had planted a heart at the sand beach of separation

(Gkatsos, 1959)

3.4.16. DROWNING VICTIM/HEART

Drowning is the human-scale equivalent of sinking, so a lot of what is going on can be explained on a similar basis. In order for someone to drown they have to be submerged into water. That is why the Drowning victim/Heart blend makes use of the swimming event of the beach-going scenario. Drowning is death by asphyxiation, so in illustrations of ‘romantic love’ as drowning, the phrase "love takes your breath HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 112 away" takes on a macabre literal hue. Finally, the blend caters for the meaning nuances brought on by suicidal tendencies one experiences when heartbroken.

(113) Δυο θάλασσες τα μάτια σου που πνίξαν την καρδιά μου

Your eyes are two seas that drowned my heart

(D. Alexiou, 2007)

(114) Θα ψάξω θάλασσα βαθιά να ρίξω την καρδιά μου να την κοιτώ να πνίγεται

I will look for a deep sea to throw my heart and watch it as it drowns.

(Seviloglou, 2006)

IV. Conclusions

‘Heart’ in Modern Greek song lyrics emerges as an embodied ethnopsychological concept that invariably marks the surrounding territory for preoccupations with matters of ‘romantic love’ (eros). Even in the extremely few cases when not the main theme, ‘romantic love’ is still injected, if only as a subtle undertone. ‘Heart’ succeeds in its objectives due to its ability to creatively exploit resources from a wide assortment of conceptual domains that are particularly salient for Greeks, including the paradigmatic one in point, that of sea. We have repeatedly witnessed and by now have first-hand experience of how it effortlessly hijacks the heuristics of ‘sea’ to expedite the hermeneutics of ‘romantic love’ and how it can get concepts under the Domain of Sea to feel at home in its discourse. We have also illustrated how that discourse can be approached through the notion of divided, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 113 emergent cultural cognition (Sharifian, 2008), examining how its different texts, although perfectly capable of producing knowledge representations on their own, cooperatively create one that surpasses in descriptive power any of them individually and all of them aggregated together. Let us now revisit our research questions and see if we are able to provide adequate answers as well as suggestions for directions future research further elucidating on them can follow:

 What role do blends play in figuration dense environments?

Treating all figuration in naturally occurring language separately, using an appropriate, established framework for each individual phenomenon would produce analyses clumsily long-winded and miserably incompatible. What is more, accounting for linguistic expressions where two or more tropes are simultaneously at play would prove problematic, inasmuch as it would necessitate the positing of interfaces which are notorious for creating more problems than they solve. Not to mention, it would generate a fragmentary view of discourse that stands in blatant contradiction with experiential reality. In a discourse jam-packed with figuration, the effect would only get overblown, slashing language up beyond recognition. It is exactly in this case that

CIT could really illustrate its explanatory potential, since blending offers an elegant way to capture all this wonderful multifariousness in a single panoramic shot. Its ability to crosscut analytical levels means the research can utilize it to account for a whole range of conceptual phenomena in one clean sweep. It is a compromise between depth and scope, of course, but one willingly accepted. The role of blends in figuration dense environments is similar to that of the Episodic Buffer (Baddeley,

2000) in Working Memory; they act as an auxiliary store, where information can be temporarily offloaded, and a template for integrating information of different modalities into richer, holistic representations. They help conceptualizers not get HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 114 overwhelmed or lose track due to figuration detail, while still be able to acknowledge and admire it from a ‘safe distance’. This is exactly the case with sea-related heart blends in Modern Greek song lyrics.

 Are blends better classified as text- or discourse-level phenomena?

Blends are of a conceptual nature, originating in cognition and in that sense they can be classified neither as text- nor as discourse-level phenomena, since human creativity transcends linguistic organization levels. Getting caught into the debate about linguistic relativity (cf. Whorf, 1956; Lakoff, 1987; Lucy, 1996; Gentner &

Boroditsky, 2001) is not our intention anyway. Our main interest lies with blend extraction from authentic language samples. What we really want is to figure out where is best to look for them, so there remain no undiscovered tokens and our understanding of them, as deduced by observable data, is both accurate and comprehensive. In looking to entertain the perspective that assists in achieving our goals, we will momentarily suspend the dichotomy between blends and blending expressions and tentatively treat blends as if they were a matter of linguistic production. Mental spaces are ad hoc constructions serving a given pragmatic purpose and hence existing in a situational frame. Situational frames differ between texts and presumably so do mental spaces. Differences in space composition will result in difference in the evolving network. Moreover, many of the operations underlying conceptual integration are specified as receiving input from immediate context. These constitute grounds for a textual treatment of blends. However, it remains our conviction that blends are better classified as discourse-level phenomena. We point to what we perceive as intertextuality effects on them as justification for our stance.

Besides, the supposition that blends are consistently discursively informed is the main HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 115 reason we propose the vigorous application of Corpus-Assisted Discourse Studies

(CADS) as the principal methodology for their study.

 Can blends be considered operationalizations of cultural models?

So pervasive is the cultural element in literary texts, such as those in the discourse we study, that it seems nearly inextricable. Understanding them inevitably invites conceptualizers to call upon all sorts of culturally bound information, most of which is not scribed down but recalled from memory. A cohesive thread running through language comprehension and production intertwines fibers of a psychosocial mindset. All readily retrievable, culturally encoded information, interconnected in an intricate network, yields a generic frame of mind; whereas information with synaptic bonds to a single item, a specific one. Cultural models (Sharifian et al., 2008) are knowledge typologies exploring and modeling item-specific mindsets. They remain theoretical structures, until they are put into practical use, i.e. get operationalized.

Blends take cue from them in more efficiently organizing their spaces and in the process review and enrich them, so they can be considered operationalizations thereof. Given that “cultural cognition of a group may have several different cultural models for a particular domain of conceptualization” and “linguistic expressions

[may] reflect different, even conflicting cultural models” (Sharifian et al, 2008: 13), an administrative tool to collectively manage them could come in handy. Blends present themselves to that objective, because they offer an integration template that can help bridge differences and resolve conflict. In fact, they are better at it than conceptual metaphor systems, whose unidirectionality and compositionality costs them in explanatory power and computational efficiency. We have speculated that what drives concepts under the Domain of Sea to cluster around ‘heart’ and colonize its discourse are blends acting on Greek cultural models. A cross-linguistic study, HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 116 comparing findings on blending for different cultures—especially of landlocked nations, may shed more light on that claim.

 What effects does intertextuality have on blending?

Understanding intertextuality as recontextualization dynamics of material and structure (re)appropriation between texts (Fairclough, 1992), we can appreciate its crucial role in making discursive information available for blending. It prevents indigenous blended content from monopolizing a text, discouraging inbreeding.

Acclimating immigrating textual meaning offers blending new creative avenues to explore. Provided that blends are deemed to be more successful the more opportunistically they exploit their environment, extending the feature pool they can choose from ameliorates their overall quality. In addition, intertextuality affects blend cohesion and comprehension. One such effect is mapping entailments carryover, when source-related non-target blends can be proven to be overflowing elaborations of source-related target blends not present in the same text. One text blends a target concept registering a conceptual network with some degree of elaboration for it.

Another text, then, picks up the blend, but instead of reproducing it as is, runs the simulation further, ending up deviating from the target concept while retaining the rest of the structure. Studying the second text in isolation cannot explain network makeup.

Another effect is domain adjusting, when a blending concept is tentatively assigned a discursively frequent source domain on account of an alternative rendering, even though proper backtracing to its source domain cannot be achieved due to lack of hints in its immediate environment. Assignment is only sanctioned under intertextual pressure to establish the text the blending concept appears into as typical of its assumed discourse. Otherwise elusive source domain items are rallied up to facilitate HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 117 the alternate rendering. Conceptualization appears to sometimes run by the einsteinian aphorism: ‘If facts do not fit the theory, change the facts’.

 Are intertextuality effects on blending more pronounced in the specific discourse type under study?

The commercial success of a song may turn some of its lines into trending hashtags. Their popularity could then spawn a series of other songs capitalizing on the same or similar tactics. Buzzwords from other popular discourses may also find their way into songs. Texts of the discourse type under study seem to influence one another, not so much in how conceptual integration progresses in them, its blending rates and conceptualization routes for example, but in what they choose to integrate.

Intertextuality effects on blending may appear more pronounced here, because the source of the input they offer is readily recognizable and conversely the discourse appears partial to input from readily recognizable sources. Our findings can be compared against a corpus of a different discourse type to check whether blend parameterization diverges significantly. Particularly, one that would best capture attributes of everyday communication could provide a standard from which to measure divergence.

 Can intertextuality itself be viewed as an instantiation of blending?

One can go much further from claiming that intertextuality simply has certain effects on blending. One can argue that intertextuality is blending. After all, the distinctive mark of intertextuality is the fusion of apparently incongruous content in a freshly imaginative way and to an expressive purpose not encountered in the original sources. Double-scope blending, better understood as blending of organizing frames

(Turner, 2003), in particular, where a lesser degree of specificity is mandated is an HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 118 ideal goal-identity candidate for the proposed rebranding. That being the case, what literary critics have picked up time and time again in their analyses of cross-textual influence could be but the product of the systematic application of the cognitive paradigm of conceptual integration in linguistic production. The suggestion seems tempting, but like with all overtly generalizing statements in linguistics, we should exercise caution. Theories that get over-ambitious and assert panacea status are often regarded as having committed hybris and, sure enough, nemesis will come swiftly and promptly, either as a wave of ferocious criticism or worse as self-induced trivialization. We do not wish such a fate upon conceptual integration, so for now, we had better keep the concepts apart and manage them as dictated by their respective traditions.

 Does blending follow designated conceptualization routes?

We have seen how elaborations upon blends can be unpredictable, because they tend to rely on circumstances, which are not static but dynamic. But how input spaces are called in before integration takes place, what influences their selection and most importantly how information circulates once the network has been established and running has been rarely touched upon. We had turned to our case study for empirical evidence and guidance.

Conceptualizations of the ‘heart’ inviting ‘romantic love’ without recourse to sea scenarios were found to be perfectly possible and likely. We have come across them, not only during our tentative analysis of the corpus—where economic transaction scenarios, for instance, also caught our attention—but most intriguingly in the sub-corpus as well. It turns out that discourses exhibit with ecological biodiversity, which means blends within them struggle to occupy evolutionary niches that will HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 119 secure them a competitive edge over others. In our study, sea-unrelated heart blends were found to be more suited to communicate ‘heart’ connotation of uniqueness, being themselves unique in some aspect. So same-source blends can delimitate a stretch of discourse and claim it as their territory, but that does not mean that other blends get automatically evicted, far from it. They maintain their ground and eventually work out some symbiotic arrangement.

Conceptualizations of the ‘heart’ via sea scenarios without invitation of

‘romantic love’ were found to be possible as well, but unlikely. The overwhelming majority of the songs studied used sea scenarios to conceptualize the ‘heart’ in order to communicate propositions about ‘romantic love’. The few alternatives included scathing societal commentaries and generic emotional psychodramas. There the

‘heart’ was called upon to expound manners of being, rather than manners of loving.

While the close elaborative distance between the ‘heart’ and ‘romantic love’ makes it easy to move between them at will when it suits our purposes, it also makes it difficult to untangle them completely when it does not, which means that some droplets of

‘romantic love’ will most likely slip into all usages of the ‘heart’, irrespective of our communicative goal. Default reasoning can be stubbornly persistent and resilient to interference and it would take a constant supply of data contradicting its initial assumptions to even consider revising its settings (Reiter, 1980; Marek &

Truszczynski, 1993; Nicolas et al, 2001). Our own empirical experience confirms it, as it invariably took close reading of single texts in their entirety before dismissing expectations about ‘romantic love’ raised by the ‘heart’.

Finally, conceptualizations of ‘romantic love’ via sea scenarios without recourse to the ‘heart’ were found to be impossible. ‘Romantic love’ itself is too abstract of a concept to acquire any schematicity specifications without usurping the HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 120 ontology of another concept. Hence it could not align with the rich, overtly specified topology of the ‘sea’ on its own. Because the container-in-container schema proved paramount in establishing and sustaining the blend, the need for a container schematic concept to assume the role of intermediary always emerged. Candidates, such as

‘body’, were considered but tested out insufficient when ‘sea’ was the starting point, because they lacked the connotative strength to consistently select ‘romantic love’ from among other options. It was the ‘heart’ that possessed both the appropriate image schematic structure and the necessary semantic affiliations. So, it got selected and placed as a landmark conceptualization is forced to pass by in moving between

‘romantic love’ and ‘sea’.

To recapitulate, we have identified cases where there are alternative routes and conceptualization frequents them all; cases where there are alternative routes, but conceptualization normally favors one; and cases where there are no alternative routes and conceptualization is forced to proceed through the single one available.

Conceptualization routes in blending vary from stochastic to probabilistic to deterministic. Route designation only makes sense in the latter situation, where it exhibits behavior influenced by what we would like to call the checkpoint effect. If checkpoint potential is an intrinsic value of specific concepts or one that any concept can acquire under certain circumstances remains to be seen. In any case, affordances for blend extraction can be provided by detecting and gauging this potential.

 Can raw frequency counts help locate blends?

One of the least troublesome statistics to acquire out of corpus data are raw word frequency counts. With minimum parameterization to define what counts as a word, most corpus management software will crunch those numbers in a matter of seconds. Even if lemmatization is required to cope with inflectional languages, like HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 121

Modern Greek, available software is already sophisticated enough to see it through.

Frequency ordered word lists may go a long way towards efficiently focusing research attempting to harness the power of corpora in traditional linguistic investigations.

Crossing from the adobe of words and linguistic production into the one of concepts and cognition, though, requires a quantum leap one should be careful in making. Any hope that word frequency may lead the way to the discovery of blends rests on the assumption that linguistic and conceptual representations are, if not isomorphic, at least systematically interrelated. This is a relationship that Cognitive linguistics has qualitatively intuited on many different occasions, but a sound methodology to rigidly quantify it has remained elusive. If statistical analysis is to provide insights of any substance, both the researcher and the reader need to be adamant about what it is exactly that gets counted every time that numbers are mentioned. Any process generating statistics must be strictly defined and reasoned for, as well as remain consistent throughout. We have made sure to keep lexeme counts and concept counts discrete. Finding out that the blending ratio increases as concept frequency decreases meant that the prospects of standard word frequency lists helping to discover blends were getting slim. What is more, we have found that other factors, like keyword density, can influence the emergence of blends more heavily. Still, probing for blends using a frequency word list as a rough guideline sounds to us like a viable practice, one just need to start from the bottom up to enhance retrievability.

 Is there a way to computationally automate blend extraction?

Many researchers, considering Conceptual Integration Theory as a computational analogue for human creativity, have set their minds to programming software which attempts to replicate its capacities (Goguen, 1999; Sweetser & HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 122

Dancygier, 1999; Veale & O’Donoghue, 2000; Pereira & Cardoso, 2003; Pereira,

2007; Tan & Kwok, 2009). Most of these ventures, however, focus on blend generation and evaluation. While it makes sense that one would apply a theory of human cognition with a special interest in manifestations of creativity to novel generation, we think there is a lot to be gained from pursuing an alternate approach, namely blend extraction. Areas that blend extraction can have material applications include reading comprehension, literature and pop-culture studies, intercultural communication, machine-translation, data-mining, search-engine optimization (SEO) and learning algorithm training, to mention a few. Corpora hold a plethora of already generated and evaluated blends that could tell us a lot about human creativity, if only we were able to retrieve it. In an extremist view, anything that can be blended, has already been blended and on top of that an electronic record of it has been made, but subsequently buried under exabytes of irrelevant information. All we are left to do is to dig down below to locate the blend that best fits our needs. The more data we can process, the more likely it is to find a positive match. Our initial conjecture was that blend extraction operates under the Unpacking principle, which seeks to recreate the input spaces and network correspondences from the blended space. We have come to realize, however, that in fact the process is much more complex, since any of the mental spaces of a network can be used as a starting point for the investigation. Part of the solution lies with reverse-engineering of generation algorithms; another, with more extensive and typified semantic annotation of corpora. We are still a long way from proposing a working model for automated blend extraction –almost the entirety of the related work for this thesis was conducted manually. We remain hopeful, however, that developing the appropriate algorithm is achievable and within the grasp of current scientific understanding. HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 123

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Appendices

Appendix A: List of Keywords

A/A Keyword Gloss Lexicalized figurative meaning I. Topology - Sea dominant 001 ακρωτήρι cape 002 ανοιχτά open sea 003 αρχιπέλαγος archipelago 004 βυθός seafloor 005 θάλασσα sea 006 λιμανάκι cove 007 νερό water(s) 008 νησί island 009 όρμος bay

010 πέλαγος sea2, offing repleteness, abudance 011 στενά straits 012 ωκεανός ocean boundlessness, immenseness II. Topology - Land dominant 013 ακρογιαλιά, seashore ακρογιάλι

014 ακροθαλάσσι seashore2 015 ακτή coast 016 άμμος sand uncountable mass 017 αμμουδιά sand beach

018 γιαλός seashore3 019 παραλία beach III. Vessel Typology 020 βάρκα boat disproportionally big or wide 021 γαλέρα galleon 023 καράβι ship same-purpose, organized group

024 πλοίο ship2 025 τρεχαντήρι traditional fishing boat, "trechandiri" 026 φορτηγό freighter ship IV. Vessel Meronymy

027 άλμπουρο mast2 028 αμπάρι hold 029 κατάρτι mast 030 κατάστρωμα deck

031 κουβέρτα deck2 HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 152

032 κουπαστή rail 033 κουπί oars laborious task 034 μηχανή (boat) motor person or group working reliably but without initiative 035 ξάρτια rigging 036 πανιά sails

037 παραπέτο rail2 038 πλώρη bow destination, goal

039 ρέλι rail3 040 σκαντήλι jacob's ladder step 041 σκαρί hull a. ongoing project b. physique 042 στράλι forestay 043 τιμόνι rudder-wheel governance 044 φιλιστρίνι porthole V. Sea-people Typology 045 βαρκάρης boatman 046 καπετάνιος captain team leader 047 καραβοκύρης skipper 048 κωπηλάτης rower, oarsman 049 λοστρόμος boatswain 050 μπουρλοτιέρης fire ship captain 051 ναύτης sailor 052 πελαγίτης seaman 053 πιλότος (maritime) pilot working model 054 πλήρωμα (ship) crew VI. Marine fauna 055 δελφίνι dolphin 056 χελιδονόψαρο flying fish 057 ψάρι fish a. nervous, cautious b. gullible VII. Fishing 058 αγκίστρι hook, angle 059 δίχτυ (fishing) net conniving entrapment 060 δολώνω bait (v) 061 παραγάδι longline 062 πυροφάνι torch fishing 063 σπαρταράω writhe throb with intense emotion 064 ψαράς fisherman 065 ψαρεύω fish (v) a. elicit b. discover VIII. Sailing Off 066 ανοίγω πανιά set sail begin 067 βάζω πλώρη set bow head for 068 βίρα την άγκυρα anchors aweigh 069 μπαρκάρω board (v), embark 070 πρόσω ολοταχώς full speed ahead 071 σαλπάρω sail off begin IX. Natural Phenomena 072 αφρίζω foam (v) be infuriated 073 αφρός (sea) foam HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 153

074 κύμα wave a. intense weather conditions b. overwhelming emotion c. growing negative social fad d. iterative group movement 075 μαΐστρος mistral wind 076 μπόρα shower sudden misfortune 077 παλίρροια tide 078 παφλάζω splash (v) 079 ρεύμα (sea) current 080 στάθμη (sea) level 081 τραμουντάνα tramontane wind

082 τρικυμία sea storm2 mental agitation 083 φουρτούνα sea storm hardship, trouble, tribulation X. Nautical Lore 084 γοργόνα mermaid attractive woman 085 σειρήνα siren deceivingly charming 086 συμπληγάδες clashing rocks XI. Sinking 087 βάζω νερά spring a leak 088 βουλιάζω sink (v) 089 βυθίζω/-ομαι submerge 090 γέρνω capsize (v) 091 μπάζω leak (v) 092 μπατάρω keel (v) 093 ναυάγιο shipwreck definitive and total failure 094 ναυαγός castaway 095 ναυαγώ cast away (v) fail 096 πλημμυρίζω flood (v) be overwhelmed 097 πνίγω/-ομαι drown XII. Porting 098 άγκυρα anchor support 099 αράζω moor (v) cozy up 100 γλάρος seagull 101 δένω dock (v) 102 θαλασσοπούλι seabird

103 κάβος mooring rope2 104 λιμάνι port security, comfort 105 μουράγιο pier 106 μώλος wharf 107 παλαμάρι mooring rope 108 προκυμαία jetty 109 φάρος lighthouse radiant, admirable XIII. Sea Fixtures 110 βότσαλο pebble 111 βράχος (sea) rock 112 κοράλλι coral 113 κοχύλι seashell 114 μαργαριτάρι pearl HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 154

115 όστρακο seashell2 116 φύκι seaweed XIV. Navigation 117 αρμενίζω yacht (v) daydream 118 πυξίδα (nautical) compass 119 ρότα heading 120 συντεταγμένες coordinates 121 χάρτης chart XV. Piracy 122 κουρσάρος corsair 123 κουρσεύω plunder 124 μουσκέτο musket 125 πειρατής pirate 126 πειρατική σημαία pirate flag 127 πειρατικό pirate ship XVI. Swimming 128 βουτάω dive (v) 129 βουτιά dive 130 επιπλέω float (v) 131 κολυμπάω swim (v) XVII. Miscellaneous 132 αλμύρα saltiness 133 σταβέντο leeward 134 υπέρηχος ultrasound

Appendix B: Keyword frequency counts

Keywords Songs Songs (%) S Words Words/Song θάλασσα 48 18,46 148 3,08 ωκεανός 9 3,46 12 1,33 πέλαγος 3 1,15 16 5,33 ανοιχτά 7 2,69 9 1,29 νερό (νερά) 24 9,23 47 1,96 βυθός 12 4,62 16 1,33 ακρωτήρι 1 0,38 1 1,00 όρμος 1 0,38 1 1,00 νησί 8 3,08 8 1,00 λιμανάκι 2 0,77 2 1,00 αρχιπέλαγος 1 0,38 1 1,00 στενά 1 0,38 3 3,00

παραλία 2 0,77 3 1,50 άμμος 14 5,38 36 2,57 αμμουδιά 4 1,54 5 1,25 ακτή 2 0,77 2 1,00 γιαλός 6 2,31 12 2,00 HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 155

ακροθαλάσσι 1 0,38 1 1,00 ακρογιαλιά 6 2,31 13 2,17

καράβι 33 12,69 63 1,91 πλοίο 13 5,00 28 2,15 βάρκα 11 4,23 38 3,45 τρεχαντήρι 1 0,38 1 1,00 γαλέρα 1 0,38 1 1,00 φορτηγό 2 0,77 5 2,50

σκαρί 7 2,69 8 1,14 αμπάρι 3 1,15 3 1,00 κατάρτι 3 1,15 4 1,33 άλμπουρο 1 0,38 1 1,00 πανί 18 6,92 30 1,67 κουπί 3 1,15 10 3,33 τιμόνι 5 1,92 5 1,00 μηχανή 2 0,77 3 1,50 πλώρη 4 1,54 7 1,75 κατάστρωμα 1 0,38 1 1,00 κουβέρτα 1 0,38 1 1,00 παραπέτο 1 0,38 1 1,00 ρέλι 1 0,38 1 1,00 κουπαστή 2 0,77 2 1,00 φιλιστρίνι 1 0,38 1 1,00 ξάρτια 1 0,38 1 1,00 σκαντήλι 1 0,38 1 1,00 στράλι 1 0,38 1 1,00

βαρκάρης 2 0,77 2 1,00 καραβοκύρης 2 0,77 8 4,00 καπετάνιος 5 1,92 17 3,40 λοστρόμος 1 0,38 1 1,00 ναύτης 2 0,77 2 1,00 πλήρωμα 1 0,38 1 1,00 κωπηλάτης 1 0,38 3 3,00 πελαγίτης 1 0,38 2 2,00 μπουρλοτιέρης 1 0,38 1 1,00 πιλότος 1 0,38 2 2,00

δελφίνι 3 1,15 9 3,00 ψάρι 2 0,77 5 2,50 χελιδονόψαρο 1 0,38 2 2,00

ψαράς 1 0,38 1 1,00 ψαρεύω 1 0,38 1 1,00 HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 156

παραγάδι 3 1,15 5 1,67 δίχτυ 17 6,54 34 2,00 πυροφάνι 1 0,38 1 1,00 αγκίστρι 2 0,77 3 1,50 δολώνω 1 0,38 1 1,00 σπαρταράω 3 1,15 5 1,67

σαλπάρω 2 0,77 2 1,00 μπαρκάρω 2 0,77 3 1,50 βάζω πλώρη 1 0,38 1 1,00 πρόσω ολοταχώς 1 0,38 1 1,00 βίρα την άγκυρα 1 0,38 1 1,00 αρμενίζω 5 1,92 10 2,00 ανοίγω πανιά 6 2,31 7 1,17

κύμα 48 18,46 84 1,75 φουρτούνα 6 2,31 11 1,83 τρικυμία 5 1,92 9 1,80 μπόρα 5 1,92 7 1,40 μαΐστρος 1 0,38 1 1,00 τραμουντάνα 1 0,38 1 1,00 ρεύμα 2 0,77 2 1,00 στάθμη 1 0,38 1 1,00 αφρός 4 1,54 5 1,25 αφρίζω 1 0,38 1 1,00 παλίρροια 2 0,77 3 1,50 παφλάζω 1 0,38 1 1,00

σειρήνα 1 0,38 1 1,00 γοργόνα 2 0,77 2 1,00 συμπληγάδες 1 0,38 1 1,00

μπατάρω 2 0,77 2 1,00 γέρνω 2 0,77 2 1,00 μπάζω 1 0,38 1 1,00 κάνω νερά 1 0,38 1 1,00 πλημμυρίζω 1 0,38 1 1,00 βουλιάζω 11 4,23 21 1,91 βυθίζω/-ομαι 4 1,54 6 1,50 πνίγω/-ομαι 15 5,77 41 2,73 ναύγιο 11 4,23 21 1,91 ναυαγώ 9 3,46 13 1,44 ναυαγός 4 1,54 6 1,50

λιμάνι 25 9,62 54 2,16 μουράγιο 3 1,15 5 1,67 HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 157

φάρος 10 3,85 25 2,50 προκυμαία 2 0,77 2 1,00 μώλος 1 0,38 1 1,00 θαλασσοπούλι 2 0,77 2 1,00 γλάρος 2 0,77 2 1,00 άγκυρα 7 2,69 19 2,71 παλαμάρι 2 0,77 3 1,50 κάβος 3 1,15 3 1,00 αράζω 14 5,38 32 2,29 δένω 3 1,15 4 1,33

μαργαριτάρι 7 2,69 10 1,43 κοράλλι 2 0,77 4 2,00 κοχύλι 4 1,54 8 2,00 όστρακο 1 0,38 1 1,00 βότσαλο 1 0,38 2 2,00 φύκι 1 0,38 2 2,00 βράχος 7 2,69 14 2,00

χάρτης 18 6,92 24 1,33 συντεταγμένες 1 0,38 1 1,00 πυξίδα 6 2,31 7 1,17 ρότα 2 0,77 3 1,50

κουρσάρος 1 0,38 2 2,00 κουρσεύω 1 0,38 1 1,00 πειρατικά 1 0,38 8 8,00 πειρατικό 2 0,77 4 2,00 πειρατική σημαία 1 0,38 1 1,00 πειρατής 5 1,92 8 1,60 μουσκέτο 1 0,38 1 1,00

βουτιά 6 2,31 19 3,17 βουτάω 3 1,15 3 1,00 κολυμπάω 4 1,54 6 1,50 επιπλέω 2 0,77 3 1,50

αλμύρα 3 1,15 3 1,00 υπέρηχος 1 0,38 1 1,00 σταβέντο 1 0,38 1 1,00

Appendix C: Scenario and event frequency counts

Events Songs Songs (%) S Seafaring Scenario HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 158

Sailing Off 20 7,69 Navigation 54 20,77 Magic Encounters 5 1,92 Piracy 12 4,62 Sea Stroms 22 8,46 Sinking 41 15,77 Porting 51 19,62 Total 205 78,85 Fishing Scenario Preparing 5 1,92 Casting 6 2,31 Retrieving 12 4,62 Total 23 8,85 Beach-going Sandplaying 10 3,85 Swimming 34 13,08 Seashell picking 7 2,69 Sea-gazing 20 7,69 Total 71 27,31

Appendix D: (Re)rendering "Love Story" scenario (Steen, 2003) into Predicate Logic Steen (2003) Rendering Predicate Logic Rendering WANT BECAUSE OF DESIRE xDESIREy → xWANTy WANT BECAUSE OF PASSION xPASSIONy → xWANTy WANT BECAUSE OF NEED xNEEDy → xWANTy GET BECAUSE OF DESIRE *xDESIREy → xGETy GET BECAUSE OF PASSION *xPASSIONy → xGETy GET BECAUSE OF NEED *xNEEDy → xGETy KEEP BECAUSE OF DESIRE xDESIREy → xKEEPy KEEP BECAUSE OF PASSION xPASSIONy → xKEEPy KEEP BECAUSE OF NEED xNEEDy → xKEEPy WANT RESULTS IN HAPPINESS xWANTy → xHAPPY WANT RESULTS IN AFFAIR xWANTy → xGETy WANT RESULTS IN RELATIONSHIP xWANTy → xKEEPy GET RESULTS IN HAPPINESS xGETy → xHAPPY GET RESULTS IN AFFAIR *xGETy → xGETy GET RESULTS IN RELATIONSHIP xGETy → xKEEPy KEEP RESULTS IN HAPPINESS xKEEPy → xHAPPY KEEP RESULTS IN AFFAIR xKEEPy → xGETy KEEP RESULTS IN RELATIONSHIP *xKEEPy → xKEEPy NOT WANT BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~DESIREy → x~WANTy DESIRE NOT WANT BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~PASSIONy → x~WANTy PASSION NOT WANT BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~NEEDy → x~WANTy NEED HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 159

!NOT WANT BECAUSE OF DESIRE xDESIREy → x~WANTy !NOT WANT BECAUSE OF PASSION xPASSIONy → x~WANTy !NOT WANT BECAUSE OF NEED xNEEDy → x~WANTy NOT WANT BECAUSE OF yWANTz → x~WANTy COMPETITOR NOT WANT BECAUSE OF SOCIETY → x~WANTy NOT GET BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~DESIREy → x~GETy DESIRE NOT GET BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~PASSIONy → x~GETy PASSION NOT GET BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~NEEDy → x~GETy NEED NOT GET BECAUSE OF yGETz → x~GETy COMPETITOR NOT GET BECAUSE OF SOCIETY → x~GETy NOT KEEP BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~DESIREy → x~KEEPy DESIRE NOT KEEP BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~PASSIONy → x~KEEPy PASSION NOT KEEP BECAUSE OF LACK OF x~NEEDy → x~KEEPy NEED !NOT KEEP BECAUSE OF DESIRE xDESIREy → x~KEEPy !NOT KEEP BECAUSE OF PASSION xPASSIONy → x~KEEPy !NOT KEEP BECAUSE OF NEED xNEEDy → x~KEEPy NOT KEEP BECAUSE OF yGETz → x~KEEPy COMPETITOR NOT KEEP BECAUSE OF SOCIETY → x~KEEPy NOT WANT RESULTS IN LACK OF x~WANTy→x~HAPPY HAPPINESS NOT WANT RESULTS IN LACK OF x~WANTy→x~GETy AFFAIR NOT WANT RESULTS IN LACK OF x~WANTy→x~KEEPy RELATIONSHIP NOT GET RESULTS IN LACK OF x~GETy→x~HAPPY HAPPINESS NOT GET RESULTS IN LACK OF *x~GETy→x~GETy AFFAIR NOT GET RESULTS IN LACK OF x~GETy→x~KEEPy RELATIONSHIP x~GETy→xLONELY NOT KEEP RESULTS IN LACK OF x~KEEPy→x~HAPPY HAPPINESS NOT KEEP RESULTS IN LACK OF x~KEEPy→x~GETy AFFAIR NOT KEEP RESULTS IN LACK OF *x~KEEPy→x~KEEPy RELATIONSHIP x~KEEPy→xLONELY

Items marked with (!) are not included in Steen (2003)

Items marked with (*) are not meaningful once re-rendered HIGH SEAS AND SMITTEN HEARTS 160