The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research

Volume 5 Article 7

2002

Wolf Reintroduction Into Yellowstone National Park

Erin Quartley St. John Fisher College, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Quartley, Erin. "Wolf Reintroduction Into Yellowstone National Park." The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research 5 (2002): 64-83. Web. [date of access]. .

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Abstract In lieu of an abstract, below is the essay's first paragraph.

" ... My, what big eyes you have grandmother. 'All the better to see you with, my dear.' My, what big teeth you have grandmother. 'All the better to eat you with, my dear. ' ... " The story of Little Red Riding Hood is one that commonly surfaces when people talk about and picture wolves. The negative image that has been placed upon wolves originates from folklore, fairy tales, and Hollywood. This same falsified image is one that has greatly contributed to the past and present plight of the wolf. These fearful images of wolves have made them a species that has been hunted to near extinction and continue to impact their survival. It is a constant struggle for an image of wolves as a symbol for nature, wilderness, and beauty to become the more popular view of this endangered species.

This article is available in The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research: https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/ur/ vol5/iss1/7 Quartley: Wolf Reintroduction Into Yellowstone National Park

Wolf Reintroduction Into Yellowstone National Park by Erin Quartley

"But in the end, wolves are only wolves. pups learn the scents and howls of the The real issue is one ofmaking room, and fellow members of the pack very early in there is still a little room in the West - room life. When the pups are strong and old for l1Unlers, for environmentalists, for enough, these carnivores will join the pack ranchers, and for wolves. " in moving across the land in search of food - Renee Askins (Gibson 10). Even the basic facts about the wolfs " ... My, what big eyes you have way of life have contributed to the negative grandmother. 'All the better to see you image that wolves carry with them. The with, my dear.' My, what big teeth you truth about wolves has been distorted for have grandmother. 'All the better to eat you generations. Many people fear the wolf with, my dear. ' .. ." The story of Little Red because it is a nocturnal animal, and Riding Hood is one that commonly surfaces because it is often heard but, due to the when people talk about and picture wolves. wolfs timid nature, rarely seen (Gibson The negative image that has been placed 26). Howling has often been one aspect of upon wolves originates from folklore, fairy wolves that has caused them to be feared by tales, and Hollywood. This same falsified humans. This unique sound and image is one that has greatly contributed to characteristic of wolves is simply a way to the past and present plight of the wolf. maintain communication, to call the roll of These fearful images of wolves have made pack members, and to declare their them a species that has been hunted to near presence in a territory (Bauer 14). extinction and continue to impact their Unfortunately, howling is a sound that is survival. It is a constant struggle for an not familiar to humans and, therefore, is image of wolves as a symbol for nature, thought to be something that is bad or evil. wilderness, and beauty to become the more The fact that wolves are carnivores has also popular view of this endangered species. contributed to the negative image of Apart from varying views of the wolf, wolves. There are many other species that scientific studies of wolves and their survive by killing, but wolves compete at a behavior seek to dispel both the irrational level that seems to threaten humans. When fears and sentimentality about wolves. wolves hunt, they do so in organized packs. There are two species of wolves: Canis This organization among wild wolves adds lupus, the gray wolf, and Canis rufus, the to the threatening image that humans have red wolf. All wolves, no matter what of the wolves. Wolves also prey on species, are very social. They live together animals that humans hunt, yet they do not in packs that average about six members. have any natural predators except for An alpha female and male lead the pack and humans. are the only members to breed. However, Humans have been the ultimate cause the entire pack is responsible for the of the demise of wolves in the United upbringing of the wolf pups. A typical litter States. Accompanying the war on wolves, usually includes one to six pups. These images and ideas of what the wolf

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represented were fonncd in the human mind: wolves" began from the very first "The symbolic wolf stimulates some of settlement of North America. Wolves humankind's most frightening passions represented all of the folklore that had towards wildlife" (Gibson 2 1). Humans always been told to the early settlers and especially fear wolves because they are wild somehow had become fact along the way. animals that project human characteristics, For the settlers, the fear of wolves was such as the organization of packs. While mat,111 i fied by the unknown wilderness that these "frightening passions" are not based they had just entered. The extermination of on truth, they have continued through the wolves in many European countries set the generations with power and force. "It is example for the settlers as to how to deal easier to believe in old tales passed down with the wolves in America. The solution, through generations than to accept new of course, was to kill the wolves and infonnation that has made the wolf so much destroy their habitats at any opportunity. more intriguing" (Gibson 26). For example, This way of thinking became part of the even though humans domesticated the wolf new culture in America and infiltrated all into what is now known as Canis lupus aspects of life, rrom town meetings to familiaris, Nancy Gibson notes that the church meetings and any conversations in question in literature remained "what can we between. As civilization progressed in the mean by the wolf except the Devil?" new world, the population of the wolves (Gibson 21 ). The dog belonged to a steadily declined. The wolves became the civilized way of life, but since the wolf was target of hunters, and slowly were uncontrolled and belonged to nature, it was eliminated rrom the country, starting in the deemed evil. cast. The few wolves that remained in the Stereotypes of wolves initiated the war country were concentrated in the west. on wolves. The myths of the wolf as an evil Beginning in 1872, humans waged the most man-eater in Europe caused widespread brutal, yet official, war on western wolves wolf killings that resulted in the that ever existed. extennination of the wolves in four of the With the United States approaching the major European countries. By 1486, centennial anniversary of the country and England no longer had any wolves and the land being devoured up by an incredible Scotland and Ireland followed by killing number of immigrants, the United States their last wolves in 1743 and 1776, government made a monumental decision. respectively (Gibson 52). France eventually The members of the Congress decided to followed this wolf-killing trend by preserve some areas that truly captured the extenninating its last wolf in the 1920s essence of nature and wildlife. The idea of (Gibson 52). The wolf lost its battle in those conserving a picture of "wild America" was countries strictly because of fictitious stories recognized with the passing of an act that and human misunderstanding of the wolf as made areas of the country into national a wild animal. parks. Yellowstone National Park in The wolf next suffered another Wyoming was established when that law damaging encounter with humans when was enacted in 1872 (www.nwf.org). "The Europeans began to settle North America in natural features and wildlife found within the 1600s. The Europeans did not leave [Yellowstone] would be protected as a their unfounded views of wolves in Europe; trusted legacy, passed on from one they were carried over to North America and generation to another" (Mcintyre l 0). were once again acted upon. The "war on Unfortunately, the negative views passed

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down from generation to generation were exploitation o f the environment. Jn still very strong. Therefore, the wolves response to the public concerns, the would not be able to comfortably find a government passed the Lacey Act in 1894, place in the human mind as being part of the which prohibited the wanton destruction of natural wildlife that was supposed to be animals in the park (Phillips & Smith 15). conserved in the park. In fact, humans were Again, though, the fear and hatred of determined to not allow the wolves to find wolves caused them to be excluded from any place where they could live as a wild the law, along with all predators in the animal. park. Lacey's law gave the right of way to Yellowstone National Park soon became legally kill wolves. Unfortunately, this was a place that strongly showed that humans' just the beginning of the hardships and "relationship with nature was void of ethics" eventual demise of the wolves m (Phillips & Smith 14). "The contemporary Yellowstone National Park. attitude classified wildlife species as either Over the next twenty years, individuals 'good' or 'bad' animals" (Mcintyre 10). mercilessly hunted the wolves for fun, Wolves were obviously placed in the bad glory, and with the goal of killing them off animal category based on the history that entirely. While the number of wolves existed between this species and humans in began to decrease, people were not satisfied the United States and Europe. The with the idea that wolves still roamed the administrators of Yellowstone felt that it park and surrounding areas. New reasons was their duty to protect the good animals, arose to increase the efforts of killing the such as big game animals and non-predators, wolves and the idea of wolves as savages from all possible harm. The protection of persisted. If people were trying to change these species came in the form of the the image of the wolf for the better, then predator control program. This program the voices of influential people of the time "was just an extension of a national policy to were fading them out. Theodore Roosevelt, rid the country of undesirable species" a well-known conservationist, was one who (Mcintyre l 0). The very simplest many thought the wolves could depend on justification for this program came down to to save them from the hunted position that the same reason people fear wolves and they were in. However, during his other predators. If there are predators in the presidency from 190 l to 1909, Roosevelt wild that have control, then humans do not actually encouraged the efforts of the have total and absolute control. Renee "wolfers," those who made it their job to Askins, an advocate of wolves, states that kill wolves. "In Roosevelt's view, wolves "the wars against predators at the tum of the and other predators didn't fit into the century weren't about ridding ourselves of a [environmental] scheme, and he said so nuisance; they were about the principle of unequivocally: wolves were 'the archetype dominance, and the wolf, the symbol of the of raven, the beast of waste and wild, untamable nature, was the object of desolation"' (Hampton 128). Many conquest" (Askins). conservationists of that time period thought The slaughter of Yellowstone's wolves, along the same terms as Roosevelt. They and many other of Yellowstone's predators reasoned that the wolves were destroying and prey, began immediately and illegally the hoofed animal populations of after the park was founded. The killing of Yellowstone National Park. The so many animals from the park did evoke a conservationists viewed this destruction as response from Americans who saw the being detrimental to the environment and

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natural cycle. An animal rights advocate, extenninati on of the wolves legal, but it llenry Salt, refused to help the wolves al so began to hire hunters to make thi s goal "because they so plainly caused the achievable. The federal hunters were then suffering of other animals" (Hampton 128). provided with the weapons needed to not Hunters, ranchers, and farmers all just kill the wolves but to torture them. viewed the wolves as competition. The This "fun" job became quite profitable fo r hunters believed that the wolves would kill the hunters since they were paid a bounty off the entire hoofed animal population, of between one to fi ve dollars by the leaving no big game animals and causing government for every wolf they killed. The them economic injustice. The ranchers and motto of the hunters was "shoot (or snare), farmers feared that the wolves would shovel and shut up" (Skow). The methods destroy their livestock, even though their used to kill the wolves were numerous, but biggest problem of the time was losing cattle all had the common theme of being savage to the unkind winters (Skow 13). However, and inhumane. Many hunters would poison the fault of the ranchers' problems with carcasses with strychnine. The wolves wolves could have easily been placed on the would feed off of the carcasses and whole hunters. The wolves would not have packs would die. Other techniques bothered the li vestock if the hunters had not included trapping Jive wolves and then killed off their prey, such as the bison infecting them with mange, a highly (Linden). Wolves slowly became the easy contagious skin disease that would wipe out scapegoats of people's problems. The basis a pack when the wolf was later released. of all of the arguments, though, is founded Wolf dens were dug up, and the excavated in the control of humans over wolves. pups were strangled, shot, or sometimes Humans couldn't seem to live in harmony collected to show the public during their with the wolves, so humans decided that all cute puppy age, only to be later destroyed of the wolves needed to be completely kill ed (Gibson 54). Domesticated dogs were used off. to hunt for their ancestors. Traps were set The United States government to either kill the wolves or to capture them eventually joined the efforts of the majority and then torture them back at ranches. of the country in attempting to eliminate Some western ranchers still tell tales of wolves from Yellowstone. In 1914, capturing live wolves, tying ropes around Congress passed a historic bill. The bill each leg, and then simultaneously pulling appropriated funds fo r "destroying wolves, each leg off while the ranchers celebrated prairie dogs and other animals injurious to and watched the wolfs slow, painful death agriculture and animal husbandry" (Gibson 54). These attacks on wolves were (www.nwf.org). With the passage of this not only vicious, but also one-sided: wolves bill, the Yellowstone wolf eradication are not known to attack humans. In fact, campaign began. Permission was given to the United States has no reported incidents everyone to kill the wolves. This war of wolves attacking people (Skow 13). against the wolf became one of the most The result of the war on wolves was successful government programs ever devastating. When the settlers arrived in launched (Mcintyre I 2). what is now the United States there were The war and its techniques was also one two million wolves in the lower forty-eight of the most comprehensive ever taken states (Mcintyre 12). By the 1930s, all of against the wolves. The government not the wolves in Yellowstone National Park, only passed the bill to make the along with every other state except for

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Minnesota, had been eli mi nated due to the was set off ba lance. No longer was there a government's wolf removal program. natural predator to curb other populati ons, "Minnesota was the onl y cont iguous state such as the elk: ''Huge, unchecked where the anti-wolf campaign had fa iled; a populations of el k, deer and bison ... caused small population o f 400 to 600 wolves dramatic changes in the park's vegetation" surv ived in the northern fo rests (Gibson 56). (www.nwforg). With the elk popul ation The number of wolves that were killed was out of control, there is not enough remarkable. "From two mill ion to a few vegetation to maintain the herds, plus all of hundred: Never has one species so the other herbivore populations, throughout completely waged war on a fellow species" the wi nter. Since Yellowstone is based (Mcintyre 12). upon a natural food web, any small change The end of the war on wolves came onl y can have a severe impact. with the end of wolves in the United States. Not only were the elk impacted by the No group or individual ever confronted the removal of the wolf, but also so were many issue of exterminating an entire species other species. The coyote population while it was actually going on. Not until the increased once the wolf left because it damage was done did people start to realize became the top predator. However, other the impact of the acti ons by "wolfers" and small predators such as foxes and badgers the United States government. In 1933, aft er experi enced a decrease in their populations the last wolf was kill ed in Yellowstone since the coyotes were eating all of the National Park, the predator control program small rodents (Kluger). Scavengers such as was revoked. The reasoning behind the f,TJizzly bears and ravens were also affected change in poli cy was that "no nati ve (Kluger). There were no longer elk predator shall be destroyed on account of its carcasses for the bears to cat from since normal utilization o f any other park animal" coyotes typicall y do not attack elk. When (Phillips & Smith 15). Wolves were an entire species of predators is purposely beginning to be recognized as an ecological removed, the result will obviously be an necessity. The environmental thinking that unnatural and unbalanced ecosystem. was absent during the war on wolves was Unfo rtunately, the United States slowly starting to appear when it was government and many of its citizens did not already too late. However, realize this before, or even any time durin g, environmentalists would begin to play a key the war on wolves. role in what would eventually become a Wolves also greatly contribute to the heated debate in the United States: Should natural evolutionary process. Not only do wolves be reintroduced into Yellowstone wolves and other predators influence the National Park? health and genetic makeup of their prey, Ironicall y, the same reasoning as to why but over time prey species in turn influence the government originally initiated programs the attributes of the predators that feed to kill off all wolves was the same reasoning upon them (www.nwf.org). The as to why wolves were wanted back in the dependence of prey and predators on each park by environmentalists. One of the main other is amazing, even in the evolutionary reasons that wolves were exterminated was process. Through natural selection, the that they were thought to be a menace and target of wolves when hunting is the danger to the animals that they preyed on. weakest of their prey. In turn, the fastest However, with the wolf gone from wolf will have the greatest chance of Yellowstone National Park, the ecosystem catching food and surviving. Both factors

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influence the genetic makeup of the natural years to "control" the wolf, now the popul ations of prey and predators. government would expend millions to bring With environmental concerns surfacing it back (Hampton 178). about populati on control of prey species in As with all laws, resistance against the Yellowstone, the solution to the problem ESA was inevitable. Everyone did not had to be dealt with. It was observed that greet the new phi losophy about humans the problem started only after the wolf, a working to help wolves instead of harm natural predator, had been removed from them with enthusiasm. As progress Yellowstone. While people knew what the continued and the idea of reintroducing next step was, no one was willing to say it. wolves back into the United States, Then in 1944, Aldo Leopold, a conservation particularly Yellowstone, was discussed leader, spoke up. He believed that in order more seriously, a heated debate erupted. to restore Yellowstone back to its natural Two sides emerged in the debate, each ecosystem wolves must be brought back into steadfast in their goal of either seeing the park (www.nwf.org). This idea did not wolves released into Yellowstone or settle well with many people, since they had keeping the park the way it was. The just spent decades trying to rid the entire debate started with the initial formation of country of that wildlife species. However, the Wolf Recovery Team and continues at the same time, the idea seemed to even today. It is important to understand promote the "birth of a new philosophy" where both sides are coming from, whom about wolves and their relationship with they consist of, and exactly what and why humans (Phillips & Smith 15). they believe what they do. Allowing wolves to again become part The supporters of the reintroduction of of the ecosystem slowly became accepted by wolves into Yellowstone National Park more and more people. While the include various groups, such as Native acceptance was greatly appreciated by American tribes, conservationists, and environmentalists and wildlife biologists wi ldlife biologists. They are all playing the who were advocating wolf restoration, it role of wolf advocates and are motivated by was not actually getting the wolves ahead of their desire to see the wolf run free again in where they were at that point in time. A Yellowstone. While the controversy huge break came for the wolves in 1973. surrounds the idea of releasing wolves back That year Congress passed the Endangered into Yellowstone, the controversy would Species Act (ESA). This act was coined the have surrounded anyplace in the United "bill of rights for nonhumans," and included States. The issue is the return of wolves in in the li st of endangered species was Canis the wild, not whether Yellowstone National lupus. The Endangered Species Act stated Park would be their designated home. In that any animal on the endangered list fact, after being absent from the park for should be returned to their natural over 60 years, Yellowstone is the place that ecosystems. The hope was that the species is preferred by many people to have the would be able to recover in the wild and wolves released into. Being the top option then be taken off of the list. Very soon after for such a critical yet uncertain project the ESA was enacted, the first recovery team means that Yellowstone has other features was started to assist an endangered species that make it the place for a historic event. back onto its feet. The animal that was to be Yellowstone, just like the wolf, symbolizes recovered was the wolf. After having spent America's beauty and wilderness. The hundreds of thousands of dollars over the park is exclusively a natural habitat for so

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many wild animals and their environments. believed that the power of the wolf was They arc free to roam where they please and transferable to humans, they sought to have no concerns or restrictions placed on emulate the animal in a multitude of ways them by humans. The sole mi ssion of (I lampton 35). They included the wolf in Yellowstone is to preserve its resources and their stories, costumes, daily li ving and, wildlife. The only business that overall, in thei r culture. The Native Yellowstone includes is the tourism Americans also understood that the skills of business, which is regulated by the park wolves were skills that humans needed and rangers. For millions of Americans, a return valued. Wolves stood for strength, agility, of wolves to Yellowstone would be a sign endurance, keen senses, the ability to hunt that nature is still alive, persistent, cooperatively and successfully in a group, mysterious, and beautiful (Steinhart 218). and the capacity to adapt to changing With Yellowstone being the designated physical environments (www.nwf.org). place where the controversial reintroduction Those characteristics that the Native would occur, the issue then became full of Americans tried to incorporate into their politics from both sides fighting for what lives where the same ones that caused they wanted. Some of the most vocal Europeans to fear them because they were supporters of the reintroduction were many so similar to what most humans desired. of the Native American tribes. The Native Native Americans' views about wolves Americans can relate to the experiences that are still the same today. Because of this the wolves have faced since the arrival of positive and revered view, the Native the white settlers: "To most Europeans, Americans have become one of the wolves' both wolves and Indians symbolized all that most reliable allies in their struggle to come was wild and untamed in nature-including back to Yellowstone National Park. Native human nature-and were to be dispatched as Americans understand the key role that the quickly as possible" (www.nwf.org). wolves play in nature and in the circle of Around the same time that the final wolves life. They urge opponents of the were being killed, reservations were being reintroduction plan to "honor and protect filled with the last Native Americans that them even if [they] do not fully understand had escaped the government for so long. their purpose" (www.nwf.org). Native The structure of the members of wolf packs Americans know from experience that and Native American tribes are also very humans and wolves can live peacefully similar. The Native Americans have a chief together. The Nez Perce tribe has started to lead and guide them while the wolves the Nez Perce Wolf Research and Recovery have their alpha wolf to do the same. Center in Winchester, Idaho. Idaho's wolf Members of tribes and packs live and hunt recovery program is run by the Nez Perce together. This similarity has lead to the tribe, partly because angry Idaho politicians Native Americans respecting the wolf and wouldn't let any state agencies cooperate even considering them their kindred spirits with FWS (Chadwick 95). Together, with (Mcintyre 36). other wolf advocates, they are attempting to With wolves as their kindred and reshape the ecosystem by reintroducing guiding spirits, Native Americans looked wolves and therefore bringing the upon wolves in a different light than the ecosystem back into harmony (Wolves). European settlers. They saw the wolf as Northern Cheyenne elder Bill Tallbull having special powers, given to it by the considers it essential to have the wolf Creator. Because Native Americans returned to its natural home, for the sake of

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both the wolf and humans. Tallbull believes interference. The ecological and that "the wolf is important to all of us as its environmental issues that brought the spiritual presence will once again be felt original idea of restoring wolves into upon the land" (Lccard 44). Native Y cl lowstone would be solved, as a natural Americans argue that the reason people are predator would now be present in the park. opposing the reintroduction of wolves into Since wolves have a high reproduction rate, Yellowstone is because they do not once population is settled into the park, the understand the wolf and want to tum away wolves will not have any trouble from the things they do not understand. maintaining the population and Chief Dan George proclaimed, "If you talk continuously increasing in size (Gibson to the animals they will talk with you and 59). Wolves can handle the transition back you will know each other. If you do not talk into Yellowstone, but the debate is over to them you will not know them, and what whether or not humans can handle the you do not know you will fear. What one wolves in Yellowstone. fears one destroys" (Mcintyre). One of the questions that opponents The Native Americans' spiritual beliefs have about reintroducing wolves into about wolves have empowered them to take Yellowstone is whether they will actually action and work for the reintroduction of make a difference in the ecosystem. They wolves into Yellowstone. Other groups argue that the wolfs role as a predator in have also played an important role in this Yellowstone has never been able to be struggle, even though they may not have defined since the wolves haven't been there been motivated to do so by spiritual reasons. to study. Opponents suggest there are so Another vital group that has been working many different species of predator and prey hard to see that wolves are actually returned that no one species of predator can control to the wild are environmentalists and prey numbers (Steinhart 243). Supporters wildlife biologists. This group has the bring up the topic of biodiversity in defense challenge of defending all of the criticisms of the opponents' arguments about the role placed upon the plan to release wolves into of wolves in Yellowstone's ecosystem. Yellowstone. Wolf biology in Yellowstone Every predator relies on different prey and, has now become wolf politics (Link & therefore, "serves as indicator species for Crowley 43). The supporters of wolves the health of an ecosystem as a whole" must defend their position, in court, in order (www .nwf.org). ln Yellowstone, there is to get the permission to go ahead with the an overabundance of elk, indicating that a restoration plan. Unfortunately, politics will predator is missing from the ecosystem. dominate the discussion of whether or not While there are a lot of elk, the elk are not wolves call Yellowstone their home again. necessarily healthy and neither is the Conservationists know that biologically vegetation because of the elk. The and ecologically, there will not be any population of small game is thriving in significant problems with the release of Yellowstone because the coyote, another wolves into Yellowstone. Prey is plentiful, predator, is thriving. The ecosystem cannot in fact, too plentiful. The wolves will help afford to just have certain species balanced solve the issue of overpopulation by some of and others not balanced. The result of the the prey species, such as elk. The imbalance is no biodiversity in the park. environment is already known to be suited Supporters see the importance of taking the for a wolf's life since wolves once roamed chance that wolves will help to rebalance and thrived in Yellowstone before human the ecosystem in Yellowstone and increase

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biodiversity. "When we preserve this Since Yellowstone is overpopulated with valuable biological diversity, we retain prey populations because there arc no environments in whi ch we may cont inue natural predators, there is an abundant food learning about natural process in all their supply wi thin park boundaries. When wild complexity" (www.nwf.org). prey is plentiful, livestock losses to wolves Supporters of wolves make a very are rare, especiall y in comparison to losses simple, yet strong, argument. They believe from other predators, disease and adverse that we must take responsibility fr)r our weather (www.nwf.org). Supporters also actions as a nation. One of those actions point out that ranchers and fa nners in was the intentional removal of wolves from Minnesota have experienced very few all areas of the country. They see it as a problems with the wolf populations that moral obligation to right that wrong. The remai n there. In fact, the reported number government did not just remove wolves of losses of livestock in that area due to from their habitats; they removed the li ves wolves is Jess than 0.0004% of the wolves. Humans systematically (www.nwf.org). With these facts and destroyed the wolf population in statistics, supporters do not foresee any Yellowstone, so now it is the responsibility economic doom due to the presence of of humans to restore them. The wolf has wolves in Yellowstone (Askins). been the only native animal missing from The biggest fear that opponents of wolf Yellowstone (Begley 53). Supporters would reintroduction have is about the impact that like to see Yellowstone return to the way it wolves will have on livestock. They do not was when it became a national park in J 872, believe that all of the wolves will stay which included wolves. within the unfenced park boundaries. Once A challenge that often faces supporters outside the park, the wolf no longer has of wolves is to assure the courts, and many natural prey for a food source. Rather, the of the opponents, that wolves will not be a wolf can now choose from a menu of threat to humans or their livestock. The idea li vestock. One night the wolf could have of wolves attacking humans is still ingrained lamb for dinner and the next it could have into people's minds from folklore. beef. Ranchers do not feel that they should Scientists are trylng to overcome this have to change their practices that have obstacle by showing through studies that been used for generations because wolves wolves do not attack humans. Fear must be are being placed in their backyard by diminished before social attitudes about human agencies (Nemeth). Many wolves can be changed. Acceptance of opponents are demanding answers from the wolves by opponents is key if the restoration supporters as to how such inevitable issues plan is ever to work. will be handled. One answer provided by Another issue that supporters must the opponents is to have the reintroduced defend is that the predatory nature of wolves wolves radio-collared. Tracking the wolves will be concentrated on wild prey, not on would allow the wolves to be immediately livestock. There is the chance that wolves captured and returned to Yellowstone if will roam off of the Yellowstone property they travel out of the park's boundaries. since the park is not fenced in. Ranchers Supporters, however, did not sincerely and farmers are faced with the possibility of consider the option. While the technology having wolves use their livestock as a source exists, wolves living under such restraints of food. However, supporters dismiss the would hardly constitute a wild wolf frequency of wolf attacks on livestock. population (Link & Crowley 43). How to

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handle the situation must be decided upon who are going to make a hell of an impact before further action can be taken towards on wi ldlife" (Wilkinson). Comments such the possibl e reintroduction of the wolf into as this show that some people do not realize Yellowstone. the ecological value of wolves, or they just As much as the supporters feel that there do not want to realize their value. The is an obligation to reintroduce the wolves traditional hatred of wolves by many of and that they will not impact the these farmers and ranchers has been deeply neighboring ranching communities, the expressed at hearings regarding the opponents of the reintroduction are equally reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone. strong in their views about the issue. One opponent compared releasing wolves Ranchers, farmers and hunters are the main in the park to "dumping hazardous waste in opponents to wolf reintroduction plans. The a suburban neighborhood" (Steinhart 259). opponents present their argument for why Another condemned the recovery as a wolves shouldn't be reintroduced into ridiculous idea, "like trying to get the Yellowstone with emotion. They are backed dinosaurs reinstated," and vowed to fight into a corner from the many groups that this to the bitter end" (Hampton 196). support wolf reintroduction. The ranchers Hostile statements such as these are what and farmers do not have factual evidence the wolves are facing. Whether the threat that the wolf will affect their livestock, so of wolves is imagined or actuaJ, the they must fight with passion and emotion in ranchers' fear and anger are real (Askins). hope that the courts will choose their side. For ranchers and farmers, wolves This demonstrates again that whether it be represent change, change for the worse. the supporters or the opponents, the The ranchers and farmers are already challenges for wolves are not biological, but dealing with fa lling stock prices, rising political and social. The wolf must combat taxes, prolonged drought, and a nation that attitudes, beliefs, and opinions in order to be is eating less beef and wearing more released into the wild, rather than biological synthetics (Askins). According to these issues of its survival. groups, wolves in Yellowstone would just The major problem that wolves must add to their problems. Ranchers see an overcome in their struggle to be restored to unnecessary conflict being ignited by Yellowstone National Park is the image of releasing wolves near settled ranches wolves that is engrained into many minds of (Wolves). Supporters rebut the opponents' the ranchers and farmers. Many of the argument by first trying to convey the idea ranchers and farmers were alive during the that wolves were present before the settled war on wolves in the West, and recall the ranches. The wolfs place is its original sense of triumph in the killing of wolves, the habitat, one of which happens to be ardent belief that eradicating wolves made Yellowstone. Supporters also add that the land more productive (Steinhart 260). while wolves may not improve the bad These opponents still carry with them the conditions for the ranchers and farmers, folklore and negative image of wolves that they would not hurt it either. Supporters was passed down to them from the previous view the opponents as using the wolf to generations. They are very resistant to the voice their concern about what's happening known scientific data that would calm their around them (Askins). The wolves may not fears about wolves (Schullery I 21). Jack be the cause of the ranchers and farmers Atcheson, a member of Skyline Sportsmen's problems, but they do add to their Club, stated, "wolves are calculated killers trepidations about what the future holds for

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their business and how wolves will affect it. the reintroduction plan. The opponents arc Besides the li vestock issue, opponents not necessarily changing their image of also have other legitimate concerns about wolves. They are simply researching all the reintroduction of wolves into their possible scenari os as to how the wolf could neighboring land. One of the issues is eventually become their new neighbor. whether or not land restrictions will occur One such scenario is that the wolf could because of the wolves. Many ranchers fear naturally migrate into Yellowstone that once the wolves are in the park, tight National Park from Canada. Unlike in the restrictions wi ll be placed on land use as a United States, wolves thrive in Canada and way of protecting the animal's habitat did not experience the war that their (Linden). The restrictions will most likely relatives faced just across the border. affect the ranching and farming industry In August of 1992, film crews captured since the land surrounding Yellowstone on tape a lone wolf feeding on a bison consists of this type of land. Land carcass in Yellowstone (Linden). This wolf restrictions could ultimately lead to private provided evidence that natural migration property issues since the government does from Canada to the United States was not own the land around Yellowstone. 1f possible. Wolves may travel to the United land restrictions were put into effect, it could States in search of territory that is not possibly affect private property owners. claimed by other wolf packs. The wolf Directly associated with the land restriction spotted in Yellowstone was the first and issue is the concern of wolf management. only wolf in the park since the 1920s. While ranchers and farmers want the wolves However, scientists do not see the wolf to be managed quickly and effectively if being full y restored to a thriving population they were to leave the confines of by natural migration alone. They are Yellowstone, they do not want the solutions worried that the public will incorrectly provided by the wolf managers to effect think that natural migration will solve the their practices or land use in any way problem of the wolves (Linden). If the (Wilkinson). The opponents are mostly just public is no longer concerned with the looking for answers in the debate about the issue, then the wolf does not have the reintroduction of wolves. One frustrated support and chance of being restored into rancher questioned why the Yellowstone. The opponents of environmentalists couldn't just be satisfied reintroduction are also worried about with having coyotes in Yellowstone natural migration. Since the wolf is on the (Satchell 29). How opponents view the Endangered Species List, if a wolf naturally answers and solutions to these questions migrates into the country and then causes a may ultimately decide the wolf's fate. problem for farmers or ranchers, nothing While many of the opponents are very can be done. The wolf has full protection firm in their position about stopping wolves under the Endangered Species Act. from being restored to Yellowstone, many Opponents are starting to understand that have shifted in their stance. Instead of not natural migration would be worse than the wanting the wolves to enter at all, they are reintroduction scenario. considering the reintroduction plan as their Since the Endangered Species Act, best hope in protecting their livestock from plans for the release of wolves have been the wolves. If wolves were going to arrive strongly considered because of the near their property, they wanted the best stipulation in the act that demands that control over them, which was addressed in plans should be made as soon as possible to

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remove any of the endangered animals from plan would be approved. They understood the li st and start a healthy population in the that some of the wolves would feel the wild. I Iowcver, due to the controversy, effects of the designation if they became another stipulation was added to the Act that problems, but by releasing around fifteen makes the reintroduction of wolves into wolves and taking that chance, they would Yellowstone National Park more appealing start wild wolf populations faster than to its opponents. The Act was amended in natural migration ever could. The 1982 to allow endangered animals to be supporters even went a step farther in reintroduced as nonessential/experimental promoting their plan to the opponents by populations (www.nwf.org). This offering to pay for any livestock that the amendment "incorporated the most pcople­ wolves may eat. The money for thi s pleasi ng compromise in the act's .. . history" project would come from the Wolf (Begley 53). Wolves that are designated Compensation Trust. The Defenders of nonessential/experimental do not have full Wildlife started the trust in 1987, with all protection under the Endangered Species of the money coming from private Act. These reintroduced wolves can be donations (www.nwf.org). ). In thi s way relocated or killed by federal officials if they another concern of opponents, how they are caught preying on livestock, and even a would be reimbursed for livestock, was farmer or rancher could kill or chase away a answered. The advocates for the wolves wolf if they had evidence that the wolf had were coming closer to achieving their goal killed any of their livestock (www.nwf.org). and to putting the reintroduction plan into The implications of this designation of the effect. While some opponents still tried reintroduced wolves were monumental. fervently to stop the reintroduction plan, The opponents of the reintroduction of others were accepting of the compromises wolves into Yellowstone viewed the new and simply waited to hear as to whether or plan as tolerable as long as the not the historic plan would be approved. nonessential/experimental designation was The next obstacle for the wolves was applied to the wolves. By this amendment, the government of the United States. The ranchers and farmers now have some power same government that had ordered the over the wolves if they became a problem wolf's extermination years ago now had the for the livestock. They would not have that power to either correct their mistakes or power over the wolves if the wolves continue to have a nation devoid of a naturally migrated from Canada into their healthy wild wolf population. The backyards. The opponents asked for wolf government was bombarded from both control, and through this compromise, they sides of the debate, and slowly tried to deal received just that. The reintroduction plan with all of the issues surrounding the slowly became the more favorable option for reintroduction idea. Since the formation of some of the opponents of the reintroduction. the wolf recovery team, two reports had The supporters of the wolves saw this been given to the government about their change of attitude by the opponents about findings and suggestions for the release of the plan, not necessarily about the wolves wolves into Yellowstone. The first plan themselves, as a step in the right direction. was completed and presented in 1980, with While the supporters were not completely a revised and more detailed plan presented satisfied with designating a wolf population in 1987. After considering the as nonessential/experimental, they knew that recommendations of the wolf recovery it might be the only way the reintroduction team, the government's next step was to

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order an Environmental Impact Statement risk at any time, then the entire operation (EIS) about the wolf restoration in would be a failure. The third goal was to Yellowstone. The EJS provided the data and focus on acclimation site preparations, infonnation necessary to convince the information management, and security government that a wolf recovery plan in planning. Again, this goal was critical in Yellowstone was crucial to regaining the order for the successful release of the balanced ecosystem that the park lost with wolves and to maintain good the elimination of wolves. The government communication between neighbors that also felt that ranchers and farmers concerns may be affected by the release. Finally, were addressed and protected (Phillips & Operation Wolfstock had the goal of Smith 20-21 ). coordinating operations between sections After more than 150 public hearings, and cooperation agencies, distributing twelve million dollars in scientific studies project infonnation to park employees and and 160,000 public comments, the U.S. Fish the public, and minimize the wolf project's and Wildlife Service received the green light effects on other resources and park to implement a wolf "recovery plan" operations. Operation Wolfstock knew that (Begley 53). With the signature of Interior the success of the reintroduction relied just Secretary Bruce Babbitt on the final EIS in as heavily on cooperation among humans April of 1994, the wolves had gained human as it did on the wolves (Phillips & Smith permission to return to the place where they 27). used to roam free and wild. Despite Along with the four goals of Operation remaining opposition, the wolf recovery Wolfstock, the team also had four steps as plan was quickly implemented in order to to how the wolf reintroduction was going avoid further delays. With the plan to, and eventually did, take place. The first approved by the U.S. government, the step was the translocation of the wolves. reintroduction was turned over to The original fourteen wolves that were Yellowstone National Park and the team released in Yellowstone were captured in members of Operation Wolfstock. Canada and were then moved to Operation Wolfstock was the wolf Yellowstone on January 12, 1995. The restoration team that oversaw the numerous captured wolves were a mixture of males tasks that were involved in the release of and females, with a long-term goal of wolves into Yellowstone National Park. breeding in mind. The second step for The operation had four main objectives in Operation Wolfstock was to acclimate the order for the transition of wolves and wolves to their new surroundings. Once neighbors to go as easily as possible. The the wolves arrived in Yellowstone, they first goal was to plan and implement actions were placed in large outdoor pens for ten to restore a gray wolf population to weeks so that they could get used to the Yellowstone. With that goal achieved, surroundings. Acclimation is part of a Operation Wolfstock moved onto the next method known as soft release. Soft release goal. This goal was to ensure the safety and involves acclimation time for the wolves welfare of personnel and wolves. This goal both before and after the official release. In was just as important as the first one. It was comparison, a hard release technique wonderful that wolves were receiving the releases the wolves immediately from their chance to be reintroduced into Yellowstone. shipping containers once they arrive at their However, if the safety of the wolves or reintroduction site. Operation Wolfstock personnel working with the wolves were at opted for the soft release method in hopes

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that the wolves would not try to travel home Canada. This will help in judging the once they were set free in Yellowstone. effectiveness of the soft release method. After the acclimation period, the next The size and health of the wolf population step for the wolves was to be released. will also be analyzed through these Following the soft release method, the gates scientific studies. The original plan of the to the pens were opened, allowing the reintroduction of wolves into Y cllowstone wolves to leave and return as they wanted. was to release fifteen more Canadian This historic event occurred on March 2 I, wolves each year to Yellowstone for three 1995. Wolves were now once again free in to five years (Begley 53). By the year Yellowstone National Park. The long 2002, the hope is to have ten packs, or I 00 struggle for the return of wolves had paid off wolves, established in Yellowstone in the eyes of environmentalists, Native (Nemeth). Studies will help determine how Americans, and wildlife biologists. To hear the wolf packs are doing and if the plan is the howling of wolves in a park like on schedule, or possibly behind or ahead of Yellowstone provided the satisfaction that schedule. An important part of the plan is the efforts were well worth it. Operation the assumption that the wolves released Wolfstock could now proceed to the final into Yellowstone will form packs, establish step of scientific studies of the release the park as their territory, and then breed. (Phillips & Smith 27). The result of the release is completely The scientific studies that would follow dependent on the wolves themselves. the release of the wolves into Yellowstone While humans did their part by restoring would monitor several aspects. One of the the wolves to Yellowstone, it is now up to major studies would evaluate the impact that the wolves to remain there and increase the wolves had on the ecosystem and the their population. environment in Yellowstone. The Scientific studies also will concentrate expectations of the release are that the elk on the impact that wolves make on other populations will become more balanced, animals in Yellowstone, such as grizzly allowing for the vegetation to grow and bears and coyotes. It has been observed replenish at a faster rate. This, in tum, will that wolves and grizzly bears can live quite affect the other animal populations that peacefully with one another. Typically, the depend on vegetation as their main source of only struggles that occur between wolves food. A balanced ecosystem has been and bears are over the kills of the wolves. missing from Yellowstone for over sixty Scientists are very curious to see if this years and the wolves should help to alleviate tolerant relationship will happen in this problem. While there is an excess of Yellowstone. The coyote has been the top prey for the wolves, a part of the study will predator in Yellowstone since the wolves also include studying how neighboring were killed off. With the wolf being ranches and farms are impacted by the returned to the park, some scientists wolves. wonder how the coyotes will be affected. Another scientific study that will be Biologist Bob Crabtree is not worried about carried out will be how the wolves the coyotes surv1vrng the wolf themselves are doing in the park. Scientists reintroduction but is concerned with how will focus on how the wolves are adapting to the coyotes' social structure and prey will their new home. By tracking the wolves, it change. Crabtree wants to investigate will be able to be determined if any of the whether the coyote will remain the top reintroduced wolves will try to go back to predator in Yellowstone or if it will yield to

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the wolf. During his studies, he has found newly born litter of eight pups. The mother coyotes in general to be a very adaptable and pups were caught and temporally put in species and that the coyotes in Yel lowstone captivity to ensure survival. Once released, are stronger than coyotes in most regions a truck killed one of the pups (Gibson 6 1- because they learned to hunt big game since 62). While the deaths were not good news there was no competition from wolves. for the recovery team, they were not Crabtree also points out that wolves will considered setbacks due to the overal 1 help in controlling the coyote population just success of the wolves. as they will help in controlling the el k The biggest setback fo r the wolves in population. Taking everything into account, Yellowstone came in December of 1997. Crabtree feels that the results of his studies On December 12, William Downes, a U.S. wi ll be determined by whichever animal, the district court judge in Wyoming, ruled that wolf or coyote, has a larger population in a wolf reintroduction does not conform with given area of Yellowstone. This study will the Endangered Species Act and ordered develop over the years as more and more that reintroduced wolves and their offspring wolves are released in the park (Di be captured and removed (www.nwf.org). Silvestro). Judge Downes made his decision based More wolves were released into upon the nonessential/experimental Yellowstone National Park in 1996. With amendment to the Endangered Species Act. the addition of these wolves and the success This amendment provides less protection to of the previously released wolves, the wolf wolves that are returned to areas by reintroduction plan was ahead of schedule. humans. However, wolves that naturally The success of the wolves in Yellowstone return to the United States are still fully was astounding. Jn response to the success, protected by the Act and, therefore, it is the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service illegal to harass, harm, or kill the wolves. announced that the reintroductions that were Downes concluded that the wolf planned for the following years would not reintroduction into Yellowstone was illegal be necessary (www.nwf.org). The wolves because there is a chance that wolves no longer needed human intervention to crossing the Canadian border would be at increase the wild wolf population in risk. Under the amendment, a wolf that Yellowstone. Tills result was the ultimate kills livestock can be killed by the farmer. meaning of success for those who had Downes wants to know how that farmer helped return the wolf to Yellowstone and will be able to know if the wolf is part of back into its natural, wild habitat. the reintroduction or a naturally occurring The success of the wolves m wolf. "The Endangered Species Act," he Yellowstone has come despite deaths of said, "prorubits the introduction of an some of the reintroduced wolves. In experimental species in places where there February of 1996, one of the wolves decided is a naturally occurring species of the same to prey on local livestock. Satisfying the kind; so the new wolves must go" ("Saving farming and ranching community and Wolves" 29). following the experimental/nonessential The decision by Judge Downes designation and restrictions, the wolf was received an enormous response from wolf killed by an animal damage control officer. advocates and opponents. immediately, Another wolf was illegally killed, but the wolf supporters filed an appeal against the offender was caught and convicted. The court's ruling while opponents cheered wolf that was killed was the father of a Downes decision. Anger and hatred of

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wolves remained in some people, even after prevent ' naturally occurring ones from viewing the success of the program. entering the park'" ("Saving Wolves" 29). However, wildlife biologists had another The success and meaning of the wolf concern. Jf the ruling were not overturned, recovery program was now seen not only what would happen to the wolves that by scientists and wolf advocates, but also needed to be removed? Yellowstone by the government. biologist Douglas Smith presented the grim Recent updates on the wolves in options. Shipping them back to Canada is Yellowstone confirm the success that the not an option since other wolves have wolf recovery program has experienced. claimed the territory they abandoned. There are now approximately three hundred Placement in zoos- where wolves aren't wolves in Yellowstone (www.nwf.org). popular- is difficult. "The options," says That number far exceeded the hope and Smith, "could come down to one thing: prediction of one hundred wolves in killing them" (Kluger). After years of trying Yellowstone by the year 2002. These to get wolves back into Yellowstone, wolves are not only reproducing removing them all, possibly by killing them, successfully, but they are fulfilling their would be a defeat of the program, the role as a natural predator by keeping the elk people, the wolves, and America's population in check. The wolves are also wilderness. The fight to save the naturally picking out the slower and weaker reintroduced wolves was stronger than ever. animals ("Saving Wolves" 29). Wolf The struggle and commitment by activities such as these are helping supporters of the wolves eventually paid off Yellowstone's ecosystem return to its a second time. On January 13, 2000, five natural and balanced form. years after wolf supporters witnessed the To the surprise and delight of local wolves' arrival in Yellowstone for the first ranchers and farmers, the wolves have not time in 60 years, another victory was won been that much of a problem for the for the Yellowstone wolves. The 10th livestock. Within the past five years, only Circuit Court of Appeals reversed Judge twelve cattle, one hundred sheep, and nine Downes decision, allowing wolves in dogs have been killed ("Saving Wolves" Yellowstone to remain in the park 29). The low numbers of wolves preying (www.nwf.org). The court's decision on livestock is due to the large elk involved several factors. The court was populations that increased during the wolfs reminded that the Endangered Species Act absence from the park. As promised, was passed in order to protect and restore farmers and ranchers that lost livestock to endangered animals ("Saving Wolves" 29). the wolves were compensated. The By using minor points to reject plans that Defenders of Wildlife have paid out observe the intent of the ESA, the Act would $27 ,000 ("Saving Wolves" 29). The never work and the animals would remain stipulations and compromises made in on the endangered species list forever. The order for wolves to be returned to court also stated that they saw "no conflict Yellowstone have been kept, making the between the challenged experimental program even more successful. population rules and the Endangered Species The continued success of the Act" ("Saving Wolves" 29). Members of reintroduced wolves in Yellowstone has the appeals court supported this decision by played an important role in other wolf noting that "wolves roam for hundreds of recovery plans. At the same time as the miles and it would be virtually impossible to Yellowstone wolf recovery was happening,

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the Nez Perce tribe in Idaho was releasi ng the ESA 's demand that recovery plans must wolves back into that state. The Mexican be made for species on the endangered wolf recovery plan is one program that has animal list. There is a possibility that more been closely monitoring the results of the Mexican wolves may be released in Texas reintroduced wolves in Yellowstone. The and southern California in the future Mexican gray wolf, Canis lupus baileyi, is (Wilkinson). However, this standard of the most endangered subspecies of gray wolf reintroducing wolves did not fare as well in in North America (www.nwf.org). the eastern United States. After viewing Biologists want to release the Mexican gray the success of the Yellowstone wolves, wolf back into the wild in Arizona and New "scientists and wildlife advocates [were Mexico. The reactions to and the results of encouraged] to consider the feasibility of the Yellowstone wolves is very important as restoring eastern timber wolves to New to whether or not the Mexican wolves would York State's 5.8-million-acre Adirondack be returned to the wild, a place where there Park" (Chadwick 82). The message is are no Mexican wolves at all. being spread that the wolves are an Due to the success and reception of the essential aspect of the Adirondack Yellowstone wolves, plans for the release of ecosystem and that without the wolf as a the Mexican gray wolf were set into motion. predator, prey populations will explode: Unlike the Yellowstone wolf reintroduction "The result: habitat destruction and wildlife plan, the plan fo r the Mexican wolves could die-offs from starvation and other causes" not include using wild Mexican wolves. (NWF). Instead, the Mexican wolf recovery plan The debates that were present over the involved a population of captive Mexican Yellowstone wolves are also present in the gray wolves that would be reintroduced into debates over the timber wolves. While the wild using the soft release technique eight out of nine New York residents (Phillips & Smith 58). Following fourteen support wolf reintroduction in the state, public meetings and three formal hearings, there are people who oppose the move and consideration of over 18,000 comments, (Chadwick 82). One of the ways to satisfy the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service released both sides is to use a compromise. For the three groups of Mexican gray wolves into Yellowstone wolf, one of the major the Apache National forest in eastern compromises was designating the wolves Arizona in 1998 (www.nwf.org). Similar to as nonessential/experimental. For the the Yellowstone wolves, the Mexican timber wolves, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife wolves also had to overcome their Service has agreed to down list the wolf opponents to get released and to stay in the from endangered to threatened in the wild. The New Mexico Cattle Growers Northeast, a move that will provide less Association sued the U.S. Fish and Wildlife protection for individual animals but would Service for releasing the wolves. However, grant states and landowners more flexibility on October 28, 1999, the U.S. Federal in managing wolf populations (NWF). District Court in Albuquerque ruled in favor Despite the compromises, the of the Mexican gray wolf reintroduction possibility of wolves being released into program (www.nwf.org). Another victory New York's Adirondack Mountains has had been won for wolves. been put on hold. On December 2 1, 1999, The Yellowstone wolves set a standard a committee studying the effects of wolves for the reintroduction of wolves in the west. in the Adirondacks released their findings. Plans were being approved in response to The result of the study is that the issue of

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gray wolf reintroduction into the and the popular beliefs of the time. If the Adirondacks will not be considered at this citizens had not wanted the removal of the time. The committee found that the coyote wolves from the nation, then the program already occupies the functional niche of a would not have been as successful as it summit predator. The study also determined was. J lowcver, fear of the wolves drove that the ecological conditions in the the people to encourage and ask for such Adirondack Park dictate against a successful programs that viciously attacked a wild and reintroduction of gray wolves. "A small predatory species. population might exist for, say, fifty years. Jt was in that same cooperation between But we should not confuse existence with the government and the popular views of persistence." (Folwell & Chambers 12). the time that the wolf got its opportunity to The results were the same in New return to its natural habitat. The Hampshire where proposed legislation is combination of the people wanting the attempting to stop wolves from being reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone released into that state (NWF). National Park and the government's Unfortunately, the gray wolves will not be approval made the restoration of wolves given the opportunity to be part of the possible. People realized that "it's not wilderness in the Northeast where they also what's right or wrong or what's good or once roamed free. bad, but that we must restore what was here Roaming free was a privilege that before humans disturbed it" (Wolves). The wolves throughout the entire country used to power of the government and popular enjoy. They were part of nature from the opinions is clearly demonstrated and very beginning. Why is it then that the applied to both the removal and the settlers and their descendants felt that they restoration of wolves in the United States. needed to rework the order of nature when Many people feel that wolves arc a they arrived in the United States? The threat due to their human characteristics. wilderness and its inhabitants were doing Within a wolf community, there is a fine long before humans anived. However, structured hierarchy among the members. humans managed to meddle their way into Wolves work together and help raise and controlling the wilderness. When one thin.ks maintain their pack. However, it appears of wilderness, the word "control" does not that that view of wolves should make us often come to mind. When humans began more comfortable with them. It is what we their quest of controlling nature, it is hard to do not know about the species that should imagine what they were thinking. make us curious, not scared, of them. Any The decisions that were made during the part of wilderness, including wolves, war on wolves were based upon irrational should not be feared but rather admired by stories about wolves and the arrogance of humans. Since wolves are wild and still people who felt they were assisting nature have what we view as human by getting rid of the predators. The fact that characteristics, they should be admired with elk, deer, bison and moose had thrived under even more respect. "Despite all the a full ecological complement of predators similarities in social behavior between us seems to have eluded the policy makers of and wolves, they are still a mystery" the era (Di Silvestro). The war on wolves (Mcintyre 115). Mysteries cannot always was not just a government program that was be fully understood. passed and obeyed, but rather was the The decision made to reintroduce cooperative work of both the government wolves into Yellowstone was done with

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such consideration to all parties involved Di Silvestro, Roger. "No Longer Top Dog: that no regret should result no matter what studies of coyotes in Yellowstone the outcome of Operation Wolfstock is in National Park show that wolf the future. The original goal of the reintroduction is changing the canine Yellowstone reintroduction was to social hierarchy." National Wildlife. eventually return wolves to Rocky Mountain Oct-Nov, 1996: 14-24. National Park. The fate of that reintroduction is still undecided, but greatly Folwell, Elizabeth and Robert Chambers. encouraged by the Yellowstone wolves. "Dog Daze." Adirondack Life. April What side really had the better argument in 2000: 12-14. the Yellowstone reintroduction debate is in the past now as the fate of the wild wolves Gibson, Nancy. Wolves. Stillwater, MN: takes center stage. Yellowstone National Voyageur Press, 1996. Park has been returned to its complete and balanced ecosystem thanks to the gray wolf. Hampton, Bruce. The Great American As writer Paul Schullery stated regarding the Wolf. New York: Henry Holt and Yellowstone prior to the reintroduction, "the Company, 1997. only voice missing is that of the wolf itself, and if you want to hear it you must first Kluger, Jeffrey. "The Big (and not so bad) ensure that is survives to be heard, and then Wolves of Yellowstone: back from you must come here and listen for yourself' Extinction, the gray wolf is threatened (xi). again-this time by a federal court." Time. 19 Jan. 1998: 22-25. Works Cited Lecard, Marc. "For Love of the Land." Askins, Renee. "Releasing Wolves form Sierra. Nov-Dec 1996: 44. Symbolism." HG1per's Magazine. April 1995: 15- 18. Linden, Eugene. "Search for the Wolf." Time. 9 Nov. 1992: 66-67. Bauer, Erwin A. Wild Dogs. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1994. Link, Mike and Kate Crowley. Following the Pack: The World of WolfR esearch. Begley, Sharon. "The Return of the Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 1994. Native." Newsweek. 23 Jan. 1995: 53. Mcintyre, Rick. A Society of Wolves: National Parks and the Battle Over the Chadwick, Douglas H. "Return of the Gray Wolf. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, Wolf." National Geographic. May 1993. 1998: 72-99. Nemeth, Mary. "Wolves in the Wild: a "Court Reversal of Wolf Removal Order." relocation program draws ranchers' National Wildlife Federation. Internet. wrath." Maclean 's. 12Feb.1996:78- World Wide Web: 79. http://www.nwf.org/wolves/court revers al.html ( 17 March, 2000). "NWF Seeks Return of Wolves to Remote Northeast Forests." National Wildlife.

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June-July 1999. "Saving Wolves." The Economist. 12 Feb. Phillips, Michael K. and Douglas W. Smith. 2000: 29. The Wolves of Yellowstone. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press, 1996. Schullery, Paul. The Yellowstone IVo(f- A Guide and Sourcebook. Worland, WY: "Restoring America's Wolves-ES A's High Plains Publishing Company, 1996. 'Nonessential Experimental' Provision." National Wildlife Federation. Internet. Skow, John. "The Brawl of the Wild: a World Wide Web: plan for reintroducing wolves touches http://www.nwf.org/nwf/wolvcs/exper.ht off a howling argument." Tim e. 6 Nov. ml ( 17 March 2000). 1989: 13-14.

"Restoring America's Wolves-The Meaning Steinhart, Peter. The Company of Wolves. of Success." National Wildlife New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995. Federation. Internet. World Wide Web: "Victory for Mexican Wolves." National http://www.nwf.org/nwf/wolves/whvmg Wildlife Federation. Internet. World mt.html ( 17 March 2000). Wide Web: http://www.nwf.org/nwf.wolvcs/mexica "Restoring America's Wolves-What Good is nwolves.html ( 17 March, 2000). a Wolf?" National Wildlife Federation. Internet. World Wide Web: "WolfTimeline." National Wildlife http://www.nwf.org/nwf/wol ves/whygoo Federation. Internet. World Wide d.html ( 17 March 2000). Web: http://www.nwf.org/nwf/wolves/timclin "Restoring America's Wolves-Wolves and e.html (17 March, 2000). Livestock." National Wildlife Federation. Internet. World Wide Web: Wolves. Dir. David Douglas. Primcsco http://www.nwf.org/nwf/wolves/predcon Communications, 1999. t.html ( 17 March 2000). Wilkinson, Todd. "Bringing Back the Satchell, Michael. "The New Call of the Pack." National Parks. May-June Wild." U.S. News & World Report. 29 1993: 25-30. Oct. 1990: 29.

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