Coral Reef Resource Management in the Philippines - with focus on marine protected areas as a management tool MS Thesis prepared by Janne Dalby and Thomas Kirk Sørensen University of Copenhagen Botanical Institute Department of Physiological Ecology 2002 University of Copenhagen Botanical Institute Department of Physiological Ecology Coral Reef Resource Management in the Philippines - with focus on marine protected areas as a management tool April 2002 by Janne Dalby and Thomas Kirk Sørensen Advisor: Ib Johnsen Cover: Photo by Eduardo Cu Unjieng (from White 2001), Layout: Maria Seistrup. This page: Cephalopholis miniata (Family Serranidae). Photo by Lynn Funkhouser (from White 2001). Abstract Coral reefs are some of the most productive and biologically diverse of the World’s ecosystems. In the Philippines, millions of people depend upon their resources for livelihood and subsistence. However, the coral reef resources of the Philippines are rapidly being degraded and destroyed, predominantly due to human activities. Sound management of Philippine coral reef resources is hindered by poverty, corruption, and the lacking enforcement of otherwise sufficient legislation. It has been suggested that the implementation of marine protected areas is one way of potentially halting the further degradation of Philippine coral reef resources. This thesis thoroughly analyses the current management of Philippine coral reef resources, as well as the relevant anthropogenic impacts, government and non-government institutions, legislation and law enforcement, through qualitative interviews and visits to four marine protected areas in the Philippines. The problem with the management lies not in the number of marine protected areas or other conservation initiatives, but rather in their lack of sustainability. We find that marine protected areas, when successfully implemented with the participation of local communities, make up an important contribution to the sustainable management of coral reef resources in the Philippines. Key words: Coral reef resources, Philippines, coastal resource management, marine protected areas Coral Reef Resource Management in the Philippines i Preface The subject of this thesis - the management of coral reef resources in the Philippines - is the result of a collaboration between the two authors, in which a compromise was never necessary. Janne has a profound interest in natural resource management and has as part of her graduate studies taken a certificate in Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management in Developing Countries (SLUSE). Thomas was born in the Philippines and lived there for 16 years. He learned to scuba dive at the age of 13 and has since spent many hours viewing the coral reefs of the Philippines. He has returned many times since his departure in 1989, most often as a scuba diver. Thomas has focused his biological studies on subjects relevant to the aquatic and marine environments. The present report is thus the result of the combined interests of the two. We wish to thank the following persons and institutions: • Ib Johnsen for pointing us in the right direction and keeping our spirits up. • The Dalby and Kirk Sørensen Families and Quri for their loving support and good advice. • Leise Marud for proofreading. • Hans Porse and our friends at Genu/Royal Danish Consulate in Cebu City for their open arms, assistance and an excellent office with a great view. • Stuart Green, Rudolf Hermes, Coastal Resource Management Project Staff in Cebu and Palawan, University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute, Captain Ranulfo Sebuza and the rest of those with whom we spoke in the Philippines in connection with this thesis, for receiving us so openheartedly. • The communities of Daan Paz, Consuelo, Caw-Oy, Cabacongan, Gilutongan, El Nido and Apo Island. SALAMAT! • The staff at Botanical Institute, Gothersgade 140 This thesis was completed with the much appreciated financial support from: • WWF Verdensnaturfonden/Novo Nordisk Biodiversitetslegatet. • Nord/syd Rejsepuljen for specialestuderende, Center for Afrikastudier, Københavns Universitet Date:________________ _____________________ _____________________ Janne Dalby Thomas Kirk Sørensen Coral Reef Resource Management in the Philippines ii List of Acronyms ADB- Asian Development Bank ASEAN- Association of Southeast Asian Nations BEC- Bohol Environment Code BEMO- Bohol Environment Management Office BIDEF- Bohol Integrated Development Foundation CBM- Community Based Management CENRO- Community Environment and Natural Resources Office CEP- Coastal Environment Program CITES- The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CRM- Coastal Resource Management CRMF- Coastal Resource Management Framework CRMP- Coastal Resource Management Project DA-BFAR- Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources DANR- Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources DENR- Department of Environment and Natural Resources DILG- Department of Interior and Local Government DNR- Department of Natural Resources DOTC- Department of Communication and Transportation ECAN- Environmentally Critical Areas Network ELAC- Environmental Legal Assistance Center ENTMRPA- El Nido-Taytay Managed Resource Protected Area EO- Executive Order FAO- Fisheries Administrative Order FARMC- Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council FRMP- Fisheries Resource Management Project GMP- General Management Plan GMPS- General Management Planning Strategy GPA- Global Program of Action IPAF- Integrated Protected Areas Fund IRR- Implementing Rules and Regulations IUCN- International Union for the Conservation of Nature KKP- Kabang Kalikasan ng Pilipinas (WWF Philippines) LGC- Local Government Code LGU- Local Government Unit MEY- Maximum Economic Yield MO- Municipal Ordinance MOA- Memorandum of Agreement Coral Reef Resource Management in the Philippines iii MPA- Marine Protected Area MSY- Maximum Sustainable Yield NAGAMADA- Nagkahiusang Mananagat sa Daan Paz (United Fishers of Daan Paz) NAGMACA- Nagkahiusang Mananagat sa Cabilao (United Fishers of Cabilao) NAMRIA- National Mapping and Resource Information Authority N-FARMC- National Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council NGO- Non-Government Organization NIPAP- National Integrated Protected Areas Program NIPAS- National Integrated Protected Areas System NSO- National Statistics Office PA- Protected Area PAMB- Protected Area Management Board PAS- Protected Area Superintendent PAWB- Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau PCG- Philippine Coast Guard PCMARD- Philippine Council for Marine and Aquatic Research and Development PCSD- Palawan Council for Sustainable Development PD- Presidential Decree PENRO- Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office Phil-NAF- Philippine National Association of Fishwardens PhP- Philippine Peso (1 US$= approximately PhP 50 (April 2002) PNP- Philippine National Police PNPMG- Philippine National Police Maritime Group PO- Peoples’ Organization PPDO- Provincial Planning and Development Office RA- Republic Act SEP- Strategic Environmental Plan SUML- Silliman University Marine Laboratory UNCLOS- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNEP- United Nations Environment Program UPMSI- University of the Philippines Marine Science Institute USAID- United States Agency for International Development WWF- World Wide Fund for Nature Coral Reef Resource Management in the Philippines iv Table of Contents Abstract Preface i List of Acronyms ii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Aims and objectives 2 1.2 Methodology 2 1.3 Definitions of terms and limits 3 2 Management strategies 4 2.1 Fishes and corals are common pool resources 4 2.2 Property regimes 4 2.3 Community based management and co-management 5 2.4 Integrated Coastal Zone Management 6 2.5 Strategies for the management of coral reef resources 6 2.6 Marine protected areas 7 3 Coral reef ecology 8 3.1 The Scleratinia 8 3.2 Coral distribution 9 3.3 Coral reproduction 9 3.4 Coral growth 9 3.5 The relationship between fishes and corals 10 3.6 The relationships between coral reefs and other coastal ecosystems 10 4 Marine protected areas 11 4.1 Biological effects of marine protected areas 11 4.2 Marine protected area design 15 4.3 Artificial reefs and coral farming: Two reef rehabilitation strategies 19 4.4 Socioeconomic aspects of marine protected areas 22 Coral Reef Resource Management in the Philippines v Map of the Philippines 24 5 Municipal fisheries 25 5.1 Municipal fishing gear 26 5.2 Seasonal shifts in fishing conditions 26 5.3 Migrant fishermen 27 5.4 Decline in municipal fish catches 27 6 Anthropogenic impacts on Philippine coral reefs 28 6.1 Overfishing 28 6.2 Destructive fishing methods 31 6.3 Coastal development 35 6.4 Climate change and coral bleaching 38 6.5 Current status of Philippine reefs 39 6.6 Anthropogenic impacts on the coral reefs of Camotes Islands, Cebu 40 7 Institutions involved in coral reef resource management 43 7.1 Introduction to government units 43 7.2 Universities 48 7.3 Non-governmental organizations 49 7.4 Coastal communities and Peoples’ Organizations 49 8 Legislation and enforcement 51 8.1 Philippine Legislation – hierarchy of importance 51 8.2 International conventions, treaties and agreements 51 8.3 The Local Government Code of 1991 (RA 7160) 56 8.4 The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA 8550) 57 8.5 The National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 (RA 7586) 60 8.6 Provincial legislation 62 8.7 Municipal legislation 64 8.8 Coastal law enforcement practitioners 64 8.9 Graft and corruption 67 8.10